Malawi - Education sector survey

Report No. 1781 -MAI F"ILE COPY Malawi Education Sector Survey February 23, 1978 Education Projects Division Eastern Africa Regional Office FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Document of the World Bank This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.  CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS US$1 = 0.91 Kwacha (MK) MK1 = US$1.10 FISCAL YEAR April 1 - March 1  FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY MALAWI EDUCATION SECTOR SURVEY Table of Contents Page No. BASIC DATA GLOSSARY SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................... i-vi I. INTRODUCTION .......................1....................... The Setting ..................... 2 II. DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCES ........................... 3 The Economy ...................................... 3 Development Objectives ................................... . 4 Manpower Requirements ..................................... 8 Manpower Supply ..................... ...................... 11 III. EVALUATION OF THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM .... ....... 14 General ......................... .......................... 14 Quality of Education ................. .. ................... 14 Internal Efficiency ................. .. .................... 19 Distribution of Educational Opportunity ................... 19 Constraints ....................... ........................ 22 IV. GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PLANS ............................. 22 Policy and Programs ...... ............. .................... 22 Financial Implications ............. ...... ................. 24 Issues and Recommendations .............. .. ................ 27 V. OUTLINE OF AN INVESTMENT PROGRAM .......................... 28 This report is based on the findings of a mission in June/July 1977 to Malawi composed of Mr. R.D. Loken (educator), Mrs. S. M. Asher (education planner) and Mr. M. Wodajo (educator) of the Bank, Mr. R. Lesire (agricultural education specialist) of FAO and Mr. R. Harris (technical education specialist) of Unesco. This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.  Table of Contents (Cont'd) APPENDICES: I - Formal Education and Training System Annex 1: Staff Training College - Background Information Annex 2: Ministry of Education, Capital and Recurrent Expenditure (Gross), 1971/72-1977/78 Annex 3: Ministry of Education, Percentage Distribution of Capital and Recurrent Expenditure, 1971/72-1977/78 Annex 4: University of Malawi, Draft Estimates 1977/78 - Memorandum of Full Cost of Colleges Both Actual and Theoretical Annex 5: University of Malawi, Draft Estimates 1977/78 - Analysis of Major Categories of Expenditure Annex 6: University of Malawi, Academic Salary Scales in Kwacha Per Year Chart 1: Education Structure, World Bank No. 17665 Chart 2: Ministry of Education: Administrative Structure Map: Ministry of Education - Post-Primary Institutions, World Bank No. 13197 II - Agricultural Education and Training Annex 1: Present Staffing and Output of Agriculture Institutions Map 1: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Stations, World Bank No. 13195 Map 2: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Farmer Training Centres, World Bank No. 13196 III - Technical Education and Training Annex 1: Primary School Curriculum Annex 2: Secondary School Curriculum - Periods per Week Annex 3: Secondary School Forms I-IV - Government and Assisted Schools Only Present Stock and Project Requirements of Technical and Home Economics Teachers for IDA Project Schools Projects I, II, and the 15 schools proposed for Project III Annex 4: Courses Offered by the Polytechnic Annex 5: The Polytechnic - Academic Staff Situation - 1977 Annex 6: Ministry of Works and Supplies - Staff Position Grouped to Indicate Training Levels Required Annex 7: Schools and Centers Providing Apprenticeship Trade Training Annex 8: Estimated Student Flow (Boys) at Critical Points Annex 9: Estimated Student Flow (Girls) at Critical Points Annex 10: Training Programs Within Other Ministries and Agencies Chart 1: Structure of Technician Courses, World Bank No. 17740 Chart 2: Structure of Trade Courses, World Bank No. 17741  Table of Contents (Cont'd) APPENDICES: IV - Teacher Training Annex 1: Enrollment of T-2 and T-3 Teachers at Teacher Training Colleges, 1976-77 Annex 2: Projected Output of Qualified Primary School Teachers, 1976-1986 Annex 3: Primary Teacher Training Curriculum and Period Allocation for T-2 and T-3 Courses Annex 4: Number of Teachers Upgraded Through In-Service Courses at Domasi, 1972-76 Annex 5: Malawi Correspondence College Enrollment, 1965-77 Annex 6: Number of Tutors in Primary Teacher Training Colleges Breakdown by Qualfiications and Local/Expatriates Annex 7: Total Number of Secondary Schools and Teaching Staff by Qualification V - Population, Employment and Manpower Annex 1: Wage Employment by Industry, 1971-76 Annex 2: Percentage Distribution of Wage Employment by Industry, 1971-76 Annex 3: Projection of Vocational and Technical Educational Output, 1976-86 Annex 4: Secondary School Enrollment, 1975/76-1987/88 Annex 5: Primary School Enrollment, 1975/76-1987/88 VI - Educational Efficiency and Distribution Annex 1: True Progression Rates 1973/74 to 1975/76 Annex 2: Flow of Students from 1974/75 to 1975/76 Annex 3: Flow of a Cohort of 1,000 Students Annex 4: Lorenz Curve of School Enrollment Inequality in Standards 1-8 (Primary) and Form I (Secondary) Comparative Education Indicators Bibliography   REPUBLIC OF MALAWI BASIC DATA (Est.) - 1976 General 2 Area 118,500 Km2 Land only 94,300 Km Population 5.2 million Annual Growth Rate 2.6% Per Capita Income US$140.00 Education Enrollment in Primary Schools: Standards 1-5 535,000 As a % of 6-10 age group 74.0% Standards 1-8 642,000 As a % of 6-14 age group 53.0% Enrollment in Secondary Schools 14,400 (Forms I-IV) As a % of 15-19 age group 3.2% Enrollment in the University of Malawi 1,200 Recurrent expenditure of the Ministry of Education K 12 million As a % of Government recurrent expenditure 14.4% Total recurrent expenditure on Education and Training K 15 million As a % of Government recurrent expenditure 17.8% Total expenditure (capital and recurrent) on Education and Training K 19 million As a % of GDP 2.8%   GLOSSARY ADD - Agricultural Development Division CHSC - Cambridge Higher School Certificate CIDA - Canadian International Development Agency CRLDP - Central Regional Lakeshore Development Project CSC - Christian Services Committee DA - Development Area DANIDA - Danish International Development Agency Devpol - Statement of Development Policies - 1971-1980 EEC - European Economic Community EPA - Extension Planning Area EPD - Economic Planning Division of the President's Office FHI - Farm Home Instructresses FTS - Fisheries Training School GDP - Gross Domestic Product Gini Co- A measure of the degree of inequality in the distribution efficient - of two variables. It ranges from 0.0 for absolute equity to 1.0 for absolute inequity. HILMP - High and Intermediate Level Manpower ILO - International Labor Organization IUC - Inter-University Council (British) JC(E) - Junior Certificate of Education KRDP - Karonga Rural Development Project LLDP - Lilongwe Land Development Project MANR - Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources MCDSW - Ministry of Community Development and Social Welfare MCE - Malawi Certificate of Education MOE - Ministry of Education NRC - Natural Resources College NRDP - National Rural Development Program NSO - National Statistics Office ODM - Ministry of Overseas Development (British) PAR - Participation Rate or Percent of Age Group Enrolled in School PO - Professional Officer PSLE Primary School Leaving Certificate RI - Representative Index: Percentage of distributed good (e.g. Enrollment) Percentage of distributional basis (e.g. Population) SVADP - Shire Valley Agricultural Development Project TA - Technical Assistant TFI - Tuchila Farm Institute TO - Technical Officer TTC - Teacher Training College USAID - US Agency for International Development   MALAWI EDUCATION SECTOR SURVEY SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS i. This report presents the findings of an education sector survey mission which visited Malawi in June/July 1977 to study the education and training system and to outline an education investment program for the next ten years. ii. The four basic objectives of Malawi's development policy are to: (a) improve agricultural productivity and provide the infrastructure required to attain this improvement; (b) raise the living standard of the rural population; (c) achieve better balanced regional development; and (d) ensure greater Malawian participation in the private sector. In essence, these objectives can be summarized as the intention of improving the status of the rural smallholders and the recognition of the need to provide trained manpower for development programs. iii. The objectives of education development in Malawi are outlined in the 1973-80 Education Plan in support of these national objectives. They include the following principal aims: (a) to base education develop- ment, in particular post-primary education, on the needs of the economy; (b) to develop curricula with greater relevance to the socio-economic environment needs; (c) to ensure efficient utilization of existing facilities and resources; and (d) to achieve more equitable distribution of educational facilities and resources. iv. The data on recent and projected growth of the formal education system are as follows: Enrollment Growth - 1970/71 - 1987/88 1970/71 1975/76 1987/88 % of % of Projected % of Enrollment Age Group Enrollment Age Group Enrollment Age Group Primary School (Standards 1-5) 291,700 48% 535,400 74% 899,000 91% (Standards 1-8) 362,000 37% 642,000 53% 1,208,000 73% Secondary School 11,000 2.4% 14,400 3.2% 34,400 4.7% (Forms I-IV) Source: Ministry of Education and Bank Group staff estimates.  - 11 - In the past five years primary school enrollment has increased at the rate of 12% p.a. and secondary school enrollment at 4.5% p.a. During the same period, enrollment in the Unviersity of Malawi has remained constant at about 1,200 students. v. In view of the financial constraints, this modest rate of expansion has been realistic. However, the past output from the secondary and technical schools and from post-secondary educational institutions, has not been suffi- ficent to provide the trained manpower needed to meet development needs. According to the 1971 Manpower Survey, about 75% of the high-level manpower positions were filled by expatriates and there was a 20% vacancy rate. During the next ten years, it is recommended that Malawi increase the growth rate of secondary school enrollment to 7.5% p.a. to meet manpower needs and expand primary school enrollment at about 5% p.a. given the financial con- straints. Enrollment in the University is expected to increase to about 2,200, from the present enrollment of 1,200. vi. The output from vocational and technical educational institutions is not sufficient to supply the trained personnel required in the trade and technical areas. In the area of commerce, the supply of staff trained in business studies (clerks, typists, bookkeepers, accountants and office managers) is noticeably deficient. The supply of trained agriculturists, at both the junior and senior levels, falls short of the needs of the rapidly expanding agricultural sector. vii. Some of these quantitative needs could be met by improving the efficiency of the system. At the primary school level the dropout rate is high and the repetition rate is 16.5%. In secondary schools, the dropout rate averages 35% but this rate ranges from 90% for girls in day-secondary schools to 10% for students in boarding schools. Boarding school students also attain pass rates more than 25% higher than day-school students in the JC and MCE examinations. If effective steps were taken to correct these inefficiencies at the primary and secondary school levels, the annual output could be increased and the cost per graduate could be greatly reduced. viii. Qualitative improvement, as well as quantitative expansion, of the system is also needed. The curricula are not closely related to Malawi circumstances and, in particular, students are deficient in mathematics and science, both of which provide background knowledge which is important for success in employment. Inefficient management and supervision of the system, at all levels, is responsible for some of the deficiency. Other factors contributing to inadequate educational quality are: insufficient numbers of qualified teachers; lack of adequate supplies of textbooks and teaching materials; low quality of school construction; and inadequate furniture and equipment. ix. There is considerable variation in the distribution of educational opportunity among the 24 Districts. One reason for this is the traditional distribution of habitations. Malawians tend to live in small family clusters, rather than in villages. This makes it difficult to find concentrations of  school age students large enough to provide schools within walking distance of the homes. One method of overcoming this difficulty is to provide boarding accommodations, but this is an expensive alternative. Another method, which Malawi is considering, is the provision of small four- to five-year primary schools served by larger area "collector" schools which would provide educa- tion in Standards 6 to 8 for students from several smaller schools in the surrounding area. x. The Government is aware of, and is dealing with, many of these basic problems. Two new primary teacher training colleges are being com- pleted. Plans for expanding the secondary school teacher training program at Chancellor College are virtually complete but sources of financing have not been identified. Curriculum revision is underway and agriculture and prac- tical subjects are being introduced. The field supervision staff for primary schools is to be enlarged from 30 to 70 which will reduce the average number of schools per inspector from 60 to 30. A master plan for enlarging and improving the technical schools has been approved and financing is available. The Government is building one model primary school and a rural training center in each District which will serve as a prototype to be replicated by adjacent villages. Expansion of the Bunda Agricultural College is underway. xi. There are, however, issues which deserve immediate attention. Chief among these is the lack of sufficient administrative staff in the Ministry of Education to plan and operate the educational system. It is difficult to find qualified Malawians for these positions. Sending candidates for these positions overseas for specialized training is a long and costly process. One short-term solution would be to develop and administer an in- tensive, in-service upgrading training program to prepare senior teachers and other qualified candidates for these positions. The administrative staff requires strengthening in the Educational Planning Section and the Teacher Training Sections. The Planning Section is staffed by only two officers. Therefore, little detailed planning is accomplished. This results in numerous ad hoc decisions which are often not in the best interest of the system. Curriculum development is also in need of direction to ensure that proposed revisions will result in curricula which best serve Malwai's needs. xii. Steps are being taken to reduce the student dropout and repetition rates in the system. Studies are being undertaken to identify the causes and suggest corrective measures. A student tracer study is underway which should provide some useful information on these problems. The problem of reducing the inequity of educational opportunity is not being dealt with directly. The addition of student places will not necessarily correct these inequities. A thorough school mapping analysis should be carried out to locate the dis- advantaged groups and to ensure that new schools are located in the proper catchment areas. xiii. In view of the identified needs, the approach of the World Bank Group should be to assist Malawi's educational development in five, inter- related areas, namely: (a) to strengthen administrative and supervisory capabilities; (b) to improve the quality of education; (c) to provide the  - iv - manpower required for development; (d) to improve educational opportunity; and (e) to develop and expand education and training programs for adults. Within this context, the following areas for action and investment warrant further consideration: A. Strengthening Administrative Capability (i) A detailed review of the organization and staffing of the Ministry of Education should be undettaken. (ii) Transportation should be provided for the field inspectors to enable these supervisors to cover their territories effectively. (iii) In-service, upgrading training courses should be developed for administrators, inspectors and headmasters. (iv) Detailed plans for the long-range development of the educational system should be developed. (v) Programs to improve the internal efficiency of the Ministry of Education should be developed. (vi) Improvement of the facilities of the Malawi Certificate of Education and Testing Board should be undertaken. B. Improving the Quality of Education (i) A Curriculum Development Section should be created to organize and administer the present dispersed efforts. (ii) The feasibility of making use of the new textbook publish- ing facility should be studied to determine the practi- cality of providing an adequate supply of locally produced learning materials. (iii) The in-service teacher training program should be expanded and a plan developed to improve career opportunities and other incentives for teachers. (iv) Standards for primary school construction and furnishing should be developed and enforced.  - v - C. Providing for Manpower Requirements (i) The present program of introducing practical and agricultural subjects into the curricula should be extended to provide these courses in all schools as rapidly as possible. (ii) Secondary day schools should be expanded, particularly at the junior secondary school level, to meet manpower needs. (iii) The planned expansion of technical schools should go forward rapidly including provision for the teaching of business studies in three of these schools. (iv) The introduction of degree-level programs in engineering and business at the Polytechnic should be given full support. (v) The planned expansion of the secondary school teacher training program at Chancellor College is justified and deserves support. (vi) The development of the proposed Natural Resources College should be undertaken, possibly on an even larger scale than originally planned. D. Improvement of Educational Opportunity (i) A school mapping analysis is needed to identify under-represented groups and to determine the proper locations of future schools. (ii) Further study should be undertaken to identify the causes of the high dropout and repetition rates; and also of the low enrollment and completion rates of female students. (iii) Hostels should be provided at selected day secondary schools to provide enrollment opportunities for students not living in the immediate area. E. Development of Adult Education Programs (i) Educational Radio and Correspondence College programs should be expanded to provide programs directed  - VI~ - towards adults including "how to do it" subjects such as keeping farm accounts, nutrition, health and other useful topics. Additional facilities should be provided in the rural area for adult education. (ii) Special programs should be developed which would provide training for adults in crafts, trades, agriculture and other areas making use of school workshops and laboratories when these facilities are idle. (iii) The adult literacy program should be expanded. xiv. The development program outlined above is tentatively estimated to cost K 68.0 million of which K 23.0 million has already been provided. The program should be introduced in phases starting with improvements in admin- istrative capability and manpower development programs for which long lead times are required. Its implementation would take about ten years.  MALAWI EDUCATION SECTOR SURVEY I. INTRODUCTION 1.01 This report presents the findings of a sector survey mission which conducted field investigations in Malawi from June 12 to July 1, 1977. 1/ The purposes of the mission were to: (a) review plans and prospects for national socio-economic development and explore their implications for education and training; (b) analyze the education/training system; (c) identify problems and issues for educational development; and (d) provide recommendations to assist in solving the problems and meeting the issues. 1.02 The mission endeavored to encompass to the extent possible all aspects and levels of education/training--formal and non-formal, public and private. Special attention was focussed on (a) primary, secondary and higher education; (b) agricultural and technical education; (c) teacher training; and (d) adult education and special education programs. Data was also gathered on educational financing, agricultural and industrial development plans, and manpower needs. 1.03 There have been two IDA Credits for Malawi education project. The first (Credit 102-MAI for US$6.3 million in 1967), recently completed, focussed on general manpower development, the training of primary school teachers, the expansion and rationalization of the secondary school system and the provision of facilities to train technicians for the postal and telecom- munications system. The project accomplished its basic objectives of ex- panding and improving the education system. It has resulted in 1,800 addi- tional places in secondary schools and begun the process of introducing practical subjects into the curriculum. The teacher training college is producing badly needed additional primary school teachers and the post and telecommunications institute is meeting the needs for high level communica- tions technicians, not only for Malawi but for Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland 1/ The mission included: Messrs. R. Loken (mission leader and general educator), M. Wodajo (educator) and Mrs. S. Asher (educational planner/ economist) of the Bank staff and Messrs. R. Harris (technical educator, Unesco) and R. Lesire (agricultural educator, FAO).  - 2 - as well. The completion report on this project indicated that: (a) the Government's plan to concentrate primary teacher training on producing only T2 level teachers 1/ requiring the MCE for entry has not been successful and has resulted in underutilization of the facilities provided; (b) the planned full-fledged technical education stream in secondary schools has not fully materialized; (c) practical studies teachers were too specialized; and (d) commercial studies should have been included among the practical subjects which were added to the secondary school curriculum. In 1975 the second IDA education Credit (590-MAI) for US$11.6 million continued the emphasis of the first project on manpower development and included practical facilities for primary and secondary schools and an additional teacher training college. This project is progressing well. Construction of the additions to the secondary schools and construction of the teacher training college is well advanced and the building of the model primary schools is getting underway after minor delays due to research necessary to develop a low-cost design solution. 1.04 The content of this report conforms to the purpose of the mission. Chapter I depicts the socio-economic setting of Malawi. Chapter II provides a summary of the socio-economic development plans which will have implications for the education and training programs in the immediate and long-term future. Chapter III presents an analysis of the existing education/training system and programs in terms of productivity, opportunity, quality and efficiency and notes the constraints which must be considered in operating and improving the system. Chapter IV presents the Government's plans and policies for educational development and issues to be resolved. The final Chapter outlines a possible investment program which includes components suitable for external assistance. The Appendices present detailed analysis on the major elements of the education system: primary, secondary and higher education; vocational and technical education; agricultural education and training; teacher training; and adult and special education programs. The Appendices also include background material on manpower needs, the economy and other related information. The Setting 1.05 Malawi is a land-locked country in south-eastern Africa along the western and southern shores of Lake Malawi. Its size is 118,500 sq. km., of which 94,300 sq. km. is land area and 24,200 sq. km. is lake surface. The land area consists of three topographically different regions. The Central Region consists largely of plateau of about 1,500 m. in height, with a strip of lower lying land along Lake Malawi. The Northern Region is mountainous with altitudes up to 2,500 m. The Southern Region, which has some scattered mountains, is for the most part a low-lying flat plain about 500 m. above sea level. For the transport of its foreign trade, Malawi is mainly dependent on railroads to the Mozambican ports of Nacala and Beira. Before the closure of the border between Mozambique and Rhodesia, a substantial railway traffic also existed through Mozambique, between Malawi and Rhodesia and the Republic of South Africa. 1/ See para. 3.13 for definition of teacher levels.  - 3 - 1.06 Malawi's population was estimated at 5.2 million in 1976. The population growth rate is about 2.6% a year. With an average density of 55 persons per sq. km., Malawi is one of the most densely populated countries in Africa. However, the population density differs considerably by region. In the Southern Region, traditionally more developed than the other Regions, the density is about 85 persons per sq. km.; in the Central Region it is 50 persons per sq. km., and in the Northern Region 25 persons per sq. km. Apart from certain parts in the Southern Region, land availability is not yet an acute problem. Less than 50% of the potentially cultivable area is at present under cultivation. An estimated 25% of the adult population is literate. The per capita income (1976) is estimated at US$140 equivalent and has increased at 4.7% p.a. from 1965 to 1976. 1.07 Malawi's soil is moderately fertile, and the climate--with a fairly reliable rainfall--makes it suitable for a variety of food crops and tropical cash crops, such as tea, tabacco, sugar and cotton. The country has few known mineral resources. Low grade coal and bauxite deposits are known to exist, but it has not yet been found economically feasible to exploit them. Some mines and quarries provide local building materials, including inputs for the cement industry. Malawi's fast-flowing rivers are an important source of hydro-electric power. Resources which can still be further exploited include beautiful scenery and the bilharzia-free Lake Malawi for tourisum, vast soft-wood forestry plantations in the Northern Region, and Lake Malawi and several smaller lakes for fisheries. II. DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCES The Economy 2.01 When Malawi gained independence in 1964, the new Government faced the very difficult task of starting development in a country with only the beginning of a national identity and with a largely neglected economy. Pros- pects for economic development were generally regarded as bleak. From 1953 to 1963, Malawi (then Nyasaland) belonged with Zambia and Rhodesia to the ill- fated Central African Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. It was the poorest of the three territories of the Federation. Because of the lack of mineral resources and major agricultural estates, it had, unlike its partners, attracted little outside interest. Apart from some plantations in the South, it was largely a traditional subsistence society. The little infrastructure which existed was concentrated in the Southern Region. The other Regions were virtually unconnected by roads with the relatively more developed Southern Region. 2.02 Because of the country's poverty and scant resource base, domestic savings were non-existent. Domestic government revenue was too low to finance the expenses of the small administration, and had to be supplemented by British budgetary grant aid. Educational standards were very low, and very few qualified Malawians were available to take charge of the country's ad- ministration.  - 4 - 2.03 Expenditure on the development account 1/ has been financed mostly by foreign grants and loans. During the post-independence decade, about three-quarters of development account spending of the Central Government was financed by external sources. At present, almost 90% of such expenditure is being financed externally. The UK has been the main source along with the World Bank, the Republic of South Africa, the USA, the Federal Republic of Germany, UNDP, the African Development Bank and, more recently, the EEC. In the revenue account, Malawi depended upon the British budgetary support until 1972/73. 2.04 Of the estimated 5.2 million population, about one-third is economi- cally active. Those who are employed in the monetized sector of the economy are roughly 15% of the economically active population. The rest are in the non-monetized sector, mostly agriculture. Malawi, with abundant labor, has been a source of migrant workers for the mines in the Republic of South Africa and Rhodesia. There were about 250,000 migrant workers in April 1974 (of whom 155,000 were contracted workers), when the recruitment of con- tracted migrant workers was briefly suspended. By the end of 1976, when their two-year contracts expired, all but some 5,000 of 155,000 were believed to have returned home. In June 1977, the recruitment of such workers was resumed. While Malawi has been a source of migrant labor, mostly unskilled, it suffers from a severe shortage of skilled manpower, especially at the high- and middle- levels. At the time of the last manpower survey in 1971, expatriates accounted for 75% of high-level manpower in wage employment. Development Objectives 2.05 Given the above characteristics of the country, Malawi has set forth its socio-economic objectives most clearly in the Statement of Development Policies, 1971-1980 (Devpol), published in 1971. 2/ Four main objectives emerge from Devpol. Firstly, the goal of 8% growth p.a. in GDP is to be attained by directing a large part of public expenditure to productive sectors, mainly agriculture, and to sectors that directly support agricultural production such as transportation, communications and public utilities. Secondly, the living standard of the rural population is to be raised and the rural/urban income disparity reduced. Only a small 1/ There are two budgetary accounts in Malawi. The development account finances mainly capital expenditure but also an element of recurrent expenditure associated with capital expenditure. The revenue account finances mainly recurrent expenditure but also a small part of capital expenditure. 2/ Devpol is now being updated to be extended to 1985, and even to 1990 in its broad outline of development policies. Devpol, a statement of intent, is being implemented by a three-year "rolling" public sector investment program, and furthermore, the first year of the program is revised annually taking into account any pertinent change in the economic and financial position.  - 5 - proportion (about 11%) of the economically active population was found in wage employment in 1971, and therefore the main program of the Government has had the objective of increasing productivity in smallholder agriculture through rural development projects designed to expand cash income and wage employment in rural areas. This implies a preference for labor intensive projects. Wages are adjusted in response to changes in productivity. Since the population is concentrated in rural areas, the above income policy also implies that the selection of projects should not affect rural incomes ad- versely. 2.06 The third objective emerging from Devpol is to achieve balanced regional development. Since, at independence, the Southern Region was more developed than the Central and Northern Regions, the strategy to attain this objective had the following principal elements: (a) to locate three of the four large agricultural development projects outside the Southern Region; (b) to build roads in the Central and Northern Regions; (c) to move the capital from Zomba to Lilongwe; and (d) to promote industry in and around the new capital city. The fourth objective is to ensure greater Malawian financial and managerial participation in the private sector. To attain this objective, the number of Malawians qualified to perform professional, technical and administrative functions must be increased. 2.07 These objectives call for giving priority in development planning to two main areas: (a) growth of smallholder agriculture, and (b) provision of skilled and educated manpower. Since 1971, four major agricultural develop- ment projects have been implemented, but they still cover only about 25% of rural households. To spread rural development more quickly, a National Rural Development Program (NRDP) is under preparation. NRDP is expected to cover some 60% of farm families by 1985 provided that Malawi can supply sufficient middle- level technical manpower to carry out the program and that it can improve the general level of education of the rural population. In tackling the skilled manpower constraint, which affects all development programs, Malawi is con- fronted with several important issues as depicted in the following paragraphs. 2.08 Population. The 1966 census showed a resident population of 4.04 million in Malawi. 1/ In addition, 266,000 Malawians were then estimated to be outside the country, mostly as migrant workers in the Republic of South Africa and Rhodesia. The urban population (i.e., in Zomba, Blantyre, Lilongwe, Mzuzu and others 2/) was estimated to be about 5% of the total population. In 1970-72, a "population change survey" was conducted. It showed that the annual average growth rate of the population was 2.6%, with the urban pop- ulation increasing at 4.7% p.a. and the rural population at 2.4% p.a. 1/ The National Statistical Office is carrying out the next census which began in September 1977. The preliminary findings are expected in early 1978. 2/ The NSO defines an urban area as all townships, all town planning areas, all district centers and any settlement having at least one of the following three: police post, post office, Ministry of Works camp.  - 6 - 2.09 Wages and Earnings. The National Statistical Office (NSO) compiles data on employment and earnings every year. The NSO survey covers all private sector enterprises, including statutory bodies and commissions, with 20 or more employees. For the Government sector, all employees who are paid directly by local and Central Government agencies are included. The table below summarizes the levels of wage employment and earnings in the private/Government sectors and in the agricultural/non-agricultural sectors for the years between 1971 and 1976: Levels of Employment and Annual Earnings by Private/ Government and by Agriculture/Non-Agriculture, 1971-76 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 /1 Employment (000) 172.3 189.6 215.3 226.9 244.8 262.9 Earnings (K) 333 328 333 363 366 361 Private Sector: Employment (000) 119.5 130.6 150.1 160.5 176.3 191.8 Earnings (K) 297 310 308 339 347 347 Government Sector: Employment (000) 52.8 59.0 65.2 66.4 68.5 71.1 Earnings (K) 417 368 397 422 413 400 Agricultural Sector: Employment (000) 57.4 63.8 76.3 80.4 93.0 103.2 Earnings (K) 110 115 115 130 128 133 Non-Agricultural Sector: Employment (000) 114.9 125.8 139.0 146.5 151.8 159.7 Earnings (K) 445 436 452 491 512 n.a. /1 While the figures in other years are the average of quarterly reports, the figures for 1976 are the average of the first three quarters. Sources: NSO, Reported Employment and Earnings Annual Report 1975; Monthly Statistical Bulletin, March 1977.  Thus, wage employment grew at an average rate of 8.8% between 1971 and 1976 with the private sector recording a 9.9% rate of increase and the Government sector a slower rate of 6.1%. Also during the six years, earning disparities were slightly reduced. 1/ 2.10 Manpower Strategy. The shortage of skilled and experienced manpower is evidenced by a vacancy rate of 20% for these jobs. Some of these vacancies are filled through recruiting expatriates. The table below shows the com- position of wage employment by race: Wage Employment by Race, 1971-75 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 000 (%) 000 (%) 000 (%) 000 (%) 000 (%) African 1/ 167.5 (97.2) 184.9 (97.5) 210.9 (98.0) 222.7 (98.2) 241.1 (98.5) European 2/ 3.7 (2.2) 3.6 (1.9) 3.2 (1.5) 3.0 (1.3) 2.5 (1.0) Other 3/ 1.1 (0.6) 1.1 (0.6) 1.2 (0.5) 1.2 (0.5) 1.2 (0.5) Total 172.3 (100.0) 189.6 (100.0) 215.3 (100.0) 226.9 (100.0) 244.8 (100.0) 1/ All persons whose parents are both African. 2/ All persons whose parents are both European. 3/ Not classified by the above. Source: Employment and Earnings Annual Report 1975 (NSO). The table shows a gradual decline in the absolute number and proportion of Europeans who have predominantly filled the skilled jobs. A general increase in the number of such jobs, further augmented by the departure of the ex- patriates, will increase the need for qualified Malawians to fill those vacancies. Localization of posts is slowly taking place. A survey is being conducted by the Ministry of Labor to examine the education, training and experience of expatriates holding two-year renewable temporary employment permits. The plan is to gradually replace expatriates with Malawians with similar backgrounds. 2.11 The level of female participation in monetary employment has been low, although it has increased from 8% in 1971 to about 10% in 1975 as shown in the following table. At present, there is no explicit national policy on female employment. 1/ As a result, however, there has been a shift of manpower, especially at the higher levels, from Government to the private sector where the private rate of return to the individual appears to be greater.  Number of Persons Engaged / , 1971-75 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 000 (%) 000 (%) 000 (%) 000 (%) 000 (%) Male 159.2 (92.3) 174.2 (91.7) 193.9 (89.9) 203.5 (89.5) 221.8 (89.8) Female 13.4 (7.7) 15.7 (8.3) 21.8 (10.1) 23.8 (10.5) 25.2 (10.2) Total 172.6 (100.0) 189.9 (100.0) 215.7 (100.0) 227.3 (100.0) 247.0 (100.0) /1 The number of wage employees plus the number of unpaid family workers and working proprietors. Source: Employment and Earnings Annual Reports 1971-1975. Manpower Requirements 2.12 In recent years, there have been separate studies to review specific areas of manpower needs in fields such as agriculture and engineering, but there has been no general manpower assessment study since the 1971 survey. The Economic Planning Division (EPD) of the Office of the President and Cabinet is now making preparations to update the 1971 manpower assessment. In late 1977, British technical assistance was expected to assist in the new assessment. The survey itself is planned in 1978 following a new population census. 2.13 The Government's 1971 manpower survey was aimed at determining the existing stock of high- and intermediate-level manpower (HILMP), and to project the HILMP requirement for the 1971-80 period. It covered all private sector establishments employing 20 and more 1/ and the Government sector. HILMP was grouped into three categories of occupations - senior, intermediate, skilled: 1/ Also included were professional enterprises such as law firms employ- ing fewer than 20.  High- and Intermediate-Level Manpower Equivalent to ILO International Educational Classification of Category Occupation Requirement Occupations Senior Professional and University Degree digits 1, 3 top management Intermediate Technical and Diploma, Malawi digits 2, 4 junior management Certificate of Education 1/ or equivalent Skilled Clerical and Junior Certificate 2/ manual skills or equivalent digits 5, 6, 7 1/ MCE = Malawi Certificate of Education 2/ JC = Junior Secbndary Education Certificate 2.14 The manpower survey enumerated the existing stock of HILMP at 47,800, or about 28% of wage employment, as against the required stock of 48,900. The percentage distribution of HILMP stock by the three occupational categories was 4%, 31% and 65%; and the extent of localization of HILMP was 83% with greater localization in the public sector (95%) than in the private sector (69%). Localization was also greater in the lower occupational categories (85%) than in the senior occupational category (22%). The table below shows the details of the HILMP distribution. HILMP Distribution by Citizenship and Government/Private Sector, 1971 Government Sector Private Sector Total Non Non- Non- Mala- Mala- Mala- Mala- Mala- Mala- wian wian Total (%) wian wian Total (%) wian wian Total (%) Senior 232 389 621 (2.4) 150 935 1,085 (4.9) 382 1,324 1,706 (3.6) Inter- mediate 10,527 624 11,151 (43.2) 1,865 1,842 3,707 (16.9) 12,392 2,466 14,858 (31.1) Skil- led 13,843 185 14,028 (54.4) 13,119 4,039 17,158 (78.2) 26,962 4,224 31,186 (65.3) Total 24,602 1,198 25,800 (100.0) 15,134 6,816 21,950 (100.0) 39,736 8,014 47,750 (100.0) Source: Government Manpower Survey - 1971.  - 10 - 2.15 The projections included in the 1971 manpower survey need further updating to reflect the actual growth rates thus far, as well as those for the foreseeable future. Revised projections were made by the Bank staff and they employed the data base of the 1971 projections, but two different sets of assumptions are applied to project senior, intermediate and skilled manpower requirements independent of occupation. Details are provided in Appendix V. Using these methods, the required stocks of HILMP in 1976 and 1987 are calculated below: Required HILMP Stock, 1976 and 1987 Net Increase 1971 1976 1987 1971-76 1976-87 (base year) A l/ B 2/ A B HILMP: Senior 1,706 2,320 5,990 4,980 614 3,670 2,660 Interme- diate 14,858 21,530 60,820 54,450 6,672 39,290 32,920 Skilled 31,186 46,680 131,860 127,900 15,494 85,180 81,220 Total 47,750 70,530 198,670 187,330 22,780 128,140 116,800 1/ Assumption A assumes an annual monetary GDP growth rate of 9%. 2/ Assumption B assumes an annual monetary GDP growth rate of 8%. Source: Government Manpower Survey - 1971; Bank Group Staff estimates 1987. The required HILMP stock in 1987 under Assumption A, which would account for 32% of total wage employment in 1987, would be 6% greater than the required stock under the Assumption B. In terms of the net increase, projection A is about 9% higher than projection B. The percentage distri- bution of the occupational categories in 1987 would be about 3% for senior, 30% for intermediate and 67% for skilled categories under both assumptions. 2.16 As regards attrition, accepting the 1971 manpower survey assumption that the absolute number of the non-Malawian HILMP would remain constant, the attrition of the Malawian HILMP existing in 1971 was calculated. The 1971 Malawian stock of 39,736 that would remain in 1976 and 1987 would be 36,010 and 28,970, thereby losing 3,726 between 1971 and 1976, and 7,040 between 1976 and 1987.  - 11 - 2.17 The net increase in the requirements for HILMP due to economic growth and attrition are summarized in the table below: Net Increase in Requirement for HILMP, 1971-76, 1976-87 1971-76 1976-87 Due to: Due to: Econ. Econ. Growth Attri- Total Growth Attrition Total A B tion A B HILMP: Senior 614 32 646 3,670 2,660 50 3,720 2,710 Interme- diate 6,672 1,162 7,834 39,290 32,920 2,200 41,490 35,120 Skilled 15,494 2,532 18,026 85,180 81,220 4,790 89,970 86,010 Total 22,780 3,726 26,506 128,140 116,800 7,040 135,180 123,840 Source: Bank Group Staff Estimates. Under Assumption A, the average annual additional requirements would be 340 for the senior category of occupations, 3,770 for the intermediate category of occupations, and 8,180 for the skilled category of occupations. Under Assumption B, the average annual additional requirements would be 250, 3,190 and 7,820 for the senior, intermediate and skilled categories of occupations respectively. Overall, the annual additional requirements for HILMP for the 1976-87 period would be 12,290 under Assumption A and 11,260 under Assumption B, a relatively small difference. Therefore, whether real monetary GDP would increase at 9% or 8% p.a. would not sig- nificantly affect the requirement of HILMP. Manpower Supply 2.18 The above HILMP projection provides only broad signals to the education planner. The projection indicates that for the 1976-87 period Malawi would annually require roughly 250 to 340 degree holders, 3,190 to 3,770 diploma or MCE holders (or equivalents), and 7,820 to 8,180 JC holders (or equivalent). Micro-level projections such as for agricultural manpower, are dealt with separately in Appendix II of this report. However, in terms of technical and vocational education output for the 1976-87 period, the Ministry of Education has made detailed projections which are summarized below:  - 12 - Projections of Technical and Vocational Education Output, 1976-87 Agriculture Teaching Technical Others /1 Total Certificate or Diploma 3,250 10,220 /2 4,370 1,080 18,920 /2 Degree 260 490 210 190 1,370 /1 Public administration and health. /2 Includes about 3,050 JC holders or equivalent. The average annual output would be roughly 350, 1,400 and 100 at the levels equivalent to JC, MCE/diploma and degree in the vocational and technical fields. Thus, the balance of the required educational output p.a. is as shown in the table below: Annual Average Educational Output Required, 1976-87 JC and MCE/Diploma Equivalent and Equivalent Degree Total 1/ required 8,000 3,480 300 Of which vocational/technical education output 350 1,400 100 Balance -7,650 -2,080 -200 1/ These numbers are the average of the sets of projections based on Assumptions A and B. 2.19 According to the MOE projections, the Chancellor College is ex- pected to produce an output of non-teaching degree graduates of about 200 p.a. by 1986 as compared to 70 p.a. in 1976. As regards the output from primary and secondary schools, MOE projects the annual average number of primary school leaving certificate holders at 52,870, of JC holders at 3,630 and of MCE holders at 1,970. Therefore, with respect to the output of degree and MCE/diploma holders, the MOE projections indicate that Malawi would be able to meet most of the requirements in the coming decade. But, it would suffer an acute shortage of manpower at the JC level. Assuming that the average JC pass rate over the next decade would improve to 80% as against 70% in 1975, and  - 13 - that the intake in Form III would remain at the present level of about 3,000 p.a., the intake in various vocational post JC level training programs would be 1,400 p.a., and all of those who would not proceed to further education and training would participate in economic activities, the present level of the intake in Form I would have to rise to 15,000 from 4,400 as shown below: JC Leavers and Further Education/Occupation 15,000: of whom JC passes (80%) 12,000: - 3,000 to Form III - 1,400 to various vocational and technical education institutions - 7,600 to the labor market 2.20 On the basis of the above projection of required JC and MCE holders, secondary school enrollment expansion requirements are summarized below: Secondary School Enrollment Expansion Requirements to Meet Manpower Needs 1975/76-1987/88 Average Annual Actual Increase Form 1975/76 1980/81 1985/86 1987/88 1975/76-1987/88 I 4,404 7,300 12,200 14,900 1/ 10.7% II 4,325 6,600 11,000 13,500 III 2,953 3,000 3,000 3,000 IV 2,721 3,000 3,000 3,000 Total 14,403 19,900 29,200 34,400 7.5% as % of 15-19 years old 3.2 3.3 4.3 4.8 (15-19 age group) (449,000) (600,000) (679,000) (713,000) 1/ About 15% of primary school students enrolled in Standard 8 in 1986/87 are projected to enter Form I.  - 14 - Obviously, it is unrealistic to expect that enrollments in Forms III and IV will not increase in the 1980s. On the basis of past trends and projected population growth of the relevant age group, they are likely to reach some 9-10,000 by the late 1980s as against about 5,700 in 1975/76. Of the 19J)on required JC holders p.a., the Malawi Correspondence College, under MOE, could be expected to produce at least 1,500 p.a. That is, Malawi would need to provide roughly 17,000 student places in Forms I and II in addition to the existing 9,000 places. In terms of number of schools, about 15 schools with an average enrollment capacity of 600 would need to be built, or expan- sion to existing schools added, over the next ten years. However, senior secondary school enrollments are likely to exceed the numbers strictly re- quired on the basis of present manpower projections with the result that a proportion of Form IV school leavers will compete for jobs requiring only a Junior Certificate (JC); therefore, it will be prudent to limit expansion of junior secondary schools not to exceed some 13-14,000 places over the next decade and to provide for an overall expansion of secondary enrollment capa- city at a rate of about 7.5% p.a. III. EVALUATION OF THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM General 3.01 The formal education system consists of eight years of primary education (five years in lower primary and three years in upper primary), four years of secondary education (two years of junior secondary and two years of senior secondary education), three to five years (for diploma or degree programs) in higher education at the Polytechnic, Bunda College and Chancellor College of the University of Malawi, and primary teacher training colleges. Fifty-three per cent of the 6-14 age group are enrolled in primary schools (Standards 1-8) with 74% of the 6-11 age group in Standards 1-5. As a percentage of the 15-19 age group only 3.2% are enrolled in secondary schools (Forms I-IV). The nonformal education program under the MOE includes the Correspondence College, educational radio and 22 rural education centers which are under construction. Other Ministries, including Health, MANR and the Ministry of Community Development and Social Welfare (MCDSW), operate training programs such as literacy courses, agricultural extension programs and health education. 3.02 While the structure of the system is generally satisfactory, problems have developed in its operation. These problems are most notable in admini- stration, planning, curricula, teacher supply, educational facilities and the supply of teaching and textbook materials. Quality of Education 3.03 The quality of education, or the effectiveness with which students learn, is dependent upon several factors: school supervision and management; curricula; teaching aids and learning materials; evaluation of student pro- gress; and the ability of the teachers. All school systems have deficiencies  - 15 - in some of these areas and educational quality is affected proportionately. To a large extent, these factors are inter-related so that a deficiency in one (e.g., curriculum) affects others (e.g., learning materials and teaching ability). The Malawi education system has deficiencies, to some degree, in all of these areas. 3.04 There are two levels of management of the education system: the administrative level at the headquarters of the MOE and the supervisory level carried out by the Inspectorate and the District Education Officers in the field. The central administration is seriously weakened by under- staffing. Twenty of the 60 senior and professional posts were vacant as of June 1977, mostly because of the difficulty of identifying and attracting suitably qualified personnel. Operating at two-thirds strength results in delays, insufficient coordination and inadequate planning. Of these deficiencies, the most serious is in the area of educational planning. At present, the entire staff of the planning unit consists of two officers, and, as a result, many of the decisions are made on an ad hoc basis. Plans pre- pared by expatriate planners in recent years have been presented but have not always been officially adopted. The absence of accepted, official plans affects the development of primary and secondary education and is especially apparent in teacher training, vocational/ technical education and at the Polytechnic as detailed in Appendices III and IV. The other area in serious need of strengthening is the teacher training program where additional tutors and related personnel are required. 3.05 The Inspectorate, the field supervisory staff, provides a key function in the management and administration of education in the field. However, there are only seven secondary school inspectors for 60 schools and 31 primary school inspectors for 2,000 schools. The average primary school inspector is responsible for supervising and guiding about 60 schools. Their responsibilities are diverse and demanding. They evaluate and rate teacher and headmaster performance; inspect and report on school maintenance; evaluate teaching facilities, aids and learning materials; prepare and introduce new curricula and textbooks; provide in-service teacher assistance and training, etc. The inspectorate staff for primary schools is located in the Districts and that of the secondary schools at MOE headquarters. Since transportation is not always available, visits to schools are not on a scheduled basis. At the primary level many schools are visited only once in three years. A proposal now being considered would double the number of primary school inspectors reducing the average number of schools to 30 per inspector. This proposal should be implemented as soon as qualified candidates are identified and trained. Since the Inspectorate can be a primary factor in improving educational quality, improvements in their training, staffing, mobility and back-up services should receive serious consideration. 3.06 Under the present system curricula revision is the responsibility of the Inspectorate. Since this is only one of their many responsibilities, the inspectors cannot give curriculum development the attention it demands. The task is attempted in a piece-meal manner and, particularly at the primary level, no overall plan has been designed. The revised texts vary considerably in quality and in their relevance to Malawi conditions. The curricula for  - 16 - both primary and secondary schools should be carefully reviewed and evaluated and an organized program developed to ensure that students learn what the country believes they should learn. More time and attention is being given to agriculture, practical studies and Malawian culture at the primary level since the primary level is the terminal point for most students. The proposal to establish an Institute of Education for curriculum development, in-service teacher training and related activities should be given priority as indicated in Appendix IV. 3.07 Teaching aids and textbooks are in short supply in most schools. In many primary schools there is an average of one textbook for every seven students. At the secondary school level there is a book deposit fee which parents pay and which is rebated when the student finishes the course and returns the book. In addition, the Local Council, the village administrative unit, disburses an annual fund, financed from school fees and Government grants, which is supposed to provide funds for textbooks. However, the problem of insufficient textbooks and teaching aids is not only a matter of cost, it is also due to a lack of supply of books and materials. Books and materials are purchased abroad for secondary schools, or from local publishers for primary schools, in small quantities and, therefore, at relatively high prices. If a local textbook publishing and materials production unit could be established, costs might be reduced and quantities published increased. 3.08 School buildings, furniture and equipment are a vital element in the teaching and learning process. If these facilities are inadequate or poorly maintained, as they are in many Malawi schools, the quality of educa- tion can be directly affected. The Government is attacking this problem in several ways. At the primary level, they are building (under Credit 590-MAI) 22 prototype schools (one in each District) which are intended as models to be copied by surrounding villages. At the secondary level, they have provided laboratory, shop and hostel facilities for 12 schools under the first IDA project and for seven additional schools under the second IDA project. These are encouraging steps but a great deal remains to be done. Since construction and maintenance of primary schools are the responsibility of the Local Council, some method of developing and introducing reasonable and replicable standards for school facilities must be devised. A possible method - deserving future study - would be the establishment of a rural education fund to channel assistance on a subsidized credit or grant basis from the Central Government to the Local Councils for education projects meeting adequate standards. 3.09 At the secondary level, the secondary "day" (non-boarding) schools are in urgent need of improvement. These schools are located in the more populous areas and account for about 60% of the total enrollment. Although they are officially labelled as "day" schools, in fact almost all of them have jerry-built hostels which serve as student quarters since half of the students do not live near the schools. Only minimal food service is provided. This results in constant health problems, a high dropout rate and low achieve- ment rates on examinations. In addition, many of these "day" schools lack laboratories, libraries and other essential teaching facilities. Improvements for some of these schools are being provided under an ODM grant.  - 17 - 3.10 The use of tests, examinations and other methods to evaluate student learning has long been recognized as an excellent means of improving and accelerating the students' rate of learning, if used properly. If, on the other hand, these evaluations are used only as year-end or cycle-end screening and selection devices, they can have strong negative effects on the rate of learning and can affect the course content and teaching methods. Teachers begin to teach, and students begin to learn or memorize, only information which is included in the examinations. The system should endeavor to en- courage thoughtful, intellectual growth rather than rote learning. Until recently, the Malawi school system suffered from this examination-oriented syndrome, and it still does in many schools. 3.11 There are four major screening examinations in the Malawi system which select students for further education: (1) the Standard 5 examina- tion; (2) the Primary School Leavers Examination at Standard 8; (3) the Junior Certificate Examination at Form II; and (4) the Malawi Certificate of Education (MCE) at Form IV. As in many other countries, these Certifi- cates have acquired a direct relation to wage levels. Aware of these prob- lems, the Government has recently begun a two-pronged approach to solve some of the problems. Firstly, a strong effort is underway to separate the wage scale (at least in the public sector) from the certificate level and substitute aptitude tests prepared by the Malawi Certificate of Education and Testing Board. 1/ Secondly, teacher's guides for most courses now include a series of suggested tests to be given throughout the course to regularly assess student progress. Since both of these efforts are new, it is not possible to evaluate their impact at this time. If properly implemented, both may result in valuable improvements in the system. 3.12 Although opinions of the experts vary as to the actual amount of impact the teacher's ability to instruct has on student learning, all of the experts agree that the teacher's role is a major factor. The teacher's know- ledge, skill in teaching, wisdom and example have a great deal to do with the quality of education. Since about 20% of Malawi's primary school teachers are unqualified 2/ and an additional 30% are underqualified and one-third of the secondary school teachers are expatriates (mostly on short-term contracts), there is little doubt that weakness of the teaching force is a major cause of poor quality education. The most direct method of improving the teacher 1/ The Malawi Certificate of Education and Testing Board was set up five years ago as a cooperative testing program including Malawi, Swaziland, Botswana and Lesotho. The Board is primarily concerned with the develop- ment aptitude and achievement tests and with the processing of school examinations. 2/ Although officially qualified teachers include five levels: TI, T2, T3, T4 and T5, teachers at the T4 and T5 levels are being upgraded or phased out and should be classified as 'under-qualified'.  - 18 - qualification situation is by providing in-service training for the under- qualified teachers. An in-service program is underway for primary school teachers, but it can accommodate only about 300 to 400 teachers p.a. There are over 5,000 teachers in the underqualified category and this training program must be greatly expanded; the proposed Institute of Education may help in this task. The pre-service training program for primary school teachers is expanding at a rapid rate. There are now two large Government teacher train- ing colleges with capacities of 540 students in each, and a third will open next year. An additional. 650 trainees are enrolled in five small mission teacher training colleges. In the pre-service training program, the problem is not just capacity but low rates of enrollment (only 75% of capacity). It appears that competition from other more attractive and remunerative sectors of the economy and poor career prospects may be causes of these low enrollment rates. This problem is not unique to Malawi but to all countries of East and Southern Africa (e.g., Zambia) where there is a large unsatisfied demand for trained local manpower in production sectors. The recent shift which provides full civil service status for teachers may improve the situation. 3.13 There are two principal levels of primary school teacher quali- fication labelled T2 and T3. The T2 level requires the MCE (four years of secondary school) and two years of pedagogical training and the median salary is about K950 p.a. T3 level requires two years of secondary school and two years of pedagogy and the median salary is about K750 p.a. The T2 level is in competition with training courses providing access to well-paying jobs in the senior ranks of the civil service and in the private sector. This is a major reason for the small number of candidates applying for this level of teacher training. The Government might consider shifting the teacher training emphasis to the T3 level since that training program produces competent teachers, the salaries are lower and there are adequate career opportunities. 3.14 Secondary school teachers are trained at Chancellor College and training for special subjects teachers is provided at the Polytechnic and Bunda College. There are two levels of training: Diploma, for junior secondary teachers (three years post-secondary) and Degree, for senior secondary teachers (four and five years). The present output is not suffi- cient to meet the expansion needs and will not provide for the replacement of the 250 expatriate teachers now employed. Plans for expanding the Chancellor College facilities to provide the required teachers are being prepared. As more secondary schools add practical subjects and agricultural studies, teacher training programs for these special programs will also require expan- sion, as will similar programs at the primary school Teacher Training Colleges. 3.15 Nonformal education is conducted by several Ministries (para. 3.01). These programs include upgrading courses for candidates for school certificates and in-service teacher training through radio and correspondence media; health, nutrition and child care training; agricultural extension and farmer training; adult literacy; and community development and leadership training. If coordination of these programs could be improved, costs could be reduced and effectiveness increased by eliminating duplicating and conflicting programs. The Government is now constructing 22 rural training centers, one in each District, which should improve the present situation by bringing most of these programs under one roof.  - 19 - Internal Efficiency 3.16 Whilst repeaters and dropout rates in secondary and specialized education are 10% and 35% respectively, the dropout rate for primary school students is comparatively high by African standards. Efforts to improve the efficiency of the primary education system should be initiated. An analysis of the problem is presented in Appendix VI. In summary, enrollment is very unevenly distributed among the eight Standards. While in 1975/76 Standard 1 had about 30% of the students, the enrollment declined to 20% in Standard 2 and thereafter the proportions gradually decreased to 5 or 6% by Standard 8. The retention rate was low because of high rates of dropout among students in lower Standards. Various efficiency indicators are presented in Appendix VI. The analysis demonstrates that to produce a primary school leaver required the input of 20 student years instead of 8 student years due to low efficiency. The financial implications of this wastage are significant. The cost per primary school graduate to Central Government was about K 184 in 1975/76, whilst it would have been K 72 had the retention rate been 100%. 3.17 As only 53% of the age group is in primary education, to spread educational opportunities to another hal' of the age group population is particularly difficult in Malawi, where primary education must compete for funds with secondary and tertiary education, which are more directly geared to relieve the acute shortage of educated manpower. This is one more reason to reduce wastage. The question is how it can be reduced. The major causes of high wastage appear to be the qualitative aspects of primary education such as curriculum, teachers, textbooks and t; aching aids and other factors such as the distance of school from home, students' health, school fee policy and economic factors. Further study of the causes of wastage should be undertaken and steps taken to reduce it. Distribution of Educational Opportunity 3.18 Primary Schools. Distribution of educational opportunities and performance expressed in terms of enrollment, classrooms, teachers, repeaters, passes, entrants to Form I and recurrent expenditure was measured by the Bank Group Staff by systematically applying a few indicators. The Gini co- efficients for various educational variables, which provide the most indica- tive measures, 1/ are listed below to show which areas require special atten- tion to reduce inequities at the District level. 1/ Gini coefficients can range from 0.0, indicating absolute equity, to 1.0, indicating absolute inequity.  - 20 - Gini Coefficients Distributional Base Distributed Good/Service Gini Coefficient Age group population by Sex Enrollment by Sex 0.2330 Age group population Classrooms 0.2304 Number of Passes Form I entrants 0.2043 Age group population Enrollment 0.1933 Enrollment Classrooms 0.1501 Enrollment Recurrent expenditure 0.1163 (MOE only) Enrollment Qualified teachers 0.0952 Enrollment Repeaters 0.0841 Those who sat for PSLE Passes 0.0321 (Primary School Leaving Examination) Source: Bank Group Staff. The above table indicat.es that the opportunities to gain access to similar levels of educational quality at the District level are good as measured in terms of passes, repetitions and qualified teachers. Classrooms and recurrent expenditure are also relatively equally distributed among Districts, when they are compared with the level of enrollment. The areas where dis- tribution is comparatively most inequitable, are enrollment by sex as com- eared to the age group population by sex, classrooms as against the age group population, Form I entrants as against PSLE passes, and total enrollment as compared to the age group population. 3.19 Secondary Schools. Data on total secondary enrollment by District of student's District of origin are not available. However, data on the entrants to Form I by this classification are available. Thus, enrollment in Form I, as a whole, by sex and by boarders/day students in each District was compared with the 15 year old population in each District in 1976 (Appendix VI). Overaged students could not be excluded because the number was not known. It was assumed that the overaged students were, by and large, spread evenly over the country. The percentage of the 15 years old population attending Form I (PAR) 1/ for the country as a whole in 1975/76 was 4.609%. There were 11 Districts, out of the 24, with PARs lower than the national average of 4.609%. The highest PAR was 11.939% in the Rumphi District and the lowest 2.174% in the Mulanje District. 3.20 The comparison of Form I enrollment with the 15 years old population by sex indicates higher inequity by sex than that for the distribution of enrollment as a whole. PARs were: 1/ PAR = The participation rate or the percent of the age group enrolled in school.  - 21 - Age Group Participation Rates by Sex 1974/75 1975/76