Burkino Faso - An Assessment of the Quality of Primary Education

CONFIDENTIAL 12177-BUR BURKINA FASO: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION APRIL 1993 FILE COP Population and Human Resources Operations Division Sahelian Department Africa Region CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (as of August 1992) Currency Unit = CFA Franc (CFAF) US$1 = CFAF 275 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS BEPC Lower secondary school diploma (Brevet d'9tudes du premier cycle) CAP Certificat d'aptitude professionnelle CEP Primary School Leaving Certificate (Certificat d'9tudes primaires) CIP Principal Teachers Body (Corps des instituteurs principaux) CONFEMEN Conference of Education Ministers for Francophone Countries (Confirence des ministres de l'ducation des pays ayant en commun 'usage du frangais) CPI Itinerant Pedagogical Counsellors (Conseiller p6dagogique itingrant) DEC Directorate of Examinations (Direction des examens et des concours) DEP Directorate of Studies and Planning (Direction des drudes et de la planification) DEPEP Directorate of Studies, Programs and Pedagogical Evaluation (Direction des 9tudes, des programmes et de lW'valuation p6dagogique) DES Directorate of Secondary Education (Direction de l'enseignement secondaire) DFIP Directorate of Initial and In-service Training (Direction de la formation initiale etpermanente) DGEB Directorate General of Basic Education (Direction g9nerale de l'enseignement de base) DPEBAM Provincial Directorate of the Ministry of Basic Education and Mass Literacy (Direction provinciale du minist&re de 'enseignement de base et de l'alphabtisation de masse) ENEP Primary Teachers Training College (Ecole normale des enseignants du primaire) ESEC Institute for Applied Economics (Ecole sup4rieure des sciences iconomiques) FJA Rural Youth Training Program (Formation des jeunes agriculteurs) GTZ German Technical Assistance Corporation INSE National Institute for the Sciences of Education (Institut national des sciences de 1'ducation) IPB Pedagogical Institute of Burkina (Institut pidagogique du Burkina) IRAP Institute for Pedagogical Reform and Action (Institut pour la riforme et 'action p9dagogique) IREDU Research Institute for the Economics of Education (Institut de recherche sur i'conomie de l'ducation MEBAM Ministry of Basic Education and Mass Literacy (Minist&re de 'enseignement de base et de 'alphabtisation de masse) SND National Development Service (Service national pour le dveloppement) SSA Sub-Saharan Africa ULB Universiti Libre de Bruxelles (Free University of Brussels) Fiscal Year School Year January 1 - December 31 September - June ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The joint team especially thanks the nine teacher trainers of the only Primary Education Teacher Training College in Burkina Faso (ENEP), who participated in the data collection at the school and classroom levels: Bicaba Paul Pr6cieux, Lompo Etienne, Maiga Zibdila, Nacoulma Jean Baptiste, Quattara Seydou, Ouedraogo Louis Evance, Yameogo Innocent, Zongo Marcel, Zougmore Adama; and Sirpe Gnanderman (ESEC), statistician, and his assistants for the coding of data and data entry. BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION TABLE OF CONTENTS ANNEXES 1. Evolution of Primary Education Enrollment .............................. 19 2. Regional Breakdown of Population and Enrollment ......................... 20 3. The Primary Education Curriculum in Burkina Faso ......................... 21 3.1. Primary EducationTimetable ...................................... 27 4. The Science Curriculum in Primary Education in Burkina Faso .................. 29 5. Analytical Framework, Sample Size, Design, Methods and Analyses of the Sector Study . . 41 6. CEP Guidelines and Organization .................................... 52 TECHNICAL ANNEXES* A. Theoretical Framework and Research Instruments B. Diagnostic Assessment of Learning Outcomes *These annexes ae contained in the file in the Africa Information Services Center and are available upon request. BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Background 1. This study was financed by the World Bank, the Government of Burkina Faso, the Belgian Consultant Trust Fund and the German Technical Assistance Corporation (GTZ). Its purpose is to provide the Government, the World Bank and other donors with a broad diagnosis of learning outcomes in primary schools which could serve as the basis for discussing future assistance programs aimed at improving the quality of education. In addition to this report which presents the results of the study, two Technical Annexes provide background information on (a) the educational system, the primary school curriculum, the study's theoretical framework and test instruments; and (b) learning outcomes in grades 1, 3 and 6. The Technical Annexes are available upon request. 2. At present, primary education in Burkina Faso is at a crossroads. While the enrollment ratio increased from 5% in 1960 to about 30% in 1990, in absolute terms more children are excluded from the system now than in 1960. The pass rate for the primary school leaving certificate (CEP) has been consistently below 50%, and there is growing awareness among the education community in Burkina Faso that CEP results are poor indicators of how much students have learned. Although considerable efforts have been made to expand education and improve the curriculum, the reforms proceeded unguided by any assessment of what students were actually learning. Therefore, the effectiveness of past policies and strategies to improve the quality of education are not well understood. This study attempts to help bridge this knowledge gap. It argues that the objectives of the present primary school curricula and the standards of performance expected of pupils are difficult to attain in light of the pupils' levels of cognitive development as well as the dearth of instructional resources, poor teacher training, inadequate teacher supervision, the use of French as the only medium of instruction and ineffective curriculum implementation. The study also suggests that learning assessments used to date in Burkina Faso have not elicited learning outcomes and therefore cannot guide instructional improvements. 3. The analysis presented is based on (a) a survey of parents' perceptions of the quality of schooling and causes for drop out, (b) an assessment of learning outcomes in language, mathematics and science for 5,680 students in first, third and sixth grades in 24 schools, (c) a review of the current primary education curriculum, and (d) an analysis of pupil assessment procedures and the instructional support system. In addition to the learning assessment survey, data were collected from about 500 parents, 86 teachers and 300 out-of-school youth in group interviews. Finally, a total of 228 lessons in mathematics, French and science were observed, and 24 school directors were interviewed. 4. The study is cross-sectional rather than longitudinal and as such cannot yield any information about the stability over the medium-term of the outcomes measured and observed at the classroom level. Nevertheless, this approach is useful to assess the quality of education provided. The results can serve as a basis for further assessments. The study does not attempt to explore the social utility of primary schooling which is a major concern among educators in Burkina Faso. Rather, it assumes that the greatest social utility is that embedded in high levels of literacy and numeracy. The tests were elaborated in collaboration with national educators. To ensure their validity, they were pretested and administered with the assistance of the teacher trainers of the Primary Teacher Training College (ENEP) in Burkina Faso. - ii - Main Findings 5. Interviews with teachers and parents indicate that while school quality (i.e. instructional conditions) has little influence on parents' decisions as to whether or not to enroll their children in school, it plays a significant role in decisions affecting withdrawal from school. For instance, parental decisions to enroll their children in school seems mainly affected by direct costs (41%), perceptions of employment opportunities for graduates (32%), and opportunity costs (21%). Learning outcomes measured by test results play a key role in parental decisions concerning student withdrawal from school (48.2%), followed by poor teaching and learning conditions (25%), and lack of instructional materials and school supplies (26.8%). The survey clearly suggests that maintaining acceptable standards is imperative not only to ensure that education is beneficial to pupils and to the nation, but also as a pre-requisite for increasing schools' retention levels. 6. Test results reveal that the majority of pupils have not mastered much of what they are expected to know after six years of schooling. In French, pupils perform poorly in oral and written communication, particularly when expressing their own ideas. By grade 6, only 25% of pupils could read fluently, and less than 20% were able to write simple texts in French. Only 19% of grade 6 pupils can find a given reference in a French textbook. Test results and classroom observations also suggest that French is not taught effectively, particularly in the lower grades. The French curriculum is very fragmented (eight subjects). Teachers primarily emphasize the formal learning of the French language (i.e., grammar and vocabulary) which leads to poor communication, reading and writing skills. This approach has serious implications for the development of literacy skills, because writing, reading and speaking skills are developed through practice of communication skills, including reading. In mathematics, few students have mastered the basic addition, subtraction, and multiplication computations by grade 6. Test scores were particularly low on arithmetic problem solving tasks requiring more complex computations, the processing of textual information, the use of fractions and the measurement of surface areas. Given the scarcity of textbooks and the fact that teaching is done in French, these results are not surprising. 7. French is emphasized to the detriment of other subjects in the curriculum. In the first three grades, pupils study mathematics less than four hours per week. The final grades have only about two and one-half hours per week of science instruction, including health and agriculture. While an attempt is made to teach students to apply science to familiar situations and problems (most consistently in hygiene and health), erosion and the water cycle are treated so briefly that pupils cannot gain much insight into factors influencing agricultural production and drought. Some science materials, published in the late sixties, address neither ecological nor population issues. The food chain, an important ecological concept, is not covered. The sequence on human biology, otherwise relatively complete, features child care but skips over human reproduction, AIDS and population dynamics. The few hours actually devoted to science are often used to study vocabulary rather than to initiate scientific inquiry. 8. In most classrooms, a suitable learning environment is largely absent. Pupils and teachers work in ill-equipped and poorly lit buildings. Instructional resources are sparse. There are too few review exercises to help children learn the new vocabulary and concepts. Teaching practices are limited to "chalk and talk" methods--individual help is rare. In French, teachers concentrate on vocabulary, syntax and correct pronunciation rather than on developing facility in oral or written communication. 9. Average class sizes in grades 3 and 6 are 75 and 50 students, respectively. In the first grade, class size is even larger and exceeds one hundred students in some urban schools. - iii - Preliminary analysis of the effects of class size on learning outcomes indicates that while class size has little influence on the acquisition of lower order cognitive skills, such as recalling French vocabulary from memory, it is strongly related to development of skills in French composition and mathematical problem solving which requires individualized instruction and continuous assessment. This largely explains why basic competencies are not well established in lower grades. 10. Although most teachers have the required general education--67% hold the lower Secondary School Diploma (Brevet d'dtudes du premier cycle - BEPC)--many teachers are poorly trained and about half have no professional training at all. Almost half (48%) are holding or about to complete, the baccalaur6at (Upper secondary Diploma). Because of the recurrent cost constraints, between 400 and 800 elementary teachers are recruited for one year of service through the National Service for Development (Service national pour le developpement - SND). The SND's recruits have adequate general training and receive brief pedagogical training before assignment. In certain areas, some of the untrained teachers are often assigned to the lower grades, in contradiction with MEBAM policy. Initial and in-service teacher training needs improvement. On-the-job professional support is negligible: the teachers surveyed judged their professional support by School Inspectors and Pedagogical Counsellors insufficient or nonexistent. This leaves much of the instructional leadership to school directors. However, many of the directors are unable to function effectively as instructional leaders mainly because of inadequate training and their teaching schedule--they usually teach the classe d'examen. 11. Teachers place great importance on preparing pupils for the Primary School leaving Certificate (Certificat d'tudes primaires - CEP), but despite this examination-geared learning, many pupils exhibit poor literacy skills. Content analysis of CEP test items reveals that they lack instructional validity and therefore cannot usefully assess the correspondence between curricular objectives and instructional outcomes. The new programs' lack of clarity about the level of learning that can be expected from a primary school graduate also leads to ineffective curriculum implementation and learning assessment. The current CEP is unnecessarily selective in its function as a certifying exam. Because the exam also functions as an admission test for a limited number of secondary school places, the success rate is artificially reduced. Consequently, most pupils leave primary school with no certification. Recommendations 12. The findings summarized above clearly demonstrate the need to develop a comprehensive strategy for improving the quality of primary education in Burkina. The present study identifies improvements in the following areas as key elements of such a strategy:' (1) instructional conditions and resources; (2) in-service training, supervision and pedagogical support; and (3) the effectiveness of French instruction. It is recommended that possibilities also be explored for (4) using the mother tongue to develop literacy and numeracy skills and to facilitate transition to French, (5) reforming the CEP examination to encourage the development of competencies that teachers now neglect, and (6) establishing a mechanism to facilitate analyses of the performance of the primary education system in terms of learning outcomes. Each of these recommendations is summarized below. 13. Improving Instructional Conditions and Resources. To enrich the learning environment it is recommended that (1) textbooks be designed as resource tools to help children learn 2. Recommendations (1), (2), (5) and (6) are elements of the ongoing Fourth Education Project (Cr. 2244-BUR). - iv - independently, (2) the development and distribution of instructional materials and teaching guides be improved (i.e., simple and affordable books and children's literature in both French and national languages), and (3) class sizes, particularly in the lower grades, be reduced. To contain costs, reduction in class size should be done in conjunction with the introduction of double-shift teaching. Furthermore, research should be conducted on a regular basis to monitor the impact of the changes introduced. 14. Increasing In-service Training. Supervision and Support, The improvement of instructional methods and curriculum implementation would also depend on rapid improvements in the numbers and quality of teachers. As the present teacher training capacity is extremely weak and would require both financial resources and time to develop, it is recommended that teacher competence be improved primarily through in-service teacher training. Fundamental to this process is regular supervision of instruction, followed by immediate feedback on classroom practices. This requires training for the trainers and instructional leaders, i.e., school directors and MEBAM education officers-Inspectors and Pedagogical Counselors, as well as the newly created Principal Primary Teachers Body (Corps des instituteurs principaux). As school directors are the leaders closest to the daily instructional process and have an important role in in-service teacher training, they represent key resources which should be strengthened? 15. It is recommended that the MEBAM policy of assigning qualified teachers to the lower grades, where the foundations of literacy are laid, be enforced and its implementation closely monitored. Professionally untrained teachers, as well as the SND teachers, need to be provided with training and close supervision to improve their effectiveness. 16. Strengthenina Instruction in French. The findings clearly show that the conditions in primary schools are not conducive to mastery of literacy and communications skills. The teaching of French is ineffective. It is recommended that top priority be given to remedying this problem taking into account research showing that the use of the mother tongue is at times an important means to facilitate the transition to French. 17. Use of the mother tongue. Although a range of alternative approaches for language(s) policy in education could be considered,' it is recommended that French be introduced once all children have learned to read in their mother tongue and have mastered basic arithmetic skills. If French is kept as the language of instruction throughout the primary cycle, teachers should be encouraged to use national or local languages for explanation wherever necessary and possible, and be provided with tools such as local language glossaries and guides to facilitate teaching. 18. Reforming the CEP Examination. A major reform in the examination system is recommended. The task is to increase its instructional as well as its curricular validity. Two major steps are proposed: First, the CEP should be better designed to improve its validity as an examination serving the dual function of (1) certifying standards of achievements at the end of primary education, and (2) selecting pupils for secondary school. Three cut-off rates are proposed: (a) passing with minimum level of performance certifying basic literacy and numeracy skills, (b) medium-level performance with a second chance to take the CEP, and (c) high-level performance 3. Related components and financing of these activities are part of the ongoing Fourth Education Projects (Cr. 2244- BUR). 4. The Directorate of Rural Youth Training have considerable experience in the teaching of national languages. - v - with admission to secondary school. Secondly, a nationally recognized achievement record to complement the current CEP should be considered. It would follow a standard format established by the MEBAM.' 19. Improving Educational Research and Analysis, To stimulate further analysis of the performance of the primary education system in terms of learning outcomes, and to ensure adequate monitoring of the impact of the measures recommended in this study and funded under the IDA Fourth Education Project (Cr. 2244-BUR), it is recommended that an Educational Research Committee be established within the Ministry of Education to continue analysis of the data collected for this study and to supplement it. Areas requiring further analysis or research include gender issues' (i.e., gender differences in learning, attitudes, achievement and girls' participation in schooling); causes for drop out; and links between teaching and learning conditions and achievement. 20. With the help of teachers, a formative evaluation system, using appropriate assessment procedures, should be gradually put in place to regularly collect information on learning outcomes at the school level. The results would be communicated to the district and provincial level, accompanied by an analysis of differences between schools in learning achievement. Next Steps 21. It is recommended that the policy options outlined above be further elaborated at a technical seminar planned by MEBAM. The objective would be to initiate a process leading to the development of an action plan for improving the quality of primary schooling, taking into account the objectives of the ongoing Fourth Education Project (Cr. 2244-BUR), and present financial and human resource constraints. The plan would include a series of activities at the school, community and national levels. The detailed action plan would include: (1) a reform plan specifying the measures, actions and schedule for implementing the proposed policy; (2) a financial plan spelling out the budgetary implications; (3) a management plan outlining the respective responsibilities; and (4) a communication plan describing the strategy envisaged to achieve a national consensus on the primary education reform. 5. The reform of the CEP as well as the development of a national test for the third grade are included in the ongoing Fourth Education Project (Cr. 2244-BUR). 6. A study financed under the Fourth Education Project (CR. 2244-BUR) is underway. I. INTRODUCTION 1. The policy of the Government of Burkina Faso emphasizes the need for improving both the quality and the coverage of primary education.' Although considerable efforts have been made in the past to expand education and improve the curriculum, the reforms proceeded unguided by -any assessment of what students were actually learning. Therefore, the effectiveness of past policies and strategies to improve the quality of education are not well-understood. The quality of primary education systems is usually assessed in terms of inputs rather than learning outcomes, with curriculum considered as a given. Such an approach overlooks two crucial facts--that teachers do not always teach the given curriculum and that their use of instructional materials is a critical determinant of pupils' learning. In addition, formal examinations like the CEP (Certificat d'etudesprimaires) are currently believed to indicate the effectiveness of program objectives. However, the latter cannot be easily assessed by tests like the CEP which are used primarily for selection. There is a pressing need for methodologies that (a) depict how curriculum goals are interpreted and implemented by teachers within the classroom setting and (b) adequately measure learning outcomes. 2. This study assesses the quality of primary schooling and suggests ways to improve it by providing information on key educational inputs, processes, and outcomes. It argues that the cognitive objectives of the present primary school curricula and the standards of performance expected of graduates are unrealistic in light of poor teacher training, ineffective curriculum implementation the poverty of instructional resources, students' insufficient comprehension of French, the medium of instruction and inadequate teacher supervision. The findings emphasize the need to develop a comprehensive strategy for improving the quality of primary schooling which involves: (a) improving instructional conditions and resources; (b) increasing in-service teacher training, supervision and support; (c) strengthening instruction in French and exploring possibilities for using the mother tongue to achieve high levels of literacy and numeracy; and (d) reforming the CEP examination. 3. This report is organized in five sections. Section II presents an overview of the sector and policy context. Sections III and IV summarize the methodology of the study, the survey results and research findings on the various aspects of the quality of primary education. Section V proposes a series of policy options and recommendations to address the key issues identified. The study is comprised of this report and two Technical Annexes which are available upon request. Technical Annex A describes the theoretical framework and research instruments used in the study. Technical Annex B provides an analysis of learning outcomes in the 3Rs and science in grades 1, 3 and 6. II. OVERVIEW 4. Primary Education students in Burkina attend classes for six years starting at age seven. Teachers undergo two years of training following completion of the Lower Secondary School Diploma (Brevet d'dtudes du premier cycle - BEPC) in a single Primary Teachers Training College (Ecole normale des enseignants du primaire - ENEP). Since 1960, enrollment rates at the primary level increased from 5% to about 30% in 1990-91; however, in absolute terms more children are excluded from the system now than in 1960. In 1990-91, about 504,414 of the 1,682,233 children of primary school age attended school. Also, enrollment ratios vary markedly across provinces, from 7. Burkina Faso: M.E.B.A.M. 1990. Document de base du Ministare de 'enseignement de base et de 'alphabitisation de masse. -2- a low of 8.4% in Sdno to a high of 82% in Kadiogo.1 Throughout the country, girls' enrollment is lower than boys: about 23.55% for the former and about 30% for the latter. Girls' share of total primary enrollment is about 38.4%, ranging from about 48% of total enrollment in urban schools (Kadiogo) to about 30% in some rural areas (Soum and Passore), and their rates of admission and success at the CEP exam are substantially lower than for boys. Annex 1 provides basic data on the evolution of primary education enrollment. Annex 2 shows the regional distribution of primary education enrollment for 1990-91. 5. As the figures in Table 1 suggest, pupils progress slowly through the primary cycle. Repetition rates vary between 12% and 15% for grades 1 to 5, increasing to almost 40% in sixth grade. The high sixth grade repetition is mainly due to the low pass rate to the secondary education entrance exam, set by the number of available seats. The rate of transition from primary to secondary school is about 30%. The secondary education gross enrollment ratio is 6%. While many factors inside and outside the Table 1. Promotion, Repetition and Dropout Rates (percent), school system govern 1989-90 repetition and dropout, low quality is generally Grade: perceived by parents and teachers to be an Promotion 79.9 70.2 73.6 68.7 72.1 important factor. The Repetition 11.9 11.2 15.0 13.6 15.2 38.1 information collected for Dropout 8.2 18.6 11.4 17.7 12.7 this study in interviews Source: MEBAM with parents and pupils also indicates that the perceived and experienced quality of primary education plays a key role in schooling decisions, particularly regarding withdrawal from school. 6. Current educational expenditures form a large share of the Government budget. In 1990, recurrent education expenditures represented 3.7% of GDP and 23.8% of the Government budget, compared to an average of 20% among Sahelian countries and 15% in other African countries. Of the education budget, 43.4% is allocated to primary education, of which 91.8% covers personnel salaries. Only 1.6% is spent on instructional materials. Student scholarships, transfers, and teacher scholarships account for 0.9%, 4.7% and 1.0% of the primary education budget, respectively. 7. The Basic Education system in Burkina Faso is highly centralized. The Ministry of Basic Education and Mass Literacy (Minist&re de l'enseignement de base et de l'alphabItisation de masse - MEBAM) defines broad national goals for elementary schools, formulates and implements curriculum policy, selects textbooks, sets certification and admission examinations, and authorizes the opening of new schools. Supervision of curriculum implementation and teachers is carried out by district inspectors and pedagogical counsellors. 8. Throughout the expansion of the primary school system, new programs have been introduced to link education to development needs. In the early 1980s, Burkina Faso created several 8. Yacouba K. Yaro, Les disparitis glo-culturelles de I'enseignement primaire au Burkina Faso: Des origines a nos jours. Universii de Paris I, Institut de dtmographie de Paris (IDP), 1989-90. -3- experimental schools to link education and production, and promote national culture.' However, the reform was interrupted in 1984 due to low enrollment and political instability. The curriculum of the experimental schools included productive activities and a national language was used as the medium of instruction. 9. The Rural Youth Training Program (Formation desjeunes agriculteurs - FJA) which combined basic education with the teaching of agriculture was another attempt at linking education to perceived local development needs. It attempted to foster inquiry-oriented learning, experimentation, and student-centered learning as well as localization of the curriculum. The target population was illiterate youths, essentially primary school dropouts. At its height in the mid 1980s, the FJA system comprised more than 600 centers with some 15,000 students. However, parents resisted this innovation as a second-rate alternative to formal primary education which would reduce their children's chances to gain admission to secondary school. The Government also came to realize that this was no substitute for widespread primary education, mainly because of the system's substantially high unit costs. 10. In 1990, a revised primary school curriculum was introduced which reduced the hours of instruction in mathematics, science and agriculture, while time devoted to language arts and social studies increased. Core subjects in primary education included one important innovation--teaching by objectives . By translating broad learning goals into concrete learning objiectives and associated activities for different grade levels, an attempt was made to help teachers teach. The official syllabi specify instructional time, the types of classes offered and what material shall be taught in each class. They too have been changing over time."o Pupils spend 30 hours per week in school, 27 hours for academic and practical subjects, the rest for recreation." The new program is organized around 24 weeks of instructional time, producing 660 hours of instruction annually. Worldwide, the number of hours of instruction at the primary level ranges from 544 to 1,200 hours, with an average of 866 hours. In Sub-Saharan Africa the average is 846 hours per year. Pupils spend less time at school in Burkina Faso than in most other countries. Annex 3 provides detailed information on the primary education curriculum. 9. The experimental schools were established with the assistance of UNESCO and the UNDP. Their numbers increased from 28 in 1981 to 61 in 1983. 10. The syllabi of first and second grades (CPI, CP2) include six topics: Language, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Sensorial and Observation Exercises, Recitation - Singing. Eleven "disciplines" are included in the other grades (CEI to CM2). For every "discipline", each program states one or several "goals" and lists a series of "general objectives." French language includes eight subtopics (Oral expression, Composition, Reading, Writing, Vocabulary, Grammar, Conjugation, Spelling) and mathematics includes four subtopics (Mental Calculation, Arithmetic, Metric System, and Geometry). The different topics and the methodological instructions are indicated in the program. 11. The information has been gathered from the new programs of instruction 1989-90. Supplementary information has been found in timetables of primary schools in Ouagadougou. They are representative of the distribution of instructional time for Burkina Faso. -4- 11. As shown in Table 2, educational Table 2. Percent of Developing Countries Offering Instruction in systems in Africa devote Various Languages significantly more time to Region/ LAC ASIA AFRICA EMENA language teaching than Language .(n=25) (n=18) (n=29) (n=22) elsewhere and use the National 72 94 48 100 official language as the Local 0 6 21 5 of instruction in Foreign 12 22 7 59 language Off icial 28 44 90 4 primary education more than other countries in Source: Benavot and Kamens (1989). National Language is the indigenous Language spoken by over 50% of the population and which the region. In Burkina also constitutes an official Language. Local Language refers to any Faso, beginning in first non-official Local Language spoken by a minority of a country's population. Foreign Language is the Language which is neither grade, pupils are taught official nor indigenous. official Language means a metropolitan in French, the official Language or one of worldwide diffusion which is considered as language. National "official," but whose origin is not indigenous. languages are not taught as subjects, although the I Basic Education Plan advocates the acquisition of both French and a national language in primary school. 12. Among Sub-Saharan countries Burkina Faso devotes relatively less time to teaching mathematics than neighboring countries--15.3% of instructional time, compared to an average of 17.9%, and more time to the study of language--about 55% of instructional time compared to an average of 38.2% else- where as shown in Tabl 3. In the first grades, Table 3. Weekly Instructional Time by Subject and Grade (%) pupils have less than four Average hours a week of Grades/ mathematics. However, Subject CP1 CP2 CE1 CE2 CM1 CM2 Burkina SSA pupils in the first two Language 68 68 54 55 44 40 55 38 grades generally spend Mathematics 14 14 14 15 18 18 15 18 only about 8 1/2 hours a week on reading and 2 Sciences 4 4 7 12 4 7 1/2 hours on writing. SociaL Sci. 3 3 9 7 11 11 7 8 The remaining 7 1/2 hours are used to teach Other 16 16 20 20 20 20 19 29 formal aspects of language (i.e., grammar, vocabulary). Science instruction represents only about one to two hours per week and essentially consists of vocabulary-building exercises. Some practical skills are taught as a non-compulsory, extracurricular subject called activit9sproductives. But the skills are not tested on the CEP exam and consequently, only about half the schools teach them. Throughout the primary cycle agriculture accounts for less than 15 periods of instruction. A detailed analysis of the science curriculum is provided in Annex 4. 13. The science curriculum is typical of the main conceptual and practical problems apparent in the primary education curriculum: too many topics, too little science. Hardly any topics call for pupils' participation other than listening, copying, and recall. Inadequate methods and instructional time inhibit free or even guided discovery and experimental activities. Approaches such as project learning and the discovery method, particularly well-suited to encourage higher order -5- cognitive skills, inferential reasoning and experimentation, are not feasible under current teaching practices. Hence, topics can only be covered by lecturing, a teaching practice that tends to be ineffective. This emphasis on memory alone extends beyond science and is also found in language and mathematics teaching. 14. To date, there has been no formal evaluation of the consequences of curricular changes and little discussion about how these country-specific quantitative and qualitative changes in the curriculum affect the outcome of primary schooling and the country's overall development. For instance, the science curriculum has little relevance to the local environment to the extent that the education system in Burkina Faso, whose economy is agriculturally based, offers no "integrated" science, i.e., an approach to science in context, including agricultural topics, and directed activities. There is little content coordination across subject borders to increase the potential for reinforcing learning, by building on the same or similar topics taught in different subjects. The abstract and fragmented structure of the current science curriculum prevents such coordination. III. METHODOLOGY AND SAMPLE 15. This study attempts to furnish broad indicators of school quality by providing answers to questions such as: (1) Why do children not enroll in primary school? (2) How much of the curriculum do students learn? (3) What is the adequacy of instructional materials and what are the teaching/learning conditions for students? (4) What is the quality of the CEIP examination? The description of the study and methodology used is given in Annex 5. 16. To address these questions, we conducted (a) a survey of parents to determine their perception of school quality and its link to school participation, (b) a review of the current primary education curriculum, its objectives, content and teaching instructions, (c) an assessment of learning outcomes in language, mathematics and science for students in first, third, and sixth grades (CP1, CE 1, CM2) in 24 schools in eight provinces of Burkina Faso, and (d) an analysis of pupil assessment procedures and the instructional support system. Data were collected from about 500 parents, 86 teachers, and 300 out-of-school youths in group interviews which took place between February and May 1991. In addition, a total of 228 mathematics, French and science lessons were observed in 71 classes. About 5,680 tests were administered to pupils. Seventy-eight teachers and 24 school directors were interviewed. Teachers from the teacher training college (ENEP) participated as research assistants in all these activities. 17. The selection of schools in the sample reflects the variety of school conditions found throughout the country. Seven schools are located in urban centers, seven in semi-urban, and ten in rural areas. The sample was chosen by selecting a sub-sample of 20 schools covered in a recent IREDU/DEP study on educational efficiency in Burkina Faso." This study focused on second grade classes in approximately 60 schools across the country, with the exception of the northern provinces. To provide more complete coverage, the present study added four schools from the northern Sahel 12. In each community, individual parents of students in or out of school, teachers, and out-of-school youths were selected and interviewed, using an open-ended questionnaire. The interviews focused on quality of education issues and their influence on decisions concerning enrollment, repetition and withdrawal from school. A report of the data collection methods, test results and analyses is presented in the two Technical Annexes. 13. The study was carried out in 1990 by the Planning Division of the Education Ministry (MEBAM) and the Instits de recherche sur I'4conomie de I'ducafion (IREDU). The main focus of the study is to suggest ways to use given inputs in primary education more efficiently. -6- provinces (Oudalan and S6no). All schools included six grades of the primary cycle and some had several multigrade classes. 18. Curriculum-based achievement tests were developed to determine to what extent the stated objectives of the French, mathematics and science programs in Burkina Faso were attained. The tests were designed to have curricular validity, i.e., they were designed to measure learning outcomes specified in the curricula and syllabi for academic subjects produced by the Pedagogical Institute of Burkina (Institutp6dagogique du Burkina - IPB).' Sets of test items sampling the stated learning objectives were constructed. Since learning outcomes represent competencies, skills and behaviors, test items include a broad range of tasks. For instance, for assessing reading abilities, pupils had to read aloud and locate words in the textbook as well as take a multiple choice and short answer test. 19. Classroom observations and interviews provided information about the availability of textbooks and other instructional materials, teacher supervision, classroom processes, and the experience, qualifications and attitudes of teachers. This summary report does not specifically address this information; rather, more descriptive results are presented in Technical Annex B. Data on school participation, repetition and dropout were collected from interviews with teachers and parents. 20. For the purpose of this study the data collected through testing and classroom observations were mainly analyzed in an aggregate way. However, our analysis indicates that girls performed better than boys on the tests used in this study. Due to time constraints, we were unable to investigate the reason for this result. In general, an attempt was made to link the various data files and to determine potential relationships between teaching/learning conditions and student achievement or causes for drop out. Some of these issues merit further analysis or research. IV. MAIN FINDINGS A. Parental and Teacher Perceptions of School Quality and Links to School Participation 21. Interviews with teachers and parents indicate that while school quality (i.e., instructional conditions) has little influence on parents' decisions not to enroll their children in school, it plays a significant role in decisions affecting withdrawal from school. Of the 500 parents interviewed, 15% cited poor school quality as a reason for not enrolling their children in school while 81% cited poor school quality as the chief reason for withdrawing them from school. 22: Non-enrollment is mainly related to the decision not to "buy" the service at all or to the fact that the service is not supplied within a reasonable distance. Parental decisions as to whether or not to enroll their children in school are mainly affected by direct costs (41 %), perceptions of employment opportunities for graduates (32%), and opportunity costs (21%)." However, sociocultural costs such as fear of pregnancy as well as the opportunity to acquire a proper, unaltered religious education were also important to many parents. Dropout is caused either by the parents' decision to stop using the service (withdrawal) or by the school's decision to remove pupils from school. Insofar as withdrawing a child from school is concerned, most parents hold teachers 14. The tests have high curricular validity and comprise the following number of items: about 16 in CPI, 60 in CEI, and 54 in CM2 language; 4 in CPI, 74 in CEl, and 59 in CM2 mathematics; and about 9 in CEI and CM2 in science. 15. Opportunity costs refer to alternative uses of children's time and energy, particularly agricultural labor foregone. -7- responsible, asserting their lack of professionalism (e.g. teacher absenteeism, extensive corporal punishment, etc.).'6 The teachers surveyed are also quite aware of the disastrous effects of corporal punishment and harsh teaching practices, which are attributable to their colleagues' low morale and motivation. However, the majority of teachers blamed pupils' and parents' lack of commitment to education as the chief cause of pupil dropout. It appears that no one is taking responsibility for why students leave school. B. Pupils' Performance in the 3Rs and Science Performance in French 23. Teachers' low morale and motivation combined with an impoverished learning environment conspire to limit what students learn. The tests used in this study show that 94% of pupils have no knowledge of French, the language of instruction, when they enter school. In the first grade, the curriculum goals focus on communication and basic literacy skills." However, basic competencies are not well-established. The data suggest that this is mainly due to the poor quality instruction and large class size, which exceeds well over 100 students in some schools. 24. Overall, the test results imply that less than 50% of the pupils mastered the French curriculum objectives. While pupils performed well on items testing recall and listening comprehension, performance in oral expression and writing was extremely weak. For example, three-fourths (75%) of the pupils remembered the basic vocabulary and about 80% could follow classroom instructions, such as performing simple computations. But, only 27% of the pupils were able to spontaneously describe a familiar classroom situation, 72% needed extra questioning, 50% still used their mother tongue, and less than 30% could formulate an answer to a simple question. In a dictation, about 17% of the pupils correctly recorded the vocabulary that had been taught, whereas 67% succeeded in writing numbers correctly. Most (80%) of the pupils could read vowels; however, less than 30% read words and simple sentences from the textbook, and only 11% could read new sentences composed of familiar words. 25. In the third grade, language is taught and tested in eight different subject areas." Stated learning goals include developing the ability to express oneself in oral and written French to communicate one's thoughts and to apply basic grammatical rules. These are ambitious objectives for this level. The test results show that by third grade oral expression had improved. For example, about 66% of pupils were able to describe a picture orally. However, oral reading, reading comprehension and writing skills are weak." Even with a familiar text, only about 5% of the pupils 16. Other reasons pertained to preferences for religious versus secular education, and the family's need for the child's labor. 17. See Technical Annex B, pp. 13-17. 18. The eight subjects are: Oral Expression and Composition, Reading, Writing, Vocabulary, Grammar, Conjugation and Spelling. See also Technical Annex B, pp. 2540. 19. The reading test was designed to take into consideration the degree of fluency in oral reading as well as comprehension. -8- read fluently, 20% read haltingly, and about 30% read only parts of the text. Nearly a third stopped en route and began only with help from the examiner, and 15% did not respond at all.' 26. Results in written expression were poor. Only 31 % of students were able to write a list of simple words. About 10% were able to construct simple sentences with familiar words, although a higher percentage (about 30%) provided partially acceptable sentences (with spelling or other errors). Grammar occupies an important place in the program. Since French is used only in school and its mastery depends more on formal learning than on daily use, pupils have difficulty in mastering French production rules. Nevertheless, by third grade not even a "functional level" had been achieved, as the proportion of correct answers to simple grammatical questions suggests (22% to 28%). 27. Sixth grade. According to the program, a sixth grade pupil should have learned "to write well the letters of the alphabet and numbers in order to transcribe the French language." These skills should be mastered well before sixth grade. Another goal, which states that the pupil should be able "to transcribe fluently what he/she reads, thinks and feels" clearly includes other more well- developed competencies in addition to writing skills. 28. The test results show that pupils recall formal grammatical rules relatively well--about 77% were able to identify grammatical categories, 56% could apply general rules, and 64% mastered simple verb conjugation. However, the results for reading comprehension, and oral and written expression were poor." Of the pupils tested, only 50% were able to comment on a sentence taken from the reader, 7% gave acceptable answers, 11% gave partially acceptable answers, and 32% gave answers illustrating virtually no comprehension. Less than half the pupils (43%) answered the vocabulary comprehension exercises correctly. On items testing oral expression, only 25% of the pupils tested could read a familiar text without any hesitation, half finished reading a text with hesitation and interruptions, and only 23% could produce sentences with new vocabulary. For another item which requires a grammatical rule to be stated, 86% remembered the rule but could not state it correctly. 29. Of all areas tested, the lowest scores were obtained for French composition and the ability to find and use information. Only 8% of the pupils tested were able to construct a coherent narrative about a pictorial sequence which indicates little or no practice with such exercises. Nearly a fourth (22%) produced a narrative full of errors, nevertheless illustrating that they could produce a story. Only 19% managed to find a reference in a textbook, and only 11% managed to do a textbook exercise, suggesting that pupils are not taught how to search for and use information. Performance in Mathematics 30. The primary education mathematics program includes four subject areas: mental calculation, arithmetic, the metric system and geometry. Overall program goals focus on the four basic arithmetic operations. The program strongly emphasizes the practical use of instruments to measure length, capacity, weight, and the ability to make change. 20. The test results reveal that if only open-ended written response questions are asked, comprehension skills are underestimated. Multiple-choice questions show much better results (65.5% correct in contrast to 16% with open-ended questions). 21. See Technical Annex B, pp. 68-76. -9- 31. In grade 1, test results for four addition and subtraction tasks produced the following scores: 43%, 46%, 27% and 30% correct.' In the third grade, the program requires teaching of addition, subtraction, and multiplication with carry-over.' It also stresses practical calculations related to selling and buying, and profit and loss, which must be applied to problem solving. The test results show that students are unable to compute with two-digit numbers. Only about 30% of the students tested were able to add two-digit numbers and only about 15% were able to subtract using two-digit numbers (12% to 17%), suggesting that pupils do not master operations with the first 10 digits. Multiplication exercises had correct scores superior to 50% when the multiplier was 2, 3 or 5 and inferior to 50% when the multiplier was 6 to 9. Other arithmetic problem solving tasks requiring more complex computations and the processing of a great deal of textual information produced scores lower than 35%. 32. Similar low results occur in concrete operations involving the metric system and geometry, such as measuring and estimating length and counting money. The latter is influenced by language and numeracy difficulties. For example, while pupils recall the rule that 1dm equals 10cm, they cannot measure it. The "verbal answer" (ldm= 10cm) is known, but not the concrete knowledge of the length. Only 14% of the pupils are able to estimate a line measuring 10cm. The lines are drawn very approximately and without care, probably due to lack of practice with measurement instruments.24 33. The sixth grade learning goals emphasize developing reasoning, abstract thinking and good work habits in pupils.' While general objectives in CMI and CM2 are identical, the CM2 program focuses on problem solving. The list of topics to be covered includes fractions, simple and compound interest, and measures which the pupils should be able to process "mentally," without a written text. 34. Of the pupils tested, most (80%) could perform basic calculations involving counting money and change. Only when percentages and fractions were involved were results lower than 50%. However, only 12% understood the notion of scale (1/10) and 44% measurements of time (e.g. 1hr = 60 minutes). In geometry, the items most successfully answered were those requiring "smemory" alone and not any ability to measure. For example, pupils knew the names of geometric figures yet were unable to measure or to calculate surface areas. The most difficult test item in sixth grade geometry involved constructing a solid (a cube) with paper and scissors. No pupil could do this successfully. Performance in Observational Science 35. The overall goals and objectives of "observation science" are to enable pupils to acquire theoretical and practical knowledge about man, animals, plants, the more specific objectives include: "initiate the pupils into the scientific approach" and "have the pupils acquire habits of observation and experimentation." 22. See Technical Annex B, p. 17. 23. See Technical Annex B, pp. 41.53. 24. Sec Technical Annex B, pp. 50-53 25. Sec Technical Annex B, pp. 82-102. - 10 - 36. The third and sixth grade tests assessed the development of observation skills and scientific knowledge as stipulated in the program.' The tests required pupils to draw three different leaves (Eucalyptus, Bougainvillae and Hibiscus). Results show that the capacity to observe and to draw is well-established. The form and contour of the Eucalyptus leaf were correctly drawn by more than 80% of the pupils tested. But when more attentive observation is required (for example, to situate the ribbing and other features), the results drop to between 43% and 57%. Most pupils glanced briefly at the leaf and then started drawing without verifying the details. Pupils were also required to answer questions about scientific terms concerning the local natural environment. For instance, they had to recognize and describe the features of local plants using other related terms and concepts. Only 33% of the pupils tested recognized the word "lamina," 50% recognized the word "leaf stalk" and more than 70% recognized the word "ribbing." C. Teaching/Learning Conditions 37. Inside most classrooms, an environment conducive to learning is largely absent. Pupils and teachers work in ill-equipped and poorly lit buildings. Often, especially in the early grades, pupils sit in overcrowded classrooms on overcrowded benches. Average class sizes in grades 3 and 6 are 75 and 50 students, respectively. In the first grade, class sizes are even larger, well over one hundred students in some urban schools. Instructional resources are sparse. Reference materials and simple scientific measuring instruments, especially for the upper grades, are seldom available. Listening and repeating are the main learning activities. 38. Lack of instructional materials and exercise books contributes to poor performance, and presents a particularly serious problem in the early grades where basic literacy skills are taught.' For example, none of the schools in the sample had a school library, or any additional reading and study materials such as dictionaries and reference books. In the upper grades while pupils have most of the required language books, only 22% of the CM2 pupils had the mathematics book. ' Some newer textbooks, including those developed under the IDA project, also contain many factual, grammatical and/or computational errors, and some are poorly structured or show inappropriate levels of difficulty for specific age groups." Generally speaking, textbooks available in Burkina Faso do not contain exercises and drills that teachers could use to engage pupils in a. much wider range of instructional activities, including individual learning in class. No textbooks have glossaries, indexes or other references that pupils could learn to use. 39. Teaching practices and methods of instruction provide few opportunities for pupils to develop proficiency in the language of instruction. In first grade (CPl) classes, the children rarely write and when they do it is often with a small piece of chalk, too short and round to enable them to form their letters and numbers correctly on the slate. Language lessons observed in this study 26. See Technical Annex B, pp. 54-56, 103-104. 27. Previous research has confirmed the positive effects of textbooks on learning outcomes, particularly in areas in which teachers are poorly educated and inadequately trained. This research has been summarized in various World Bank documents, see for example: A. Verspoor and Kin Bing Wu (1990); M. Lockheed, S. Vail, B. Fuller (1986); A. Verspoor (1986); A. Reed (1986); B. Searle (1985). 28. Under Cr. 1598-BUR, 850,000 textbooks have already been distributed (French, Mathematics, Science and History). 29. The mathematics textbook Calcul quotidien, grades CE and CM, is a case in point. See Cope, Denning and Ribeiro (1989). - 11 - involved naming, recognition and pronunciation exercises as well as practicing vocabulary, but without exploring meaning. Mistakes were rarely corrected with discretion. Teachers used limited feedback to reinforce language learning. Individual help was rare. In language, as well as in reading and arithmetic, pupils' participation was almost entirely limited to repetition. 40. While the majority of teachers consider French the most important subject in primary school, followed by reading (arithmetic, science and manual work were hardly mentioned), classroom observations revealed that teachers spend more class time on the grammatical aspects of language than on communication. To promote understanding, teachers use a significant portion of the time, repeating, reformulating or explaining the problem or task at hand. The test results also illustrate that language difficulties significantly contribute to low learning outcomes. 41. Most teachers in the sample do not have the new syllabi for academic subjects. Teachers who just graduated from the Teacher Training College (ENEP) knew the new programs. While they considered the new approach, "learning by objectives," appropriate for improving learning, they thought the syllabi too complex and difficult, especially for rural children. About half of the teachers have the teacher guides, except for the new science guide. However, less than half of the teachers interviewed for this study had ever heard of the new syllabi. This reflects the persistent problem with curriculum implementation: lack of coordination and consultation among the different tiers of the administrative structure of the educational system. 42. More than half of the teachers in the sample have the required general education (67% have a BEPC). Almost half (48%) have completed or are close to completing the baccalaurdat. About half had no initial teacher training; those who did, considered it insufficient.:" Due to budgetary constraints, about 400 to 800 lower and upper secondary graduates are recruited annually as part of the National Development Service (Service national pour le ddveloppement - SND), to teach for one school year. These "unqualified" teachers are often assigned to the lower grades in contradiction with MEBAM policy. The "best qualified" teachers, usually the school director, tend to teach the sixth grade (classe d'examen). 43. To be promoted, teachers must prepare for exams by self-study since few training programs assist teachers and correspondence courses are not well-organized at the IPB. However, teacher upgrading and promotion tend to occur haphazardly. Every two years an inspector evaluates each teacher's instructional level. In principle, teachers receive a rating based on this inspection, but in practice, this seldom occurs. Each year, the school director fills out afichep6dagogique for every teacher.' Primary School Inspectors and Pedagogical Counsellors are supposed to provide professional support to practicing teachers. Inspectors are attached to one of the 62 districts (each of the 30 Provinces has a provincial direction, with one or several inspectorates for primary education 30. The sample comprised 55 male and 14 female teachers. 31. The Teacher Training School (ENEP) in Loumbila is the only teacher training school and has existed since 1985. Primary school inspectors and pedagogical counselors, as well as high school teachers, serve as instructors at ENEP. Its two-year training course (based on the completion of lower secondary education) has graduated some 2,074 student teachers (about 25% of the teaching cadre) at a rate of 350 per year. 32. Teachers can also advance professionally by passing a professional examination, mainly theoretical, leading to the CEAP (Category C, giving instituteur adjoint status) or CAP (Category B, giving instituteur titulaire status). In general, there are three ways to prepare for these exams: a) following the correspondence course radio programs; b) studying through ARC (Action, Reflexion, Culture), a journal put out by the IPB; or c) taking the course organized after hours by the inspectorate. - 12 - in the districts). Inspectors are assisted by Itinerant Pedagogical Counsellors (CPI). Their respon- sibilities involve making recommendations on school transfers and promotions; and providing professional advisory and pedagogical support to teachers. 44. Teachers surveyed judged instructional advice and supervision by inspectors and pedagogical counsellors to be insufficient or indeed nonexistent. This situation is partly explained by the following statistics: In 1990-91 there were 91 Inspectors in 61 districts and 109 pedagogical counselors in charge of about 8,900 teachers. Thus, on average, there is one inspector for approximately 98 teachers and each pedagogical counselor supervises approximately 82 teachers. Visits by Pedagogical Counsellors," for example, were said to take place sporadically. Teachers say they consult these resource persons only for administrative reasons. Instructional leadership is largely left to the school directors. However, school directors in Burkina Faso seem to be unable to function effectively as instructional leaders mainly because they lack time and training. They also lack information and guidelines for adapting the curriculum to the differing challenges and needs of individual school settings. Efforts are underway' at the Directorate of Initial and In-service Training (Direction de la formation initiale et permanente - DFIP) to start a training program for school directors. D. The Curricular and Instructional Validity of the CEP Examination 45. The current CEP is used for two distinct purposes: as an examination to certify achievement at the end of primary schooling; and as an admission test for secondary education.' In its function as a certifying examination, it is unnecessarily difficult. Because the exam also functions as an admission test for a limited number of secondary school places, the success rate is artificially reduced. This means that most pupils leave with no certification or record of learning, despite the fact that many who take the exam are repeaters (over 30%). The paucity of national learning standards and lack of rigor in item construction and norming procedures lead to great variation in item difficulty over the years.6 Moreover, the CEP tests are exclusively "written" and they require great mastery of the French language which most primary pupils do not exhibit. This may explain the results given in Table 4. 33. Under the ongoing Fourth Education Project (CR. 2244-BUR), operating policies regarding the number of visits, recording of visits and advice and monitoring system are being developed. 34. With IDA support through the Fourth Education Project (Cr. 2244-BUR). 35. Ministry of Education Order KITI No AN IV/262/CNRIEDU (1986), sets out the regulations and defines the overall content for the sole formal examination, the Certificat dtudes primaires (CEP). The CEP exam covers Language (dictation, comprehension, composition), Reading, Arithmetic (operations and problems), History and Geography, Science, Sports, Drawing and Manual Work, Singing and Reciting. The relative weights (coefficients) of these subjects are shown in Annex 6. The DEC (Directorate of Examinations) has been responsible for preparing the examinations for the past five years. The exam questions are prepared by three commissions: for French, mathematics, and other subjects composed of two inspectors and two or three teachers chosen by the inspectors. Their members are always from Ouagadougou. 36. See Technical Annex B, pp. 63-68, 90-91. - 13 - 46. Items used in the CEP examination do not measure what most pupils Table 4. CEP Results and Secondary School have been taught and often involve Admission Rates performing unfamiliar tasks. For example, the CEP French examinations include many 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 questions that are very difficult, particularly % passed 37 44 49 45 48 for pupils in impoverished rural schools where large classes and lack of instructional oa ndart 10 10 11 11 12 materials inhibit teaching of written expression.7 For example: Source: MEBAM Vous venez d'&re admis a 'examen du Certificat d'9tudes primaires (CEP) et au concours d'entrie en classes de sixibme. Ecrivez une lettre a un parent ou d un ami pour lui annoncer l'heureuse nouvelle. (You have just passed the primary school leaving exam and admission test to secondary school. Write a letter to a parent or friend to announce the good news.) (1988) Au marchg, tout le monde va, vient, bavarde. Tout d coup, la tornade se d6chatne. Raconte7. (At the market place everyone comes and goes and chats. Suddenly there is a storm. Tell a story.) (1989) Vous avez entendu ou lu plusieurs contes. Racontez celui qui vous a le plus intress. (You have heard or read several tales. Tell the one you have liked most.) (1990). 47. Another test item, called comprdhension de texte, elicits both what one has learned and personal experiences that few rural pupils would judge to be familiar. For example: Mon premier voyage en train. Racontez en dix lignes votre premier voyage. (My first trip by train. Tell in ten lines your first trip by train). (1989) Une stance de vaccination. DOcrivez en une dizaine de lignes une s9ance de vaccination a '6cole, au village ou dans le secteur. (A vaccination session. Describe in ten lines a vaccination session in school, in the village or in the sector). (1990) 48. Similar problems arise in the CEP arithmetic tests. Test items require pupils to carry out multi-step problem solving tasks with factual information presented in a language many do not understand. Moreover, the information that can be gathered from the test results is very poor. The arithmetic part of the test represents 40 points (20 for basic operations and 20 for problems) of the 80 point minimum a pupil must obtain to pass the CEP: La faVade de votre 6cole mesure 25m. Sur le plan, cette faVade mesure Scm. A quelle 6chelle est dtabli ce plan? (The facade of your school measures 25m. On the map the facade measures 5cm. What is the map's scale)? (1988) Un ouvrier gagne 250 F 'heure. Il travaille 6 heures par jour. Quel est son gain mensuel s'il travaille 25jours dans le mois? (A worker earns 250 F per hour. He works 6 hours per day. What does he earn per month if he works 25 days per month)? (1989) 37. See Technical Annex B, pp. 63-66. - 14 - 49. All these test items require excellent French language skills. Thus, it is not surprising that over the years, the CEP dictation and French composition tests have had the lowest scores. For instance, the "mean" scores in dictation (0.7:10), composition (4.3:10), comprehension (6.7:20) reveal an extremely poor grasp of writing and French skills. The same competencies were tested at the CM2 level through curriculum-based test items.' While only 8% of the pupils could write a comprehensive story (French composition involved telling a story about a set of pictures), more than 50% did well on the other items (i.e., transforming sentences according to a given model)." The main difference between the CEP and the tests used in this study is that the former contain few complex, "selective" items of low curricular validity while the latter contain a broad range of items of high curricular validity. CEP test items cannot show "various levels of learning," they only show "floor level learning" as indicated by mean scores. V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 50. The findings summarized above demonstrate the need to develop a comprehensive strategy for improving the quality of primary education in Burkina Faso. The present study identifies improvements in the following areas as key elements of such a strategy: (1) instructional conditions and resources; (2) in-service training, supervision and pedagogical support; and (3) the effectiveness of French instruction. It is recommended that possibilities also be explored for (1) using the mother tongue for some instruction in academic subjects to facilitate transition to French, (2) reforming the CEP examination to encourage the development of competencies that teachers now neglect, and (3) establishing a mechanism to facilitate analyses of the performance of the primary education system in terms of learning outcomes. Each of these recommendations is further discussed below. Improving Instructional Conditions and Resources 51. The findings of this study suggest some clear links between teaching/learning conditions and achievement. Test results illustrate that the great majority of pupils have not mastered what they are expected to know after six years of schooling. This is due in part to the scope and complexity of the curricula, the relative scarcity of pupils' books (and in many cases of teachers' guides) and the fact that teaching is done in French which is poorly mastered by many pupils even by the end of primary school. There are too few review exercises to help children learn the new vocabulary and concepts, especially in the lower grades where basic competencies are not well- established. Pupils do the poorest in reading and writing. 52. Another reason for the low scores in reading and writing is large classes in which poor pedagogical practices are common and pupil participation is limited to class recitation. Preliminary analysis of the effects of class size on test results indicates that while class size has little influence on acquisition of lower order cognitive skills such as recalling French vocabulary from memory, it is strongly related to development skills in French composition and mathematical problem solving which requires individualized instruction and continuous assessment and feed back. For instance, large class size had a negative impact on expressive reading in CM2, but no visible effect 38. For a more in-depth analysis of the CEP exam in contrast to the tests used in the present study, see Technical Annex B, pp. 63-67, 86-91. 39. See Technical Annex B, pp. 71, 77-79, 81. 40. See Technical Annex B, pp. 21-22, 33-34, 112. - 15 - on the geometry test items in CM2 (same sample), where class size ranged from nine to 87 pupils. This is probably for reasons related to how these subjects are taught. 53. Language, both French and the mother tongue, strongly influences test results. While in the first grade pupils responded easily to simple school-related French requiring the recall of vocabulary, their performance was much lower in oral expression in French requiring higher order cognitive skills as well as linguistic ability in French. More than 70% of pupils tested needed extra questioning and 50% used their mother tongue. In CP1, the use of the mother tongue at times made it easier for pupils to understand a mathematics question and do well on the test. In the upper grades the use of the mother tongue also contributed to better results, i.e., in basic arithmetic. However, overall test results suggest that the use of the mother tongue has a differential impact on learning outcomes and more in-depth analysis would be useful to further explore the appropriate use of the mother tongue as the language of instruction. 54. To enrich the learning environment it is recommended that textbooks be designed as resource tools to help children learn independently; the development and distribution of instructional materials and teaching guides be improved (i.e., simple and affordable books and children's literature in both French and national languages); and class sizes, particularly in the lower grades, be significantly reduced. To contain costs, reduction in class size should be done in conjunction with the introduction of double-shift teaching. Furthermore, research should be conducted on a regular basis to monitor the impact of the changes introduced. Increasing In-service Training. Supervision and Support 55. More than half of the teachers in the sample considered their teaching skills inadequate. They deplored the lack of appropriate instructional materials and diagnostic tools, which makes it difficult for them to present the material effectively or to provide pupils with opportunities to practice and apply their learning. Quite a few teachers, especially the SND teachers, felt a need for intellectual support and said they work in isolation with no adequate support system. On-the-job professional support for teachers is negligible, since school directors as well as school inspectors and Pedagogical Counsellors have neither the time nor the resources for regular classroom visits for the purpose of monitoring instruction, fostering a climate supportive of learning, organizing regular assessment of student learning, and providing leadership in curriculum development and implementation. 56. Initial and in-service teacher training either needs improvement or is nonexistent. Much of teacher training attempts to fill existing gaps in teachers' formal education rather than providing appropriate pedagogical skills to teach the intended curriculum. 57. Based on Burkina Faso's situation and supportive research elsewhere, it is recommended that teacher competence be improved primarily through greater attention to in-service teacher training. It should focus on the implementation of the primary education curriculum. Teachers should be encouraged to change their teaching styles, and learn new instructional strategies, including the production of teaching materials. Fundamental to this process is regular supervision of instruction. In-service training often takes teachers away from their classroom, whereas observation followed by immediate skilled feedback on classroom instruction provides a more effective basis for teacher learning directly relevant to teaching practice. This requires training for the trainers and instructional leaders, i.e., school directors and MEBAM education officers (Primary Inspectors and Pedagogical Counsellors), as well as the newly created Principal Teachers Body (Corps des instituteurs principaux). - 16 - 58. Furthermore, such training could involve experimental classes in new approaches to teaching concepts (i.e., science) and school development plans within the agreed national framework of curriculum policies, indicating not only syllabi to be covered but the kind of learning experiences pupils should receive in their schools. During the Annual Conference of the primary education inspectors and the Meeting of the Pedagogical Counsellor, it was recommended that support staff receive both initial and in-service training and that regular technical consultation meetings and other institutional links be established with relevant University faculties. However, as school directors are the leaders closest to the daily instructional process, they represent key resources which should be strengthened. More institutional support (e.g., from inspectors) is needed so that school directors can fulfill their multiple functions. 59. The school-based practice of assigning the qualified teachers to the last primary grades, against the MEBAM policy and to the detriment of the lower grades where the foundations are laid, should be stopped. To this end new and stricter guidelines should be issued and a system to monitor their enforcement be implemented. SND teachers need to be provided with increased training and close supervision to improve their effectiveness. To strengthen the teaching of science and related subjects--such as nutrition and health-- short-term, well-focused training and professional development of teachers and supervisory staff should be undertaken. In addition, and to enrich the pupils' learning experience, punctual contribution by relevant professionals in the school environment should be encouraged. Strengthening Instruction in French 60. Classroom observations conducted in connection with this study show that primary schools provide a severely limited context and environment in which French language skills are currently practiced. The data clearly illustrate that French is not taught effectively. By third grade not even a "functional. level" has been achieved, in spite of the focus on grammar. If one considers spelling mistakes throughout the test results, scarcely half the pupils master the most basic program elements. Teachers rely solely on the language of instruction to make abstract concepts concrete. Clearly this strategy is not the most effective one, as examples and analogies given in a foreign language are relatively meaningless to pupils who cannot easily link them to their own experience. The findings suggest that the mother tongue is, at times, an important means to making questions more meaningful and to facilitating the transition to French. 61. It is recommended that the methods used for teaching French be significantly improved, taking into account the research findings on the use of first and second languages as means of instruction in primary education. A new language program should be developed and tested in cooperation with CONFEMEN. Links to pupils' mother tongue should be explored. Such a program would emphasize development of communication skills in both languages across the curriculum, especially in mathematics and science. In the long-term, this program should lead to a revised "implemented" French curriculum for grades 1 through 6. 62. Although many strategies could be imagined, the following two approaches are provided as an example: (1) Keeping French throughout, but encourage teachers to use national or local languages for explanation wherever necessary and possible, providing them with tools such as local language glossaries and guides to facilitate learning. - 17 - (2) Basic literacy in one of the major indigenous languages in the first or two initial grades, with strong emphasis on oral French taught as a subject of instruction. In grade 3, French would become the medium of instruction but teaching in the pupils' mother tongue would continue. Reforming the CEP Examination 63. In its present state the new program does not indicate what level of learning can be expected from a primary school graduate and what level of learning the CEP certifies. However, such a primary school graduate "profile" is needed in order to design and implement an effective and meaningful primary education curriculum. The tests used in this study reveal how important it is for teachers to have diagnostic tools to assess what all pupils are learning in school. More concrete learning criteria against which to measure pupils' progress and effective learning assessment tools would enable teachers to improve instruction. It would also enable schools to determine how their pupils rank in relation to national norms. 64. As this study argues, the present system of learning assessment and certification sets unrealistic targets which are beyond many pupils' reach, as shown by the low success rate which has hovered below 50% over the years. The CEP's content validity is low, because the exam questions cover only a small portion of the curriculum. Content analysis of the CEP test items clearly indicates that selective items do not measure what most pupils are able to do, and many times they measure personal competencies related to cultural origin and not schooling. 65. A major reform in the examination system is recommended as a priority. It is a long- term process and will have direct implications for implementing the other recommendations. Two major steps are proposed: First, the CEP should be better designed to improve its curricular and instructional validity as an examination serving the dual function of (1) certifying standards of achievement at the end of primary education, and (2) selecting pupils for secondary school. Three cut-off rates are proposed: (a) passing with minimum level of performance certifying basic literacy and numeracy skills; (b) medium-level performance with a second chance to take the CEP; and (c) high-level performance with admission to secondary school. Secondly, a nationally recognized achievement record to complement the current CEP should be considered. It would follow a standardized format established by the MEBAM. Improving Educational Research and Analysis 66. To stimulate further analysis of the performance of the primary education system in terms of learning outcomes and to ensure adequate monitoring of the impact of the type of measures recommended in this study, and funded under the IDA Fourth Education Project (Cr. 2244-BUR), it is recommended that an Educational Research Committee be established within the Ministry of Education to monitor and advise on primary education quality and related research-including the continued analysis of the data collected for this study. Areas requiring further analysis or research include gender issues (i.e., gender differences in learning, attitudes, achievement and girls' participation in schooling); causes for drop out; and links between teaching/learning conditions and achievement. 67. Experience related to the present study shows that the country's university community and the Teacher Training College (ENEP) have the capacity to successfully carry out educational research--particularly if they can draw upon the expertise of researchers in other countries as well - 18 - as the staff of national research institutes such as the Ecole sup6rieure des sciences dconomiques (ESEC). 68. To improve learning, a formative evaluation system, using appropriate assessment procedures, should be gradually put in place to regularly collect information on learning outcomes at the school level. The results would be communicated to the district and provincial levels accompanied by an analysis of differences between schools in learning achievement. Furthermore, the teachers could be involved in educational research (on teaching conditions, pupil progress, methods of assessment, etc.) by evaluating their pupils' progress. 69. It is recommended that the policy options outlined above be further elaborated at a technical seminar planned by MEBAM. The objective would be to initiate a process leading to the development of an action plan for improving the quality of primary schooling, taking into account the present financial constraints. A fundamental issue to be addressed by the Government and donors is how Burkina Faso can rapidly raise its low level of primary school enrollment and at the same time finance essential investments to improve the quality of primary education--as measured by skills and competencies that students are expected to acquire by the end of the primary cycle. This report argues that further expansion of the primary education system must be explicitly coupled with measures to improve student learning if primary education is to benefit individuals and the nation. A detailed action program should include (1) a reform plan specifying the measures, the actions and the schedule for implementing the proposed policy options, (2) a financial plan spelling out the budgetary implications, (3) a management plan outlining the respective implementation needs and responsibilities, and (4) a communication plan describing the strategy envisaged to achieve a national consensus on primary education reform. - 19 - ANNEX 1 Page 1 of 1 BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION EVOLUTION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION ENROLLMENT 1984/1985 - 1990/1991 PUBLIC + PRIVATE PUBLIC EDUCATION PRIVATE EDUCATION YEAR Rate of Rate of Rate of Enrollment Increase Enrollment Increase Enrollment Increase 1984/85 313,520 - 287,545 - 25,975 - 1985/86 351,807 12.20 % 321,134 11.40 % 30,673 18.10 % 1986/87 390,414 11.00 % 354,976 10.53 % 35,438 15.53 % 1987/88 411,907 5.51 % 372,409 4.91 % 39,498 11.46 % 1988/89 443,328 7.63 % 400,422 7.52 % 42,906 8.63 % 1989/90 472,979 6.68 % 429,852 7.34 % 43,127 0.51 % 1990/91 504,414 6.64 % 460,783 7.19 % 43,629 1.15 % Source: Stalisiques scolaires - MEBAM/DEP - 20 - ANNEX 2 Page 1 of 1 BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION AND ENROLLMENT, 1990-91 POPULATION 7-12 ENROLLMENT ENROLLMENT RATIO (%) No. PROVINCES TOTAL GIRLS TOTAL GIRLS TOTAL GIRLS 01 BAM 34,236 17,426 8,814 3,072 25.74 17.63 02 BAZEGA 67,001 32,422 18,968 6,901 28.31 21.28 03 BOUGOURIBA 41,312 19,791 10,651 3,325 25.78 16.80 04 BOULGOU 83,086 38,913 21,627 7,640 26.03 19.63 05 BOULKIEMDE 76,407 37,676 28,879 10,266 37.80 27.25 06 COMOE 52,127 25,873 19,352 7,426 37.12 28.70 07 GANZOURGOU 41,938 20,162 7,088 2,243 16.90 11.12 08 GNAGNA 49,211 23,946 4,182 1,217 8.50 5.08 09 GOURMA 63,570 29,943 9,980 3,666 15.70 12.24 10 HOUET 125,387 61,036 62,646 26,623 49.96 43.62 11 KADIOGO 106,188 54,514 87,538 42,439 82.44 77.85 12 KENEDOUGOU 28,852 14,219 9,141 3,128 31.68 22.00 13 KOSSI 68,018 32,753 11,423 4,071 16.79 12.43 14 KOURITENGA 44,039 21,351 11,287 3,963 25.64 18.56 15 MOUHOUN 59,286 28,749 18,357 7,472 30.96 25.99 16 NAHOURI 19,930 9,507 6,364 2,561 31.93 26.94 17 NAMENTENGA 39,681 19,167 4,396 1,392 11.08 7.26 18 OUBRITENGA 61,614 30,419 19,029 6,841 30.88 22.49 19 OUDALAN 205,866 9,981 2,272 734 10.89 7.35 20 PASSORE 48,221 23,931 13,587 4,179 28.18 17.46 21 PONI 49,204 23,337 8,214 2,905 16.69 12.45 22 SANGUIE 45,219 22,003 15,214 5,676 33.65 25.80 23 SANMATENGA 76,037 37,658 13,910 4,337 18.29 11.52 24 SENO 45,785 21,943 3,853 1,416 8.42 6.45 25 SISSILI 55,878 26,611 12,146 4,262 21.74 16.02 26 SOUM 39,092 19,119 4,968 1,508 12.71 7.89 27 SOUROU 58,852 28,818 21,042 8,328 35.75 28.90 28 TAPOA 34,392 16,455 4,690 1,472 13.64 8.95 29 YATENGA 115,555 59,781 38,207 12,290 33.06 20.56 30 ZOUNDWEOGO 31,259 14,817 6,589 2,299 21.08 15.52 TOTAL BURKINA FASO 1,682,233 822,231 504,414 193,652 29.98 23.55 Source: MEBAM/DEP - 21 - ANNEX 3 Page 1 of 6 BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION THE PRIMARY EDUCATION CURRICULUM IN BURKINA FASO 1. The following analysis focuses on key curr iculum-related variables: subjects taught during the primary school cycle; overall and instructional time allocated to each subject; actual time spent on instruction; actual content of the curriculum and the substantive content of instruction in the core subject areas of language, mathematics and science. The Official Curriculum 2. The academic programs for basic education for 1989-1990 were elaborated, developed and tested by the Service of Methods, Programs and Evaluation under the authority of the Direction of Study, Programs and Pedagogical Evaluation of the Pedagogical Institute of Burkina Faso.' Accompanying Documents 3. Although the programs contain numerous methodological indications, several of them are complemented by Teachers' Guides. These guides are generally provided as highly detailed lesson plans presented in bound formats. Some student manuals (such as the readers for first, second and third grades), developed by the Pedagogical Institute of Burkina and closely adapted to the new programs, are already available. Others are currently being tested or are in the process of being printed. A short analysis of the guides and manuals is offered below. Contents 4. The various programs dealing with the course material to be covered during the six years of basic education are presented in the following documents: - PROGRAMS for CP1 and CP2 (first and second grades) - PROGRAMS for CEI and CE2 (third and fourth grades) - PROGRAMS for CM1 and CM2 (fifth and sixth grades) 5. The subject matter of the primary school curriculum is organized into the following general and specific programs which are composed of the "disciplines" making up the study plan. Sometimes these "disciplines" correspond to "branches," although more often they correspond to subdivisions of branches. The programs of first and second grades (CPl, CP2) include six disciplines: - Language - Reading 1. In accordance with the midssions assigned by: KITI NO AN VI 012 1[FB/MEBAM dated 21 December 1988; and KITI NO AN VI 0123/FB/MEBAM dated 25 May 1989. - 22 - ANNEX 3 Page 2 of 6 - Writing - Arithmetic - Sensory and Observation Exercises - Recitation/Singing CP1 and CP2 Programs include the following learning objectives: 6. Learning objectives and tools relate to describing; identifying; recognizing; distinguishing; pronouncing correctly; motor skills; reading and grasping syllables; understanding words; mastering the notion of quantity; developing mathematical reasoning and facility with numbers and operations; abstracting; structuring space and time; discovering natural phenomena; increasing awareness of the environment; becoming more familiar with village life; developing memory and a sense of beauty. 7. Eleven "disciplines" are included for the other grades (CE1 to CM2): - Oral expression - Reading - Writing - Vocabulary - Grammar - Conjugations - Spelling - Written expression - Arithmetic - Science - Recitation/Singing 8. For every "discipline," each program states one or several "goals", lists a series of "general objectives" (the nuance between goals and general objectives is vague), establishes its importance and the amount of time to be spent on it, indicates the different contents to be taught and provides methodological instructions. It is not specified whether all work will be tested. 9. Several "disciplines," also included in the official "time schedules" (approved by the Inspection Office), do not appear in the programs. This is true for: - History - Geography - Moral Education - Civics - Physical Education - Drawing, and Arts and Crafts - Supervised Activities (activitgs dirigdes). 10. While study plans exist for the other disciplines since 1989-90, none exist for the social sciences (History - Geography - Civic Education or for manual skills training) even though they - 23 - ANNEX 3 Page 3 of 6 are explicitly included in the time schedules. The themes and content enumerated for the six grades correspond, to a great extent, to universal standards as listed in A. Benavot and D. Kamens.1 11. Primary education curriculum goals focus on communication and reading skills, the acquisition of basic mechanisms of the French language, the education of the oral and aural senses and the awakening of all senses. The curriculum, which is taught entirely in French, emphasizes teaching students how to communicate freely, to reason and to apply knowledge. 12. In CEI and CE2 five disciplines are added: vocabulary, grammar, conjugation, orthography, and written expression. Learning tools are to be refined, perfected, varied and mastered in the following areas: oral expression of the French language; expression of thought; new structures and natural expression; reading mechanisms; general sense of texts; silent reading; taste for reading; technique of reading; written expression; motor skills; writing skills; sense of words; utilization of words; correct expression; rules of grammar; use of dictionary; sense and techniques of operations; sense of observation and precision; problem solving; and measuring. 13. In CMI and CM2, 11 disciplines are maintained and emphasis is placed on the refinement, mastery and rigorous use of the learning tools listed above, which primarily focus on French, mathematics and science. There is less precision as to the use and varied applications of these tools. Animals are classified; the utility of plants, the mineral world and material phenomena is taught; practical knowledge of agricultural and husbandry techniques, as well as knowledge acquired through manual work is reinforced. Time Devoted to Implementing the Primary Education Program in 1991 (weekly time allocation): 14. The weekly time spent in Burkinab6 schools varies from 28 to 24 hours from grades 1 through 6. Added to this are periods of "productive activities," which are often devoted to school gardening. These activities may replace the periods for manual work, or take place on Thursdays, Saturdays or Sundays. Pupils spend 30 hours a week in school, of which 27 1/2 hours are actual class time. The rest is recreational time. The programs are conceived around 24 weeks of actual instructional time. The official school year consists of a total of 38 to 40 weeks. The 62% of maximum time available corresponds to 660 hours minimum of instruction annually. With a school week of 4.5 days, this makes the school year 108 days long. 15. The new programs contain only the core subjects taught. In CP1 and CP2 instructional time is longer than in the other grades which do not total 30 hours per week. These new programs plan less time for the core subjects than did the old ones, namely 3 1/3 hours for CE1 and CE2 and 1 1/2 hours for CM1 and CM2. A normal school day is 6 1/2 hours and made up of two periods. The morning period lasts from 7:30 until 12:00, with a 30 minute break. The afternoon starts at 3:00 and ends at 5:00. Thursday and Saturday afternoons are free. 2. Benavot, Aaron and David Kamens, "The Curricular Content of Primary Education in Developing Countries," World Bank Staff Working Paper, No. 237, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1989). 3. The information was gathered from the new programs of instruction 1989-90. Supplementary information was found in the timetables of a primary school in Ouagadougou. - 24 - ANNEX 3 Page 4 of 6 16. Instructional time is very fragmented. The most common teaching period is 30 minutes long. Even in fifth and sixth grades, 69% of all periods last 30 minutes. One hour periods are few-12.2%. This fragmentation seems extreme in the first grades in which 27 1/2 hours of weekly instruction are divided into 77 to 78 distinctive periods. The average instructional time is 21 minutes per subject. While these frequent changes may help maintain the attention of numerous, young children in a classroom, they do not permit adequate preparation, introduction and development of themes and concepts. 17. The short periods (10 and 15 minutes) are assigned to activities and subjects of lesser importance in the exams. These are recreational activities like singing. In the first grades mathematics is taught in 20 and 25 minute periods, and French in 25 to 30 minutes. In the later grades these subjects are taught in 45 and 60 minute periods. Language teaching (structural exercises, text interpretation, written expression, and grammar exercises) takes longer than 30 minutes. All other subjects that require science or observational exercises, guided and manual activities, drawing and physical education take up 30 minutes of instructional time. Such a schedule leaves little time for sustained learning and exploration. 18. In the upper grades (cours moyen) long periods of instruction are reserved for language-comprehension (45 and 60 minutes) and arithmetic/mathematics lessons (60 minutes) (see Annex 3.1). 19. Annex 3.1 gives the changes in the official timetable in an urban school. These changes are made in favor of French in the upper grades and to the detriment of French reading and writing skills, the sciences and geography. In the first grades they are made in favor of sensorial exercises (singing, drawing, physical exercises). It is interesting to note that the sensorial exercises were included. They are the basis for the observational exercises and sciences in the upper grades, included in the readings. The exercises are to a great extent French comprehension exercises. They attempt to convey concepts and notions of space and physical properties of objects. 20. Annex 3.1 shows the weekly distribution of instructional time, in percentages, by subject and by grade in Burkina Faso' in contrast to the regional mean instructional time. The situation of the sub-Saharan countries is shown in comparison with the distribution of the primary education programs in Burkina Faso. The values figuring in this table represent the proportions in percentages with respect to the total school time. 4. This distribution was taken from a timetable of a local school. It does not correspond entirely to the official program. This indicates some autonomy teachers have in scheduling their classes. The reference figures are taken from Benavot and Kamens, Table 5: "Mean Percentage of Total Instructional Time Devoted to Selected Subjects in the Primary School Curricula of Less-Developed Countries by World Region." Proportion in % of total instructional time. Measures combine information for the six years most commonly considered elementary education. - 25 - ANNEX 3 Page 5 of 6 21. The instructional time the SSA region allocates to language, mathematics and science is less, on the average, than that allocated by other regions in the world. On the whole, countries in the SSA region devote the greatest proportion of instructional time to language (official language). Burkina Faso with 54.6% (total mean) can be linked to the extreme examples: Central African Republic, 66%; Cameroon, 53%; Swaziland, 51%. THE NEW PROGRAMS OF STUDY 1989-90 22. CONFEMENI played an important role in the development of these programs. Curriculum specialists of the former Institut pour la r9forme et Vaction pd6dagogique (IRAP), now the Institut pedagogique du Burkina (IPB), were involved in the elaboration of the programs. Technical and financial support was provided by CONFEMEN and the Programme canadien d'appui to IPB. 23. The revisions concerning the 1989-90 programs involve simple adjustments to national realities in the fields of history, geography, science, and civics instruction. The basic tenets of the 1989-90 programs are similar to those of the 1962 reform programs. Yet there has apparently been an important change-a reconsideration of the aims and the sociocultural basis of the primary education system to be put in place. However, the program does not reflect a consistent and comprehensive curriculum which is coherent with the next level of education. In fact, there is no continuity between primary and secondary schooling; this is reflected in the program and textbooks. Many subjects disappear entirely after the primary cycle: music, art and practical subjects. Primary schools are still doing classical mathematics based on computations but secondary schools do modem mathematics. Primary schools are teaching normative grammar whereas secondary schools teach functional grammar. There is little professional discussion between policymakers and teachers involved in the two levels of schooling. 24. Reasons for the change: the old programs were thought to be too complex for the actual school year of 24 weeks. The idea was to reduce the programs to the fundamental elements, which could be correctly taught in the available time. There was also a lack of precision in the old programs which did not help teachers in preparing their lessons. Since 1983 there have been efforts to adapt the French, mathematics and other programs to national realities. This also involves "programming by objectives." CONFEMEN played an important role in developing this strategy by organizing seminars in Qu6bec in 1986, 1987 and 1988. A school inspector from Burkina Faso participated in these activities. He served as liaison to the Division for Studies, Programs and Pedagogical Evaluation (DEPEP/IPB) to promote the implementation of CONFEMEN recommendations. The 1989-90 programs apparently were elaborated thanks to the professional dynamism of two persons. Since then, the two inspectors involved in the program revisions have retired and there is a great need to continue their work. 5. Confirence des ministres de l'ducation des pays ayant en comnun 'usage du franpais. Founded in 1960, it presently has 31 member countries from Africa and Europe. - 26 - ANNEX 3 Page 6 of 6 25. Much remains to be done in the formulation of operational objectives and the tests that should accompany them. A proposal for a new evaluation policy that was elaborated at the same time has not yet been approved. The basic aim of the new approach to curriculum development and implementation is "teaching by objectives." This approach also requires an adapted evaluation system, which has yet to be developed. It would entail testing pupils by using different kinds of questions to assess pupil aptitudes. This assessment approach has been tested in CM1 classes in French composition and reading. 26. The new programs have been distributed to the inspectorates for dispersion to the teachers. This process has not been completed due to distribution and cost difficulties. Less than half of the teachers interviewed for this study had heard of the new programs. Only 15 out of 52 teachers had a copy of the new programs in the sample schools. However, the programs are known to some extent through the new textbooks and particularly through the teachers' guides. Except for the subject of science, these books seem to be available, to a certain extent, in the schools visited. Other CONFEMEN Projects: Primary French language survey ' 27. The French language project has been going on in the CONFEMEN countries for three years. It is concerned with language needs of children and appropriate teaching methods for national languages and French as a second language in primary schools. The eventual aim is to publish some readers for pupils for the three primary school levels (CP, CE, CM). This task has proven to be more complex than anticipated. 6. CONFEMEN. 1991. Recueil des Risolutions et de Projets de Coopdration pour PIntersession 1991/1992; "Enquete sur les besoins de langage de 'enfant." - 27 - ANNEX 3.1 Page 1 of 2 BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION PRIMARY EDUCATION TIMETABLE (OFFICIAL SCHEDULE) CP1 - CP2 CE1 - CE2 CM1 - CM2 CLASS Language 6h French (includes: Vocabulary, Grammar, Reading, Oral 6h 5h30 5h and Written Expression, Spelling, Conjugation) Reading 7h 7h 7h 4h Writing 2h30 2h 2h lh Mathematics 4h30 4h 4h 5h Sensory Exercises 1h30 lb Recitation lb Oh30 lh Sports Activities 2hl5 2h30 2h30 2h30 Design - Arts & Crafts l lh lh lb Moral Oh45 1h 1h lh Recreation 2h30 2h30 2h30 2h30 Observation Exercises lh lh 3h History - Geography 1h30 1h3O 2h Singing lb lb lh lh Supervised Activities Oh30 Oh30 lb TOTAL 30h 30h 30h 30h Source: MBBAM/IPB - 28 - ANNEX 3.1 Page 2 of 2 BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION Mean Percentage of Total Instruction Time Devoted to Selected Subjects in the Primary School Curricula in Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1980s' (Constant Cases) 1980s Languages 37.6 Mathematics 17.5 Science 7.0 Moral 5.0 Aesthetic Education 9.4 Physical Education 6.2 Hygiene 0.9 Vocational Education 7.7 Other 2.2 *(N= 14-15) 1. Benavot, Aaron and David Kames, "The Curricular Content of Primay Education in Developing Countries," World Bank Staff Working Paper, No. 237, (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1989). - 29 - ANNEX 4 Page 1 of 12 BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BURKINA FASO 1. Science is referred to as Exercices d'Observation in the second year of Cours pr6paratoire (primary school grade 2); this is preceded by Exercices sensoriels (sensory exercises) in grade 1. The second cycle (Cours 6dmentaire - grades 3 and 4) uses the designations Sciences d'Observation and Exercices d'Observation. The same ambiguity appears in the third cycle (Cours moyen - grades 5 and 6). The tables contained in this annex show the goals and objectives pursued in science. TABLE 4.1 GOALS OF SCIENCE TEACHING IN PRIMARY SCHOOL GOAL GRADE 1 2 3 4 5 6 - awaken pupils' senses X - awaken pupils' curiosity about X X elements, processes and problems present in their environment - develop pupils' curiosity about X X elements, processes and problems present in their environment - introduce pupils to the structure of space X - introduce pupils to the structure of time X - let pupils discover some natural phenomena X - familiarize pupils with different elements X of their environment X X X X - let pupils acquire theoretical and practical knowledge of man, animals, plants and other natural phenomena X X X X - let pupils acquire theoretical and practical knowledge about the topics taught - let pupils acquire the habit of trial and X X X X error - introduce pupils to the scientific approach X X X X - familiarize pupils with the "language" of X X X X drawings, diagrams and graphs - 30 - ANNEX 4 Page 2 of 12 2. These goals cover a wide range of learning outcomes. Apart from the classical acquisition of theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge (probably meaning knowledge which can be applied to real life problems, if not skills) is mentioned. Most of the goals refer to learning skills and habits (training of perception and curiosity, discovery, a basic experimental and scientific approach, the use of graphic representations of objects and processes) with the intention of equipping pupils with instruments for use in later life. These goals appear well spread-out across the three cycles. However, the goals for the second and third cycle are almost identical. At this level, no progression is visible. 3. Still more general goals have been stated in the section horaires et instructions of the curriculum documents. They are presented by cycle: First cycle (coursprdparatoire): encourage and develop pupils' spirit of curiosity and inquiry; Second and third cycle (cours 919mentaire et moyen): build up a scientific understanding of the environment in pupils' minds; build up knowledge useful in later life; develop and consolidate communication skills. 4. The general objectives (objectifs g9ndraux) spell out the goals (contents) in more detail (Table 4.2). The objectives of grade 1 are left out since they refer more to the mastery of certain concepts in French than to a genuine introduction to general "scientific" instruments. There are 37 different general objectives in all, many of them are repeated over time, others are just variants (e.g. the reinforcement of knowledge). The overwhelming majority of the objectives refer to the transfer and recall of factual knowledge. According to the verbs used to describe the expected behavior of pupils, about 73% of the objectives imply manipulating simple information, 22% aim at skills or behavioral changes, and 5% at developing awareness and concepts. 5. In the third cycle (Cours moyen), manual work appears among the general objectives, introducing elements of a practical subject into the science curriculum. - 31 - ANNEX 4 Page 3 of 12 TABLE 4.2 GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING BY GRADE OBJECTIVE GRADE 2 3 4 5 6 LET PUPILS X - notice weather changes X X X - notice changes in temperature X - become acquainted with types of housing X - distinguish between various types of furniture X - become acquainted with kitchen equipment X - discover the main local foodstuffs X X X X - become acquainted with transport facilities X - become acquainted with their body X - become acquainted with organs of human body X - reinforce their knowledge of the human body X X - take care of their body X X - apply the rules of hygienic living X X - become acquainted with common diseases X X - reinforce their knowledge of common diseases X - become acquainted with types of animals X X X - reinforce their knowledge of animals X - become acquainted with inorganic matter X X - reinforce their knowledge of inorganic matter X - become acquainted with the states of matter X - become acquainted with crafts and their tools X X - learn to use a common tool or equipment item X - learn the conditions of successful germination X TEACH PUPILS - to recognize different parts of common plants X X - reinforce pupils' knowledge of plants X X INITIATE PUPILS TO - the structuring of the school environment X - the structuring of their village or town X - diagrammatic representations X - basic health care and first aid X X - the idea of child care X - taking care of plants X - manual work X X - farming and animal rearing methods X X - the classification of animals X PROVIDE PUPILS WITH - basic geographical concepts X MAKE PUPILS CONSCIOUS OF - (some) natural phenomena X X X - the usefulness of plants in their environment X X - the importance of food hygiene X X Total number of general objectives stated 11 13 10 12 13 - 32 - ANNEX 4 Page 4 of 12 The content areas of science are: 6. Plain natural phenomena (weather and climate, geography of the immediate surroundings, human habitat and living); the human body, health and hygiene; agriculture; food and nutrition; biology (plants, animals); basic physics and chemistry (different states of matter, solids, liquids, gases); human activities (production, transport). Table 4.3 shows how these topics are distributed over the years. TABLE 4.3 Sequence of Science Topics According to Grade (Periods of Instruction) Grade 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th TOPIC AREA topics/ topics/ topics/ topics/ topics/ weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks - PLAIN NATURAL PHENOMENA - weather & climate 22 8 5 3 7 4 - geography of the immediate 17 5 surroundings - human habitat & living 9 3 2 1 2 1 - THE HUMAN BODY, 4 1 7 5 5 4 25 7 25 7 HEALTH AND HYGIENE - AGRICULTURE - FOOD AND NUTRITION 6 2 2 1.5 3 1.5 2 1.5 - BIOLOGY 2 1.5 6 3 6 4 - plants, - animals 8 5 - BASIC PHYSICS AND 2 1 9 4 10 5 11 5 CHEMISTRY 8 4 6 5 14 5 - different types of matter * solids * liquids 1 1 ** water 9 2 5 2.5 5 1 *gases 2 0.5 2 1 2 0.5 - processes, generalities 2 1 2 0.5 - HUMAN ACTIVITIES 5 2.5 1 0.5 - production 1 0.5 4 2.5 2 1 10 4 - transport 4 1 TOTAL 74 24.0 43 24.0 42 24.0 56 24.0 67 24.0 Lessons per week 3.1 1.8 1.75 2.33 2.79 Weekly teaching time (min) 100 60 60 120 120 Time per topic (min) 32 33 34 51 42 1. The science curriculum is contained in the overall program documents published by school cycle under the headings Programmes CP1 et CP2; Programmes CE1 et CE2; Programmes CM1 et CM2. They have been put into effect since the 1989-90 school year. -33- ANNEX 4 Page 5 of 12 Practical instruction 7. The intended introduction to manual work with an emphasis on farming and animal rearing in fifth and sixth grade appears neither in the syllabus nor in the timetable. At the same time, "productive activities" (activits productives) figure in the primary school curriculum as extra-curricular activities and seem to have led to school gardening work in about half the schools. It is certainly a good idea to try to relate science teaching to ongoing school gardening work, particularly since the science curriculum is geared towards local conditions and takes up the most important local crops and animals. But the topic sequence would seem to prevent any integration of gardening and classroom teaching. 8. This sequence does not permit the study of natural phenomena as they appear throughout the school year, either. The only exception is grade 2 and the very beginning of grades 3 and 4. The science curriculum incorporates, to some degree, a health-and-hygiene curriculum. This aspect is present from the very beginning. It expands both in quality and quantity--I week = 4.2% in grade 2; 5 weeks = 20.8% in grade 3; 4 weeks = 16.7% in grade 4; 7 weeks = 29.2% in grade 5; 7 weeks = 29.2% in grade 6 (see Table 4.3). 9. The curriculum does not emphasize the contribution of science and agriculture. There is little effort to connect the content of agricultural instruction to traditional or modern agricultural practices. Moreover, continuity between the two is also made difficult in part by the language of instruction. Scope and Sequence 10. The sequence across the five years of primary school where science is taught I goes from the concrete to the abstract: observing phenomena in their everyday, natural setting to treating them in an "abstract," discipline-oriented way. Thus, in grade 2, teaching starts with the weather. Climatic phenomena are taken up with each change of seasons and appear three times. Teaching takes advantage of the ongoing harvest, moves over to the school compound, from there to the locality and its immediate surroundings, foodstuff, transportation, and back to the season, its weather and its farming activities. This is a typical Environmental Studies (9tude du milieu) approach. 11. The second cycle (grades 3 and 4) follows a mixed approach. Each year starts again with the weather, with a more generalized treatment in grade 4, but then moves on to a strict sequence of man -> animals -> plants -> inanimate nature. Grade 4 has a lengthy sequence on 2. In the first year, science is replaced by exercises sensoriels. Basic concepts of space, time, quality, and relations as expressed in French are taught and practiced. In the second year, this is replaced by exercises d'observafion, taking up concrete phenomena of the pupils' immediate surmundings instead of abstract notions of "before, after, left, right, above, below," the primary colors, etc. - 34 - ANNEX 4 Page 6 of 12 foodstuffs, followed by discussion of the human digestive apparatus, before moving on to animals. The two years close with topics on work--farmers and craftsmen and their tools. 12. Throughout the third cycle (grades 5 and 6), a rather strict discipline and domain-oriented approach is applied. What is more, the traditional "realms" of natural science in their old hierarchical order, already visible in the second cycle, provide the structure of the two school years: starting with human beings, the curriculum proceeds to animals, then to plants, and ends with the inanimate world. Grade 5, and even more so grade 6, attempt to go beyond mere lists and descriptions by teaching concepts and principals (e.g. the water cycle, atmospheric pressure, soil composition, combustion, oxidation, the effect of chlorophyll) The curriculum is a spiral curriculum. Not only are most of the topic areas treated every year, the same topics turn up several times. Table 4.4 provides an overview. TABLE 4.4 SINGLE TOPICS COVERED IN PRIMARY SCIENCE BY GRADE TOPIC GRADE Metal (objects) x x x x x Water xxxxx Nutrition (general) x x x x x The sense organs x x xx Digestive organs x x x Mouth and teeth x x Skeleton, muscles x x Articulations x x Respiratory system x x Blood circulation x x Thermometer x x x Cereal crops x x x Grains xxx Sugar xxx Kerosene x x x Bacteria, diseases x x x Horse xxx x Chicken xxx Carp x x x Frog x xx Dog x x Cattle x x Snakes x x Pork x x Salt x x Soap xx - 35 - ANNEX 4 Page 7 of 12 13. While it is certainly justified to repeat important topics at least once during primary school, it might be quite difficult to treat the same topic three to five times in such a way as to avoid mere repetition and really deepen the subject. 14. By and large, there is an attempt at applying science to familiar situations and problems. The most consistent field of application is hygiene and health. Furthermore, practically all the plants studied are crops grown somewhere in Burkina Faso. Thus, there is an immediate link to the pupils' reality although the curriculum documents do not show how far farming methods and the use of the plant products are supposed to be discussed. Practical application is less obvious with regard to animals. However, all of them are familiar to the children. For both plants and animals, the syllabus often offers alternatives so that teaching can be adapted to local conditions. 15. The curricula in language take up similar topics. This offers an opportunity for integrated teaching across subjects. The following table shows, for the three cycles, which topics are taken up in pupils' readers. TABLE 4.5 SCIENCE TOPICS TREATED IN READERS ACCORDING TO CYCLES TOPIC AREA 1. CYCLE 2. CYCLE 3. CYCLE FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY PLAIN NATURAL PHENOMENA - weather and climate, 4 4 7 - geography of the immediate 6 1 surroundings - human habitat and living 1 2 1 THE HUMAN BODY, HEALTH 4 2 1 HYGIENE, 1 2 1 AGRICULTURE, 5 3 8 FOOD AND NUTRITION 1 1 BIOLOGY - plants, 1 2 - animals 13 3 14 BASIC PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY - different states of matter * solids * liquids ** water 1 * gases 1 - processes, generalities 1 HUMAN ACTIVITIES - production 9 6 9 - transport 3 6 6 I _TOTAL 49 32 49 - 36 - ANNEX 4 Page 8 of 12 16. The readers feature ecological topics already in grade 2, e.g. on bush fire. Grade 3 treats topics such as improved stoves, trees, and water. Drought and hunger are mentioned in grade 5. By and large, the readers are more modem in outlook than the science curriculum. They are much better in line with the seasons than most of the science syllabus. Any temporal coincidence comes up purely by chance. Thus, a potentially important way to reinforce learning across subject borders is not put to profitable use. Teachers are said to be relatively free in choosing their topics. However, the fact that the curriculum documents allocate the topics to specific weeks will most probably mean to most teachers that they are supposed to cover every topic at about the time specified in the syllabus. Design 17. The science curriculum has been elaborated by members of the Institutp6dagogique du Burkina (I.P.B.). The unit in charge is the Department for Methods, Programs, and Evaluation (Service des m6thodes, des programmes et de lW'valuation - S.M.P.E) in the Division of Studies, Curriculum, and Educational Evaluation (Direction des 9tudes, des programmes et de lW'valuation p9dagogique - D.E.P.E.P.). No individual authors are mentioned. Instructional Materials 18. The following teaching materials are suggested for science teaching: TABLE 4.6 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR SCIENCE IN PRIMARY SCHOOL BY GRADE GRADE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS _RMARKS 1 (CP1) Exercices sensoriels (teacher's guide) Seen 2 (CP2) Exercices d'observation Not avail. 3 (CE1) Sciences d'observation (I.P.A.M.) Seen 4 (CE2) " "f 5 (CM1) Sciences d'observation (I.P.A.M.) Seen 6 (CM2) "f " f "_____ 19. The teacher's guide for grade 1 gives very detailed instructions, lesson by lesson, on how to develop the basic concepts. The pupils' book for grade 3 was developed in the late sixties/ early seventies. It is very appealing to both pupils and teachers, with colored illustrations, simple diagrams, and short, precise texts. In 1990, a science book for the second cycle was being elaborated by the national curriculum institute I.P.B. - 37 - ANNEX 4 Page 9 of 12 Teachine Methods 20. The curriculum documents are not very explicit about teaching methods. They provide a certain number of instructions which tend to vary from one cycle to the other: First cycle (Cours prd4paratoire): provide ample exercise to all the pupils' senses, their intelligence, and communicative capacity; use appropriate and variegated materials for learning by manipulation. Second cycle (Cours lementaire): grade the lessons, adapting them to pupils' level of understanding--have pupils observe and participate actively; relate all the lessons to pupils' environment; establish a close cooperation between pupils and their environment during teaching and practical work; never teach a lesson without teaching aids. Third cycle (Cours moyen): establish a close cooperation between pupils and their environment during teaching and practical work. 21. Apart from this, general lesson plans are given. The plan for grade 1 puts considerable emphasis on pupils doing practical exercises and playing with certain materials in order to learn the concepts of space, time, and quality by practicing their application. The lesson plans for grades 2 to 6 are identical: I. Lesson topic II. Lesson title III. Operational objectives IV. Teaching aids: - collective - individual V. Work organization: 1 - Revision 2 - Motivation 3 - Free observation 4 - Guided observation, practical exercises 5 - Assessment 6 - Summary 7 - Practical application - 38 - ANNEX 4 Page 10 of 12 22. Instructions for the third cycle are particularly insistent on active participation of pupils in discussions, experiments and generalizations of findings. It is here that the survey as a special teaching/learning method is mentioned. However, it is not explained. Rather, a plan is suggested which is a variant of the above lesson plan where points V.3 and V.4 are replaced with: V. 3 - Survey: a) justification of the survey b) survey preparation questionnaire writing group formation and task assignment c) execution of the survey d) survey analysis Language of instruction 23. As for all other subjects, the language of instruction is French. Documents available do not show any evidence that help is provided to make sure that the many technical terms needed in biology, health and hygiene, agriculture, basic physics and chemistry will be properly associated with the terms used in the pupils' mother tongue. This is all the more surprising as most objects and processes treated are taken from the pupils' environment. Thus, they will have definite names so that at this level exact translations are possible.' An important opportunity for reducing comprehension errors is left unused. The science examination (CEP) 24. The science examination consists of a required question and an optional one in which pupils can choose between agriculture and home economics as fields of applied science. The following questions were given to pupils in the last three years (see Annex 7 for details on the CEP exam). (1) Common questions YEAR QUESTION 1988 What is drinking water? What are its qualities? How can one make water drinkable? What is the name of the insect which transmits malaria? How to prevent this disease? 3. This is not the case with the scientific terminology used to denote elements like parts of a plant, anatomical elements, etc. - 39 - ANNEX 4 Page 11 of 12 YEAR QUESTION 1989 Which organs of the human body clean the blood? Name two skin parasites. Draw a diagram of an egg and indicate its main parts. 1990 What is the difference between air breathed in and air breathed out? Draw a diagram of the respiratory apparatus and indicate its different parts. Name 3 respiratory diseases. 2) Questions on agriculture YEAR QUESTION 1988 What is dung, compost, green manure, chemical fertilizer? Draw a diagram of a bean with its different parts 1989 What is good soil made of? Why does one graft certain trees? Name the different types of grafting you know. YEAR QUESTION 1990 Name 2 plants with edible roots. How can man use plant leaves? How many different ways of sowing do you know? Which one would you recommend to a farmer? (3) Questions on domestic science YEAR QUESTION 1988 What is the basic outfit (layette) for a baby, and what does it consist of? How to care for a newborn baby? 1989 Which vaccinations does a newborn baby need? Baby has diarrhea. What to do? 1990 What is meant by antenatal visits? Why should a future mother go for antenatal visits? What are the signs of good health in a baby? 25. The questions appear relatively straightforward. Most of them are applied to practical problems related to pupils' everyday experience. However, most of them are simple recall. They ask for definitions, the names of certain items, and item lists. Others ask for rules to be followed in order to solve a given problem. Still others ask for specific differences between two phenomena. Drawing diagrams figures in each of the three sets of questions examined. In rare instances, reasons for certain practices are elicited or individual reasoning is expected. The following is a summary of the type of responses expected by the examination papers. - 40 - ANNEX 4 Page 12 of 12 Examination questions in science 1988-1990: Type of response elicited and frequency RECALL: - definitions - 4 - name of an item - 3 - item list - 10 - reasons - 2 - specific differences - 1 SUBTOTAL RECALL - 20 RULES - 4 DIAGRAM DRAWING - 3 INDIVIDUAL REASONING - 1 SUBTOTAL OTHERS - 8 - 41 - ANNEX 5 Page 1 of 11 BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK. SAMPLE SIZE. DESIGN, METHODS AND ANALYSES OF THE SECTOR STUDY Analytical framework 1. There is a growing consensus within the research community that improvements in the quality of education are possible only to the extent that reliable information about student learning exists. This sector study, by focusing on a range of issues related to the actual content of the teaching/learning situation, seeks to address a key facet of the educational process about which little information exists. The study suggests that the curriculum itself is a resource which can serve either to impose unnecessary limitations on learning, or conversely, to generate new learning with gains in efficiency, quality and access. The study also seeks to address the issue of implementation and presents a case for developing appropriate instruments for assessing the outcomes of schooling in order to improve learning. To this end the analysis includes a national experiment in learning assessment and presents qualitative, diagnostic information on the degree to which pupils actually master the 3R's and science at three grade levels. Scope and content of the sector study 2. The scope of the sector study can be delineated through several questions. What are pupils learning throughout primary school and how well are they educated upon leaving primary school? To what extent do learning outcomes reflect objectives of basic education and national goals for human resource development? What is the relevance of the curriculum to Burkina Faso's diverse population and individual aspirations? To what extent do key content issues (e.g. in the curriculum, assessment and selection procedures, learning outcomes, teacher behavior, learning atmosphere) influence learning opportunities and outcomes? 3. The study includes (a) an analytical review of the current primary education curriculum, its objectives and content, (b) a content analysis of pupil assessment procedures and teacher and support staff training, and (c) a diagnostic assessment of learning outcomes in language arts, mathematics and science for approximately 6,000 students in first, third and sixth grades in 24 schools in eight provinces of Burkina Faso. The assessments focus on teaching outcomes and the adequacy of the learning environment to support the instructional system. 4. Classroom observations and interviews provide information on schools, teachers and students including the following aspects: the availability of textbooks and other instructional materials; teacher supervision; the social conditions of teaching and learning; the opportunities for learning curricular content; progression among grades; the content of the CEP examination and its influence on the education process; the experience, qualification and attitudes of teachers (see Technical Annexes A and B for methods used, results and analyses). - 42 - ANNEX 5 Page 2 of 11 Design 5. The study is cross-sectional rather than longitudinal in design and as such cannot, of course, yield any information about the stability over time of the effects observed at the classroom level. Nevertheless, the assessments permit an initial diagnosis of curriculum implementation and outcomes and can serve as a baseline for further assessments. As a complement to measuring school and pupil performance, data on non-enrollment, repetition and dropping out of school were collected from group interviews with teachers, parents and pupils. Sample size, coverage and selection procedure 6. The study comprises 24 schools in eight provinces in order to represent the schooling conditions in the country. Seven schools are located in urban centers, seven in semi-urban and ten in rural areas. The sample was chosen by selecting a sub-sample of 20 schools in the IREDU/DEP study, including its background information, such as school, community and parental characteristics. The IREDU/DEP study focused on second grade classes in approximately 60 schools across the country with the exception of the northern provinces. The sector study added four schools in the northern Sahel provinces (Oudalan and S6no), in order to collect information relevant to the Sahelian context. This sample includes three grades (CP1, CE1, CM2). It is stratified according to urban, semi-urban and rural classes and teacher qualification. The schools contained the full six grades of the primary level, as well as multigrade classes. 7. None of the schools in this sample has more than one shift. However, rural schools have several two grade classes (CE1 and CE2, CM1 and CM2). Overall, the schools present more similarities than differences. Less than half the classrooms have acceptable conditions. The others lack basic comforts, such as sufficient natural light and aeration. Over 90% of the schools are built out of concrete, almost 80% have cantines, about 70% have amenities such as toilets and a water supply and no classrooms have electricity. 8. The sample includes 175 pupils in CP1 ranging in age from five to 10 years. Over 77% are seven and eight years old. Twenty-eight pupils are repeaters (16%). The CE1 sample includes about 3,000 pupils ranging in age from eight to 12, of which 13.8% are repeaters. The CM2 sample includes about 3,000 pupils ranging in age from 11 to 15 years old. Over 51% are repeaters. 9. Class size varies from 16 to 122 pupils. Teachers' initial education ranges from a BEPC (66%) to terminale without the baccalaurdat (13%). Over 52% of teachers have no formal initial training. Urban schools have larger and more crowded classrooms, with seats available for only about 90 pupils. Most classrooms are clean, with blackboards but no other classroom materials such as maps, globes, or measurement tools. Only a few walls display the pupils' work. The proportion of books in the classroom varies from 6 to 94%. Over 60% of teachers have language and reading guides, but no science guide. 10. A total of 228 mathematics, French and science lessons were observed in 71 classes. About 4,800 collective test instruments and about 700 individual test instruments were analyzed. Seventy-eight teachers and 24 directors were interviewed individually. The group interviews concerned about 500 parents, 86 teachers, and 300 out-of-school youths. - 43 - ANNEX 5 Page 3 of 11 Diagnostic learning assessments in the sector study 11. The specific purpose of the diagnostic tests is to determine how well the stated objectives of the French, mathematics and science programs are mastered. The tests are designed not only to consider expected learning outcomes but also materials (textbooks, guides) used in the classroom. The tests prepared for the CP1, CE1, and CM2 grades have been rigorously designed, taking into account the instructions and contents of the programs produced by the IPB (programs, textbooks and teachers' guides). A complete report of the test results and analyses is presented in Technical Annex B of the sector study. Data collection and analyses 12. The information was gathered from a representative sample of schools and pupils stratified in such a way that the data reflect the overall situation in the country. The analytical framework for diagnostic assessments is presented below. The data on which much of this report is based were collected in Burkina Faso between February and May 1991. Data collection involved policy-related Ministry personnel, nine headmasters and national university faculty. Three teams of five researchers each collected the data according to a pre-established plan, involving two-day visits to the schools included in the sample. Technical Annexes A and B provide details on these aspects. 13. Learning assessments, interviewing, and observing took place in three classes (CP1, CE1, and CM2) per school. Questionnaires were used to describe the daily school experiences and the context within which teaching and learning occur as viewed by the teachers, former pupils, parents, and researchers. 14. Individual information on schooling, teachers and principals has been collected through questionnaires completed by teachers and school directors. School and class questionnaires were also completed. Group interviews with teachers, parents and out-of-school youths took place. The information generated through individual and group interviews also lends itself to further analysis, e.g., social analysis and girls' educational achievement. Collective and individual test instruments 15. Diagnostic tests require a large number of items. At the same time, the information they provide is much more useful because they permit the direct observation of pupil behavior. Diagnostic assessments have been designed for three grades in language (French), mathematics and science. In grades CE1 and CE2 a combination of collective and individual tests was designed. Questions are directly related to the language themes included in the program and the teacher's guide. The subject matters were exclusively chosen from the first theme studied during the year. Therefore all the structures and vocabulary represent subject matter that was actually presented. -44- ANNEX 5 Page 4 of 11 16. The tests were administered by pedagogical advisers following initial training and instructions. Data collection followed this procedure: in each sample school, all students of these two grades took the collective test. Moreover, approximately five pupils from these same classes took an individual test. In grade CP1, tests were conducted on a random sampling of about 10 booklets per class, due to the difficulties of administering written collective tests at that early level. 17. During pre-testing the items were checked for their validity. A code book was elaborated and adjusted following data collection. Marking was done according to guidelines and was checked for inter-rater reliability. The statistical frequencies obtained during data coding and entry generally showed a nearly perfect internal validity of the items indicating that they measured the same capacity. 18. The information generated is of two kinds: overall learning outcomes (aggregate data) and individual item-response information which provides insight into the difficulties pupils are having answering the questions. 19. In view of the objectives of this study, the results obtained concern, first, the effectiveness of the program in terms of its objectives and the actual amount of pupil learning and, second, a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the content of school experiences that contribute to learning. The classroom observations, individual teacher interviews and group interviews provide qualitative and quantitative information on school conditions, processes and learning, as well as on public demand for education, and reasons for dropping out of school or never attending school. Individual interviews focus on teacher motivation, training, performance, and perceptions on schooling and the new programs. 20. These analyses allow one to estimate (1) the internal relevance of the curriculum to the stated objectives of primary education and the degree to which pupils master the content of the curriculum and basic skills, and (2) the present and future relationship between the content of education and gains in learning, efficiency, quality and access. Baseline data collection 21. Due to the volume of data collected, only preliminary analyses have been performed to date. Group and individual interviews have been manually coded with the help of headmasters (CPI) from ENEP who served as researchers. Spreadsheets were used to record responses and schools involved. A first content analysis was conducted in view of the study's objectives. The data could be treated statistically after data entry and correlated with the other data sets, such as the learning assessments. 22. The same headmasters coded the classroom observation data and diagnostic learning assessments. The various test instruments were corrected by 11 teachers from Ouagadougou who were assisted by 34 university students. Data entry using SPSS software was organized and supervised by the national consultants and the statistician hired for this purpose. More in-depth analyses of these data sets were conducted by the international team and its national counterparts. - 45 - ANNEX 5 Page 5 of 11 23. These various data sets can be further analyzed through statistical treatment. This would allow for the identification and study of the differences by region, by pedagogical materials and also by individual teacher performance. However, deontological discretion is advised, especially since diagnostic assessments are only justified for methodological reasons and are meant to assess the internal relevance of schooling and pedagogical gains of the system and program (through item behavior). The results should be used for improving curriculum development and implementation as well as the content of teacher training. Where are the baseline data? 24. The mathematics, French and science tests and classroom observations data are entered on three diskettes and accessible through data entry of SPSS. Group and individual interview data are coded manually on a set of about 20 spreadsheets. All handwritten (in French), completed questionnaires, classroom observation guides and original test instruments are also available. Thirteen in-depth consultant reports have been produced in view of the objectives of the study. These baseline data are available at the Ministry of Basic Education and Mass Literacy (MEBAM) (see bibliographical references). Thus, the study provides a baseline and reference for the design of future policies and against which implementation and/or further assessments may be measured. Consequently, et could thus serve as the initial version of a continually updated guide for managing activities in the sector, for supporting and assessing such activities, and for identifying investment needs. Analytical framework for the learning assessments in the sector study 25. A review of educational assessment studies shows how the choices made in defining the indicators affect the findings with respect to the extent and quality of learning. In the sector study, diagnostic assessments were used instead of achievement tests for reasons outlined in the following paragraphs. Definition and methodological issues 26. Measuring student competency: In theory, the performance of an education system corresponds to the more or less great distance that separates the observed competencies from the expected competencies that are defined in the aims, goals, and objectives of programs and official guidelines. The methodological problems that such an evaluation entails are, however, considerable even in a system that is as strongly centralized as Burkina Faso's. 27. What are the expected competencies? Among the major difficulties is the concrete definition of learning goals. Most often programs limit themselves to subject inventories and some vaguely stated objectives that describe very imperfectly what the majority of students should be able to do with what they have learned. The new programs introduced in Burkina Faso in 1990 suffer from the same imprecision. In many cases, teachers refer not to the program but to the teachers' guides, which are sometimes outdated, that they have at their disposal. This means that if one wants to estimate in a relatively valid way the real effectiveness of education, it is essential to verify what program has been under consideration and what types of exercises were given relative to the subject -46- ANNEX 5 Page 6 of 11 matter learned. The tests elaborated for this study take into consideration, to the extent possible, what has been taught and what instructional materials have been utilized. 28. What test instruments should be used? Research on achievement testing has pointed out the need to better understand what tests actually measure. It is agreed that the techniques for the development of test instruments which are most appropriate for assessing diagnostically the relative degree of mastery of the different disciplines called for in the programs are insufficient and of little value. To date results of national tests were and are used as indicators of schooling outcomes. It is easy to demonstrate that these exams or concours, which resemble the classic achievement tests, cannot serve as diagnostic tools. 29. Technically, tests are conceptualized in such a way that they maximize the differences among overall performances. This means that the items are chosen because of the weak correlation of each with, the overall success of the test. This procedure attempts to increase the discriminatory power of the test as a whole. But it also reduces the validity of the content. They are useful for selection purposes of school populations. Inversely they are incapable of revealing the pedagogical impact of the teaching process in any specific way. For example, they cannot identify the areas of the program that are collectively well or poorly mastered. The Certificat d'9tudesprimaires (CEP) assumes this function. 30. Because the criterion-referenced tests are curriculum-based, they can serve as a basis for further learning assessments (performance assessments of the sector). Estimations of pedagogical effectiveness seen in the difference between expected and observed learning results allow one to develop working hypotheses about the factors responsible for these discordances and to propose avenues for possible reorientation and associated policy recommendations. 31. Much research on learning gains has been conducted to guide educational policy decisions. Such research is often guided by the assumption that without additional resources reaching the sector, any expansion in enrollment coverage and quality improvement must rely on establishing priorities in the allocation and use of currently available funds. While this research has produced impressive results, one often ignores what is being measured and what constitutes learning gains. Two different approaches to assessing learning gains 32. The primary concern of the IREDU/DEP study (1990) is to identify the influence of different factors of school organization on pupil learning outcomes in second grade (CP2). The objective is to attempt to detect, by means of a multi-variable analysis, the positive or negative influence that different causes of variation may have on effects of schooling. For the authors "what is useful either from the perspective of understanding the examined mechanisms or from the perspective of educational policy, is to find out what the gains are in terms of learning, moving from a certified teacher to one who has a high school diploma, or what one loses if pupils are schooled in a class of 30 students rather than a class of 50." The quantitative and qualitative criterion of reference is the increase of achievements within two moments of evaluation: initial and final testing. - 47 - ANNEX 5 Page 7 of 11 The two approaches serve parallel but not identical investigations 33. The originality of the approach adopted in the sector study in 1991 is to substitute for the indicator "increase in achievements"-the difference between the stated objectives of schooling and the observed pupil performance. The two approaches are not mutually exclusive; they are complementary. They serve parallel but not identical investigations. Studies, like the IREDU study, often seek to determine favorable conditions for learning "as such." In contrast, the sector study seeks to assess the relevance of the means applied to reach defined objectives--to learn the content of the primary education program at different grade levels. In this sense it constitutes a diagnostic means of appreciating the relative degree of attainment of expected learning outcomes. The difference in point of view is important. In one case the indicator consists of pupil performance scores. In the second case, the analysis focuses on the relative quantitative and qualitative degree of task mastery and is translated by indices of item difficulty. From a methodological perspective, the standardized tests that are developed for this type of assessment are also different. In the first case one uses selective tests that are useful for adding up grades (summative notation) relative to different activities. In the second case, diagnostic instruments are needed that allow one to compare the relative degree of mastery of the different content areas of the program. 34. This difference in approach explains why the tests used in the IREDU study are not closely linked to the program and have little curricular validity. The initial test is an intelligence test, which is mostly verbal in nature, and the final test, obviously more pedagogical, is not very formal and is primarily intended to show the pupils' ability to "transfer" knowledge. The proposed exercises are rarely linked to habitual didactic operations. They require the understanding of a statement (eventually translated into a language more familiar to children than French) and, more often, a deduction from knowledge acquired in school. In reality, if questions in reading, grammar and basic arithmetic ask for contents included in the program, the items are very few and cover a very small sample of the subject matter. By contrast a diagnostic test seeks to explore the greatest number of possible facets of the program by means of a set of tasks that are like those already encountered to ones having the same aims but under new forms. Moreover, diagnostic testing is more sensitive to the quality of item construction whose specific validity must be considered. Using evaluations to improve learning 35. The kind of questions to ask in creating a contextualized assessment: What do we want pupils to learn? What kinds of experience do we think would be most appropriate for them to learn from? What do we want to find out about what pupils have learned? What do we want pupils to find out about what they have learned and how they are learning? How would we know that pupils are learning what we want them to learn? - 48 - ANNEX 5 Page 8 of 11 Why focus on diagnostic learning assessment? 36. In the current management of an education system diagnostic tests are conceptualized on the basis of the distinction between threshold-competencies and target-competencies. The two types of competencies are evidently established relative to the aims and goals assigned to the level of education under consideration. For an educational system in which the distinctions between threshold-competencies and target-competencies are not established a priori, diagnostic tests inform policymakers of the "actual state" of the different competencies observed on the basis of the actual program guidelines, working conditions, etc. On the basis of the observed results, it is possible to make decisions corresponding to the chosen priorities. The different tests described here have been elaborated in order to permit this type of analysis. Sampling of test items 37. Another important problem linked to the conceptualization of instruments for assessing the effectiveness of schooling is that the criterion-referenced tests require many more items than are required by non-referenced tests. In order to augment the fidelity and validity of these instruments, it is important to investigate the degree of difficulty with the help of several parallel items. Because of the cost, volume of work and the population concerned, this sort of approach should be limited to a well-defined sample. From a diagnostic perspective it is not necessary to have results for all students (see section on statistical considerations, beginning with par. 47). What is essential is to collect meaningful data for each item and combination of items from samples of schools, classes and students. 38. Two distinct samples are necessary: one to determine the education levels which will be the object of a diagnostic evaluation; the other to determine the schools from which the results will be taken. Samples of grade levels 39. A study relative to the quality of the outcome of primary education could be realized for each year of schooling. However, due to the effort that is required for this type of investigation, it is evident that it is more advantageous to proceed by sampling. An assessment based only on the final year is insufficient, because it would be impossible to situate the moment at which possible learning difficulties might be observed. 40. In general, investigating at two moments is recommended: at mid-level (third year) and at the end of the cycle. In the present sector study it was decided to administer diagnostic tests at three grade levels, since no other tests of comparable nature were available at the time to address content issues in primary education: - sixth grade (CM2), because it is the final grade and comparison can be made with the tests of the CEP exam for the same students; - 49 - ANNEX 5 Page 9 of 11 - third grade (CE1), because it is the mid-level and the same students were tested in 1990 (in CP2) in the context of the IREDU study; - first grade (CP1), because of the particular situation regarding the language of instruction in Burkina, which is French. Urban/rural and male/female samples were approximately the same. Grading--assessment of aptitudes and attitudes 41. Even using achievement tests, an assessment of the effectiveness of schooling must go beyond the quantitative aspect. It is important not only to diagnose aptitudes but also attitudes, that is, qualitative aspects of learning: What learning behavior do the students manifest? Do they tend to shy away from answering rather than risk making a mistake? Or, inversely, do they tend to respond even if they do not know? Do they strive to give complete, rigorous answers? 42. The tests were constructed in such a way that each item lends itself to complementary appreciations. The correction keys provide several conventional markings. The answer is marked: +: if it is complete and perfect i : if it contains no error but is not complete e : if it contains correct and incorrect aspects if it is entirely false o : if it is missing These different notations provide distinctive scores: 43. Several notation combinations permit the determination of individual and collective attitude profiles. Moreover, particularly at the first grade level, special abbreviations make it possible to distinguish between responses obtained from guidelines (consignes) given in French, with or without help, or from recourse in a mother tongue. Analyses and statistical treatment 44. The analyses were qualitative and quantitative, including the analyses of statistical information about the mastery levels in the core subjects. The descriptions of classroom teaching and - 50 - ANNEX 5 Page 10 of 11 the learning environment helped to elaborate and clarify the patterns found in these data. Attempts were made to link the findings to results of other research. 45. In contrast to achievement tests, diagnostic assessments are not meant to account for the results of the most able students. They are meant to provide information relative to the internal relevance of the education system to those responsible for training, and particularly with respect to the level of collective mastery of the subjects and their application. Technically, these tests are conceptualized so as to unite three sets of items: (1) items relative to subjects perfectly mastered by a large majority of students (percentage of success statistically assimilated to 100%); (2) items relative to subjects or competencies a great number of students cannot answer (percentage of success statistically assimilated to 0%); and (3) items that provide percentages of success statistically assimilated to 50%. 47. Among the latter the analysis permits distinguishing: (a) between sets of tasks that are highly correlated and that consequently call upon "neighboring" (related) competencies; and (b) independent items that are difficult to interpret (due to a lack of other tasks of the same nature). 46. "Families" of correlated significant tasks that become evident are in reality collections of questions that result in systematic differentiation, at the level of one or several classes, between a sub-group of students or "superior" classes and a sub-group "in difficulty." This situation comes about when the teacher does not assure, in due time, remedial exercises that are indispensable for less able students. Limitations 47. Statistical treatment of the results: In a multi-level model of school effectiveness, M. E. Lockheed and N. T. Longford' show that when comparing school efficiency in developing countries, the most important statistical problem is to be able to use appropriate methods for a multi- variate analysis. In this respect, the model suggested by the authors produces more precise results that clearly compare with the classic techniques of calculating a regression analysis. 48. Nonetheless, before considering whether more rigorous models can be appropriately applied to given data, one must first determine if it can be treated this way. In the majority of cases 4. Lockheed, M.E. and T. Longford. "A Multi-level Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country." World Bank Staff Working Paper, No. WBP 242. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, July 1989. - 51 - ANNEX 5 Page 11 of 11 mentioned in this study, the analysis of items comprising the evaluation tests is quite limited. For example, many items show extremely low success rates in the selective tests. Consequently, these items are artificially correlated and hence the regressions established are clearly and inevitably full of errors, mostly overestimations. 49. This risk is even greater in analyzing the diagnostic tests in which, by construction, many items show a very high success rate. Therefore they are obligatorily correlated without necessarily showing any stochastic links. As a consequence, before a pluridimensional model of analysis is used, the items must first be organized by category (close to 100% success, close to 0% and assimilated more or less to 50%); then the correlation item-test must be determined for each item of the 50% category. Only then can the regression be calculated. 50. Data collection at the classroom level had to be systematized. The limitation of this approach is that it may direct attention to certain factors and exclude others. As a partial check on this problem, headmasters who served as researchers, had been briefly trained in evaluation and observation skills by other team members. During the training period, researchers' observations in the same classrooms were compared to ensure that they defined the general indicators in reasonably similar ways. Subsequently, ranking by the researchers on a number of indicators of pupil performance were checked for inter-rater reliability. They were fairly accurate. For a more detailed account of the methods used in this study see Technical Annexes A and B of this report. - 52 - ANNEX 6 Page 1 of 1 BURKINA FASO AN ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION CERTIFICATD'ETUDES PRIMAIRES (CEP) GUIDELINES AND ORGANIZATION DISCIPLINE DURATION GRADE COEFFICIENT TOTAL (BASED ON) FRENCH - Dictation 20-30 mn. 10 1 maximum - Questions - presentation 45 mn. 20 (+) 10 3 - Composition 1h 10 1 (5) MATHEMATICS - Operations 30 mn. 20 2 - Problems 45 mn 20 2 (4) HISTORY - GEOGRAPHY 45 mn 20 2 SCIENCE 45mn 20 2 (4) PHYSICAL EDUCATION - 10 1 DRAWING - ARTS & CRAFTS 45 mn 5 0.5 (2) RECITATION - SINGING - 5 0.5 READING 10 1 (1) TOTAL CEP 160 16 (16) - 53 - BURKINA FASO SECTOR STUDY OF THE QUALITY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION DOCUMENTS IN THE SECTOR FILE Bergmann, Herbert. 1991. (1) Report on Content Issues in Primary Education: The Science Curriculum in Primary Schools in Burkina Faso. (2) Structure du programme de l'école primaire au Burkina Faso 1991. (3) Compte rendu analytique des résultats des entretiens de groupe. Jessua, Claude. 1991. Rapport préliminaire sur la qualité de l'enseignement primaire au Burkina Faso: Cadre théorique du questionnaire destiné aux instituteurs, du guide et des fiches d'observation des leçons. Kouraogo, Pierre. 1991. (1) Analyse du processus de mise en oeuvre du programme scolaire du premier degré.(2) Analyse du système d'évaluation et d'examen. (3) Réflexions sur les classes multigrades et à double flux. Sawadogo, Christophe. 1991. (1) Analyse comparative et critique du système d'encadrement pédagogique des enseignants. (2) Analyse des finalités et du contenu de l'enseignement primaire au Burkina Faso. (3) Evaluation comparée et critique des tentatives de recherches sur l'enseignement primaire. Tankoano-Karaga, Alice. 1991. Aspects sociologiques et socio-pédagogiques de l'étude sectorielle sur la qualité de l'enseignement primaire au Burkina Faso. Vandevelde, Louis. 1991. (1) Composante tests diagnostiques: Estimation de la qualité de l'enseignement à travers les compétences scolaires acquises. Application au système éducatif Burkinabé. Rapports CP1, CE), CM2. (2) Structure et contenu du programme de l'enseignement primaire. Test Instruments and Questionnaires (1991) Codebook (Clés de Correction) R. Prouty (1991) Aide-Mémoire (March 4, 1991) Issues Paper (January 15, 1991) Observations sur le projet de termes de référence de l'étude sectorielle sur la qualité de l'enseignement primaire au Burkina Faso (November, 1990) Aide-mémoire et Avant projet (November, 1990) Task Brief (October, 1990) Technical Annex A: Theoretical Framework and Research Instruments Technical Annex B: Diagnostic Assessment of Learning Outcomes - 54 - BIBLIOGRAPHY (This bibliography provides an extensive list of documents and publications consulted during the preparation of this study. Most of these are not directly referred to in the present volume). Burkina Faso. 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