Linking gender, environment, and poverty for sustainable development : a synthesis report on Ethiopia and Ghana

 66899 Report No. P125713 January 2012 Linking Gender, Environment, and Poverty for Sustainable Development: A Synthesis Report on Ethiopia and Ghana Report no. P125713 Linking Gender, Environment, and Poverty for Sustainable Development: A Synthesis Report on Ethiopia and Ghana Social Development Department Sustainable Development Network The World Bank January 2012 ©2012 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Web site: www.worldbank.org/socialdevelopment E-mail: asksocial@worldbank.org All rights reserved. This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the executive directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC, 20433, USA; (fax) 202-522-2422; (email) pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover Photos: Thomas Sennett/World Bank; Thomas Sennett/World Bank; Curt Carnemark/World Bank; Contents Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................ 5  Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................................... 7  Executive Summary........................................................................................................................................... 10  Chapter 1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 15  1.1 Gender-Poverty-Environment Links ......................................................................................................... 15  1.2 Background.................................................................................................................................................... 16  1.3 Objectives and Audience ............................................................................................................................. 16  1.4 Rationale of the Study and Selection of the Countries ............................................................................ 17  1.5 Scope of the Report ....................................................................................................................................... 17  1.6 Organization of the Report .......................................................................................................................... 17  1.7 Analytical Approach and Methodology .................................................................................................... 18  1.9 Methodology ................................................................................................................................................. 21  1.10 Research Sites and Characteristics............................................................................................................ 27  Chapter 2. Environmental, Economic, and Social Contexts in Ethiopia and Ghana ................................ 33  2.1 Socioeconomic Status ................................................................................................................................... 33  2.2 Environment and Natural Resources 2.3 Formal and Informal Institutions ............................................................................................................... 37  2.4 Gender Disparities ........................................................................................................................................ 39  2.5 Gender in National Policy and Its Implementation ................................................................................. 40  Chapter 3. Dynamics of Gender-Poverty-Environment Interactions ......................................................... 42  3.1 Marginalization and Natural Resource Degradation .............................................................................. 42  3.2. Protected Area Conservation and Control of Natural Resources ......................................................... 55  3.3 Competing Environmental Interests .......................................................................................................... 59  3.4 Collective Action and Resilience ................................................................................................................ 60  Chapter 4. Fostering Positive Gender-Poverty-Environment Dynamics ................................................... 66  4.1 Brief Descriptions of Project Case Studies and Outcomes ...................................................................... 66  4.2 Effective Approaches in Ethiopia and Ghana ........................................................................................... 72    Chapter 5. The Way Forward ........................................................................................................................... 89  5.1 Fostering Positive Dynamics at All Levels ................................................................................................ 89  5.2 Fostering Positive Dynamics in Policy and Program Formulation........................................................ 90  5.3. Next Steps ..................................................................................................................................................... 95    List of Figures Figure 1. Agroecological Zones in Ethiopia .......................................................................................................... 28 Figure 2. Agroecological Zones in Ghana ............................................................................................................. 29 List of Boxes Box 1. Criteria for Selecting Good-Practice Projects Box 2. Key Case Study Questions 3 Box 3. Key Questions for PRA Exercise Box 4. Breaking the Taboo: The Cases of Two Young Women Farmers in Dalocha Box 5. Adaptation through Agriculture Diversification—Dorongo Box 6. Women’s Income Changed Social Norms and Improved Women’s Status within Household and Communities List of Tables Table 1. Methods Used for Case Study Review Table 2. Methods Used for Understanding Local Perception of Gender-Environment-Poverty Nexus Using PRA Table 3. Main Characteristics of the Communities in the Study Sites Table 4. Main Characteristics of the Three PRA Communities in Ghana Annexes Annex 1: Outline on Gender-Environment-Poverty Tools for Fostering Positive Dynamics in Sustainable Development Sector Strategies and Operations Annex 2: Literature Review on Gender, Environment, and Poverty: A Political Ecology Approach Annex 3: Summary of the Online Discussion on Linking Gender, Poverty, and Environment for Sustainable Development, May 2—June 17, 2011 Annex 4: Summary of Ethiopia Participatory Rural Appraisal Report Annex 5: Summary of Ghana Participatory Rural Appraisal Report Annex 6: Good-Practice Case Summaries Annex 7: Survey Tool Package 4 Acknowledgments This report was prepared by a team at the World Bank led by Nilufar Ahmad (Senior Gender Specialist, SDV) and Mari Clarke (Consultant, SDV). David Miller (Consultant, SDV) supported the drafting of the Ethiopia country case study. Sharlene Mollett (Consultant, SDV, and Associate Professor, Dartmouth College) drafted the global literature review on gender-poverty-environment dynamics. The study was supported by Waqar Haider (SDN Sector Leader, AFTEG), Qaiser M. Khan (Sector Lead Economist, AFTSP), Beatrix Allah-Mensah (Social Development Specialist, AFTCS), and Moses Duphey (Environment Specialist, AFTEN) from the Accra Office, and Espen Villanger (Senior Economist, AFTP2), Yoshimichi Kawasumi (Senior Transport Specialist, AFTTR), and Haileyesus Adamtei (Transport Specialist, AFTTR) from the Addis Ababa Office. The Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) of the World Bank graciously shared its gender and evaluation platform for the online discussions of the findings with internal and external academics and practitioners, and technical support from Alexander McKenzie (Senior Information Officer) and Bahar Salimova (Information Officer) is gratefully acknowledged. We are also grateful to online discussion participants who shared their experiences and insights. The team gratefully acknowledges the inputs from Bina Agarwal (Director and Professor of Economics, Institute of Economic Growth, University of Delhi, India) in developing the conceptual framework. We are grateful to the following peer reviewers for their comments and suggestions: Eija Peju (Advisor, ARD), Maria C. J. Cruz (Lead Social Development Specialist, AFTCS), and Taoufiq Bennouna (Senior Natural Resource Management Specialist, AFTEN). The team benefitted from comments provided by Maitreyi Das and Robin Mearns (Lead Social Development Specialists, SDV). Finally, the team also thanks Catherine Sunshine and Gina Wiatrowski for editorial support; and Danielle Christophe (Publications Analyst, SDV) for the design of the cover page, and assistance during the publication process. Support for this study was provided by the Bank Netherlands Partnership Program (BNPP). The Ethiopia field work and background reports were carried out by MEGEN Power (MGP) Ltd., led by Teketel Abebe and Melessaw Shanko, with support from Lenesil Asfaw and Taddele Debella. The Ghana field work and background reports were carried out by Participatory Development Associates Ltd. (PDA), led by Tony Dogbe and supported by Bertha Gakor, Rachel Flannery, Josephine Tsui, Albert A. Arhin, George Ahiable, and Kamil Abdul Salam. The Ghana zonal research teams included: Bismark Quartey (Team Leader), Fransisca Mant, Elizabeth Ofosu, and Alex Kumah for Coastal Savannah Zone (Dangbe East District); Kofi Boadi (Team Leader), Eliasu Muhammed, Grace Boakye Yiadom, and Godwin Bansa for Transition Zone (Atebubu-Amanten District); Kamil Abdul Salam (Team Leader), Janet Adutwumwa, Albert A. Arhin, Beatrice Boatemaa Sarpong, Mary Awuah, and Ama Gyan for High Forest Zone (Ejisu-Juaben District); George Ahiable (Team Leader), Francesca Ateere, Rukaya Rauf, and Moses Bimpor for Northern Savannah (Bolgatanga and Talensi-Nabdam Districts). PDA research partners included the Centre for Sustainable Development Initiatives (CENSUDI) and Radio Ada. We are grateful to the following members of the project teams for the case studies (four each from Ethiopia and Ghana), who generously shared their time and information with the research teams. In Ethiopia: MERET Project: Betru Nedessa (MoARD, National Coordinator), Hans Vikoler (WFP— 5 Ethiopia, Head of MERET/PSNP Section, Deputy Head), Arega Yirga (WFP—Ethiopia, MERET/PSNP Program Officer), Kahsay G/Mariam (MERET Regional Project Coordinator), Hailmariam G/Selassie (Kilet Awlaleo Woreda MERET Project focal person), Teklehaimanot Nerea (Natural Resource Development Agent and Secretary of PT Abraha Atshbaha), Gebremicheal Gidey (Kebele Administrator and Chairperson of Planning Team [PT] Abraha Atsbaha), and Tsega G/Tsadik, Meaza Girmay, Kidan Tadesse, and Abeba Berhe (female members of PT). DIRDP: Shita Mohammed (DWWDA Managing Director), Zerihun Mamo (DWWDA Administration and Finance), Nurato Seid (Dile-Datie Chief Administrator), Nesredin Abdella (Burqa-Dilapa Chief Administrator), Zaber Ahmad (Dile-Datie Manager), the Burqa-Dilapa Manager and Development Agent, and Action Aid Ethiopia’s Gender and M&E Specialists. PCDP: Ato Asaye (World Bank Country office PCDP), Ato Abdi Mohammed (Somali Regional State PCDP Regional Coordinator), Ato Mohammed Abdi (Shinile Zone PCDP MST Coordinator), W/t Obah (Shinile Zone Poverty and Gender Officer), Ato Isse (Shinile Woreda Savings and Credit Cooperatives Officer), Baraak Kebele Natural Resources Extension Worker, Abdi Osman (Baraak Kebele Deputy Chief Administrator), Hawa Abdi (Baraak Kebele Deputy Chairperson, Women’s Affairs), Hare Kebele (Chief Administrator), Hare Kebele (Chairperson, Women’s Affairs), Hare Kebele (Headmaster, primary school), and Abdulahi Sheh Ahmad (Somali Regional State Advisor, Resource Person). RSDP: Abdisa Megerssa (ERA TL and Environmentalist, ESMT), Daniel Mengestie (ERA Director, PPD), Kefargachew Kasahun (ERA Hydrologist, ESMT), Netsanet Sileshi (ERA HIV/AIDS A/Coordinator), Teferra Waqshum (ERA TL, RoW), and Teshome Cheru (ERA Sociologist, ESMT). In Ghana: LACOSREP: Hamza Akurubila (Technical Officer, Zuarungu Municipal MOFA), Timothy Zangina (Regional Statistician, Zuarungu Municipal MOFA), Roy Ayariga (Project Coordinator, LACOSREP), and Alhaji Seidu (Project Officer, LACOSREP). Multifunctional Platform: Paula Edze (Gender Officer, KITE), Frank O. Atta-Owusu (Senior Project Manager, KITE), and Charles Nachinaab (Field Project Officer, New Energy). Konongo-Kumasi Trunk Road: Mawuena V. K. Hayibor (Program Officer, Royal Danish Embassy, DANIDA), Rita Ohene Safo (Gender Program Officer/Coordinator, Socioeconomic Subcomponent, Ghana Highway Authority), Gordon Amartey (Senior Project Coordinator, Ghana Highway Authority), and Kwaku Oware Boateng (Regional Manager, National Road Safety Commission Ashanti Region). CBRDP: Ebo Sey (Senior Accountant, CBRDP), Matthew Oppong Brown (Projects Coordinator, Ministry of Local Government), and Francis Abofra (Planning Officer, Dangbe East District Assembly). We are most grateful to the local leaders and community men and women from Ethiopia and Ghana who generously gave their time to share their experiences and perceptions of the gender-poverty-environment linkages affecting their lives. 6 Abbreviations AAE ActionAid Ethiopia (nongovernmental organization) ADB Asian Development Bank AfDB African Development Bank ARD Agriculture and Rural Development, World Bank BNP Bui National Park BNPP Bank-Netherlands Partnership Program BoARD Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development CAP Community action plan CBO Community-based organizations CBRDP Community-Based Rural Development Project CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CICOL Civil Society Coalition on Land CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research CIVICUS World Alliance for Citizen Participation CREMA Community Resource Management Area CSA Central Statistical Agency, government of Ethiopia CSO Civil society organization DAG Donor Assistance Group of Ethiopia DA Development agent DHS Demographic and Health Survey DIRDP Dalocha Integrated Rural Development Program DWWDA Dalocha Women Water Development Association EEA Ethiopian Economics Association ENERGIA International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy ENRM Environment and natural resources management ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program ESMT Environment and Social Management Team FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FGD Focus group discussion FHH Female-headed households FSTF Food Security Task Force GDHS Ghana Demographic and Health Survey GDP Gross domestic product GHS Ghana Health Service GLSS Ghana Living Standards Survey GoG Government of Ghana GPRS I Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy GPRS II Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy GSGDA Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda GSS Ghana Statistical Service GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation HICE Household Income Consumption and Expenditure Survey (Ethiopia) 7 HIV/AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ICT Information and communication technology IEG Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank IIED International Institute for Environmental Development IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development KA Kebele Administration (lowest level of government structure) KII Key informant interview LAC Land Use and Administration Committee LACOSREP Land Conservation and Smallholder Rehabilitation Project LAP Land Administration Project LLPPA Local-Level Participatory Planning Approach MDAs Ministries, departments, and agencies MDG Millennium Development Goal MERET Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transition to More Sustainable Livelihoods MFP Multifunctional platform MMDAs Metropolitan, municipal, and district assemblies MMR Maternal mortality ratio MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Ghana) MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture MOFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (Ethiopia) MOWA Ministry of Women’s Affairs (Ethiopia) NAP-GE National Action Plan for Gender Equality (Ethiopia) NDPC National Development Planning Commission NGO Nongovernmental organization NPW National Policy on Women OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty PCDP Pastoralist Community Development Program PDA Participatory Development Associates PE Political ecology PPD Planning and Programming Directorate (of ERA) PRA Participatory rural appraisal PSNP Productive safety net program PT Planning team REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries RPCU Regional planning and coordination unit RSDP Road Sector Development Program SDN Sustainable Development Network SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund VIP Village Infrastructure Project WAD Women’s Affairs Department (Ethiopia) WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization 8 WIDP Woreda Integrated Development Program (Ethiopia) WUA Water users association 9 Executive Summary Poverty, environment, social development, and gender are important cross-cutting themes of the World Bank and government investment programs, especially within the Sustainable Development Network (SDN). For developing sectoral strategies and programs, economic, environment and social assessments are undertaken, however, these are usually done separately, and most often gender issues are not included. This is a missed opportunity, because joint assessments can map the links between gender, environment, and poverty and help identify approaches that can accelerate the positive synergy and better social/gender, environment, and poverty outcomes; otherwise, the existing negative relationships may slow the development process, and can even lead to unintended results. A joint analysis will also reduce cost of project preparation. This study was undertaken to analyze the links between gender, environment, and poverty; identify approaches; and provide practical suggestions for fostering positive synergies for better outcomes. The analytical framework for this study draws on the World Bank’s three pillars of sustainable development: social inclusion, economic growth and environmental sustainability, and from political ecology literature, which highlights how decision-making processes, power relationships, and social conditions influence environmental policies and development outcomes. The following four propositions derived from political ecology literature guide the analysis: i) socioeconomic marginalization and natural resource degradation are mutually reinforcing processes; ii) protected area conservation and external control of natural resources can disrupt household and community production and social organization; iii) competing environmental interests shape environmental change; and iv) collective action and resilience can help mitigate negative impacts. The study is based on in-depth analysis of two sub-Saharan African countries—Ethiopia and Ghana. The research methodology was qualitative, and included a series of interrelated analyses: a political ecology literature review, country-specific reviews of literature and data sets, good-practice project case studies in both countries, and participatory appraisals of grassroots perceptions of gender-poverty-environment links. Study sites were selected to include the major agroecological zones and rural livelihood systems in each country. National and subregional participatory forums were conducted to “ground truth