Report No. 1586b-ZA C Zambia-A Basic Economic Report Annex 3: Education and Training October 14, 1977 Country Programs Department Eastern Africa Regional Office FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Document of the World Bank This document has a restricted distnbution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their officiai duties. Its contents-may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Prior to February 1973 February 1973 to July 1976 US$1 = K 0.7143 US$l= K 0.643 K 1 = US$1.40 K 1 = US$1.554 SINCE JULY 1976 SDR I K 0.9218 K 1 - SDR 1.0848 US$1 = K 0.8000 (July - December 1976 average) K I = US$1.2499 (July - December 1976 average) US$1 = K 0.7952 (Jan.- June 1977 average) K 1 = US$1.2576 (Jan - June 1977 average) ABBREVIATIONS DTEVT - Development of Technical Education and Vocational Training FI - Farm Institute FTC - Farmer Training Center FNDP - First National Development Plan IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ME - Ministry of Education MRD - Ministry of Rural Development (in 1977 changed to Ministrv of Lands and Agriculture) NRDC - National Resources Development College RI - Representation Index UNIP - United National Independence Party UNZA - University of Zambia SIDA - Swedish International Development Agency SNDP - Second National Development Plan FISCAL YEAR January 1 to December 31 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ANNEX 3 EDUCATION AND TRAINING TABLE OF CONTENTS PaRe No. A. INTRODUCTION .............. .... 1 B. THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM AND ITS PROBLEMS ........ 2 The Education and Training System . . 2 Problems with the System . .3 C. MANPOWER REQUI2ENTS .._ 6 D. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 9 An Overview . ........................ * ....... 9 Primary Education and Primary Teacher Training .... ....... 10 Secondary Education and Secondary Teacher Training ....... 11 Professional Education (Degree Level) .................... 13 TechnicaI and Vocational Training ...............13 ....... 13 AgriculturalI Education .... .............., , 14 Medical Education. ......... . ..................... 17 Adult Education .......... *.............................. 17 E. FINANCING AND COST OF EDUCATION ...... .................... 18 F. EDUCATION POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS ................. 19 APPENDIC.ES 1. Structure of Education System. (1975) 2... Primary School Teachers 3. Secondary School Teachers 4. Extracts from UN1.P Document 'on "National Policies for the Next Decade 1974-1984" 5. Output of the Unuversity of Zambia since Establishment 6. Technical and Vocational Schools - Enrollment 1974 7. Earollment by Program ia Vocational and Technical Schools 1974 8. Recurrent Expenditures - Ministry of Educatiou and Culture 1970-75 9. Eastern Africa - Ratio of Recurrent Expenditures on Education to GNP 10. EasterrL Africa - Ratio of Unit Costs to GNP Per Capita by Educational Levrel 11. Capital Expenditures - Ministry of Education and Culture 1970-75 12. Estimated Educat:Lon Expenditure, 1976-1986: Assumption I 13. Enrollment Projections 1976-1986 14. Estimated Educat:Lon Expenditures, 1976-1986: Assumption II This dDcument has a restr:ted distrnbution and may be used by recipients only in the performance o iofffici duus Its contents May not otherwse be disciosed without Worid Bank authorization. ANNEX 3 Page 1 EDUCATION AND TRAINING A. INTRODUCTION 1. Formal education was introduced into Zambia during the latter part of the nineteenth century by Christian missionaries when they began estab- lishing stations throughout the country. For the next 40 years education was virtually fully supported and controlled by the missions. However, the British South Africa Company, which obtained a concession to exploit the mineral resources of the country at about the same time, also supported schools but only for chiidren of European settlers. 2. As the provision of schools for Africans was only incidental to the missions' main motives of evangelization of the indigenous population, and as resources were limited, the schools generally had very low standards. The few trained teachers were usually assigned only to schools within the mission stations, while teacher:s in sub-schools (village schools) were evangelists who had received no training. Generally, these schools offered instruction to Standard II level and only in rare cases did instruction reach Standard III and IV. There were hardly any Zambian teachers and the few who assisted in teaching were barely literate. 3. In spite of the many problems encountered in promoting education, a fairly widespread education system had been established by the missions when the British Government took over the administration of Zambia in 1924. From 1924 to 1963, the year prior to independence, the Government continued to rely upon the missions to provide for public education. Very few government schools were built during this period, but the Government coordinated and unified the educational activities of the different missionary societies through a director of education and provided grants-in-aid to the missions to assist in school maintenance and in development of teacher training. However, a large proportion of the funds were allocated for maintenance and improvement of schools used exclusively by European settlers, and schools for Africans continued to operate at very low standards. 4. As a result, the country faced serious manpower problems in 1964 when it gained independence. In 1965, there were only 100 Zambian post- secondary graduates, 1,500 with Form V education and 6,000 with Form 1I education while the need at that time was estimated at 4,000 persons in professional and administrative grades and about 15,000 in middle level ranks. 5. The new Government promptly undertook the task of identifying its educational needs and allocating funds for the establishment of additional schools in its Emergency Development Plan (January 1964 to December 1964) and Transitional Development Plan (January 1965 to June 1966). Due to the urgency to expand educational facilities with the minimum of expenditure, the Government urged the population to participate in a school construction -2- ANNEX 3 Page 2 program on a self-help basis. The people responded enthusiastically and contributed cash, labor and building materials. Consequently, within about three years after independence, through diligence and hard work, about 150,000 primary school places (50% increase) and about 10,000 secondary school places (100% increase) were created; although in temporary quarters, the University of Zambia was also established. 6. Following the Transitional Development Plan, further expansion of the educational system at all levels was carried out under both the First and the Second National Development Plans (1966-1977). The implementation of both plans has been assisted by four IBRD education projects, Loan 592-ZA signed in April 1969, Loan 645-ZA signed in October 1969, Loan 900-ZA signed in June 1973, and Loan 1356-ZA signed in January 1977. 7. Educational developments over a ten-year period since independence are summarized below: Table 1: ENROLLMENT BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL, 1964 AND 1974 1964 or at Percentage Type or Level establishment 1974 Increase Primary education 378,417 858,191 127 Secondary education 13,853 65,764 375 Technical & Vocational education 1,360 5,666 317 Primary teacher training 1,283 2,375 85 Secondary teacher training /I 56 525 838 University education /2 312 2,612 737 /1 Established in 1967. /2 Established in 1966. Source: Ministry of Education. B. THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM AND ITS PROBLEMS The Education and Training System 8. The general education system of Zambia consists of seven years of primary education (Grades 1-7), five years of secondary education (Forms 1-5), 3- ANNEX 3 Page 3 and four to seven years of university education. Secondary education is divided into a three-year junior cycle and a two-year senior cycle (Appendix 1). 9. Certificate courses in a variety of vocational subjects are offered to junior secondary sc:hool leavers and a number of diploma courses to senior secondary school leavers. Adult education programs are also conducted for overage students who desire to continue their formal education up to the senior secondary school level and for primary and secondary school dropouts who desire to obtain vocational training. 10. The Ministry of Education, which acts with the advice of the National Council of Education, administers primary and secondary education, teacher training, paramedical training and most technical and vocational training programs for the development of skilled and middle level business and industrial manpower. The National Council of Education is now composed of representatives from the Regional and Local Councils of Education which act as Sub-Committees of t:he Provincial and District Development Committees respectively. Within the next decade, however, the Government intends to merge the functions oi. these regional and local councils with those of the existing District and Provincial Development Committees in order to link educational developmenst planning more closely with overall development plan- ning at all levels of administration. 11. The Ministry of Rural Development (MRD) is responsible for the education and training of agricultural teachers, technicians and farmers. The Ministry of Health administers the training of aurses, midwives, and medical and health technicians. Telecommunications training is operated jointly by the Miaist:ry of Works and the Ministry of Education. Training for industrial craftsmen and technicians is also conducted by the industrial sector and by the mining companies to supplement the output of government- operated technical and vocational schools. The University of Zambia is in charge of all professional education. Problems with the Syszem 12. There are no major inequalities in education opportunities in Zambia. Access to all levels of education is not hampered by the fee struc- ture; in fact, no school fees are levied. In some rural areas, only some 65% of primary pupils have an opportunity to advance to Grade 5. However, provisions for a national average progression rate of 80 percent between grades 4 and 5 were mide in the Second National Development Plan and provision for a full seven year primary school curriculum is expected during the Third Plan. In order to improve equity and to raise the quality of school leavers, the Government and th-e United National Independence Party (UNIP) are contemp- lating to expand primary and lower secondary education to such an extent as to make universal schooling possible up to Form III. However, no date has been set for the achievement to this target. As a heritage from pre-independence times, three types of primary schools (Government, Government-aided and private primary schools) remain which differ with regard to teacher quality and advancement in implementing the full curriculum. Migration within rural -4- ANNEX 3 Page 4 areas and between rural and urban areas has caused some unsatisfactory distri- bution of primary schools and non-urban children have more difficult access to schools. The poor quality of English of rural school leavers is often a handicap throughout their educational and professional careers. The hope that differences in English language proficiency would level out during secondary schooling was not fulfilled and only at the university level did it tend to disappear. 13. The degree of geographical concentration of educational opportuni- ties at the secondary level has been calculated by the Bank staff. 1/ For the analysis, the division of the country into eight provinces, as in 1974, was used. 2/ The 1974 population of the age group between 14 and 18 was extrapolated by the use of the 1969 Census of Population and the 1974 Sample Census of Population, using growth rates for specific areas to project the growth of the age group relevant to secondary education. On the basis of this data, the measurements of education equity were derived by calculatiag the Representation Index (RI). 3/ The relevant age group population along with school capacity was distributed geographically as follows: Table 2: PROVINCIAL ENROLL1MENT RAIIOS AND REPRESENTATION INDICES Provlncial Representation Provinces Enrollment Ratio Index 1. Copperbelt 16.7 1.29 2. Northern 10.9 0.84 3. Luapula 12.6 0.97 4. Northwestern 12.4 0.96 5. Eastern 9.0 0.69 6. Central 11.8 0.91 7. Southern 16.1 1.25 8. Western 10.9 0.84 The RI indicates that the Eastern province is particularly underrepresented. If the Government intends to raise the present enrollment and possibly expand secondary education enrollments in order to obtain a more equitable distribu- tion of secondary education, the student places should be directed toward those provinces with-Rls less than one, most particularly Eastern province. 1/ A similar exercise would not be meaningful at the primary level since Zambia will soon be reaching universal primary education. 2/ Lusaka has since been added as the ninth province. 3/ The Representation Index is the ratio of the provincial enrollment ratio to the national enrollment ratio. -5- ANNEX 3 Page 5 Further expansion in Copperbelt and Southern districts would simply distort the situation further. The apparent provincial imbalances may be offset to a certain extent by a nrle that boarding schools (which involve 63 percent of all student places) may admit up to 20 percent of qualified students from outside the province. However, in practice, provinces may not admit outsiders when there is a surplus of qualified students from within the province and it is rare for outsiders to take up more than 10 percent of available places. Differences in teacher quality do exist between urban and rural areas and because of the centralized pattern of higher education, urban dwellers have easier access to the Ulniversity of Zambia (UNZA) and other post-secondary institutions. 14. At all levels, girls are a minority and have a greater tendency to drop out, particularly in the rural areas. This fact was noted by the Govern- ment in 1968 and some elements of the egalitarian doctrine of Zambia humanism have been reinterpreted to allow temporarily, that better educational oppor- tunities are given to the sex and specializations most in demand in the labor market. However, equal educational opportunities for girls remain as an important target of Zambian educational policy. 15. In spite of the rapid enrollment expansion since independence (para. 7), Zambia still suffers from a shortage of trained local manpower. Since the manufacturing and mining sectors also expanded rapidly, the gap between the demand for and the supply of educated manpower widened. Consequently, the country remained dependent upon a large number of expatriates. In 1972, 19 percent of the jobs in the mining and quarrying sector were held by non-Zambians. This dependency is also marked in the civil service and parastatals-particularly in professional posts where it is estimated over 60 percent are non-Zambians. At present, of the estimated 5,000 managers of business concerns, nearly 70 percent are expatriates and there is only one Certified Public Accountant of Zambian nationality in the country. At the lower level, a large number of bookkeeping and secretarial positions are filled by expatriates mostly coming from the Asian subcontinent and the West Indies. In Lusaka aloae, it is estimated that 500 secretaries of enterprises are expatriates. Lower level training in business and commerce is given in seven locations. The combined output of these institutions in 1975 was less than 300; all the graduates found employment immediately. Graduates of the two and three-year courses in business and commerce from Evelyn Hone College, UNZA, Zambia Institute of Technology and the Administration College of Chingola have also found employment subsequent to graduation. High level manpower, particularly in the field of accountancy, is in short supply. 16. At the same time, however, there are indications that a number of primary and junior secondary school leavers and dropouts have difficulty in finding employment. While data on unemployment is incomplete, it is believed that both unemployment and underemployment in Zambia are increasing. The pervasiveness of capital-intensive technology has reduced labor-absorption by the modern sector and the few new jobs which are created often require skills or training not possessed by a large number of the labor force. Never- theless, the urban industrial areas continue to attract large numbers of job seekers in part because of the opportunities for upward mobility. -6- ANNEX 3 Page 6 C. MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS 17. The efforts to attune supply from the educational system with man- power needs have not been fully successful not only because of the low educa- tional base which existed at independence but due also to the lack of adequate manpower data. The Government had projected that during the SNDP wage employ- ment would increase by about 100,000, an average of 20,000 jobs a year; such growth of about 5 percent p.a. would have been consistent with a projected GDP growth of 8-10 percent p.a. The projected growth rates were clearly too high. The table below illustrates that during the first two and a half years of the Plan wage employment grew at only about 1,000 persons p.a. (0.3 percent a year); on the average GDP grew by about 5 percent p.a. in this period. GDP has not increased much since 1974 and it is unlikely that employment in 1976 was much higher than in 1974. Table 3: WAGE EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRIAL SECTOR 1971 1972 1973 1974 Industry L1 December December December June Agriculture 39,320 29,790 30,440 31,700 Mining & Quarrying 58,160 60,650 61,740 63,630 Manufacturing 42,020 39,360 40,790 40,820 Construction 65,870 71,610 70,860 68,630 Distribution 37,930 33,690 33,310 33,600 Transport 22,580 25,040 24,210 24,650 All Services 99,670 100,530 104,240 105,120 All Industries 365,550 360,670 365,590 368,150 A1 Excluding Domestic Service. Source: Monthly Digest of Statistics, November/December 1975. 18. Preliminary government estimates for the period of 1977-1981 appear as unrealistic as the one contained in the SNDP. Assuming that employment in 1976 would be 410,000 the estimates project a wage employment in 1981 of some 535,000. This assumes a growth rate of about 5.5 percent p.a. for employment over the period of the TNDP which, in turn, would mean a monetary GDP growth rate of at least 10 percent p.a. On the assumption of a more realistic growth rate of monetary GDP of about 5 percent p.a., for the decade 1974-1984, wage employment would increase by about 3 percent p.a. and its distribution by sec- tor would be as follows: -7- ANNEX 3 Page 7 Table 4: PROJECTION OF WAGE EZPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRIAL SECTOR, 1974-1984 1974 1984 Agriculture 31,700 46,000 Mining & Quarrying 63,630 73,000 Manufacturing 40,820 71,000 Constructioo. 68,630 85,000 Transport 24,650 41,000 Electricity 4,390 7,000 Distribution, Finance & Social Services 134,330 197.000 Total 368,150 520,000 Source: Bani staff estimates. 19. According to Bank staff estimates, wage employment would be dis- tributed by major categories of occupations as follows: Table 5: PROJECTION OF WAGE EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY, 1974-1984 1974 1984 Professional & Technical 31,300 46,800 Adm./Managerial 14,800 26,000 Clerical & Related Workers 28,700 46,000 Sales Workers 14,800 20,800 Service Workers 36,800 83,200 Production & Related Workers 241,750 296,400 Total 368,150 520,000 20. On the bas:Ls of conservative assumptions to attrition rates for death, retirement, ev:c. (2 percent p.a. reflecting an implied average working life of 33 years and the comparatively young age profile of the persons now in employment) and on the hypothesis that some 80 percent of the over 30,000 expatriates in professional, technical, administrative and managerial posi- tions will be replaced by Zambians bv the mid- or late 1980s, the Bank staff projects that manpower requirements over the period 1974-1984 would be as follows: -8- ANNEX 3 Page 8 Table 6: TOTAL MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS BY OCCUPATIONAL CLASS, 1974-1984 Professional & Technical 38,200 Adm. & Managerial 27,400 Clerical 26,300 Sales 9,500 Services 57,800 Production 100,450 Total 259,650 At the highest occupational levels which are also those most significant for educational planning purposes, the projection is extremely sensitive to the assumptions regarding Zambianization policy because net job creation is expected to be small (some 2,500 p.a.). 21. Data on the education background of job holders by occupational categories are scanty and imprecise. In order to estimate the need fdr outputs of the various levels of the education system, the Bank staff has developed a matrix regarding the required education background for new entrants into wage employment on the basis of international comparisons and conservative assumptions. The matrix takes account of the Government's intention to broaden participation in junior secondary education so as to attain eventually a universal basic education of ten years. This will have the effect of gradually raising education qualifications for various occupa- tions, particularly for those at the bottom of the wage employment ladder. At the same time, however, the matrix takes account that shortages of teachers prevent a major expansion of post-secondary and upper-secondary education and as a result, the educational profile of new entrants in professional, technical, managerial and administrative categories would be lower than that normally found in countries of Zambia's level of development. The matrix is provided below. Table 7: EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF NEW ENTRANTS IN WAGE EMPLOYMENT 1974-1984 University & Form III Post-Secondary Form V or Less Professional & Technical 20% 40% 40% Managerial & Administrative 15% 40% 45% Clerical 5% 25% 70% Sales 5% 40% 55Z Services 5% 10% 85% Production & Agriculture 5% 10% 85% -9- ANNEX 3 Page 9 On the basis of this r3atrix, during the 1974-1984 period, education output needs (excluding primary and junior secondary school teachers) are estimated at some 22,000 for graduates of the University of Zambi'a and other post- secondary institutions, 52,000 for Form V graduates and 186,000 for junior secondary or primary school graduates. 22. Projections of the supply from the education system have been carried out by Bank staff on the basis of the enrollment targets expressed in the Government's new draft education reform (see paras. 69-71 and Appendix 13) and observed participation rates of graduates in the labor force. 1/ They indicate that wiirh some 20,000 entrants into the labor market from the University and other post-secondary institutions and 40,000 from upper secondary education, manpower needs and supply would be broadly in balance at the higher levels, but that some 125,000 junior secondary school leavers and over a million primary school leavers would compete for about 200,000 jobs. Furthermore, due to high and rising urbanization in Zambia, the im- balance will most likely show up in the form of high unemployment rates among youths in urban areas; the likelihood of this outcome merely reinforces the case for a policy of wage restraint which would increase labor absorption and for greater emphasis on rural development to create more productive employment prospects in rural areas and reduce incentives for migration, 23. Available data does not provide sufficient information to identify shortages of high and middle level manpower by major disciplines. However, interviews with employers reveal that gaps are particularly serious in science-based occupations. In commercial occupations, some 55 percent of those now employed are expatriates and in agriculture, expatriates account for 50 percent of those occupying professional posts. 24. As a conclusion, the following priorities emerge for manpower development: (a) expansion and improvement of professional, technical and administrative training for both the high and middle levels with. emphasis on preparation for science-based occupations and for jobs in commerce and agriculture; and (b) reorientation of primary and junior secondary education to prepare school leavers for a productive life on the land as a part of a well-conceived development program. D. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TiE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM An Overview 25. Although signif:icant changes in the structure, content and teaching methods of general education, particularly at the primary and junior secon- dary levels, have beien introduced since independence, general education in 1/ 80 percent for graduates of universities and other post-secondary insti- tutions, 70 percent for secondary school graduates. - 10 - ANNEX 3 Page 10 Zambia is still too academic and each level is geared to the preparation of students to enter the next level rather than to impart skills of direct social and economic relevance. Attempts to introduce practical subjects in the general education system have not been successful mainly due to the severe lack of teachers who can teach these skills. At the senior secondary level, the syllabus not only gives inadequate weight to practical subjects but also is unsuited for Zambian conditions since it is prepared by the Cambridge Examination Syndicate, the practice in Zambia since long before independence. Consequently, school dropouts and leavers who cannot pursue their studies do not have the background on which to build on-the-job traia- ing and experience and only a few are able to pursue vocational courses. 26. Technical and vocational education have been successful in provid- ing technical and skilled manpower for industry and infrastructure. aowever,. the program needs further expansion in all fields especially in the area of administrative and management services. Even though training schemes organ- ized by industries for their own employees supplement the output of Govern- ment schools, at present, the demand for technical and skilled personnel is not fully met. 27. Since independence, satisfactory programs at post-secondary level have been established. Instructional standards are high and facilities are fairly adequate. The University of Zambia is in the process of development and through the second education project of the Bank, the Schools of Educa- tiou and Engineering have been expanded. Plans for further development of the university are discussed in the latter parts of this report. 28. Considering Zambia's vast resources for agricultural production where great opportunities for self-employment exist, it is evident that one of the shortcomings of the system is its lack of viable programs in pre-vo- cational and vocational agriculture. The teaching of agricultural subjects in secondary schools is inadequate and the existing specialized training programs for farmers and field extension technicians are limited and receive inadequate support from the Government. These training programs are con- ducted by poorly trained teachers in substandard facilities. The retraining of these teachers and the upgrading of these teaching facilities require immediate attention by the Government. Primary Education and Primary Teacher Training 29. The basic data for primary education-in 1974 were as follows: Table 8: BASIC DATA FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION, 1974 Z Age Group Teacher:Pupil Progression Rate Grade Enrollment (7-13) Ratio Standard VII to Form I 1-7 858,171 86% 1:48 22% ANNEX 3 Page 11 Of 17,881 primary school teachers, 97 percent were Zambian and 3,766 or 21 percent of the total were untrained (Appendix 2). 1/ The majority of the untrained teachers are Form V leavers. 30. Since 1964, the educational system has been under continuous eval- needs of the country. Immediately after independence, the Government started to develop the "Zambian Primary Course" to replace the primary school cur- riculum prescribed prior to independence. Modifications to the curriculum were introduced as the "Zambian Primary Course" progressed. In addition, considerable changes ia the curriculum have taken place since 1966, the most significant of which were its orientation to the Zambian setting and environ- ment and the use of locally developed textbooks and teaching materials. Very little progress, however, has been made on the introduction of practical sub- jects in the upper grades of primary education. 31. The insufficient capacity of primary teacher training colleges has resulted in an increase in the proportioa of untrained teachers from 15 to 20 percent and a relatively high teacher:student ratio of 1:48 in 1974. It is extimated that about 5,000 teachers now teach two sessions daily. 32. At present, the output of all primary teachers' colleges is ap- proximately 1,000 p.a., including the additional output resulting from the expansion of one college assisted by the first IBRD education project (Loan 592-ZA). Two new colleges are being constructed and two others are being expanded by the Governiment to raise the output to about 1,500 p.a. by 1978. However, allowing for an enrollment expansion rate equivalent to demographic growth of the relevant, age group cohort (2.9 percent p.a.), a teacher attri- tion rate of 5 percent p.a., a reduction of the teacher-student ratio to 1:40 and the replacement of all expatriate and untrained teachers by 1981, about 2,500 new teachers p.a. and about 2,000 additional student places for primary teacher training would be required. Along with the need to expand training facilities, the teacher training program needs to be reinforced with courses designed to enable thel prospective teachers to teach practical subjects and to assume broad responLsibilities in community development and village leader- ship. SecondarY Education and Secondary Teacher Training 33. In 1974, the basic data for secondary education were as follows: Table 9: BASIC DATA FOR SECONDARY EDUCAIION,'1974 Z Age Group Teacher:Pupil Progression Rate Forms Enrollment (14-18) Ratio Form III to Form IV I-V 65,800 13% 1:22 50% 1/ Untrained teachers are those who have not taken formal courses in pedagogy. - 12 - ANNEX 3 Page 12 There were about 3,000 teachers of whom 68 percent were expatriates; and 17 percent of teachers were untrained (Appendix 3). 34. A severe problem which faces the Hinistry of Education is the re- cruitment of teachers to replace more than 20 percent of the secondary school Zambian teachers who leave the service each year. This high attrition rate is due largely to (Zambian) teachers who accept higher paying jobs in the industrial and parastatal sector. However, upon full implementation of the new approved salary scale for civil servants which on the average raises the salaries of teachers by about 20 percent, it is hoped that within the next five years, the teacher attrition rate would be reduced to a normal 5 percent p.a; this outcome may prove to be too optimistic, however. 35. At the junior secondary school level, a significant change in the curriculum was introduced in 1970 emphasizing the development of skills through the teaching of practical subjects; adequately equipped laboratories and workshops were provided. However, due to the lack of teachers trained in practical subjects, more than half of the workshops have not been used for the last three to four years. A 1973 study by the Ministry of Education indicated that only 18 teachers were qualified to teach metalwork and 47 to teach woodwork, while a minimum number of 80 teachers for each subject was required. To alleviate this shortage, a technical teachers' college with a potential output of 80 graduates p.a. has been established with assistance from the Swedish International Development Agency. The college is expected to graduate its first class in 1977. 36. No significant change has taken place in the instructional program of upper secondary schools. The syllabi are prepared by the Cambridge Uni- versity Ex-mination Syndicate which also controls the final examinations. As a result, the primary goal of upper secondary education students is to pass the Cambridge examination; therefore, the instructional program has little relevance to the local environment and to the employment needs of the stu- dents. However, as a national policy (Appendix 4) the Government intends by 1980 to develop local examinatious which would replace the Cambridge school certificate. 37. The existing secondary school teacher training colleges graduate about 350 persons p.a. In 1977, when the expansion of the Copperbelt Secondary Teachers' College (assisted by the IBRD first education project) and the Luanshya Technical Teachers' College (established with assistance from the Swedish International Development Agency) become fully operational, the total annual output would be about 450. 38. With the above anticipated output, it would take some five years to replace all expatriate teachers, assuming that the secondary enrollment ratio remains constant. As will be discussed in more detail later in this Annex, teacher shortages will become more acute if the Government implements its plan of providing ten years of compulsory education within the next decade (1976-1986). - 13 - ANNEX 3 Page 13 Professional Education (Degree Level) 39. The Universi-y of Zambia, the only institution offering professional training in the country, was established in 1966 with an initial enrollment of 312 students. In 1974, the enrollment reached 2,612 with a total academic staff of 307. Of the academic staff, only 44 or 14 percent are Zambians. In 1973, however, a total of 69 staff fellowships were awarded to Zambians for studies both at the university and abroad under the university's staff development program. The university offers a Bachelor's degree in 11 fields and graduate courses ia Arts and Science. Between establishment and 1974, the university produced 860 graduates (Appendix 5). 40. President Kaunda recently announced that two additional campuses will be established - one in Ndola and the other in a rural area (Solwezi) for the School of Forestry, Veterinary, and Agricultural Sciences. To imple- ment this plan, the President has appointed a planning team and expects to include the relevant projects in the Third National Development Plan. No details are yet available on this intended expansion of the university. Technical and Vocational Training 41. There are 14 technical and vocational schools under the Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT) of the Miaistry of Education; seven offer two-year courses in industrial trades generally to junior secondary schocil leavers, three schools offer one to three years of industrial technician courses to senior secondary school leavers and four schools offer both trades and technician courses. The total enrollment in 1914 was 2,600 in tracles courses and 3,066 in technician courses including technical teacher training (Appendices 6 and 7). 42. The training; programs of the technical and vocational schools in terms of quality of output are satisfactory. These schools are generally well equipped. The D1EVT maintains a close liaison and working relationship with the industrial sector whose representatives actively participate in various education advisory committees in determining occupational needs and in helping develop curricula and syllabi. All graduates of these schools are generally employed by the busiaess and industrial sectors1which sponsor about 50 percent of the students in technical schools. In some instances the industrial sector, pasticularly the mining industry, provides the technical schools with instructors and equipment to help train mining technicians. 43. Although the graduates in industrial courses are below the require- ments of industry, the shortage is not severe since many industries, and particularly the miniag sector, where a great majority of'the graduates are employed, operate tratning programs to supplement the output of the trade schools. On the other hand, the output of courses for management and admin- istrative services, e.g., accountancy, bookkeeping and business studies, secretarial and typing is inadequate to meet the needs as evidenced by the large number of expatriates still occupying these posts. - 14 - ANNEX 3 Page 14 44. The Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce, which is one of the main institutions offering courses for management and administrative services, has capacity to accommodate 1,200 students but, until recently, has only been able to admit 950 because of limited boarding facilities which have restricted its ability to accept students whose homes are outside Lusaka. The school has also had to rely heavily on expatriate staff. A recent IBRD loan (No. 1356-ZA) will assist in increasing boarding places by 250 persons and in training of Zambian teachers for the college's business and secretarial studies department. In addition, five Trades Training Institutes located in areas of growing demand for secretarial manpower, have been hampered by the lack of necessary equipment; the IBRD loan will assist in providing furniture and instructional equipment for commercial and secretarial classes. Agricultural Education 45. In the formal school system, the teaching of agriculture as a sub- ject starts at the secondary level. For lack of qualified teachers, however, the progress of the program has been very slow. The National Resources De- velopment College (NRDC) graduates about 20 agricultural teachers p.a., which should be enough to meet the yearly requirement for new teachers. However these teachers, who are bonded to teach for two years, usually leave the teaching profession for higher paid employment elsewhere; it is expected that when the new salary scale is fully implemented (para. 34), these teachers would remain in teaching. 46. At the certificate level, the Zambia College of Agriculture at Monze provides a two-year post junior secondary course in agriculture and the first year of training of veterinary assistants. The second year is conducted at the Veterinary College at Mazubuka, 38 miles from Monze. These colleges have an output of 25 to 30 each p.a. A new College of Agriculture in Mpika started operating in October 1975 and will graduate about 40-50 beginning 1977. There are two schools for certificate level training in fisheries in the Northern and Southern provinces respectively, with 120 places each. These schools, how- ever, operate only on an ad hoc basis when the need for junior level fishery technicians arises. 47. Diploma level training is offered at the NRDC for senior secondary school leavers in seven specialized fields, namely: agriculture, agricul- tural education, agricultural engineering, livestock science and production, agricultural business management, water development and nutrition (home economics). This college has classroom and hostel space for 600 students, but, due to the lack of adequate kitchen and dining facilities, enrolls only about 450 students. It also has inadequate teaching aids, and facilities and equipment for practical work particularly for home economics and agriculture are sub-standard. This college is the only source of middle level agricul- tural technicians in the country and the demand for such technicians cannot be met with present enrollments. The present force of about 600 middle level technicians in the MRD, mostly expatriates, meets only about 60 percent of the 1975 estimated requirement. The need to expand the output of NRDC is obvious. However, specific investment proposals cannot be formulated until the issue as to possible transfer of NRDC to another site (para. 50 below) is resolved. - 15 - ANNEX 3 Page 15 48. Training for all forestry technicians is offered at the Mwekera Forestry College. This college has a yearly student intake of 25 for the diploma course and 25 for the certificate course. The college has a capacity of 300 students but at: most, only 150 students are admitted to meet the limited demand of the Forest Department for forestry technicians. 49. Professional level (degree level) training is conducted at the School of Agriculture., University of Zambia, in a four-year training course after one year of tra:Lning in basic sciences at the University's School of Natural Sciences. To date, the school awarded 35 bachelor's degrees, 28 of which were in July 1975. The third IBRD education project (Loan 900-ZA) included assistance for the expansion of this school to raise its output to about 50 p.a. However, since it is planned to move the school to a new site which has yet to be determined, this assistance is being held in abeyance pending finalization of plans. 50. The establishment of a rural university campus as recently an- nounced by President ICaunda (para. 40) to house the Schools of Forestry, Veterinary, and Agricultural Sciences and NRDC, may prove to be more economi- cal in the use of resources in the long run, since the staff, equipment and facilities would be shared by all the units. The rural campus would also provide a more appropr:iate environment than Lusaka for training and research. However, there is the danger that, due to the autonomous nature and academic orientation of the unLversity, the diploma level training might become too theoretical and thus have little relevance to the actual training needs of the extension agents and agricultural officers. This danger can be guarded against, however, if the diploma course is specifically tailored to meet the training needs of agricultural technicians in the agricultural sector. 51. In-service training for the staff of the MRD takes place in Farm Institutes (FIs) each located in each of eight provinces. Three types of courses are offered: (a) short courses on specific topics to upgrade and update the knowledge and skills of agricultural technicians in animal and crop production; (b) 12 week induction training for commodity demonstrators (who eventually become agricultural demonstrators), the junior cadre of extension staff who have the most contacts with farmers; and (c) advanced farmer training whenever the institutes are not used for in-service train- ing. Generally, these institutes lack water, electricity,, and demonstra- tion equipment and have poor accommodation for trainees and instructors. Vehicles necessary for field trips and transport of trainees are virtually non-existent. 52. Residential farmer training is conducted in 27 Farmer Training Centers (FTCs) throughout the country. Short courses for!men and women, normally lasting five days, are offered in crop and animal production and in home crafts, health and home economics. Many centers,lhowever, do not operate effectively due to lack of appropriate teaching facilities, equipment and accommodation. In addition, no facilities were provided for women when the FTCs were initially established and during the last three years, women have actively participated in the courses through makeshift arrangements. Shortages of water, electricity and transport affect the overall operational - 16 - ANNEX 3 Page 16 efficiency of the centers. Nevertheless, in 1974 the centers trained 22,000 farmers but operated at only 54 percent of potential capacity. A study of farmer training included as part of the Bank's third education project in- dicates that the centers could have trained 12,000 more farmers if adequate facilities had been available. 53. MRD operates an agricultural extension service as a follow-up to the training the farmers receive at the centers and also as a source of technical information and guidance for farmers who are unable to attend the FTCs. Its staff consists of a small administrative unit in Lusaka, agri- cultural officers in provincial and district stations and agricultural as- sistants and demonstrators stationed in agricultural camps. The agricultural officers supervise the extension activities of the agricultural assistants and demonstrators (extension apprentices) who are in direct contact with farmers. 54. Most of the time, apprenctices actually provide technical assis- tance to the farmers and carry out the agricultural extension program. They are, however, the least trained and supported among the extension staff. Their 12 week training course at the FIs, with inadequately trained instruc- tors and substandard facilities, is insufficient to prepare them for the duties they are expected to perform. There is an urgent need to improve the quality of their training and to supplement it with regularly scheduled in- service training under more competent instructors and with better training facilities. 55. The Government, assisted by IBRD, is taking important steps to improve the quantity and quality of services provided by the Farm Institutes and Farmer Training Centers. The eight Farm Institutes are to be provided with home economics and audio visual workshops, water supply, electricity and vehicles where needed. The improvement of facilities will enable the Farm Institutes to operate efficiently and at full capacity. As a consequence, about 1,500 additional MRD staff p.a. will receive training. The improve- ments to the Farmer Training Centers include student housing for women, home economics workshops, instructional equipment, vehicles, improved water and electricity supply, and limited renovation and/or replacement of rundown offices, classrooms and dining facilities. With these improvements, over 198,000 man-days of training p.a. can be provided at the Farmer Training Centers, a more than three-fold increase over the amount provided in 1973-74. 56. There are now 542 agricultural camps with about 1,180 demonstrators. Each camp serves farming areas ranging from 91 to 490 square miles. To be able to serve all the farmers in each camp area, an extension officer must travel about 40 miles each day and in some cases up to 100 miles. If the present camps are to be maintained and operated efficiently, the provision of adequate transport is essential. Bicycles are most commonly used for transportation by extension fieldmen and, therefore, extension activities have been very limited. To improve the efficiency of the extension service, MRD has proposed the purchase of 1,100 motorcycles. - 17 - ANNEX 3 Page 17 Medical Education 57. Three levels of medical training are conducted in Zambia: (a) pro- fessional training for a period of three to six years after senior secondary school; (b) paramedical training for a period of two to three years, also after senior secondary school; and (c) training of medical auxiliary staff of two to three years duration for junior secondary school leavers. Paramedical and medical auxiliary service training which are also conducted by the min- ing industry and religious missions, have progressed considerably since independence. Over 90 percent of the paramedical and medical auxiliary staff are Zambians. 58. Professional training, however, is at present limited and only provides for the bachelor's degree in medicine and surgery. Only 8 percent of about 550 doctors and about 15 percent of registered nurses and midwives are Zambians. In 1971, out of 35 dentists and 81 pharmacists, only 2 in each category were Zambians; it is doubtful whether this position has changed recently because there are no training programs for dentists and pharmacists in the country. For registered nurses, paramedical and medical auxiliary staff, shortages are being met through the expansion of existing training programs and establishment of new centers with assistance from the ongoing third IBRD education project (Loan 900-ZA). As regards medical doctors, the School of Medicine at the University of Zambia has graduated an average of 15 doctors p.a. since 1972. For dentists and pharmacists, the present arrange- ment of hiring expatriates and sending Zambians for studies abroad in these fields is still considered to be more economical than the establishment of training institutions since the country's need for this type of manpower is still limited. Adult Education 59. Aside from the farmer training program and the agricultural exten- sion service being provided by MRD (paras. 51 to 54), a viable adult education program is also being conducted by the Ministry of Education. This program has two general objectives: (a) to give opportunities for school dropouts, who are disqualified trom re-entering the school system due to their age, to pursue general educat-on up to the Form V level; and (b) to provide vocational training for primary and junior secondary school leavers and dropouts who desire to learn a skill. 60. General education is provided through evening classes using exist- ing school facilities and teachers who receive additional compensation for their services beyond regular working hours. Correspondence courses are also offered at the junior secondary level. Those enrolled in correspondence courses usually meet regularly in groups to discuss theirrassignments with a supervisor who, although not a professional teacher, provides leadership to the group. 61. Vocational courses of different durations are offered in four non- boarding adult education centers, all located in urban towns of the Copperbelt province. In 1974, there were a total of 620 full-time and 2,820 part-time - 18 - ANNEX 3 Page 18 students. Since these centers have been fairly successful in training school leavers and dropouts for employment, the Government included in its Second National Development Plan (1972-1976) the establishment of eight new adult education centers to offer training in rural vocations to out of school youths and adults in the rural areas, but these centers have not been built due to lack of funds. This adult education program has great potential in helping provide skills for employment to about 150,000 primary school leavers and about 7,500 junior secondary school leavers p.a., who are not able to further pursue formal education. The program also allows adults to pursue general education without age limitation. As part of the education sector review (para. 69 below), the adult education program is being reexamined to determine how best to improve and expand it during the next-development plan period (1978-1982). E. FINANCING AND COST OF EDUCATION 62. Education and training in Zambia is financed almost entirely by the Government. The role of private education is negligible. Education is generally provided without charge and in most cases students above the primary level are given free board and lodging. In addition, students at the post secondary level are usually given Government bursaries, although about 50 percent of those enrolled in technical education are partly or fully sup- ported by private industries. 63. In 1974, about 95 percent of all Government allocations for public education was channeled through the Ministry of Education. MRD spent about K 1.10 million which accounted for 5 percent of its budget while the Ministry of Health spent K 0.98 million, equal to 3 percent of its budget. 64. Recurrent education expenditures (Appendix 8) of the Ministry of Education, during the six years 1970-1975, rose from K 44.3 million to more than K 75 million but remained a roughly constant 16 percent of the total Government recurrent budget. The shares devoted to technical and university education registered the largest increases over this six year period. 65. Capital expenditures (Appendix 11) by the Ministry of Education amounted to 7-12 percent of Government total capital expenditures over the period 1970-75. As compared with recurrent expenditures on education, capital expenditures have shown more erratic year-to-year fluctuations, associated with the expansion and completion of development programs at various levels. 66. Construction costs of educational facilities in Zambia have been rising rapidly and are now higher than in many East African countries. Rapid cost increases have been largely due to: (a) the difficulty of transporting imported goods into the country; and (b) a construction industry, dominated by expatriate firms, which is slow to respond to development needs due to uncertainty about Government policy regarding private enterprise and the role of foreigners. 67. As a proportion of GNP, Zambia's expenditures for education are 8 percent more than those of the "typical" East African country; Zambia spends relatively more on primary and secondary education and relatively less on - 19 - ANNEX 3 Page 19 hi-her education (Appendix 9). However, the higher share devoted to education is a result of relatively high enrollment ratios and not the result of high costs per student place. In fact, comparing unit costs as a proportion of GNP per capita, Zambia spends less than the "typical" East African country by about 30 percent in primary education, about 20 percent in secondary education and about 50 percent in higher education (Appendix 10). The country's enrollment ratios are higher than those for the "typical" East African country at all three levels of education. F. EDUCATION POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS 68. In general, the public and the educational authorities in Zambia are not satisfied with the reforms so far introduced in the education system because the system has yet to develop the attitudes and skills among the students necessary for self-reliance and national development. Also in the Government's view, the system promotes alienation of school leavers from their environment and livini conditions and inadequately prepares them for life in Zambia. 69. Therefore, the Government launched a review of the educational sector to pinpoint ancd analyze its shortcomings. In addition, the Ministry of Education studied educational innovations both at home and abroad, which could possibly contribute to educational change. Four teams of educators visited selected counl:ries, i.e., Tanzania, Kenya, Botswana, Nigeria, Ghana, Guyana, Sierra Leone, Jamaica, Cuba and the People's Republic of China to conduct studies. The Ministry of Education re-examined the goals of education and has formulated revrised objectives which are more relevant to the develop- ment needs of the country. A preliminary report of the review has been completed and has been discussed with opinion groups, unions, students' and parents' associations:, etc., through a "period of national dialogue with the people." Comments from the various opinion groups were incorporated in a draft reform document which will be referred to the United National Indepen- dence Party (UNIP) for: review and deliberation. After review by the National Council, the highest policymaking body of the Party, the draft reform will be sent to the Parliament: for action. The Ministry of Education expects the Parliameat to act upoIn the document during 1977. 70. Prior to the review, the UNIP provided guidelines for "national education policies for the decade 1974-1984," including 20 points, of which four are particularly important: (a) to restructure the system of education and provide for ten years of universal education; (b) to improve and expand the programs of adult education; (c) to develop a locally based examination system in order to replace the Cambridge examination; andi(d) to merge the functions of the locaL and regional Councils of Educationiwith those of the District and Provincial Development Committees (Appendix 4). These points indicate that the fundamental policy as to (i) the lengthlof basic education, (ii) the role of adult and nonformal education, (iii) the reorientation of the content of secondary education, and (iv) the administiation of education, has already been decided. In addition, President Kaunda has indicated that every student should develop a positive attitude towards productive work (guided by provisions in the curricula) and, prior to entering into higher education, should have participated in the National Service under the Rural Reconstruction Program, for at least one year. - 20 - ANNEX 3 Page 20 71. The "theme" of the draft reform is "education for development" and the proposals lead to a combination of study and work. The most fundamental change envisaged at the first level of the system is the introduction of ten years of compulsory basic education for all children. Since the present limited capacity of the primary school and junior secondary system would only allow the enrollment of a small additional number of pupils, changes in the school calendar (four instead of three terms) and a new "rotative" intake system are expected to provide additional capacity. The "rotative" system would mean that one-half of the children in grades 8-lO (Forms I-III according to the present system), would be attending school during two of the four terms while the other half would remain at home pursuing a course of "self-instruc- tional" lessons or doing community project work under the guidance of local leaders. Through rotation, together with more intensive use of existing facilities, the enrollment in basic education can be doubled while the teacher force is only increased by 20 percent. At the secondary level, changes are expected to be radical as well. Since Forms I to III would be integrated in and become grades 8-10 of basic education, "second stage education" would include various separate vocational and/or sub-professional courses (for agricultural assistants, nurses, junior accountants, medical assistants, etc.). The traditional general secondary course would lose its importance because of the terminal character of basic education as well as of "second stage education" and changes in the examination structure. New curricula would be designed, including a strong element of civic education and intro- ducing professionalization into the "second stage education." After gradua- tion all "second stage" leavers would participate in the National Service before proceeding to employment or higher education. Third stage education (higher education) would provide a combination of professional courses and general education. 72. Adult education, henceforth called continuing education, would as well undergo transformation. A new Department of Continuing Education would be responsible for the national literacy campaign, formal education by part- time study, skills training programs for adults and certain parts of the in- service training of teachers. Courses for adult education would be revised in order to reflect adult interests and experience and to allow participants to take, as external candidates, any of the new examinations of the reformed system. 73. The combination of "study and work" would have higher educational and productive objectives. Every pupil or student would participate in pro- duction as an attitude formation exercise, for occupational preparation and to add to the national output. There is much hope expressed in the draft reform to finance a substantial part of education costs from the proceeds of the students' productive activities (cooperative firms, school-community projects, infrastructure projects, school building, school furniture manufac- turing), which would be geared to food production and to the development of cottage industries. 74. The new education system would require changes in teacher training and administration and organization of the sector. Teachers would have to - 21 - ANNEX 3 Page 21 play a leading role in organizing productive work and the Ministry of Educa- tion would have to change its management procedures in order to keep adminis- tration efficient and flexible. Among other things, the Government's ongoing Zambianization program and its decision to merge the functions of the local and regional educational council with those of the district and provincial development committeesi are steps towards attaining better administration and management. In several places, the draft reform expresses the view that the proposed education changes can only be achieved by "greater sacrifices and more intensive efforts by all of the people" and by the creation of a spirit of volunteerism, in particular on the part of the teachers. The Party is expected to play the maajor role in launching and sustaining the reform. Costs and financing of the :reform proposals are yet to be worked out; it is expected that they would be de:.ined after the essential principles of the draft reform have been accepted by UNIP and the Parliament. 75. The reform Ls expected to lead to the formulation of a broad sector investment program as part of the Third National Development Plan. It is noted that the reform explicitly confirms the right of each Zambian to at least ten years of basic education and that, in planning for education, social demand considerations will prevail over manpower considerations. The implementation period for the reform is expected to be about one decade. 76. From the outset, however, it appears that whatever strategy is adopted, the main constraints on the implementation of the stated policies are the present and projected shortages of teachers and instructors and the financing of the required capital and recurrent expenditure. Appendix 12 shows the estimated capital and recurrent expenditure requirements during the period 1976-1986. These estimates are based on the assumptions that ten years (Grade 1 to Form III) of compulsory education will be offered starting in 1977 (Appendix 13, Assumption I), a primary school teacher attrition rate of 5 percent p.a., a secondary school teacher attrition rate of 20 percent in 1976 (current rate) gradually decreasing to 5 percent in 1981, and complete replacement of untrained teachers by 1981 (Appendices 2 and 3). In 1976 prices, capital expenditures of about K 974.8 million would be required for primary and secondary education including teacher training during the period 1976 to 1981, an amount equivalent to 100 percent of projected Government capital expenditures over the period. 1/ This large capital requirement is due to the sudden increase in progression rate from Grade 7 to Form I to nearly 100 percent from the present rate of 18 percent. For the period 1981 to 1986, the capital expenditure requirement is expected to decrease to about K 403.0 million. 77. On the basis of the assumptions made in the previous paragraph, recurrent expenditure on education would amount to about K 240 million in 1981 (in 1976 prices), which is more than double the estimated recurrent expenditure in 1976 (Appendix 12). By 1986, the recurrent expenditure would 1/ Assuming that Government real capital expenditures grow at 3.5 percent p.a. - 22 - ANNEX 3 Page 22 increase to about K 296 million. These estimates include a 20 percent nominal increase in teacher salaries as authorized by the recent implementation of revised salary schedules, along with moderate increases in student requisites. Based on these financial estimates, total recurrent expenditure from 1976 to 1986 would increase at about 11.2 percent p.a. in real terms. With an estimated 3.5 percent growth rate of the total government recurrent budget, however, by 1986 the recurrent expenditure on education would reach 34 percent of the budget, an extremely high proportion compared to that of other African countries. On purely financial grounds, it appears that the Government's stated policy of universal and compulsory education up to Form III is not realistic, unless the cost-saving devices (para. 73) promoted as a part of the reform prove to be very effective. 78. An alternative enrollment projection (Appendix 13, Assumption II) was developed by Bank staff to examine the financial implications of more realistic targets. This projection envisages a 100 percent participation rate in primary education and a progression rate of 18 percent (current rate) from Grade 6 to Form I between 1976 and 1981 and 50 percent from 1981 to 1986. As shown in Appendix 14, based on 1976 prices, capital expenditures of about K 264 million would be required for primary and secondary education including teacher training during the period 1976 to 1981, substantially less than when 10 years of universal education are assumed and amounting to about 25 percent of total capital expenditures over the period. For the period 1981 to 1986, the capital expenditure requirement is expected to reach about 488 million. Recurrent expenditure amounting to K 143 million would be needed in 1981 and about K 211 million in 1986. In'proportion to total government recurrent expenditure, education expenditure would be 20 percent in 1981 and 24 percent in 1986 which compares we.ll with those reported in countries at a comparable stage of economic and educational development. A more careful analysis of the projected financial capabilities of the Government would, however, be necessary to more precisely determine the extent to which enroll- meuts could feasibly be increased. _-7. vw_f _J vl- rf t,- I' nuln:>fi tz 'Iflmllr ,flfllln IrJ.-uln-2fi~V U.j,FUI j-f ) 1(1-- j'-,-,n'' nfi ,,,ilr v ,n''"N r,.,,,1 p . -,,- -o - *turJr-ol' 1? ..loll.~ wfk-o a.c flu"IM-1a IrUQIWMA "In^rPS qnoA uetqw,r, p4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~jp _ i n _ir*JItbo ,^ Alr II EI-tJ--FiH E-21- UIInO mm- 'jI ) tA Al 1 II ii t AHVIaNo33S U3ddn AHV(1NOD9S H3MOt AlIVINIHI4 fiut9totl~~~~~~~~~~~~~~) puvttPltA|thLi JSIl,fIl AJ.p-uoy.S ' A ,,.,d ou [ :3m 'ulllue nufflugr ^!nXurStsrtt ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ toru woouljAuldiq% 5rn, ueuInH * "uO,,,,p thylu I,,nhln M ivl/J'IP suwowAn g Ft- VIlnwVZ ,o AIP5MIIAINn W31SAS NOIIVlnf3 l0 3Onnnu,ls11 V IawJVZ - 24 - APPENDLX 2 ZAMBIA PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS ZAMBIAN NON-ZAMBTAN TOTAL Year Category No. % No. % No. % Trained 11,740 85 791 92 12,531 85 Untrained* 2,106 15 71 8 2,177 15 1971 Total 13,846 100 862 100 14,708 100 % 94 6 100 Trained 12,415 80 350 78 12,765 80 Untrained* 3,162 20 97 22 3,259 20 1972 Total 15,577 100 447 100 16,024 100 %. 97 3 100 Trained 12,936 79 393 75 13.329 79 Untrained* 3,482 21 128 25 3,610 21 1973 Total 16,418 100 521 100 16,939- 100 % 97 3 100 Trained 13,700 79 371 75 14,115 79 Untrained * 3,640 21 126 25 3,766 21 1974 Total 17,384 100 492 100 17,881 100 v. 97 3 100 * Untraineri teachers are those who have not taken formal courses in pedagogy. Source: Ministry of Education - 25 - APPENDTT 3 ZADMIA SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS ZAMBIAN NON-ZAMBIAN TOTAL Year Category No. % No. % No. % Trained 313 93 1,843 82 2,156 83 Untrained* 25 7 404 18 429 17 1971 Total 338 100 2,247 100 2,585 100 % 13 87 100 Trained 406 90 1,896 81 2,302 83 Untrained* 44 10 433 19 477 17 1972 Total 450 100 2,329 100 2,779 100 % 16 84 100 Trained 504 95 1,889 80 2,393 83 Untrained* 27 5 460 20 487 17 1973 Total 531 100 2,349 100 2,880 100 % 18 82 100 Trained 671 93 1.877 81 2,548 84 Untrained * 52 7 438 19 490 16 1974 Total 723 100 2,315 100 3,038 100 % 24 76 100 * Untrained teachers -ire those who have not taken formal courses in pedagogy. Source: Ministry of Education - 26 - APPENDIX 4 Page 1 of 3 Z A M B I A EXTRACTS FROM UNIP DOCUMENT ON "NATIONAL POLICIES FOR NEXT DECADE 1974-1984" Education is the basis of national development to which every individual should have a right. It is crucial to the development of the individual and is an invaluable social investment which guarantees the expansion of society's productive capacity through provision of scientific technological and technical skills; it is also an essential precondition for a viable democratic system. Over the last decade tremendous achievements, which will provide a strong base for even greater performance, have been made. To this end, the Party will therefore: (1) expand and improve the whole system of learning to provide full education for every Zambian in such a way as to develop the following qualities: (a) ability to combat ignorance and its effects; namely, servitude, fanaticism, and prejudice; (b) ability to understand and take pride in our national heritage; (c) critical understanding of the written and spoken word; (d) ability to generate ideas; (e) ability to make decisions and take action; (f) ability to order one's life; (g) respect for labour. (2) restructure the system of education and provide for a compulsory basic ten years of education leading to the Junior School Certificate which will: (a) adequately prepare the young people for the challenges of life; (b) enable those who continue to obtain the Senior School Certificate after two years of educationl. - 27 - APPENDIX 4 Page 2 of 3 (3) expand and improve facilities for training teacher educators at the Teacher Training Colleges and the University of Zambia; (4) improve education through the use of not only suitable new media but also different methods, materials, equip- ment and support services. These improvements will be brought about by organized, well-directed educational research and consequent innovation; (5) rationalise the running of all education and training institutions to facilitate more effective co-ordination and planning; (6) expand education facilities providing specialized instruction to the deaf, dumb and physically handicapped; (7) revise the law governing the running of nursery schools and creches so that they are administered by the Ministry of Education and Culture to facilitate control of fees and curricula in the interests of Zambia; (8) ensure that education in Zambia fosters patriotism and the sense of international solidarity based on independence and justice; (9) broaden and improve the scope of educational broadcasting and library services. Special emphasis wilJ be put on intansifying the provision of these services to the rural areas; (10) eva.Luate and expand educational television programmes to covier a much larger school population; (11) expand the scope of science and technical education to enable Zambians to lead full and effective lives; (12) improve and expand the University of Zambia and adequately equip it so that it continues as a centre of higher learn- ing and as a source of high-level manpower; (13) improve and expand programmes of adult education to increase the level of literacy and provide extra skills in the nation; (14) embark on a programe of setting up local correspondence schools with a view to abolishing those that are based and/or controlled from outside Zambia; - 28 - APPENDIX 4 Page 3 of 3 (15) give maximum support to all organizations involved in education research and curriculum development; (16) internalise Senior School Certificate examinations and abolish the Cambridge School Certificate; (17) merge the functions of Local and Regional Councils of Education with those of the District and Provincial Development Committees; (18) ensure that school buildings are simple and inexpensive but functional and durable; (19) foster public interest in the strengthering of Parent- Teachers' Associations and increase their contribution to the improvement of schools; (20) strengthen and improve education in Zambian Humanism. Z A M B I A OUTPUT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA SINCE ESTABLISHMENT Degree 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973/4 Total Bachelor of Arts 26 44 49 35 59 46 259 Bachelor of Arts with Education - 11 10 45 35 69 170 Bachelor of Laws - 23 12 14 13 26 88 Bachelor of Science - 3 13 11 18 37 82 Bachelor of Science with Education - - - 8 14 22 44 Bachelor of Science (Human Biology) - 6 20 14 20 23 83 Bachelor of Science with Engineering - 5 6 - - 11 Bachelor of Science with Agriculture - - 4 3 7 Bachelor of Medicine,Surgery - - - - 14 18 32 Bachelor of Social Work - 19 3 1 2 8 33 Bachelor of Arts (Library) - - - - - 6 6 Master of Science - - 2 - - 2 Master of Arts - 1 - 2 - 3 Bachelor of Engineering - - - - 13 26 39 _-d TOTAL 26 106 113 136 194 284 859 Ln Souirce: Ministrv of Education - 30 - APPENDIX 6 Z A M B I A TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS Enrollment - 1974 School Enrollment 1. Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce 1,046 2. Zambia Institute of Technology 896 3. Northern Technical College 765 4. Zambia Air Services Training Institute 213 5. Technical Teacher Training Unit 106 6. Livingston Trades Training Institute 506 7. Choma Trades Training Institute 139 8. Lusaka Trades Training Institute 336 9. Kabwe Trades Training Institute 602 10. Mansa Trades Training Institute 138 11. Lukashya Trades Training Institute 402 12. Luanshya Trades Training Institute 25 13. Nkimbi International College 416 14. Kariya College of Secretarial Science 76 TOTAL 5,666 Source; Ministry of Education - 31 - APPENDIX 7 Z A M B I A ENROLLMENT BY PROGRAM IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 1974 Program Enrollment Prevocational ance Trades 2,600 Construction/Engineering Technologist 157 Construction/Engineering Technician 1,045 Science and Paramedical 182 Business Studies and Commerce 333 Applied Arts 280 Secretarial 738 Air Services 213 Teacher Training 118 TOTAL 5,666 Source: Ministry of Education Z A M B I A RECURRENT EXPENDITURE - MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE 1970 - 1975 (K millions) 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Category K % K K % K % K % K % Primary Education 19.62 44.20 23.89 44.53 27.00 44.63 28.78 44.24 31.21 44.80 34.16 45.30 Secondary Education 12.13 27.33 11.84 22.07 13.93 23.02 14.40 22.13 15.71 22.55 16.75 22.21 Teacher Training L.32 2.97 1.61 3.00 1.71 2.83 1.56 2.40 1.90 2.73 2.13 2.83 Technical Education 2.25 5.07 5.63 6.90 5.80 9.59 5.84 8.98 5.64 8.10 6.69 8.87 University of Zambia 3.54 7.97 3.70 10.49 3.85 6.36 6.39 9.82 6.40 9.19 5.89 7.81 Administration & Others 5.53 12.46 6.98 13.01 8.21 13.57 8.09 12.43 8.80 12.63 9.79 12.98 Total Education Expenditure 44.39 100 53.65 100 60.50 100 65.06 100 69.67' 100 75.41 100 % increase over previous yr 12e32 20.86 12.77 7.54 7.07 8.25 Total Govt. Expenditure 275.00 350.31 363.18 394.11 440.93 609.47 % increase over previous yr 17.91 27.38 3.67 8.52 11.88 38.22 Education expenditure as % of total Govt. expenditure 16.14 15.32 16.66 16.51 15.80 122.37 Source: Ministry of Education C') - 33 - APPENDLX c EASTERN AFRICA RATIO OF RECURREPT EXPENDITURES ON EDUCATION TO GNP (In Percentages) Expenditures/GNP Primary Secondary Higher Total Level Level Level "TPICAL COUNTRY" 3.92 2.04 1.13 .59 Botswana 5.41 2.48 2.04 .88 Burundi 2.93 1.33 1.49 .10 Ethiopia 2.40 1.15 .77 .47 Kenya 6.15 3.81 1.61 .73 Lesotho 5.20 2.40 1.20 1.60 Madagascar 4.82 2.44 1.62 .76 Malawi 2.52 1.21 .59 .71 Mauritius 3.92 2.52 1.10 .28 Rwanda 3.64 2.43 .67 .53 Somalia 1.89 1.26 .36 .27 Sudan 5.05 2.10 1.77 1.17 Swaziland 5.57 2.58 1.96 1.03 Tanzania 3.80 1.78 1.42 .58 Zaire 4.37 2.26 .82 1.28 Zambia 4.24 2.51 1.31 .42 Source: IBRD Patt:erns of Educational Expenditure (Staff Working Paper No. 246; November 1976). - 34 - -APPENDIX 10 EASTERN AFRICA RATIO OF UNIT COSTS TO GNP PER CAPITA BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL (In Percentages) Unit Costs/GNP Per Capita Primary Secondary Higher Level Level Level "TYPICAL COUNTRY" 20 124 927 Botswana 16 160 418 Burundi 37 567 427 Ethiopia 36 108 1,398 Kenya 25 120 643 Lesotho 12 83 1,994 Madagascar 17 109 821 Malawi 10 181 1,400 Mauritius 14 16 193 Rwanda 24 253 2,358 Somalia 37 109 579 Sudan 33 159 1,262 Swaziland 14 73 915 Tanzania 23 428 3,420 Zaire 15 59 1,777 Zambia 14 ro00 471 Source:'- Same as Appendix 9 Z A M B I A CAPITAL EXPENDITURE - MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE 1970 - 1975 (K millions) 1970 1971 1972 j 1973 1 1974 1975-L K % K % K % K % K % K % Primiary Education 2.04 17.47 3.37 18.27 3.68 19.33 2.99 13.52 3.77 17.38 - _ Secondary Education 2.83 24.23 2.57 13.94 5.36 28.17 10.52 47.58 11.61 53.50 8.13 43.78 Teaclher Training 5.41 4.62 0.50 2.71 0.81 4.26 1.61 7.28 1.33 6.13 1.18 6.35 t Technical Education 3.97 33.99 7.52 40.78 6.79 35.68 5.40 24.42 3.70 17.05 4.60 24.77 University of Zambia 2.17 18.58 3.85 20.89 2.09 10.98 1.33 6.02 0.99 4.56 3.17 17.07 Administration & Others 0.13 1.11 0.63 3.42 0.30 1.58 0.26 1L18 0.30 1.38 1.49 8.02 Total Education Expenditure 11.68 100 18.44 100 19.03 100 22.11 100 21.70 100 18.57 100 % increase over previous yr 27.79 57.88 3.20 16.18 1.9 - 17.0 Total Covt. Expenditure 160.50 202.63 160.37 211.81 193.77 245.57 % increase over previous yr 8.81 26.25 -26.35 32.08 9.15 26.73 Education expenditure as % of total Govt. expenditure 7.28 9.10 11.87 10.44 11.20 7.55 Source: ML[istry of Education I-. - 36 - APPEDIX 12 Z A M 3 I A ESTfLATED EDtCATION EMMDIURE, 1976-d6 (Assumption I) L/ A. Caoital Expendlture2/ (In K. million) 1976-81 1981-86 Total 'ew places Cost New Places Cost New Places Cost Institution Needed Estimate Nteeded Estimate Needed Estimate Primary schools 280,S58 140.2 192,401 96.2 472,959 2336.4 Secondary schools 362,000 817.0 135,900 306.8 497,900 1,123.8 Primar-y eacher Colleges 2,000 4.5 - - 2,000 4.5 Secondary Teacher Colleges 5,800 13.1 _ _ 5,300 13.1 TOTAL 650,358 974.8 328,301 403.0 978,6'9 1,377.8 3. Recurrent E=enditure (In K. illion; enrollment in 000's) 1976 1981 1986 Enroll- Expendi- Enroll- Expedi- Euroll- Ezpendi- ment cure ment ture ment ture Primary educatiom 950.0 55.1 1,230.5 71. 4 1,422.9 8Z.5 Secondary education 78.0 22.6 440.0 132.0 575.9 172.7 Teacher Trma--l 3.0 2.5 10.8 9.0 10.8 9.0 Others_ 22.4 28.0 _ 32.0 Total 1,031.0 102.6 1,681.3 240.4 2,009.6 296.2 Total Govennt Racurrent Expenditure 61.5.03-! 730.4 867.5 Education Recurrene Expenditure as. a Percentage of Total Govern Percentage 16.7 32.9 34.1 It Aasmtion 1: (a) aniversal education from Grade 1 to Form III starting 1977. Cb) frizary and secondary school teacher attrition rate of 5Z p.a. in 1981. (c) Primary tescherpupil ratio of 1:40. (d) Secondary teacher:student ratio of 1:30. (e) Corplete replacezcct of untrained teachers by 1981.(see Annexes 2 and 3). 2/ Includes construction, furnishing and equipping of academic facilities only. 21 preli.miny Eta ate Source: Mission Eatimates - 37 - APPENDIX 13 ZAIBIA ENROLLMENT PROJECTIONS, 1976-86 Educational Level 1976 1981 1986 Primary 1/ Grade 1 171,000 197,273 227,582 2 161,500 189,796 218,957 3 152,000 182,602 210,658 4 152,000 175,662 202,674 5 114,000 169,024 194,993 6 104,500 162,618 187,603 7 95,000 153,583 180,492 Total 950,000 1,230,558 1,422,959 Secondary (Assumption I) 2/ Form I 21,727 138,800 166,634 II 21,007 135,906 157,062 III 18,747 92,663 135,729 IV 8,590 39,467 61,417 V 8,100 34,067 55,075 Total 78,171 440,903 575,917 (Assumption II) - Form I 21,727 73,053 87,702 II 21,007 25,750 82,664 III 18,747 17,556 71,436 IV 8,590 7,477 32,325 V 8,100 6,454 28,985 Total 78,171 130,290 303,112 1/ Universal education (population rate of growth - 2.9%). 2/ Universal education up to Form III starting 1977 and progression rate of 50% from Form III to Form IV. 3/ Progression rai:e of 18% (current) from Grade 7 to From T in 1976-81 and 50% in 198L-86; progression rate of 50% from Form III to Form IV in 1976-86. Source: Mission Estimates - 38 - APPENDIr 14 ZAM IA A. CAPITAL =ENDITURE (IN K. MILLION) (Assumption II) - 1976-81 1981-86 Total New New NPw Places Cost Places Cost Places Cost Tistitutions Needed Estimates Needed Estit Needed s PriM-r sch.ools 280,558 140.2 192,401 96.2 472,959 236.40 Secondary schools 52,119 117.7 172,822 390.5 226,941 508,20 Prilmary Teacher Colleges 2,000 4.5 - - 2,000 4.50 Secondary Teacher Colleges 900 2.0 700 1.5 1.600 3.50 Total 335j577 264.4 165;923 488.2 701-500 752.60 B. RECURRENT EXPENDITURE (IN K. MILLION; ENROLLMENT IN 000's) 1976 1981 1986 Enroll- Expendi- Enroll- Expiendi- Enroll- Expend- mn t ture ment ture ment ture Primary Education 950.0 55.1 1,230.5 71.4 1,422.9 82.5 Secondary Education 78.0 23.4 130.2 39.0 303.1 90.0 Teacher Training 3.0 2.5 5.9 4.9 6.6 5.4 Others - 22.4 - 28.0 - 32.0 Total 1,031.0 103.4 1,366.6 143.3 1,722.6 210.8 Total Government Re- current Expenditure 615 .QC.. 730.4 867.5 Education Recurrent Expenditure as a Percentage of Total Goverament Percentage 16.8 19.6 24.3 1/ Assumption II: (a) Progression rate from Grade 7 to Form I of 18% (current rate) from 1976 to 1981 ^d S0% from 1981 to 19c8h (b) Primary and secondary school teacher attrition rate of 5% in 1981. Py-r4r,gv'-, a-i-inn hntrn ifvf !An (c)
Группа Всемирного банка · Pre-2003 Economic or Sector Report
Zambia - Basic economic report (Vol. 4 of 5) : Annex 3 : education and training
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