Sudan - Gezira study mission (Vol. 8 of 15) : Annex II : appendix 5 : agricultural extension in the Gezira

RETURN TO RECORDS CENTER ROOM HB-1 1966-68 MATERIAL BOX NO. Z o~~~~~~~C Z > H ~ C) H M-4 tOX H 0~~~~~~~~ H H) C-4 t'a ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Q  ANNEX II APPENDIX 5 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE GEZIRA TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE 1 PRESENT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FARMERS AND SCHEME OFFICIALS. 1 The Block Inspector System. 2 : the farmer's attitude. 3 : increasing productivity. 3 2 PRESENT MEANS FOR COYMUNICATING KNOWLEDGE. 5 The Inspectorate ............... . . .. . 5 : the duties of the inspectorate 6 Local Government ... 8 : block council s .10 S a m a d s ................. 0.0*0 ....... 9-6-9 11 The Social Development Depart mn ent 12 : the adult education program .1 : Gezira newspaper .................... 14 : cooperatives .............. ..... : traiigi........ i ng...... 15 ; the Village Farming Experiment....... 15 other research projects 16 ; the Village Gardens program. 16 forestry plots . .16 The Ministry of Agriculture's National Extension Policy... l.i.c y ...... . . .... 16 3 PROPOSALS FOR AN EXTENSION SERVICE.............. 17 The Role of Extension Workers............. 19 : extension programs.....o.gr...m.... 19 : program material...t e r il........... 20 : extension notebookse... oo...... * 20 : demonstration centers................ 21 Field Advisers. ................. .. . ...... 21 : assistants to field advisers......... 22 Extension Advisers. ..... .- .. . . 22 : group extension advisers...........i. 22 : extension programs and targets....... 23  ANNEX II APPENDIX 5 CHAPTER PAGE :,training programs ................. 23 : extension specialist .................. 24 : training of extension workers ........... 2h : the role of the Social Development Department .............. ... **.................. 24 : the role of local councils .............. 25 THE COST OF EXTENSION SERVICES ... 26  ANNEX II APPENDIX 5 C HA P T E R 1 PRESENT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FARIERS AND SCHEIE OFFICIALS Before the early 1900's, the semi-nomadic peoples of the Gezira region eked out a precarious subsistence tending migratory herds and flocks and growing dura during the very short rainy season. The development of the Gezira Scheme completely changed the way of life of everybody in the area: landowners -- although having "rights" to tenancies -- found themselves with far less land; farmers had to accept a more settled life. Above all, everyone had to be taught to grow irrigated crops, especially the cotton on which the finances of the Scheme depended, and to take special and arduous measures to combat the pests and diseases which menaced the crop during the first decade. The new way of life created novel needs (such as sacking for the produce, tools, the services of the Ploughs Sections, etc.) and a complete system for handling supplies. The change to a money economy necessitated the establishment of a system of accounts for each farm and arrangements for making and accounting for cash payments. The nature of the irrigation Scheme, with its inherent restraints upon individual freedom of action, dictated that these changes must be made abruptly; there was no time for long training courses for farmers nor even for the staff. The Sudan Plantations Syndicate therefore introduced a centralized system of control, issuing detailed instructions for the conduct of business by its staff and work schedules for the farmers. The Syndicate's field staff were responsible for ensuring, by a subtle blend of persuasion, discipline, and legally-enforced sanctions, that the farmers and their laborers carried out correctly the field work on cotton. It may be doubted whether the Scheme could have survived the catastrophes of the 1930's without such a system of centralized control and enforceable restraints. Nevertheless, the system has many drawbacks and its success (whether measured in financial or human terms) is a great tribute to the skill, tact, and devotion of the staff of the Syndicate and later of the Sudan Gezira Board. The pros and cons of the system have been widely debated, but profound changes would hardly have been feasible until recent years. The system was essential in the early years, during the period of rapid expansion and also allowed to overcome the difficulties of the 1930's The lack of staff prevented any innovations during and after the War.  ANMEX II - 2 - APPENDIX 5 During the 1950's and early 1960's the introduction of modern techniques (fertilizers, spraying, etc.) and the rapid expansion of area in the Managil Extension again demanded close supervision of farm work and increased the workload of the administration. But, if profound changes have not been possible, there has certainly been evolution both in the organization and in tenant/Board relations. Most striking is the policy of devolution, initiated by the Syndicate and pursued with great vigor by the Board, aimed at "the stimulation of a sense of agricultural and civic responsibility among their tenants, the training of Samads and assisting members of such bodies as the Village Councils in the performance of their duties." 1/ TIE BLOCK INSPECTOR SYSTEM The irrigation area is divided into twelve groups (six each in Gezira Main and Managil) ranging in size from about 120,000 to about 180,000 feddans. These, in turn, are divided into Blocks of about 20,000 to 30,000 feddans; there are 91 Blocks, 47 in Gezira Main and 44 in Managil. 2/ Each Group is supervised by a Group Inspector, but there is little delegation of power and his duties are mainly those of supervision and coordination of the work of Block Inspectors. The Block Inspector, who is assisted on the agricultural side by Field Inspectors and Samads, and in routine administration work by Accountants and Clerks, is responsible to the Board for virtually everything which is happening in his Block. This Annex is concerned specifically with his agricultural work and relations with the farmers, local Government, etc. Only passing reference is made to his administrative duties (which are discussed in Chapter 2) but it must be stressed that the basic operational rules of the Board 3/ lay down categorically the manner in which he carries out these routine duties and he is compelled to undertake personally a great number of office tasks that sometimes make it difficult for him to take any direct 1/ Excerpt from Instructions to Inspectors. 2/ These details refer to the position when the mission was in the field and do not include Abdel Magid and the newly-opened Blocks on the southern fringes. 3/ The mission learned of 238 basic eirculars prescribing routines and actions; there are probably more.  ANNEX II - 3 APPENDIX 5 part in fieldwork. The Farmer's Attitude In carrying out his work, the Block Inspector has to contend with the passive attitude adopted by some farmers. The present organization offers the farmer some of the disadvantages not only of a sharecropping system but perhaps even of a wage-earning system. The priority that has always been given to cotton growing, and the constraints imposed by irrigation have greatly limited his freedom of action. On the other hand, too many farmers seem to be unaware of the normal charges of production covered by the Scheme. Moreover, machanization, which is inevitable, tends to reduce the interest that the farmer takes in the land worked by him and the fact that he may not crop always the same land from year to year tends to accentuate this attitude. At the same time, he knows that his income has declined over the past decade. The management of the Scheme has for quite some time been aware of this situation and has attempted to remedy it. Exchanges of views in this respect will become even more frequent now that the Farmers' Union is represented on the Board of Directors. Meanwhile, the present organiza- tion of agricultural production is not always conducive to higher productivity. Questioned regarding the inadequate amount of medium or long term investment in the land, several farmers or Samads have referred to a feeling of insecurity which, they said, prevails throughout the Scheme: for example, the population of a village may be willing to buy tractor implements for the cultivation of wheat, but hesitates to do so because it is afraid that the Board may later decide to reduce the wheat area. The fact that some tenancy-holders are "absentees"t, (i.e. they neglect to undertake the cultivation of the land themselves and are satisfied with hiring labor for the purpose) means the disappearance of all incentive. There is not always a real farm manager to supervise the laborers and, since practically all work is arranged at piece-rates, there is no incen- tive to do good, careful work. Increasing Productivity The trend developed in the farmers' thinking during the past few years suggests that the Scheme should make its long-term policies perfectly clear. The Farmers' Union, the cooperative movement and the Village Councils do not seem to be as yet sufficiently aware of the fact that crop intensification and diversification are an established policy and it is necessary to convince them of it by training and technical assistance on a far wider scale. This should result in greater interest being taken by the farmer in the work of the Scheme. The main approach  ANNEX II - 4 - APPENDIX 5 to increasing productivity must lie in awakening the farmers' interest, in showing them what is possible and in encouraging them to adopt a positive attitude towards the use of land, water and labor: in short, to become farmers instead of sharecroppers. The mission-ts report contains many proposals to remove disincentives (permanent, transferable holdings, limited choice of cropping patterns within the restraints of the irrigation system, etc.) and increase the incentives (the new income formula) to better farming. A man can only reap the benefits of these proposals if he has the necessary knowledge of improved techniques. If the proposals are to be effective, this knowledge must be readily available and in suitable form and it must be equally available to everyone. This can only be ensured through extension work and appropriate methods are discussed in Chapter 3 below. Quite naturally, one may fear that the creation of an extension service would serve merely to increase the number of the Scheme's staff, thus inflating overhead costs. It should be stated at the outset that the proposals in this Appendix aim at a redirection and a progressive change of function of the existing staff and not the creation of a massive new service parallel to the existing cadre of Inspectors. New staff will be needed. At first a small group of specialists would be recruited to retrain existing staff and to apply modern methods to convert research results and other knowledge into the most appropriate form for mass distribution. At a later date, opportunities would be created for progressive young men. The cost of the proposals is discussed in Chapter 4. It should not rise above a total of fS 277,000 over five years. It may also be noted from the outset that extension work should include guidance and help to all the agents of production, including for example cooperative societies and private tractor owners, and not the farmer alone. The extension workers would develop the closest possible cooperation with, and work through and with existing institutions such as Local Councils and the Farmers' Union. Finally, it is not proposed to dismantle the Inspectorate system, which is needed for many years to come to deal with the restraints of the agriculture system as well as for administration. But the work of the Inspectors will be reorientated by adding extension work to their present functions until such time as the farmers or institutions have shown that they are willing and competent to assume responsibility in particular subjects. It will be appreciated thatlextension", as outlined here, is within both the spirit of the Sudan Gezira Board and the letter of the various Ordinances establishing it.  ANNEX II APPENDIX 5 C H A P T E R 2 PRESENT MEANS FOR COWUNICATING KNOWLEDGE 1/ THE INSPECTORATE The Inspectors of various grades together represent less than four percent of the total staff of the Scheme. Table 1 shows the numbers and gives an indication of the area and numbers of farmers for which the various grades of Inspectors are responsible. TABLE 1: Sudan Gezira Board - Field Staff Appropriate Average Average farmer- Designation Age Range Number Area contacts (Years) (1965/6) (feddans per (tenancies per man) official) Group Inspectors o0-51 12 150,000 6,500 Asst.Group Inspectors 37-47 12 150,000 6,500 Block Inspectors (Large Block) 33-43 57 24,000 1,030 Block Inspectors 31-41 22 (Small Block) Junior Field Inspectors 27-29 211 8,700 375 TOTAL INSPECTORS (a) 314 Block Accountants & Clerks 272 Average 3 per Block Other Permanent Field Staff 741 Total Permanent Staff 1,327 Other Seasonal Staff 809 TOTAL, All Field Staff 2,136 (b) (a) The Inspectors comprise about 4 percent of the total staff (b) About 25 percent of total staff. The abovo total does not include 320 persons employed by Social Development Department 1/ The details of the numbers, etc. of the staff quoted in this section refer t-o the situation during the visit of the mission; many are taken from the 1965/6 budget proposals,  ANNEX II - 6 - APPENDIX 5 Obviously, the area served and the number of farmers with whom they are in contact differ widely from case to case; in particular, there are differences between the Gezira Main (where many of the 4O-feddan tena.acies have been split into 20-feddan units) and in Managil (with 15-feddan tenancies). Table 2 illustrates this point. TABLE 2: Inspectors - Areas served and Farmer-Contacts Area Farmer-Contacts Designation (feddans per Inspector) (tenancies per Inspector) Gezira Main Managil Gezira Main Managil Group & Asst. Group 165,000 131,000 5,780 7,080 Block 25,500 21,900 890 1,180 Junior 13,500 6,ooo 470 325 Source: S.G.B. Records The background of the Inspectors varies considerably. A number of them were schoolmasters before joining the Board; many were appointed as accountants and later transferred to the Inspectorate; yet others came from various Government agencies. The mission was informed that less than 30 had graduated from the normal course at Shambat Institute for Agriculture. Although the Gezira Scheme Act of 1960 indicates that the employees of the Scheme are not civil servants, when the mission was in the Sudan, there seemed to be a certain degree of discontent among the Inspectorate, who seek benefits identical with those of established civil servants. The recently approved increase in salaries may do something to alleviate this feeling. The Duties of the Inspectorate As has been noted in the previous chapter, there is a high degree of centralization in the management of the Scheme. At present many directives on both agricultural and other matters are sent from central headquarters directly to Block Inspectors. Group Inspectors and their assistants act mainly as supervisors and coordinators: staff and financial matters occupy much of their time. The mission's proposals for reorganization of management include the formation of Regions, each including three Groups, with a greater degree of autonomy, especially in agricultural matters; the implementation of these proposals would lead to a reorientation of Group Inspectors' duties towards agricultural problems. The Block Inspectors' many tasks and duties fall into four broad categories: a. He is responsible for the preparation of the agricultural program for his Block and for the supervision of its execution.  - 7 - APPENDIX 5 This covers all farming activities, from the preparation of routine and emergency water indents and supervision of gaffirs, through the organization of common services such as ploughing, fertilizing and spraying to the drawing up of programs for hand work on the crops. Last but not least, he is required to inspect the progress of all cotton crops. In this latter work, especially, he is assisted by the Junior Inspectors and, at the lowest level, by the samads whose functions are discussed later in this chapter. The Block Inspector is required to give priority to the cotton crop in all his work and, if other methods fail, he is required to apply sanctions against farmers whose work does not reach the necessary standards. Block Inspectors can impose fines for certain types of offence (such as allowing irrigation water to flood roads) or can use toulba labor 1/ to cultivate neglected fields. He can also warn farmers who continually neglect their farm and, if this is to no avail, can initiate action (through the Board and the Provincial Commissioner) to apply the ultimate sanction - reduction of holding or eviction. A further sanction, the withholding of irrigation water from the tenants' own crops of dura, etc. exists; so far as the Mission could ascertain this sanction is now seldom if ever applied but the threat of its existence is a sore point in tenant/Inspector relations and its abolition has been advocated by the mission (Chapter 5 of the Main Report). b. He is responsible for the administration of the Block and devotes much of his time to writing routine reports on everything from crop prospects to car mileage, to the keeping of records, to the custody of stores, and to many other routine matters. Above all, he is responsible for keeping accounts of all types and for disbursing cash. Although the junior inspectors take some part in this routine, and every block has at least one clerk and accountant, the final responsibility (especially for cash)lies with the Block Inspector who is thus compelled to gndertake personally many office tasks. c. He is responsible for devolution (see below) and for social welfare 2/ in his block. This involves many time-consuming obligations towards Village, Block and Rural Councils and towards 1/ Toulba: the Inspector employs labor to undertake work in the farmer's field and charges the actual cost to the farmer's account. Toulba labor may be more expensive and less efficient than that hired and supervised by the farmer himself, so that the cost of the operation is usually increased. 2/ The terms of service signed by Inspectors state, inter alia, that "active support of the Board's policy on devolution and social development is an essential part of the official duties".  ANNEX II - 8 - APPENDIX 5 institutions such as cooperative societies and the Farmers' Union as well as day-to-day dealings with farmers. The Board's policy of intensification and diversification, by introducing situations for which there are no precedents, has greatly added to the time needed for this phase of the Inspector's work. d. He is supposed to personally supervise a certain number of tenants (usually over about 800 feddans) but he rarely has time to give enough attention to this task. e. He is responsible for helping and sometimes for the direct supervision of staff from other sections of the Scheme management or from outside bodies (Plant Protection and Research Divisions of the Ministry, University, etc.) who are working in his block. The Field Inspectors, or Junior Inspectors are the assistants of the Block Inspectors. Allowing for leave reserves, special assignments, etc. there is an average of two Field Inspectors per Block, each having contact with an average of about 375 farmers. The Block Inspector is physically incapable of carrying out the various tasks allotted to him as well as maintaining contact with farmers. The actual extent to which he delegates his tasks to Field Inspectors depends on his personality and interests. Some may ask Field Inspectors to carry out a large proportion of routine office work; others ask juniors to maintain close contact with farmers. The latter is more common and, in general, it is the Field Inspectors who deal with the day-to-day agricultural and social problems of farmers and samads. This contact is, increasingly, confined to maintaining supervision over the more negligent farmers only. LOCAL GOVERNMENT At one time the Scheme management was the ultimate authority for most matters within the irrigation area but, even before nationalization, the official policy has been to devolve progressivelyresponsibility to local institutions. The Scheme lies entirely within the Blue Nile Province, whose administration consists of a Commissioner (the representative of the Government of the Republic of the Sudan) and a Province Council including in 1965, 60 members, of whom 36 are elected. The Province Council, deriving its powers from the Council of Ministers, can make laws, levy taxes, approve budgets and carry out public works and is responsible for carrying out the policies of the Government of the Republic. The Province Council delegates many of its powers, especially the  ANNEX II 9 _ APPENDIX 5 assessment and collection of taxes, local services, etc., to 18 Rural Councils. In other areas, Rural Councils finance their operations from taxes on land or crops but the seven councils located in the Gezira area receive a grant-in-aid from the Board 1/. Other sources of revenue include house, animal and education taxes and various fees and licences but within the scheme the Board's grant is about 50 percent of their total revenue (e.g. ES 520,248 out of iS 1,089,478 in 1964/5). The Board's devolution policy has led to the creation of over 585 Village Councils. These are considered as a step towards the ultimate aim of villagers assuming responsibility for many of their own affairs, and not as an end in themselves; Thus, logically, they are divided into different categories reflecting the civic awareness of the villagers and the council's record of achievement: i. The Class I Village Councils have been given statutory powers by warrant from the Rural Council, and are thus often called Warranted Councils. One third of the members are nominated after consultation with the Group Inspector but the majority are elected (one percent of the village population up to a maximum of six members). Each Council has an Agricultural Committee which is encouraged to accept responsibility "... so that in the end they can competently manage most of their own agricultural affairs, the long term view being that the field inspector will very gradually shed his role as direct controller and emerge as a coordinator and adviser". 2/ ii. The Class II Agricultural Councils do not receive any delegation of powers from the Rural Council and their monthly meetings serve mainly as a forum for discussion of agricultural and other local problems and as a source of recommendations and requests to the Block Inspector on the one hand and to the Rural Council on the other. Minor fines and sanctions against farmers are invariably discussed by the Council but they cannot them- selves impose any penalty and can merely recommend or endorse action by the Block Inspector. iii. The Class III Councils, or Councils of Elders, represent the traditional authority in certain villages: their power is confined to advising the Block Inspector on the allocation of tenancies, 1/ The Rural Councils in the Gezira area are Meilig, Meheiriba, Hassa-Heissa, Medina, Hosh, Managil and Northern White Nile (part only).The grants-in-aid are provided by the 2 percent of the proceeds of the cotton crop allocated to "Local Government". 2/ Directive on Devolution, 1st July, 1952.  ANNEX II - 10 - APPENDIX 5 It will be seen from Table 3 that only 22, less than 5 percent, of the Village Councils have progressed to the stage where the Rural Council can issue a warrant delegating authority. Thirty villages -- mostly small with less than 500 people -- are still looked after by Councils of Elders. The vast majority of villages are served by Agricultural Councils. TABLE 3: Village Councils Number of village Councils in Group Groups Cl. I Cl. II Cl. III Total GEZIRA South 4 87 2 93 Centre 6 56 8 70 Messellamyia 7 58 8 73 Wad Shair 2 54 3 59 North 2 46 5 53 N/West 1 40 4 45 Subtotal - Gezira 22 341 30 393 MANAGIL Huda - 49 - 49 W/Mansi - 45 - 45 Maatug - 30 - 30 Maturi - 28 - 28 Gamusi - 21 - 21 Tahamid - 20 - 20 Subtotal Managil 0 193 0 193 TOTAL 22 534 30 586 Source: S.G.B. Records. Block Councils The Rural and Village Councils, although primarily administrative. serve as an important channel of communication between the Government, the Scheme and the people, and vice versa. As has been seen, the Inspectorate plays an active role in their affairs, but the Block Council is a potentially more important channel for purely agricultural matters. The Block Council is presided over by the Block Inspector and has 18 to 20 representatives of the Village Councils in the area. It is a consultative group whose prime function is to provide for exchange of experience and information. Like the Village Councils, they  ANNEX II - 11 - APPENDIX 5 are a two-way channel of communication: on the one hand they disseminate agricultural directions, advice and information -- from government as well as from the Scheme -- to farmers and to such institutions as the FarmersI Union and Cooperative Societies; on the other, they serve as a forum for discussion of agricultural problems which affect more than one village (e.g. the shortcomings of the local irrigation supply, the addquacy (or otherwise) of the number of private tractors in the area, etc.). SAMADS The samads are the agents of the Village Council, which appoints them on the recommendation of the Block Inspector. They are farmers who are chosen for the efficient way in which they have carried out the work on their own land and they are supposed to possess the essential qualities of persuasion and authority. They receive no special training, their practical experience being considered sufficient for the tasks they perform. There are 1,580 samads in the Scheme, i.e. an average of about 17 to a Block. Although marked differences exist, the average samad super- vises the work of about 50 tenancies distributed over an area of some 1,100 feddans, of which about 330 feddans are devoted to cotton growing. The ratio of samads to the total force of inspectors is five to one, but the ratio is seven to one if only the junior field inspectors with whom the samad has most contact are taken into account. The samads are part-time workers and they draw a monthly wage of between tS2.5 and tS 6.5 depending on the area of land which they are required to supervise. The starting point for wage calculations is P.T.17.5 per feddan but every three months the grading of each samad is examined by the Block Inspector who may promote him to a higher grade, demote or even discharge him. This regular review has replaced the output bonuses that were awarded to samads in the past and it is intended to foster a constant spirit of competition among them. The only remnant of the bonus system is an annual award of fS 5 which is given every year to the best samad in each Block. The cost of the samadst wages is borne by the Scheme. In 1965/6 the total cost was tS 69,710, i.e. an average of about fS 44 per samad per year. Half of this expenditure is charged to the Joint Account, the other half being a charge upon the Boardts share of proceeds of the cotton crop. Although paid by the Scheme, the samads are in theory subordinate only to the Village Councils. Their duties include the supervision of the manner in which farmers cultivate their cotton, persuading negligent farmers to take more trouble and, where necessary, proposing to the  ANNEX II - 12 - APPENDIX 5 Village Council that penalties should be imposed. In practice, samads are the channel through which the Block Inspectors' influence may be brought to bear on the individual farmer in the field. Their influence can be quite effecutal. During the war, the number of samads and their range of responsibilities were increased to mitigate for the shortage of inspectors. While production was held at a high level during the war years, it is often said that the increased powers granted to samads at that time had led to a certain deterioration in their relations with the farmers. Even today, the samad is in a difficult position. Both a part-tiimie worker and a farmer and member of the village, he finds it difficult to recommend sanctions against other members of his community. Althaugh nominally only responsible to the Village Council, he has in fact divided loyalties: he is employed by the Village Council but he is paid by the Scheme and is concerned not to displease either of them. To quote a remark heard in the Gezira, the conscientious samad may inspire more respect than friendship, while the less strict samad may inspire more friendship than respect. THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT According to the Gezira Scheme Act of 1960, the Sudan Gezira Board is charged with "1... the promotion of social development services by any means, having as its main object the benefit of the tenants and other persons living within the Scheme area, the assistance of local governmaent authorities and other bodies in the Board..." These functions are carried out by the Social Development Department (SDD) which fulfills a dual role. On the one hand, it assists local government councils and cooperates with outside bodies in such fields as public health and education; on the other, it carries out directly certain tasks in the cultural and agricultural fields. In the latter, the Department carries out several extension activities, notably the Village Farming Experiment and a full extension service for vegetable gardeners. The SDD's activities are financed by a share of 2 percent in the annual proceeds of the sale of cotton; thus its annual budget fluctuates from year to year. The extracts from the annual budget, Table 4, indicate both the scope and the scale of the Department's activities, of which a few are detailed below.  ANNEX II - 13 - APPENDIX 5 TABLE 4: Social Development Department Expenditures a/ a/ b/ 1961/2 - 1962/3 - 1963/4- (ES thousands) Social Activities Health & Water Supplies 61 98 110 Education, etc. 115 85 124 Social Research 4 3 5 Gezira Newspaper 6 7 9 Cooperatives 2 3 3 Subtotal 188 196 251 Agricultural Activities Training 7 7 8 Horticulture 19 18 19 Forestry 10 9 8 Village Farming Experiment 14 10 15 Subtotal 50 44 50 Administration 37 34 46 TOTAL 275 274 347 Receipts: 2% share of Gross Proceeds c/ 488 520 488 a/ 1961/2 and 1962/3, audited expenditures b/ 1963/4, budgeted expenditures c/ From 1950/1 to 30th June 1963, the total receipts from the share were ES 3,858,210 and total expenditures ES 2,507,743. Of the balance, ES 361,992 were represented by buildings, machinery, etc., and ES 988,475 vbre available as "free balance". Source: Social Development Dept. File 1/B/2.  ANNEX II - 1 - APPENDIX 5 The Adult Education Program The Adult Education Program began in 1949 and has spread to cover the whole of Gezira Main. It is now being progressively extended to Managil. A senior adult education officer, assisted by a deputy for Managil, is in charge of a team whose task is to "develop the Gezira community in all respects, by raising the standard of living and the social and cultural level of the people". At Block level, a local adult education officer handles the civic education in the villages and gives instruction in health, agriculture, literacy and even an introduction to social economics. He also initiates community self-help projects for which the Department will grant loans. These adult education officers are usually elementary schoolmasters who have been assigned by the Ministry of Education after special training. They normally work in a Block for about three years after which it is considered that the adult education movement should be able to continue with resident instructors under the guidance of the Group education officer. The SDD has inaugurated a special program for wiomen's education with the aim of "raising the standard of their village homes (cooking, needlework, housecleaning, child care, literacy... )" Gezira Newspaper The SDD publishes the Gezira Newspaper, which is a forum for discussion as well as a medium for educational and extension material. Cooperatives The SDD has devoted special efforts to developing the cooperative movement within the Gezira, Six cooperative officers have been seconded from the Department of Cooperation to give help in the establishing of new cooperatives, to insure that the provisions of the ordinances are observed, to supervise the operation of the cooperatives, to attend the monthly meetings of their committees and assist them in drawing up applications for loans from the Agricultural Bank, etc., and to organize training courses, especially for the secretaries of cooperatives. There were 111 cooperative societies in the Gezira area in March, 1965, but it appears that only those concerned with groundnut marketing, wheat harvesting and flour milling have proved really successful (Table 5). None of these cooperatives employ a permanent accounting staff, the SDD providing much assistance to the secretaries and keeping detailed accounts at the Scheme's headquarters.  ANNEX II - 15 - APPENDIX % TABLE 5: Cooperative Societies (1965) Number of Societies Purpose Membership 53 Credit and marketing of groundnuts 4,258 24 Flour mills 3,362 3 Multi-purpose 559 6 Consumers 677 25 Harvesting (combines) 18,001 Source: S.G.B. Records. Training Apart from running classes for artisans, etc., the SDD maintains training farms and a school at Musaad which accepts about 40 farmers? sons for agricultural training each year. Under the existing arrangements it is not possible to give successful students preference in the allocation of tenancies but the mission was informed that Block Inspectors make every effort to ensure that they should at least obtain a vegetable garden. The Village Farming Experiment The purpose of the Village Farming Experiment (VFE) is to "investi- gate the possibilities of wider farming practices, interest the tenants in mixed farming and, in short, convert the tenant from a purely cotton producer into a farmer co as to enable him to maintain an acceptable standard of living without having to rely so extensively on cotton."1 The first VFE was started in 1951 at Wad En Neim and a second was opened ten years later in Managil, By 1965/6 the Wad En Neim experiment covered 1,700 feddans of which 411 were under cotton, 360 under groundnuts, 211 under wheat, 255 under fodder crops and 50 under dura, Forty-two farmers participate in the experiment, for which the Social Development Department provides two inspectors and a considerable number of tractors and farm machinery. There can be little doubt as to the agricultural success of the VFE. The standard of crops and the general air of prosperity contrast markedly with other areas of the Scheme. This, indeed, is the weakness of the experiment - it appears to have had little effect upon the farmers  ANNEX 1I - 16 - APPENDIX 5 even in the immediate vicinity. Other Research Projects Until about 1956 the SDD undertook building research studies, but in recent years other research projects have been confined to very valuable social research surveys. The Village Gardens Program The Social Development Department has launched a campaign for the development of village gardens, especially for citrus fruit gardens. A senior horticultural officer with four assistants and four traveling gardeners helps villagers to lay out gardens and supplies them with selected seedlings. At the present time, there are 310 gardens, each of 3-5 feddans, which are inspected by the horticultural staff every three months. Prizes are awarded annually for the best and most productive gardens. Forestry Plots The SDD is also responsible for the laying down of forestry plots to provide villages with wood for fuel and for building. By 1964/5 these covered over 3,000 feddans. THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTUREts NATIONAL EXTENSION POLICY Although it does not operate within the Scheme, mention must be made of the Ministry of Agriculture's national extension service. Launched in 1958 with U.S. AID assistance, the extonsion service is a part of the Education Division of the Ministry of Agriculture 1/. Work is at present carried out in seven provinces by 49 extension workers, of whom 27 had been trained abroad. A further 14 young graduates are receiving over- seas training in 1966. Since 1961, these extension services have been paid for by the Province councils so that their scope is limited by the funds available in local budgets. The mission understood that this policy was under review. The extension workers are quite separate from the normal provincial agricultural inspectors and work directly under a senior inspector at Khartoum. There are two extension units in the Blue Nile Province, one at Sennar, the other at Kosti. 1/ "A Proposed Guide for Extension Development", Williams and Barham, USAID. Sudan.  ANNEX II APPENDIX 5 C H A P T E R 3 PROPOSALS FOR AN EXTENSION SERVICE The growth of production in the future depends upon the adoption of better techniques and harder work by the farmers. Both inspectorate and local councils are called upon to play as important a role in this respect as in assisting intensification and diversification. The mission does not believe that future needs can be met by exhortation or by rigid discipline and recommends a reorientation of the farmer-Board relationship towards leading rather than driving. To this end a network of extension services should be established, covering the whole range of agricultural activities in the Scheme. This service must not be regarded as an end in itself but only as a means of promoting the development of a sound agricultural organization and encouraging local councils to take over the delicate task of enforcing the restraints imposed by the irrigation system. Farmers everywhere must accept obligations towards their land and towards their neighbors and these obligations may be somewhat irksome in the case of a large irrigated arable scheme. They are, however, no more onerous than those accepted, say, by Western European farmers who contract to deliver produce to a processing factory and submit throughout the growing season to the inspection required by the purchaser to satisfy himself that the quality of the product is adequately guaranteed by the care taken in cultivating it. One of the main tasks of the extension service will be to explain the nature and reasons for these obligations to the farmers and to Village Councils, so that eventually the discipline required will be a rule that the farmer willingly imposes upon himself and not merely the result of external pressure from the Block Inspector or Council. The need for an extension service in the Gezira has been widely debated and has been subject of special study by a joint committee set up by the Board and the Research Division of the Ministry of Agriculture. It is apparent that an extension service can be provided in one of three ways: a. An independent system could be instituted as a part of the National Extension Service of the Ministry of Agriculture. b. Similarly, an entirely separate entity , parallel to the existing inspectorate system and functioning independently in the Blocks could be set up by the Board.  ANNEX II - 18 - APPENDIX 5 c. The duties and responsibilities of the inspectorate can be broadened and reorientated to embrace extension work. The mission favorsthis last alternative. It will be more economical, since few extra staff will be required and since it will make full use of the accumulated local knowledge of the inspectors. It will avoid conflicts between a corps of extension workers and a different corps of inspectors, and prevent misunderstandings over divisions of responsibilities. Consequently, the Field Inspectors working under the Block Inspector should change title and be called "Field Advisers". It is obvious that this proposed reorganization presents certain disadvantages, not least of which is the risk of creating confusion in the minds of the farmers themselves. Sorme of the new "Advisers" may have difficulty in reorientating their approach to farmers. All will need training and the reforms suggested cannot be instituted abruptly. It is essential that nothing should be done to impair the effective- ness of the present organization which has proved its worth. Changes must be introduced in successive stages, each preceded by the necessary retraining of staff, although it will be possible to make an immediate start in certain sectors, e.g. in mechanization and in horticulture where suitable staff and facilities already exist. The Block is and will continue to be the logical production unit within the Scheme, The Block Inspector, whose title would not be changed, would be responsible for: a. drawing up the overall agricultural plans and the detailed programs for irrigation, cultivation and those other operations in which all benefit from economies of scale; b. the supervision of administrative and field staff, the keeping of accounts, and other administrative functions, and in addition: c. the supervision and encouragement of extension workers (the Field Advisers), including participation in the preparation of their programs of work. The Block Inspector will retain and strengthen his liaison with Village,Block and Rural Councils. Increasingly, however, his contacts with individual farmers will be through the extension workers (the Field Advisers) rather than by direct personal contacts.  ANNEX II - 19 - APPENDIX 5 THE ROLE OF EXTENSION WORKERS Even if every member of the inspectorate had recently received higher training in agricultural methods, some form of organization would be necessary to supply them with suitable material, in suitable media, for extension work among farmers. Special expertise is required to convert results of applied research into a form suitable for mass-participation teaching, to follow up extension programs, and to devise practical work schedules. In the present context of the Gezira, such an organization is doubly necessary. It must not only prepare programs and materials -- it must teach the extension workers how to use them. In the section that follows, the proposed organization is outlined, starting with the farmers-contact and progressing through the various levels to headquarters. Extension Programs All extension workers are faced with the dilemma of whether to concentrate their efforts on the most receptive and progressive farmers, whose response is likely to show spectacular results, or to devote their time to raising the standards of the more backward members of the farming community. To a limited extent, this dilemma will be resolved in the Gezira -- the field staff, through the samads, will continue to supervise the work of backward farmers and the Vi-llage Councils will still have the power to recommend that the Block Inspector takes suitable measures against those who are merely negligent. Nevertheless, the extension worker will only make a significant impact if his work is on a sufficiently wide scale. Bearing in mind the country's needs, an increase of 0.5 kantar per feddan in the cotton yields on each of a group of 50 farms will be a more significant achievement than to double the yield of one farmer. The main emphasis of all work programs must be mass-participation with a progressive approach in dealing with technical problems. This does not mean that the best and most progressive farmers will content themselves with the same rate of progress as the less progressive ones. The extension workers will treat such farmers as a separate group, providing them with a faster moving program: reference to such groups will be made later in discussing Demonstration Centers. It is inevitable that field advisers will go beyond the limits of farming techniques and better crop husbandry and concern themselves with human problems of social development, as the field inspectors often do today. It is desirable, however, that they should aim first and foremost ,at raising agricultural productivity. When they have succeeded in this sphere, they will have gained the support of the population and will be  ANNEX II - 20 - APPENDIX 5 in a strong position to move on to more delicate tasks; not the least of these is to explain to farmers and Village Councils the necessity of some restraints, e.g. the need to regulate the numbers of herds and flocks, and to persuade farmers to accept willingly these rules as being to their own interest. It is perhaps less obvious that the Field advisers should include among their activities work with private tractor owners, cooperative societies, etc. However, as it has been seen in Annex II, these already play an indispensable role as agents of production. Improvements will benefit the farmers just as much as the organization' s profit-and- loss account. A progressive approach will be just as necessary as it is with farmers; early contacts should be devoted to simple teohniques which will show an immediate profit; later, having won the confidence of the contractor or cooperative, the Field Adviser can develop the theme of service and responsibility. Program Material. Adequate material already exists for the first stages of a first class extension program. As has been noted in Annex II, the existing reseach services are adequate to provide a flow of new ideas and techniques in the future. To ensure that the research projects meet the needs of the extension program, there must be a feed-back of ideas, experiences and hopes from the field to the laboratories through the extension service, i.e. through the Field Advisers and their Block Inspectors. In the early stages of the program, the extension workers should be provided with clearly defined annual programs of work and with adequate technical infqrmation. Technical memoranda should be prepared, in collaboration with research workers, to cover each farming operation. For example, there should be a simple manual for groundnuts, setting out in detail methods of cultivation, the preparation of the seed, sowing, weeding, picking, handling and cleaning techniques. This memorandum should explain, in terms so clear as to make the meaning obvious, the reasons for each operation and the proper conditions for carrying it out. At a later stage of development these technical memoranda will become the handbooks of a new generation of samads. Extension Notebooks. In order to avoid dissipation of effort, it is essential that the extension workers should have regular contact with their farmers. To this end they should keep a notebook in which would be entered basic data concerning each farmi, i.e. the composition of the farmer's family, the area cultivated, the crops grown, the available equipment and so on. The keeping of this notebook would not take up a great deal of time but it would enable the workers to apportion their time between different farms, to measure the results of their work and to report concrete facts to the Village Council.  ANNEX II - 21 - APPENDIX 5 Demonstration Centers Extension workers cannot be successful if they rely on word-of-mouth alone. They must demonstrate to the farmers not only that they themselves are capable of carrying out field operations, but also that the methods which they are recommending are superior to the farmer's own. In order to achieve this Demonstration Centers should be established as rapidly as possible. The choice of sites for these Demonstration Centers will require special care. Due regard must be paid to ecological and other local differences and to the different cropping patterns which are avai- lable in the area. The farmers selected must be energetic and receptive of extension ideas, and to achieve this it may be necessary to regroup the best available farmers within the site chosen. The extension note- books will provide the information from which suitable farmers can be chosen. Most Demonstration Centers could be half-rotation units, i.e. about 360 feddans in Gezira Main and about 270 feddans in Managil. The farmers on these Centers will receive special attention from extension workers and periodic visits from extension advisers. Demonstrations need not be confined to the arable crops: livestock demonstration herds are another possibility and demonstration gardens are an obvious choice. It should perhaps be stressed that the aim of the Demonstration Centers is not to duplicate the Village Farming Experiments. The aim is to show what ordinary farmers, working on ordinary tenancies, with the ordinary means of production, can achieve. The Demonstration Centers should receive only those services and techniques which the extension workers are advocating to all farmers. They should not receive special fertilizer dressings or special privileges in the allocation of fodder crops, etc. To begin with, one Demonstration Center could be established in each Group, and later on in many individual Blocks. It is important that most farmers should be able to witness their achievements. FIELD ADVISERS The main agent of the extension service will be the Field Adviser. In order to perform his task, he will need training not only in farming methods themselves but also in extension methods. Since, of course, these aspects complement each other, the men recruited for this work must possess not only sufficient ptactical experience to enable them to assimilate technical knowledge quickly but also the human qualities which will allow them to enjoy the good will and respect of the farming com- munity. Many of the present Field Inspectors possess both the experience and the human qualities required and it is from amongst them that the first advisers should be selected for training. The mission sets no targets but envisages that, all of the present Field Inspectors will  ANNEX II - 22 - APPENDIX 5 become trained advisers within the first five years. When it is necessary to recruit additional Field Advisers, the first choice will be graduates of the Shambat Institute or the proposed National Institute for Extension: having already received a basic training in agriculture, they will require only short (say, three months) courses on the special problems and techniques of the Gezira. However, the demands of the Sudan's development will be great and it is unlikely that the Scheme will be able to recruit all the trained manpower it requires. There will thus be an excellent opportunity for making better use of young men trained in the Social Development Department Schools, or the specialized agricultural schools now being planned by the Government. Some of them will require longer courses (1-2 years) on agriculture and extension methods, but should make good extension workers. The salary scales, etc. of the Field Advisers would be the same as those of the present Field Inspectors. Assistants to Field Advisers, The mission feels that there may be quite a few samads who have sufficient basic education and practical experience to enable them to benefit from training courses and who have the human qualities necessary for extension work. Such men would be particularly helpful if instead of dividing their time between their field job and their farm they could become full time assistants to the Field Advisers. The mission therefore suggests that, as an experiment at least, an attempt be made to appoint (after suitable training) one full time samad per Block. EXTENSION ADVISERS The training of the Field Advisers and full time samads and the provision of suitable material for extension work will require a special type of expertise. The mission recommends that Extension Advisers should be included in the Scheme management above the Block level. Group Extension Advisers Detailed programs for training and extension work will be formulated at Group level. A Group Extension Adviser should be made responsible for: a. drawing up programs of work on the basis of results that have been put into final form in the Demonstration Centers; b. Supplying physical needs of the Field Advisers, such as audio- visual aids, leaflets, etc.; c. Managing the Demonstration Centers in his Group;  ANNEX II _ 23 - APPENDIX 5 d. Training field extension workers and Block Inspectors, and e. Maintaining close liaison with Local Councils (particularly Block Councils) within his Group. One of the Group Advisers in each Region will be selected to advise the Regional Manager on all matters relating to extension and to act as the channel between Region and the other Groups in it. The salaries, etc. of the Group Extension Advisers could be in the same scale as those of Block Inspectors. Some may be recruited from among the present cadre of Block Inspectors, others seconded from the Ministry of Agriculture (Extension division). In the future, the normal recruiting grounds will be the Shambat Institute or the proposed National Institute for Extension. Extension Programs and Targets. The formulation of local programs will be an important part of the Group Advisers duties. As it has Peen shown in Annex II, ecological and other agricultural factors differ from place to place in the Scheme; one of the prime functions of extension is to ensure that advantage is taken of such differences -- or, at the most that the disadvantages are minimized. Social conditions alsp vary: a program that was suitable in Nort-west Group might not be the best available in Maatug. The Group Adviser will also be responsible for ensuring that these programs are carried out. He will do this in two ways: a. By preparing, in consultation with the Block Inspector and Field Advisers, schedules of extension work for each of the Field advisers. The latter will be directly responsible to their own Block Inspector, but the Group Adviser should visit each one regularly to discuss problems. The extension note- books will soon reveal to the experienced Group Adviser whether workers are following out their programs or are taking the easy line of concentrating on a few farmers only. b. By setting targets for each program. While extension targets may be difficult to define quantitatively, it is essential that some standard must be set so that progress can be evaluated and different approaches compared. Training Programs. The Group Adviser will be responsible for arranging in-service training of present and future field advisers in his Group. He will arrange visits or short courses for Block Inspectors, Field Advisers, samads, etc., as well as less formal instruction for groups of farmers or councillors,  ANNEX II - 24 - APPENDIX 5 It is natural that the Demonstration Centers should be the focus of this training program. The obvious place to teach the best agricultural or extension techniques is where they are being most intensively applied. The Demonstration Centers will thus serve a valuable subsidiary role as training centers, although this must not be allowed to detract from their primary purpose - visual teaching to the farmers. Extension Specialist The overall planning and supervision of the extension program would be the responsibility of an Extension Specialist attached to the General Manager, Agricultural Services and Planning, at the Scheme headquarters. Like the other specialists (crop husbandry, mechanization, livestock and economics) he should be a graduate with a scientific training which will enable him to discuss problems with research workers and to interpret research results into practical work programs. He will play an important part in planning the "adaptive research" programs which will be necessary to bridge the gap between small plot results and field practice. The Extension Specialist will be responsible for the production of mass-media material for use throughout the Scheme, including items for publication in the Gezira Newspaper. Training of Extension Workers, For the first 2-3 years, however, the Extension Specialistts main duty will be the training of extension workers. He will require adequate facilities for giving orientation courses to existing staff and for training of new recruits and must be able to call on specialists -- both on the Scheme's staff and from the Ministry of Agriculture and the Faculty of Agriculture -- for assistance both in the preparation and presentation of courses, The proposed National Extension Institute will eventually take over most of these training courses on a national scale. A need will remain, however, for in-service refresher courses and for agricultural training for senior staff members. Training will thus always be an important part of the Extension Specialist's duties. The Role of the Social Development Department The mission does not envisage thet there would be any immediate change in the duties and responsibilities of the Social Development Department. Over 3-5 years, however, preparations should be made to hand over its responsibilities in progressive stagese As soon as the specialist staff of the General Manager, Agricultural Services and Planning, are able to accept the responsibility, they should take over the purely agricultural and research functions of the SDD, together with the Village Farming Experiment, training farms, shcolarships, etc.  ANNEX II - 25 - APPENDIX 5 The Role of Local Councils It is the purpose of the devolution policy that the various Local Councils should be the framework around which the future agricultural and communal life in the Gezira Scheme will be built. The mission whole- heartedly endorses this aim and welcomes any step - especially the proposal to hold elections in thenmar future -- which will hasten its achievement. From the point of view of the management, the Councils will provide the two-way channel of communication between the Scheme and the farmers, and they will undertake many of the functions now performed by field staff0 As the Councils become stronger, they will absorb less of the Block Inspectors' time. There is thus overwhelming practical reasons why the Scheme should devote every effort to helping, encouraging and strengthening the Local Councils. Among the 586 Local Councils are to be found every stage of evolution and a multiplicity of problems. No single recommendation or standing order to staff can achieve the necessary result. It should, however, be firmly established at every level of management that the evolution of local councils is one of the most important objects of the Scheme.  ANNEX II APPENDIX 5 C H A P T E R 4 THE COST OF EXTENSION SERVICES The preparation of detailed budgets is beyond the mission's scope: such factors as the availability of houses in specific places, the cost of building in a given area, even the cost of fringe benefits, etc., can only be ascertained after detailed local studies. In the case of the proposal for an extension service, however, the mission considered it appropriate to make a very generalized estimation of the cost. This estimate, Table 6, must be considered as a general guide-line and not as a budget indicating salary scales, etc. It will be sden that the mission envisages that the extension service would be built up over a period of four years. In the first year the "Extension Specialist" would be recruited and he could forthwith undertake the training of the necessary staff. No provision is made for the cost of the Field Advisers, who already appear in the normal budget as Field Inspectors. Table 6 is based on the assumption that it will prove possible to select three Group Advisers, and to recruit a few new Field Advisers, each year. By the fourth year, the annual additional cost of service would have risen to perhaps fS 30,000. Capital expenditure over the four years would be of the order of ES 216,000, bringing the total expenditure over the period to about fS 276,500. Table 6...  ANNEX II - 27 - APPENDIX 5 TABLE 6: Additional Cost of Extension Service Year I Year II Year III Year IV Total 1. Staff Extension Service Expert 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 12,000 Group Extension Officers 4,500 9,000 13,500 18,000 26,000 Other staff 2,25o 4,500 6,750 9,000 22,500 TOTAL 9,750 16,500 23,250 30,000 6o,500 2. Capital Investments Accommodations 21,000 21,000 21,000 21,000 84,o00 Reception Centers 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 120,000 Extension Service Plant 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 12,000 TOTAL 54,000 54,000 5h,000 54,000 216,000 GRAND TOTAL 63,750 70,500 77,250 84,ooo 276,50o Source: Mission's Estimate