Morocco - Econonmic and Sector Work : Enhancing the Participation of Women in Development

CONFIDENTIAL 14153 THE WORLD BANK FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY THE KINGDOM OF MOROCCO ECONOMIC AND SECTOR WORK ENHANCING THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT JUNE 29, 1995 Natural Resources and Environment Division Maghreb and Iran Department Middle East and North Africa Region This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. MOROCCO: ENHANCING THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1. THE NEED FOR FOCUS ONWOMEN ...................................... 7 Benefits of Improving Women's Integration in the Economy and Society ................ 7 Necessity of Targeting Rural Women in Particular .............................. 8 Urgency of the Current Situation ........................................ 10 2. M ETHODOLOGY ................................................... 13 Capacity Building .................................................. 14 Participatory Rural/Urban Appraisal: Working with the Women Themselves ............ 15 Establishing the W ill to Conduct aPRA .................................... 16 3. THE CURRENT STATUS OF WOMEN IN MOROCCO .......................... 19 Domestic Production and Time Allocation .................................. 19 Health Care and Family Planning ........................................ 20 Econom ic Activities ................................................ 22 Education and Illiteracy .............................................. 23 Institutional Factors ................................................ 26 4. WOMEN'S VIEWS: KEY ISSUES FORFOCUS ............................... 29 Domestic Production and Time Allocation .................................. 29 Health Care and Family Planning ........................................ 30 Econom ic Activities ................................................ 32 Education and Illiteracy .............................................. 36 Institutional Mechanisms for Promoting Women ............................... 37 5. STATUS OF CURRENT EFFORTS FORCHANGE ............................. 41 Government Efforts ................................................ 41 Aid Organizations (Bilateral, Multilateral, Non-governmental) ...................... 42 Tim e/Labor Saving ................................................. 43 H ealth C are ..................................................... 43 Econom ic Activities ................................................ 44 Education ....................................................... 45 6. EMERGING PRIORITIES AND SUGGESTIONS BASED ON THE PRA ................ 47 Reducing Time and Domestic Labor Constraints on Productive Work ................. 47 Health Care and Family Planning ........................................ 48 Many people mentioned under the acknowledgements and more fully in Annex IX have contributed to the preparation of this Economic and Sector Work (ESW) and to the information synthesized here. These include men and women in 43 douars of rural and urban Morocco, the PRA trainers and facilitators, the Government staff in the various departments of the participating ministries, local consultants, NGOs, bilateral institutions, and Bank staff. The Task Manager is Sunita Gandhi, Economist. The Division Chief is Mark D. Wilson, and the Department Director is Daniel Ritchie. Peer Reviewers are Miria Pigato and Katrine Saito. Econom ic A ctivities ................................................ 49 Potential for Growth in Education ........................................ 50 Institutional Arrangements ............................................ 52 7. ELEMENTS OF A PRIORITY PROGRAM ................................... 57 CLUSTER I: Measures to Reduce the DailyBurdens ........................... 58 CLUSTER II: Measures to Improve Incomes ................................ 59 CLUSTER III: Measures in the Present to Secure the Future ...................... 61 8. CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................. 65 ANNEX I. STATUS OF WORLD BANK EFFORTS TO ADDRESS WOMEN IN MOROCCO . . 67 ANNEX II. STATUS OF BILATERAL/MULTILATERAL EFFORTS ................... 71 ANNEX III. STATUS OF NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION EFFORTS ........... 75 ANNEX IV. STATUS OF GOVERNMENT EFFORTS ............................. 79 ANNEX V. PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES: RATIONALE FOR PRA ................ 83 ANNEX VI. PRA AND CAPACITY BUILDING ................................. 93 ANNEX VII. SITE SELECTION ............................................ 97 ANNEX VIII. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DOUARS SURVEYED IN PRA STUDY ......... 101 ANNEX IX. ESW PARTICIPANTS AND CONTRIBUTORS ......................... 119 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................... 125 - ii - BOXES Box 1: Economic Benefits of Increased Income Control by Women ....................... 8 Box 2: "All We Needed Was a BackDoor ..................................... 10 Box 3: Greater Women's Education Levels Lead to Lower Child Mortality Rates ............. 25 Box 4: Improving School Enrollment through Investment in Labor-saving Technology .......... 26 Box 5: The Pill: Contraceptive or Fertility Drug? ................................. 30 Box 6: Number of Men Involved in Different Activities, Ouled Harrouch .................. 32 Box 7: "Since We Hired a Woman, We No Longer Have Problems . .................... 34 Box 8: Factors in Extending Credit to Women: A Study by Morocco's CNCA .............. 34 Box 9: Credit Agricole and Farmers: What Does the Future Hold? ...................... 34 Box 10: Improving Female School Attendance: Village Experience ....................... 35 Box 11: "To Get a Job, You Must Belgnorant ................................... 35 Box 12: A W oman's Point ofView ........................................... 39 Box 13: A.M an's Point ofView .............................................. 39 Box 14: Raising Men's Awareness about Women's Working Conditions ..................... 48 Box 15: The Grameen Bank inBangladesh ....................................... 50 Box 16: Improving Female School Attendance: Lessons from Past Bank Experience ............. 51 Box 17: Improvements in Moroccan Girls' Primary School Enrollment Rates .................. 52 Box 18: Institutionalizing Gender: El Salvador Agro-fisheries Reform and Investment Project, 1994 . .. 54 Box 19: Formation of Women's Groups: Country Examples ............................ 55 Box 20: Cluster I vs. Clusters II andIII ......................................... 58 FIGURES Figure 1: Classification of Different Crops Grown in the Village, by a Group of Women ....... 12 Figure 2: Institutional Analysis, Aghbalou (Chaaba) ............................... 28 Figure 3: Ranking of Women's Sources of Income, Boutaghrer ....................... 38 Figure 4: Changes overTime ............................................. 39 Figure 5: Classification of Women's Activities According to their Criteria, El Ikhlass Cooperative . 40 Figure 6: "Dream Village" - OuledAli....................................... 46 TABLES Table 1: W omen Have DifferentPriorities ......................................... 9 Table 2: A Focus on theProcess .............................................. 14 Table 3: Social Indicators of Women's Status: Comparisons across Countries ................. 18 Table 4: Frequency Ranking of Children's Diseases, ATt Bakhouch ........................ 31 Table 5: Economic Activities in the Rural Survey Regions .............................. 33 Table 6: Number of Boys and Girls Attending Primary School ........................... 37 MAP Map: Regions Covered by the PRA ................................ Inside back cover - iii - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to all those listed in Annex IX who contributed to this ESW. Special thanks for their extraordinary efforts are due to the following people: RESIDENTS OF THE SURVEYED DOUARS PRA/PROCESS CONSULTANTS Mme. Khadija Bourarach, Professor, Agronomic MEMBERS OF THE COORDINATING Institute Hassan-Il COMMITTEE ON BEHALF OF THE Main local consultant/facilitator GOVERNMENT OF MOROCCO Mme. Meera Shah, IDS, University of Sussex Mr. Hassan BELKOURA (Min. of Economy) Main PRA consultant/trainer Main Coordinator Mr. Malamine Savane, President, CONGAD, Mme. Maria AMINE (Min. of Agriculture) Senegal Responsible for Operational Matters PRA Trainer Mme. Halima NAZIH (Min. of Interior) Responsible for Approvals/Advisor ADVISOR and SUPPORTER Mr. Mustapha Tadili Fariss (Director of Statistics) Mr. Robert Chambers, Professor, IDS, University Responsible for Technical Content of Sussex PRA RESEARCH TEAMS FINANCIAL SUPPORT Rural areas Internal Bank Aicha Aboulabbas, Ministry of Employment RVP Middle East and North Africa Region and Social Affairs Maghreb and Iran Department Sanae Bennesser Alaoui, Staff, GTZ Education and Social Policy, Gender Analysis Nadira Barkallil, Professor of Economics, Program (GAP) Univ. of Rabat/also ADFM (NGO) Operations Policy Department, Operations Policy Atika Bouachra, Ministry of the Interior Group (OPG) Jamila Chantoufi, Ministry of Education Touria Eloumri, Ministry of Education External Latifa El Gharbi, Ministry of Agriculture GTZ (in-kind) Khadija Hammouchi, ACAET (NGO) SIDA (through Aubrey Williams, OPG) Mimouna Houcini, Ministry of Agriculture Swedish BITS Atika Jeddi, ACM (NGO) Netherlands Trust Fund Aicha Nadri, Ministry of Agriculture Norway Trust Fund (through Minhchau Nguyen, Fatima Rammani, Ministry of Artisanal Affairs GAP) Khadija Ramram, AMDE/ University ISJ Souad Slimani, Ministry of Agriculture BANK STAFF Touriya Tamsamani, Ministry of Foreign Michael Bamberger, Senior Sociologist, ESP Affairs Joshua (Tony) Castleman, Research Assistant, MN1NE Urban areas Alexandra Barstow, Project Assistant, MN1NE Souad At Haddou, GTZ Gustav Lindstr6m, Project Assistant, MNINE Atika Bouachra, Ministry of the Interior Atika Jeddi, ACM (NGO) Souad Saad Zaghloul, Ministry of Youth and Sports Souad Slimani, Ministry of Agriculture Najia Souhall, Ministry of Education - iv - MOROCCO: ENHANCING THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. The objective of this ESW has been to prepare a strategy to help enhance the participation of women in development. This ESW, therefore, examines the current constraints to women's productivity, income and social welfare, and identifies the processes and the programs by which these could be addressed. It evaluates the opportunities for their increased participation in their own development, and presents practical recommendations that could form part of on-going and future programs that address poverty and women in Morocco. 2. The paper begins with the question, why focus on gender and women in particular? After a review of the participatory, consensus based research process conducted over the last year and a half by Moroccans with Bank collaboration, we present our findings on women's concerns and priorities in Morocco. In conclusion, the paper presents an analysis of the findings and suggest the strategy which would best guide the Government of Morocco in its search to integrate women fully in national development. 3. Chapter 1 examines reasons to focus on women's development. Our starting point was the hypothesis that obviously targeting women in development was needed in Morocco from two standpoints: that of efficiency (women contribute to the productive development process and are a major potential resource in any country) and that of equity (to be able to contribute fully, women must be given equal opportunity and education). The fact that women have historically ranked behind men almost worldwide justifies special measures now to help them reach equal status. 4. Furthermore, we agreed that the litmus test of an effective social investment is whether it improves the ability of a target group to assume their rightful role in the development process. Clearly a country cannot realize its full development potential unless the role of women in the development process is not only recognized but is supported by concrete programs and actions which are guided by a long-term vision of making women equal participants' in all aspects of life. In this context, a strategy to address women's development supported by concrete action plans for women's growth has an important role to play. 5. Chapter 2 describes the process and methodology adopted in this Economic and Sector Work and the Participatory Rural Appraisal. There were at least three levels of stakeholder participation, first the Government, the Bank, and other bilateral/multilateral organizations, then NGOs and members of the academic community (all of the above constituting US as referred to in this paper); and the third possible level was to bring in the intended beneficiary, THEM, the people and the women themselves. With each increasing level of participation came the challenge of increasing complexity, but we chose to involve all three levels nevertheless. 6. A review of the literature, discussions and the first two consensus-building workshops with the stakeholders (nine Government Ministries', the World Bank, twenty-seven nongovernmental organizations and several academic and bilateral institutions) yielded OUR collective view of priorities: we ranked education as the most important followed by time and labor saving techniques, then by health and credit. We felt these were among the most important factors in women's progress. Yet the question remained: what if THEIR view is different? And if so, how could we reconcile between the two? A participatory appraisal (PRA, further defined and described in Annexes V, VI and VII) in which the views and priorities were defined directly by the 1. By equality is not meant similarity but rather equal access to education, services and opportunities. 2. The nine participating ministries have been: Ministry of Economic Affairs and its Department of Statistics (now under the Ministry of Population), Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Youth & Sports, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Social Affairs, and Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2 men and women in 27 rural and 16 urban douars in Morocco resulted in our considerably rethinking, in the light of THEIR views, not only the specific sectorial priorities for action, but more importantly, regarding a strategy for their development. 7. Using no pre-set questionnaire or sampling, PRA is based rather on group dynamics and provides in depth analysis of the issues covered, allowing populations to define not only needs and priorities but potential solutions. A typical field staff spent 6-8 days in a village and covered 80-90% of the population through groups. The World Bank Participation Sourcebook presents a good description of this methodology and its pros and cons. The level 1 and 2 stakeholders developed the 30-point criteria for selection of the douars from the 10 rural provinces and 2 urban which served as research sites, and the final choices, while concentrating on the poorest areas, reflected the climatic and socio-economic diversity of Morocco. The study finished by being far larger than anticipated- building Moroccan capacity by training Moroccans to conduct the surveys, and running a pilot study due to the increased size of the overall survey--one of the risks of working in the open-ended, consensus promoting method. 8. In Chapter 3, the current status and issues surrounding the development of women in Morocco are discussed. These are based on quantitative studies by the Government of Morocco and literature review. In Morocco, the role of women in the development process is well known to have lagged behind that of men due to a variety of factors. Even though men and women are considered equal before the law, women have not enjoyed the same benefits in education and opportunity as men. Unwritten norms and social customs have prevented women from attaining an equal status with men. In rural areas, the situation is aggravated by migration: female heads of households find it hard to fight poverty and to invest in the future of their children. A large number of traditions and customs continue to weigh heavily on women, particularly the single heads of households who must find income opportunities without significant male participation. These customs are linked in part to poverty and social conditions. As economic conditions improve, they in general become less and less important. While harder to justify this without a thorough analysis, it seems to hold true in the qualitative observations during PRA: douars where economic conditions were better, women were freer, more girls attended schools, and other social indicators seem to indicate a better positioning of women, and more reliance of husbands and families on incomes generated by women (e.g. Aghbalou). Improved economic situations did not seem to reflect negatively on core values and customs in the douars visited. 9. Against this backdrop, Chapter 4 examines the views and qualitative assessments expressed by poor women and men themselves about their needs and issues of relevance to them as obtained through the PRA.' The major common denominator we found: women's responsibility of collecting water and fuelwood emerged as a time consuming and tedious task in most of the douars. Most women described these activities as the most difficult for them. In order to relieve women of this drudgery, it is necessary to introduce alternatives that are affordable and acceptable in each region. The women presented collective ovens for making bread as another priority that would save fuelwood and time for them. They wished for central running water faucets near their homes. Given the analysis presented by the women, the low attendance of girls in schools is likely to continue until there is easy access to wood and water. 10. Chapter 5 presents an analysis and review of current efforts by the various stakeholders to help women. Here Government, bilateral and multilateral donor community, and NGO programs targeted to the development of women are examined for the first time. An analysis of the efforts of the Government, the World Bank and the donor community at large indicates that a) development assistance has only recently begun to target women as a special priority group, b) few projects either integrate women's concerns or are explicitly designed to benefit 3. Actual survey documents are available from the Natural Resources and Environment Division, Middle East and North Africa Region, World Bank. 3 women, and c) there is little coordination of the activities regarding women originating in the Government departments of the various Ministries, and among the donor community. 11. Similarly, the NGO community is very new in Morocco and consequently not able to participate fully in these efforts. Despite limited resources, several NGOs have shown that they can make a valuable contribution to the development efforts in Morocco. To tap into the enormous potential of this willing group, it would be necessary to endow it with resources which they presently lack, and to integrate them in the efforts to promote the status of women. 12. Chapter 6 presents the emerging priorities for women based on the PRA while Chapter 7 summarizes these into a program of action for their development. Looking beyond the previously available information, this strategy paper takes advantage of the new perspectives gained. An evaluation of the women's and men's views outlined in the ESW suggests three clusters under which a recommended program of action may be formulated but which, as stated earlier, needs flexibility to adjust to each situation individually. 13. One of the main points that emerges from this research is the diversity of women's concerns across regions, douars, and among the different communities within a village. The relative condition and position of women is a function of a variety of factors: the resource endowment of the area and the household, access to social infrastructure and services, mode of livelihood, ethnicity and traditions, and social relations. For this reason, it would be highly inappropriate to design a single strategy or program for all poor women in the country, rural and urban. For the programs to be effective and needs-based, they have to be customized for the specific groups of women. 14. Yet within this diversity, the douars can be divided into two broad categories: those which have all the necessary basic infrastructure and facilities (like safe drinking water, health care and cooking fuel), and those which lack them." Programs that aim at improving the position of women in society have to start by addressing women's basic needs. It is not possible to design effective programs for greater involvement of women in income generating activities (and participation in public spheres), when they are spending a good part of the day looking for drinking water and fuelwood. As this research has shown, the mere existence of a primary school in a village does not necessarily mean that all girls and boys will attend it. Education and literacy are not considered basic needs until the household crosses a threshold level in terms of economic well-being. The women have priority survival occupations. Can the family and the livestock be left without water? Can one go without wood for cooking? and hence not eat? or attend school instead? What choices does one have? Indeed, their first set of priorities then relate to activities that will reduce their daily burdens and improve their time-horizons, so that more time can be devoted to improving their future welfare and those of their children. 15. For villages or individuals who have advanced beyond this threshold, or are on the verge of doing so, their expectations and ambitions expand. Ongoing extension services that have been carefully worked out on the basis of priorities as suggested by them and the experts in consultation may be envisaged. This is the case with some easily accessible villages that have water or electricity, if not both. Women in such villages can work on 4. Provision of water and energy were the most significant for women. For men, isolation of the villages was a major concern: hence roads were the most important. Another issue we must grapple with is whether physical infrastructure needs must be large investments in each case. If may be possible to cover a large number of villages in the short-term with less resources and still have a major impact, for example, by building dirt roads connecting a larger number of villages to major roads, instead of permanent ones in a smaller number of villages. The same could be said of school and hospital infrastructures where the supply of personnel, such as teachers and doctors, is a bigger issue than the physical structures that are associated with them. In several of the surveyed villages, these buildings (where existing) were not being utilized fully due to a lack of personnel. 4 self-development through income generating activities and have expressed their wish to do so. Access to education may also be improved in such villages (cf. sectoral recommendations). Proposals for actions on a case- by-base basis are to be made at this level. 16. The first cluster of actions consists of measures that improve the daily life of women. These include time and labor saving measures supporting ready access to fuelwood and energy, ready access to water, the construction of collective ovens, and maternity related and preventative health care programs. 17. The second cluster consists of measures that improve incomes and include extension services targeted to women in agriculture and livestock management (which they felt strongly about), the creation and strengthening of a network of local women's centers, or Nadis, and the greater provision of credit to women. The women felt that the Nadi was particularly well suited for this cluster because it could meet many of their needs in a comprehensive yet flexible fashion. 18. The last and final cluster consists of measures that will have impact in the long term but that need to be put into place now, or measures in the present to secure the future. Girls and boys without access to education today will have virtually no possibility of escaping poverty in their lifetime, therefore it becomes urgent to impart them education. However, as the PRAs have shown, schools will not be filled unless issues in clusters I and II are simultaneously addressed, and compensatory efforts are made where girls' contribution to the household is prominent, as through day care centers, food provision, security of travel to school, and/or distances to school, and flexible hours to enable them to attend school. Other measures to benefit the women population in the medium to long term include strengthening a network of national, regional and local level institutions to better serve the needs of women and to accord them a voice, and the strengthening and promotion of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community based institutions, and women's groups and cooperatives. 19. On a practical level then, much can and is being done to address the barriers and constraints women face and to improve women's social and economic status in Morocco. Successful efforts undertaken in other countries to improve the conditions of women serve as useful case examples of the progress which can be made in Morocco. In particular, examples drawn from countries in which women face similar social, economic, or cultural barriers, such as cited in the ESW, and case examples from Morocco, point to approaches which have proven successful and to areas which call for expansion. We hope that the strategic framework developed in this paper will assist both Moroccans and the community of external stakeholders in prioritizing, organizing, and streamlining their efforts for maximum effect. 20. Several hypotheses emerge from the review of literature, the discussions with the Government, the workshops and the PRA. These have been presented for review in the final Chapter. Rewards for greater integration of women are high. An examination of data from several countries has shown that investments in women have huge benefits, in particular for family health, family financial security, and children's education. Similar hypotheses emerged from our research exercise: * Women view priorities often differently from men. Women's views in projects must therefore be explicitly sought. * Narrowly focussed projects on women alone, however, may not have the highest impact as they may tend to alienate men; therefore, while focussing on the needs of women, projects should be organized in the context of the families. * Projects in rural development and broader-based projects in other sectors can only truly target the needs of women by seeking their views at all stages of project preparation and implementation. 5 * The benefits of addressing women are far greater than the costs, and therefore, well worth investing in. For example, projects to improve access to social and physical infrastructures can have significant positive impact on the lives of women but can be ineffective if they don't incorporate the views of women (see Box 2: All We Needed Was a Back Door). 6 MOROCCO: ENHANCING THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 1. THE NEED FOR FOCUS ON WOMEN 1.1. Despite their important role in society and contribution to the economy, studies indicate that women, particularly rural women, face severe constraints on their economic opportunities and productivity. Statistical indicators of social status such as illiteracy, primary school enrollment, life expectancy, and maternal mortality reveal the disadvantaged position of women. Anecdotal and qualitative studies further confirm that females, especially those in rural areas, work the hardest, earn the least, and are the poorest educated members of society. The general economic rationale for focusing development efforts specifically on women is based on a number of factors, all of which apply to Morocco. These are outlined below. 1.2. Women already contribute heavily to the household and the economy, more than is generally recognized or reflected in official GNP figures because much of women's economic output is produced and consumed at home. Often, the poorer the household, the larger the share of total output provided by the unrecognized work of women. Recognition of women's significant contribution, particularly to rural production, is crucial for developing and improving efforts to address rural poverty. The economic importance of women suggests that measures targeting the needs and productivity of women are a critical component of effective development. 1.3. Women face special disadvantages in gaining access to education and training, to information and means of production, and to product markets and jobs. Both factor and product markets often work more imperfectly for women than for men. These barriers severely limit women's economic opportunities and tend to lock them into low-return activities, which leads them to view their nontraditional opportunities as limited. By stifling the aspirations and productive incentives of a full half of the population, these constraints fuel a vicious cycle of low productivity which inhibits long-run development. Programs and policies that remove the obstacles limiting women's economic opportunities are necessary to improve women's capacity to contribute to economic growth. Benefits of Improving Women's Integration in the Economy and Society 1.4. Investments to improve women's human capital and expand their economic opportunities benefit not only women, but their families and the larger economy as well. As women gain greater control over economic assets and greater access to education and technology, they become more productive, thereby contributing to general economic growth. The example from Cameroon in Box 1 illustrates the economic benefits of giving women greater control over income. Improving women's status also benefits the welfare of their families and children, since women tend to be responsible for the nutritional, education, and health needs of their children. Research in India and parts of Africa indicates that women spend proportionally more of their income on family needs, such as food, and less on personal or extraneous consumption than do men.' Therefore, improving women's income opportunities and access to productive resources will often benefit the health and educational status of their children. Moreover, the children of educated women, particularly the daughters, tend to have greater access to education than the children of uneducated women. Providing better educational opportunities for girls and 5. World Bank. August 1989. "Women in Development: Issues for Economic and Sector Analysis." World Bank Working Paper WPS 269. Women in Development Division, Population and Human Resources Department, World Bank, Washington, D.C.; and Schultz, T.P. 1993. "Demand for Children in Low Income Countries." Draft of Chapter 12 of Handbook of Population and Family Economics. Eds. M.R. Rosenzweig and 0. Stark. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company. BOX 1 ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF INCREASED INCOME CONTROL BY WOMEN Gender-biased distribution of income control within the household led to an inefficient allocation of resources among rice farmers in Cameroon, according to a 1985 study of rice production and intra-household income dynamics. Because women only controlled the income earned from subsistence crops, not from rice or other cash crops, they chose to devote their labor and time to the subsistence crops rather than to the more profitable rice crops. Consequently, total household income remained below its potential. Evidence from the study suggests that women would only work on rice crops when they earned and controlled income equalling the market value of their output. Two important points emerge from this study. First, viewing the household as an individual economic unit fails to account for relevant intra-household dynamics and consequently results in flawed economic analysis. The economic behavior of rural households often needs to be disaggregated by gender to be most accurately and usefully viewed. Secondly, the productivity of women farmers increases when they are directly and fully compensated for their labor. When men retain control over the income gained from women's labor for certain products, women's incentives to produce these outputs declines, even if the household income earned from these products is greater than that earned from other products. As was the case in Cameroon, this can result in a failure to maximize household income. Source: Jones, C. 1985. "The Mobilization of Women's Labor for Cash Crop Production: A Game Theoretic Approach." In International Rice Research Institute. Women in Rice Farming. Manila: Gower Publishing Company. women creates a multiplier effect in which education levels of subsequent generations of the labor force increase. 1.5. Promoting the status of women has also positive consequences in reducing population growth. Higher levels of education and greater income potential increase the opportunity cost of the time a woman spends taking care of children. Consequently, better educated and gainfully employed women tend to have fewer children. Also, a woman's dependence on children for economic security and social status declines as her income opportunities improve. Positive correlations have also been found between the level of education women possess and their knowledge and use of contraceptives. Furthermore, to the extent that improving women's status decreases population growth, it also eases the stress on natural resources which overpopulation causes. 1.6. The costs of neglecting women in development efforts are high: lost output through wasted human capital, lower levels of welfare suffered by women and children, and continuing high rates of population growth and environmental degradation. Many potential benefits will be lost if development analysis and policy focus on aggregates such as the sector or the household without taking gender differences into account (see Table 1, "Women Have Different Priorities," below). Rural development efforts will be most effective only when the particular roles and needs of women are recognized and addressed. Necessity of Targeting Rural Women in Particular 1.7. Promoting rural women is vital for Morocco's agricultural economy. Studies by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and by the Ministry of Agriculture' recognize that dietary coverage for wheat and barley, and milk and milk products, is predicted to continue to deteriorate between now and the year 2000. Women's contribution to production in these areas is definitive and deserves closer attention: women comprise 6. Kingdom of Morocco, Planning Administration. October 1985. Seminar on long-term population needs. Rabat: Ministry of Encouragement to the Economy. 9 TABLE 1 WOMEN HAVE DIFFERENT PRIORITIES WOMEN MEN CLINIC OR AMBULANCE BRIDGES ENERGY AND WATER ROADS COLLECTIVE OVEN ELECTRICITY AND WATER PLAYGROUND/CHILD CARE ACCESS TO SECONDARY EDUCATION AGRICULTURE EXTENSION EXPLOIT WATER TABLE TRAINING IN SELF-HELP AGRICULTURE EXTENSION GIRLS' EDUCATION Note: These were results of a pilot Participatory Rural Appraisal exercise in the Tin Fu Valley near Zagora in Ouarzazate. 45% of the working population in cereals, legumes and forage and 53% of that in animal husbandry." There is also an enormous potential for improved productivity. 1.8. Promoting rural women is also a necessity from the standpoint of economic and demographic/geographic equilibrium. A means of increasing family income must be found to slow the tide of migration to already overpopulated and under-equipped urban areas. In addition, it will be necessary to curb overall population growth. Noting a moderate drop in fertility, planners' had predicted that the urban population would not exceed the rural population before 2002, but urban population in fact tipped the balance in 1993.' In fact, with the recent years of drought the pace of the rural exodus has intensified; the urban population is increasing by more than 400,000 per year, while the rural population is increasing only by 100,000 per year on average.10 These figures must be compared with the total fertility rate which is 2.8 in the urban areas and 5.7 in the rural areas. From 1982 to 1994, the rural population, in spite of the high birth rate, had an annual average growth of 0.6%, while the urban population increased 3.6% per year. 1.9. Empowering rural women can also become a tool to reduce environmental degradation. Because of their 7. Statistics Administration. 1986-87. The Rural Working Population. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. National Survey of Population and Health, Morocco 1992. Rabat: Ministry of Public Health. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Sunmary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 8. Morocco Planning Administration. 1985. Seminar on long-term population needs. 9. According to the figures of the 1994 census issued in February 1995, out of more than 26 million Moroccans, 51.4% live in urban areas compared to 42.7% in 1982. 10. Kingdom of Morocco, Directorate of Statistics. 1992. Statistical Yearbook of Morocco, 1992. Rabat: Ministry of Social and Economic Affairs. 10 direct reliance on natural resources such as wood, water and food, women are often in the best position to plan their long-term management. Since they are affected more by the long-term consequences of environmental degradation, women are more likely to manage natural resources sustainably, and should have a lead role in natural resource management and control." In addition, improvements in the status of women have a direct negative influence on population growth. 1.10. Finally, promoting rural women is essential for social equality. Women are affected more than men, for example, by limitations in health services, due both to more limited ability to travel and to their function of reproduction which increases their need for care. Under these conditions, 332 Moroccan women per 100,0002 die each year from complications of pregnancy or childbirth; this national average disguises a situation which is certainly more dramatic in rural areas. Urgency of the Current Situation 1.11. In summary, in Morocco as in all countries, integrating women in development is necessary: 0 from the standpoint of efficiency, in recognition that women are active agents of development and that progress cannot be made without taking production role into account; BOX 2 "ALL WE NEEDED WAS A BACK DOOR" Some vivid examples of why participative planning is an indispensable tool for preventing waste and unwanted effects in any activity: In Letnine a milk cooperative has been functioning for the last three years, established by the Direction Provinciale de l'Agriculture (DPA) in Marrakech exclusively for the women, with only women allowed membership. However, no women visit the co-op to sell milk: men and boys take the milk to the co-op and collect the payments. The men keep and use the money, giving to the women sometimes at their own discretion. The women explained that they stay away from the co-op because it is in the commercial center frequented by men from other villages. The hammam (bath) is also in the commercial center but is used by the women because it has a separate entrance for them at the back. So while going to the hammam they don't have to pass through the commercial center. The women said they would have liked to sell their own milk, if only the door had opened to the back street! Dr. Vibha Gupta presented a similar incident at a World Bank seminar in August 1994. She once led a rural technology team in India that was trying to develop home architecture to make women's work more comfortable and efficient. One key element was to move the animal shed from the front to the back of the house to make a cleaner front yard and entrance to the houses. Besides, she felt, since cooking is done in the back room of the house, women could simultaneously keep an eye on animals in the back. But when the team proposed the new design to the women in the village, they immediately rejected it, saying that their position in the front allowed them to listen to the men's conversations in the evening in the front porch while they pretended to care for the animals. This kept them well informed about what was happening in the village and outside. The new design would isolate them from the world even further and they would not be able to advise their husbands afterwards! 11. Molnar, A., and G. Schreiber. May 1989. "Women and Forestry: Operational Issues." Working Paper WPS 184. Women in Development Division, Population and Human Resources Department, World Bank, Washington D.C. 12. Kingdom of Morocco, Ministry of Public Health (DHS). 1993. National Survey of Population and Health, Morocco 1992. Rabat: Ministry of Public Health. Based on data from 1985-91. 11 * from the standpoint of equity, in recognition that women comprise a target population which must be assisted to escape the material, cultural, and physical deprivations they suffer." 1.12. No matter which approach is taken, the current situation of integration of Moroccan women needs renewed and immediate attention. Women are one of the main pieces of the development puzzle, and any policy which continues to ignore this will see its objectives diverted by the impact of parameters such as birth rate, infant mortality, urbanization, education, production and productivity. Many potential advantages will be lost if development policy and analysis focus on aggregates, such as the sectors of activity or households, don't take into account gender differences. And even when the importance of women's roles is recognized at the policy level, the recognition must be carried from planning all the way through implementation and post-evaluation stages of development activities (see Box 2). Rural development and efforts directed against poverty will be most effective when the roles and particular needs of women are fully recognized and addressed. 13. Ostergaard, Lise. 1992. Gender and Development, a practical guide. New York: Routledge. FIGURE n CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENT CROPS GROWN RN THE VILLAGE, BY A GROUP OF WOMEN PLUM OANE , v yr 00 o oo qe) 000 ca Comments Fixed scoring out of 30. According to this analYsis, the main sources of Income are plums and olives. Vegetables require a lot of money and labor. 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1. One of the features of this Economic and Sectoral Work (ESW) is its focus on a process of consensus building among various stakeholders, including relevant Government Ministries, the non-governmental organization (NGO) community, the academic community, the bilateral organizations and the multilaterals. The format used to build consensus was primarily through workshops and the preparation of individual inputs for the ESW by each of the institutions. Five workshops will have been held involving this "concerned group" of stakeholders. 2.2. To build consensus in the process of preparation of this strategy, it was agreed to adopt a very flexible and open approach. The views of the stakeholders were sought at the outset on whether or not a strategy should be prepared, and if so, by whom and how. At the first stakeholder workshop" (where sixty people participated representing the concerned groups), it was agreed that a) a collective strategy for women's development should be prepared," and b) that the women themselves should be involved in preparation of this strategy. It was recognized that for the strategy to be effective, the women should be consulted and made an integral part of the processes that lead to definition of this strategy. 2.3. The "concerned group" felt it important to involve the women themselves, and they recognized that this would require a different format than the workshops which were used as a primary consensus building vehicle for the other stakeholders. Participatory approaches to solicit the views of the women were therefore discussed at the second stakeholder workshop." There it was agreed to a) adopt the Participatory Rural Appraisal as the preferred methodology for soliciting involvement of the women themselves," and b) that the PRA should be conducted by a team of locals only. As no PRA expertise was identified as available in Morocco," this necessitated the training of Moroccans in the methodology." 14. This was held in July 1993, during the Bank's first mission to discuss these issues with the Government. It was decided to hold this workshop in a low-key way during the mission itself to get a first sense of a collective effort: some 22 persons from the Government individually and some NGOs were invited to discuss informally (and collectively) these issues at the Institut Agronomique et Vitirinaire Hassan-ll. The word had spread by the time it took place in the latter half of the mission and more than 60 people attended this. The minutes of this workshop and the list of participants is separately available. 15. Bank would assist in its preparation and also facilitate the consensus process. 16. This second workshop was held in November 1993. Over sixty persons fromthe concerned stakeholder group participated. The minutes of this workshop and a list of participants is separately available. 17. There were nonetheless several concerns and queries in the use of this methodology. For example, it was discussed whether the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was "scientific", in that the results from the PRA might not be valid if extrapolated to the entire population from the groups and areas covered. As no better qualitative approaches could be found, it was agreed to proceed with the PRA. 18. While PRA methodology has existed for over a decade and has become rather popular as a means to solicit beneficiary involvement, it has not been applied in several countries as yet. 19. For which no funds were available. Funds for the PRA exercise at the time of the second workshop (November 1993) were also not available except for a small pilot exercise. This pilot work was carried out (in January/February 1994) with the help of Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) in conjunction with their project in Zagora in Ouarzazate. Two local women were trained and the full process of the PRA was carried out in a pilot form to test various approaches in its application. The capacity building workshops (Workshops 3 and 4) were held in June 1994. 14 TABLE 2 A FOCUS ON THE PROCESSm JULY WORKSHOP I - Consensus Bldg. 60 persons AUG SEPT Discover PRA OCT Seek Funds NOV WORKSHOP II - Consens. Bldg. 60+ persons DEC JAN FEB Decide to Pilot PRA MAR PILOT PRA - Tin-Fu Valley APR Seek Funds MAY JUNE WORKSHOP III - Orientation 100 persons JULY WORKSHOP IV - PRA Training 34 persons Seek Funds AUG PRA SEP DE-BRIEFING Halt PRA due to National Census OCT PRA NOV PRA DEC PRA JAN DE-BRIEFING Seek Funds FEB RURAL PRA ANALYSIS Working in four languages MAR URBAN PRA ANALYSIS APR YELLOW COVER MEETING MAY WORKSHOP V - Green Cover Capacity Building 2.4. A second feature of this ESW is its capacity-building aspect, not normally part of Bank ESW. Thirty-four local staff from Government Ministries and NGOs were trained in the PRA methodology" of which eighteen conducted the field appraisals. Over one hundred persons were given an orientation training in participatory methods including PRA, and this latter training included ten participants from Algeria, Tunisia and Iran. 20.Funding was not available at the outset for the workshops, the pilot PRA, the capacity-building training, and the PRA itself. At each stage of development of the process, funding was sought from within Bank resources, and from the bilateral community. Due to prompt response in most cases (except one which led to delayed training program), we were able to accomplish the tasks in a relatively short period of time. 21. The setting for this ten-day intensive training was a village with no electricity or running water in rural Ouarzazate where fifty- some persons including international experts and Bank staff lived with village residents for the duration of the training program. In spirit of the PRA methodology, this training was held in the hottest month in one of the hottest spots in Morocco. Among other reasons one was to select PRA team from among the participants based on their learning in a real situation. An average team member would need to spend over six weeks in villages in similar conditions. 22. This second three-day training was conducted in a hotel in the city of Ouarzazate and was planned for a very different reason: to orient policy-makers and heads of NGOs in the participatory methodologies including PRA, and their use for assessing needs and priorities for women. Visitors from other parts of the Region (Algeria, Tunisia and Iran) also represented Government and NGO (continued...) 15 Participatory Rural/Urban Appraisal: Working with the Women Themselves 2.5. A third feature was an assessment of the views of women themselves through a nationwide Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). A total of 43 douars were covered nationally by the PRA, of which twenty-seven where in five rural regions representing five agro-ecological zones in Morocco and the remainder were sixteen urban douars in Casablanca and Marrakech. This exercise was carried out July to December 1994 (details are in ANNEX VI and VII); it was followed by debriefing sessions with the eighteen field staff for synthesis of information. 2.6. The objective of the participatory field work was primarily to solicit the views of women and men in Morocco about women's development constraints, opportunities, and aspirations. The survey was also used to solicit supplementary demographic and other information to help formulate the present context in which women live (ANNEX VIII); while it may serve to supplement existing information on women's living conditions that is available from the Department of Statistics, its primary purpose was to provide complimentary information such as: how women spend their time and the remuneration they receive for participation in economic activities (such as farming) while understanding their perspective about their own development. The survey focused mainly on rural women, although a limited number of poor urban women were interviewed, particularly to investigate their reasons for migrating from villages and perceptions of their future development, touching on a variety of issues facing women, ranging from time constraints and economic opportunities to education and health care. 2.7. PRA was developed to answer the need for a survey method that (1) reveals the views of all or most people in a community, and (2) provokes and allows real discussion among the community members about the issues that are most important to them. It does this by using a set of group communication techniques, including: * participatory thematic mapping * seasonality diagrams * matrix ranking and scoring * institutional analysis (Venn diagrams) * causal-flow diagrams * trend analysis * livelihood analysis * wealth/well being ranking * transect walks * time lines * focus group discussions * unstructured and semi-structured interviews 2.8. The Moroccan researchers were trained in all these methods during the training workshop held at Sidi Flah in June 1994. Since most of these methods use a visual communication medium, it was stressed that each visual analysis be followed up by a discussion and interview of the output to understand the diagram and initiate a discussion on the issues that emerge from it. 2.9. After the training program, a brainstorming session was held with the research team to develop a checklist of issues that they would need to keep track of during the fieldwork. A set of appropriate methods were then 22.( ...continued) persons from each of the countries. The list of the participants for both training programs (the intensive 10-day village based, and the three day orientation) are available. 16 listed for each of the issues. However, there was no structured sequence or blueprint for the research agenda, and the researchers were encouraged to develop their own format for the process, depending on the issues that emerged in each context. While this kind of open-ended research has the advantage of providing necessary flexibility to adapt to local conditions, giving the researchers the opportunity to use their own best judgment at all times, it presents the danger of moving in different directions according to the researchers' interests and the inadvertent influence they can have on the participating communities. The checklist of issues thus served as a compromise between complete open-endedness and a blueprint. 2.10. Though the focus of the research was to understand perspectives of women in the different communities, it was realized that the analysis would be incomplete without including men in the process. Therefore, the discussions and analysis were not restricted to women, and for each of the issues analyzed in the field, men's perceptions were also sought. However, this was somewhat limited by the fact that all the researchers were women and it was not always possible for them to have the same level of interaction with the men on some of the issues. Establishing the Will to Conduct a PRA 2.11. PRA method is not without costs or risks. For the communities surveyed, although it is an opportunity to share their concerns with outsiders, it can also lead to reprisals by offended local leaders or outside actors. For those leaders and outside agents, besides the risk of finding out that their work is not appreciated or effective (and the effect on them of this information becoming public or passing up the hierarchy), there is the cost of the survey itself. Evidently it can cost more to send 2-3 researchers to spend up to 5 days in each community surveyed, including transport costs, food/medicine that may be needed, and salary, than to pay transport costs for one representative per village to come to a central location with cheap group food and lodging, for a day or two only (i.e. workshops). 2.12. Opening up to a process of consensus and intended beneficiary participation required a flexible approach that had its hazards.' For example, a capacity-building training program was not envisioned, and the participatory exercise became a much larger exercise than initially anticipated.' This became a separate product that has provided many of the useful insights for this ESW: insights of the populations about their own development. These have been applied in definition of the recommended program of action presented in the ESW.' Beyond this, the results from the PRA can have wider implications for our collective work in the improvement of peoples' welfare. 2.13. PRA results can only be used with great care: it relies on group dynamics which are harder to generalize than a questionnaire-based sample survey. Preparing one synthesis report from the diverse sets of information generated by such an open-ended research is rather complicated. Given the diversity and volume of contexts, it is not possible to generalize or make. a statement that encompasses concerns of women from all the 23. There was always a situation of uncertainty whether funds could be generated for the next step. None of the individual contributions were large enough (or sometimes flexible enough) to help carry out the full exercise by them. A considerable amount of effort was therefore expended in the fund-raising aspects on an on-going bases. 24. It was also not possible to control timing in this process although the PRA was done in a relatively short period of time. For example, the Government requested to halt the process during the national census which fell in the middle of the PRA exercise. 25. The PRA report is available in a draft form. Because of its relevance to issues of poverty in general (men and women were both involved in the PRA), this is being summarized as a separate report at the request of the Government. 17 communities, and indeed the different groups of women within a community. Findings can only be reported as they relate to a particular context. For this reason we suggest that anyone interested in details from a particular research site, besides consulting the Rural and Urban PRA Reports, should see the relevant Site Report. Site Reports are available with the Ministry of Agriculture and the Natural Resources and Environment Operations Division, Maghreb and Iran Department at The World Bank. 2.14. The reward of PRA is that the information available from this type of field work is the sine qua non of forming an appropriate policy and investment program and defining priorities for the sustainable development of women, particularly the most disadvantaged. Combining the results of the participatory field survey with existing studies, discussions with representatives of the Government, NGO, and research communities who are directly involved in the economic welfare of women, has led to a new and more useful strategy basis on which to plan women's development in Morocco. There are ways to economize on the costs of PRA (use local, not international, researchers, choose sites carefully to represent a diversity of characteristics without repetition) but the risks are truly intrinsic to the process. The entire object of the method is to record the views of people whose interests are not the same as those of the people and organizations currently holding decision-making power. 2.15. Mostly local consultants were used in the preparation of reports, in the literature review, and in the preparation of sectoral assessments. International experts were used sparingly and primarily only in the training of local staff and in the supervision of field work due to the novelty of this approach in Morocco. Of necessity, the work of the PRA was undertaken in four languages.' 2.16. It is important to note that practically none of the steps taken in the course of preparing this ESW were envisioned at the outset, rather the work developed in response to dialogue between the Bank and the other stakeholders. Over 100 Government staff from nine Ministries (see Note 2 in Executive Summary, and Annex IX) participated in the process of preparation, 38 NGOs and Academic institutions, and 22 Bilateral and Multilateral organizations. A total of some 300 people were involved in the consensus building and the training workshops, about 60 persons worked on the implementation of the various aspects of the strategy including the PRA, and the preparation of this strategy as consultants or Bank staff. Several sources within the Bank and within the stakeholder group contributed to the preparation of this strategy. Financing of this from within the Bank was provided by the Office of the Regional Vice-President, from a participation fund managed by the Operations Policy Department, from the Maghreb and Iran Department, and under cross-support from the Gender Analysis Program of the Education and Social Policy Department in the Center for Human Resources Development. These were supplemented by external resources from the Dutch Government, the Norwegian Government, the German GTZ (in-kind), and the Swedish BITS. 26. Arabic, French and Berber in the PRA interviews, and English for the synthesis and analysis of over a foot of individual field reports. Our best PRA trainer was not a French speaker. 18 TABLE 3 SOCIAL INDICATORS OF WOMEN'S STATUS: COMPARISONS ACROSS COUNTRIES Lower Inc. Lower Middle Income UMI High Inc. LM2 High M. East /N. Year Pakistan Morocco Jordan' Tunisia Turkey Algeria S. Arabia Spain Avg. Avg. Africa Avg. GNP (USS per capita) 1991 400 1,030 1,050 1,500 1,780 1,980 7,820 12,450 1,590 21,050 1,940 Primary School Enrollment' Total 1970 40 52 100 110 76 45 123 93 106 68 1990 37 68 - 116 110 95 78 109 100 104 97 Female 1970 22 36 - 79 94 58 29 125 83 106 50 1990 26 55 - 109 105 88 72 108 97 104 90 Illiteracy rate Total 1990 65 51 20 35 19 43 38 5 26 4 45 Female 1990 79 62 30 44 29 55 52 7 32 5 57 Life expectancy at birth (yrs) Male 1970 49 50 - 54 55 52 51 70 57 68 52 1991 59 66 66 67 64 65 68 74 64 73 63 Female 1970 47 53 - 55 59 54 54 75 61 75 54 1991 59 69 70 68 70 67 71 80 69 80 65 Infant Mortality 1970 142 128 - 127 147 139 119 - 87 20 135 Rate' 1991 97 57 29 38 58 64 32 28 42 8 60 Maternal Mortality Rate' 1988 600 270 200 200 200 210 220 7 111 - 151 Total Fertility 1970 7 7 - 6.4 4.9 7.4 7.3 2.8 5.3 2.4 6.8 Rate' 1991 5.7 4.3 5.3 3.5 3.4 5.0 6.5 1.3 3.6 1.8 5.3 Source: World Bank. 1993. World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health: (ITe two figures in italics for Spain are not from 1990.) World Development Indicators. New York: Oxford University Press. National Survey of Population and Health, Morocco 1992. Rabat: Ministry of Public Health 1. Data for Jordan cover the East Bank only. 2. LMI: Lower Middle Income 3. Percentage of relevant age group enrolled in primary school. 4. Deaths before the age of one per 1,000 births. 5. Maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. Data for countries are from "Human Development Report," UNDP, 1993. Data for LMI, High, and MENA averages are from World Development Report 1993. 6. The number of children that would be born to a woman if she were to live to the end of her childbearing years and bear children at each age in accordance with prevailing age-specific fertility rates. 3. THE CURRENT STATUS OF WOMEN IN MOROCCO 3.1. This chapter outlines the current context in which women operate in the sectors of basic infrastructure, health, agriculture/income generating activities, education, and institutional arrangements. Although Morocco has made important gains in the status of women during the last two decades, the gap between men and women remains significant in most areas, particularly when compared to other developing countries. Table 3 reports social indicators of women's status from countries which can be usefully compared to Morocco because of similar geographical locations, economies, or cultural backgrounds. It is important to note that these are aggregate national figures which tend to obscure the significant disparity between fairly developed urban, developing rural, and lower income segments of urban areas in Morocco. Still, these aggregate figures, show some significant difference between Morocco and other countries. Domestic production and time allocation 3.2. The number of tasks for which women are solely responsible, the time- and labor-intensive nature of these responsibilities, and their importance to the household, all place enormous constraints on the productive opportunities of rural women. Women spend less time than men in paid activities, but they spend a disproportionately large amount of time in home production and household duties, such as fuelwood and water collection, child care, food processing, livestock care, and food preparation. 3.3. Low level of technology in the water and energy sectors severely constrains women's economic development. Only 6.3% of rural households are connected to piped, drinkable water," so for the overwhelming majority of rural women a significant portion of time and labor must be allocated to water collection. A similar situation exists with respect to fuelwood collection, as only 11.9% of rural households have electricity' and few can afford to use bottled gas. Lack of agricultural infrastructure such as milling facilities also add to women's time constraints as food processing must be completed manually, and the majority of rural households do not have sanitation systems, which results in more work for women in less hygienic conditions. 3.4. All of these factors contribute to an average workday of 12 hours for rural women, reaching 19 hours in some poorer regions and in those involved in irrigated agriculture." Although studies reveal variations between regions, *considerable evidence indicates that men work 3 to 4 hours less per day than women. In 27. LSMS in: Kingdom of Morocco, Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1991. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Summary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 28. Living Standards of Households 1990/91. 29. Kingdom of Morocco, Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform [since renamed Agriculture and Agrarian Valorization]. September - December 1992. Le Vulgarisateur. Rabat, Ministry of Agriculture and Agricultural Reform. Also information from the PRA survey (see Annex of tabulated survey data). 30. A few surveys have took place recently on the division of labor within households in Morocco. The Ministry of Agricultural and Agrarian Reform did a survey in 1987 with the help of the Food and Agriculture Organization, covering 1500 rural households in 5 areas with varying irrigation levels. Another 1987 study, produced by the Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration with UNICEF, focused on the province of Essaouira, one of the poorest areas of the country. A third study covered 71 households in Tamanar, also in Essaouira province. Finally, the 1990-1991 LSMS data from 1990 also cover intra-household labor allocation. 20 addition to being time-consuming, many of the tasks rural women perform are physically exhausting. 3.5. The rural sector's limited transportation infrastructure also limits women's opportunities. Many rural villages in Morocco are isolated from market centers by long distances. The lack of roads often makes travel too difficult, dangerous, or time-consuming for women to profitably engage in economic activity involving travel. Consequently, women often lack access to markets or are unable to participate in wage labor or trade." Transportation constraints stemming from the limitations of the road system also inhibit women's access to health care. Travel time to the nearest health center is greater than 60 minutes for nearly half the population in rural areas." This particularly affects women who with their reproductive role are more likely to be in need of health services and have less mobility than men. Health Care and Family Planning Health Services 3.6. Women face particularly great health risks due to their reproductive roles and their limited access to health care information and services in many comparator countries; the situation in rural Morocco is no exception. In general, huge variations exist between urban and rural areas; data from a 1992 study show 52 deaths/1000 live births in urban areas and 69/1000 in rural areas.' 3.7. Progress in health care over the past twenty years can be seen in an improved life expectancy for women. Female life expectancy at birth in Morocco (69 years) is now as high as in other comparable countries and equals the average for lower middle income (LMI) countries. However, life expectancy at birth among rural Moroccans is lower than in urban areas. In 1990, it was 64 for men and 67 for women in a rural home versus 69 and 74 years respectively for the urban dwellers. Life expectancy for men in Morocco is slightly lower than in other LMI countries. 3.8. Infant mortality, one of the strongest indicators of social development because of its correlation with maternal and child health care, nutrition, education and fertility, is also well above LMI countries' average at 65.6 deaths per 1000 live births". A contributing factor may be the lack of trained TBAs (traditional birth attendants or kabla). 31.(...continued) 31. World Bank. September 1990. Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. Green Cover Report. Country Operations Division, Maghreb and Iran Department, Middle East and North Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC. 32. Morocco Ministry of Agriculture, Le Vulgarisateur. 33. World Bank. July 1993. Kingdom of Morocco: Poverty, Adjustment and Growth. Green Cover Report. Country Operations Division, Maghreb and Iran Department, Middle East and North Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, DC. 34. Statistics Administration. 1986-87. The Rural Working Population. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. National Survey of Population and Health, Morocco 1992. Rabat: Ministry of Public Health. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Summary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. Ministry of Public Health (MSP) figures from 1993 place the figures at 43.5 per 1000 for urban environment and 64.8 per 1000 for rural environment. 35. Social Indicators of Development 1995. 1988-93 estimate. 21 3.9. Most deliveries take place at home (72%), with the assistance of a kabla in 48% of cases, and with relatives or friends in 20% of cases. Only 32.5% of births are attended by a health professional: 21.5% by a doctor and 11% by a midwife or nurse.' It is likely that these figures hide significant regional disparities. The majority of the rural population has no ready access to health centers: only 6.5% of rural inhabitants have medical services in their douar,"' while 72% of rural dwellers are located 5 kn or farther from the nearest health center or clinic." In fact, 15% of rural inhabitants live in communities without a health center." The closest health center is located 60 minutes away for about 47% of the rural population, while this holds true for only 10% of city dwellers.' The average number of people served by a rural health center is 52,000 inhabitants and in some places up to 180,000 (in Essaouira). 3.10. Women's lack of information about the health centers reduces their access to such services. In rural areas, institutional establishments responsible for educating women about their health and that of their children find their mission hampered by the constraints women face, although excellent efforts are currently being made by the Division of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) of the Ministry of Public Health. Family Planning 3.11. According to figures of the 1994 census which were issued in February 1995, the total population of Morocco is growing at a 2.06% annual rate. This constitutes a lessening from the 1970s when the rate was 2.6% per year, but little change from the 1980s which showed a 2.0% rate. Recent growth has been far greater for the urban (3.6% per year) than the rural population (0.6% per year), so that now 51.4% of Moroccans live in an urban area. 3.12. These figures, correlated to the availability of contraceptives and total fertility rates in urban and rural areas, indicate the following: the rural areas "produce" more people than they can feed; this aggravates the rural exodus and migrations, thus causing disturbances in land use, employment, social infrastructures, etc. Bringing fertility under greater control would ease these shocks, especially in rural areas where the total fertility index is 5.7, double that of urban areas (2.8). Family planning services in the countryside are difficult for women to reach, like other health services, and have the further limitation of cultural factors discouraging their use. 3.13. During their reproductive years, women's health risks increase due to pregnancy and childbirth dangers. Although estimates of maternal mortality vary widely, United Nations Development Program (UNDP) statistics from 1988 show Morocco with 270 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births (General Registry Office, source of population information, puts this figure at 332 per 100,000-284 urban vs. 362 rural). This stands out as the highest maternal mortality rate amongst comparator countries, and well below developed countries, whose 36. Statistics Administration. 1986-87. The Rural Working Population. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. National Survey of Population and Health, Morocco 1992. Rabat: Ministry of Public Health. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Summary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 37. World Bank, Kingdom of Morocco: Poverty, Adjustment and Growth. 38. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Summary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 39. Kingdom of Morocco, Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1993. National Inquiry into Living Standards, Volume 3: Nutritional status of children aged younger than 11 years. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 40. World Bank, Kingdom of Morocco: Poverty, Adjustment and Growth. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Stunmary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 22 maternal mortality rates are less than 10 per 100,000. Economic Activities Job Market Participation 3.14. Women's capacity to improve their economic opportunities and increase their incomes are limited by time constraints and resource restrictions. Constrained in their access to technology, physical inputs, or capital, women are severely limited in their ability to initiate new activities or invest their time and labor in paid enterprise. Men generally have control over most household income, and therefore, women cannot save enough money to purchase labor-saving technology or obtain credit for their personal needs. Many women would like to be trained in new income-earning activities, but fear their husbands will forbid them from engaging in such training.' These problems point to the significant role men's attitudes and incentives play in determining women's economic status. 3.15. Few women in Morocco know about the benefits of working in groups or pooling their resources with other women to gain advantages of number and scale. Very few institutional mechanisms exist to disseminate information about such economic opportunities, and the cooperatives which the government has organized have had mixed quality of management. 3.16. Women's rural employment rates have risen substantially during the past two decades, and labor statistics are important indicators of the extent to which women participate in the formal economy. Yet because labor market statistics ignore rural women's household production activities, it should be recalled that they give only a partial picture of women's economic contributions. According to the Statistics Administration, 39% of the active population--those employed or seeking employment-in rural areas are women." The agricultural sector is the largest employer, with 92.5% of employed women working in agricultural activities. However, many of these "employed" women do not earn wages of their own; 63.3% of them engage in unpaid family labor and apprenticeships," and many others just contribute to their husband's wage work. In such cases, the men usually retain control of the income earned." Data from the Statistics Administration indicate that 18.6% of active rural women participate in paid work (5.2% are salaried while 13.4% are independent).' Considerable room for growth thus exists in women's wage employment levels, particularly in rural areas, where time and labor constraints prevent women from participating in the labor market. 36. World Bank, Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. 37. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Summary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 38. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Summary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 39. Pascon and Ennaji 1986, cited in: World Bank. July 1993. Kingdom of Morocco: Poverty, Adjustment and Growth. 40. Kingdom of Morocco, Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1992. Population and Employment. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Summary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 41. In rural areas in 1971-1986, the growth rates of employment were much higher for women than for men (13.9% against 1.9%). Unfortunately, the increased activity rates were largely due to the migration of men to urban areas, and impoverishment in rural areas that has forced women to add other activities to their household responsibilities. World Bank. September 1990. Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. 23 3.17. Although rural women on the whole tend to be poorer and endure worse conditions than urban women, unemployment rates for women are higher in urban areas. The urban female activity rate is estimated at only 17%, compared to 33% in rural areas." A considerable portion of the poorest urban women are those who have migrated from rural areas in hopes of improving their economic status. Many of these migrant women, particularly those lacking the training necessary for urban jobs, have been unable to find regular income sources. The high rates of migration from rural to urban areas have caused the labor force to grow much faster than the demand for labor, increasing unemployment rates. Urban female employment tends to be concentrated in a few sectors (e.g. textile manufacturing and food handling), and women face lower wages than men for the same job in most work situations. Because Morocco's urban population is growing quite rapidly, the employment and income status of urban women is of significant concern to economic development efforts.' 3.18. Although employment in the rural female environment is marked by a preponderance of homemakers (79.4%) and an increased activity rate (32.9%)," in urban areas this employment is less common and there is a high rate of unemployment (31.8% for women versus only 16.7% for men). In 1990-1991, unemployed women represented 40% of the urban unemployed. Unlike rural areas, urban female activity is paid (64.4% of working women are salaried, 16.3% independent, 0.7% employers and 4.6% work at home) and only 9.9% are home helpers. 3.19. With the rural exodus, the urban population has continued to grow, reaching 29.33% in 1960, 35.17% in 1971 and 42.75% in 1982. In 1993, the urban population exceeded 50%.1 Because Morocco's urban population is growing quite rapidly, employment and income of urban women are of significant concern to economic development efforts.' Credit 3.20. Women in Morocco have more trouble than men in obtaining productive credit. In addition to the normal resource constraints all poor people face, Moroccan women face inheritance laws which decree that women inherit less than men and by past traditions of intra-household income distribution. Because collateral is required to obtain credit, these inequalities limit women's ability to save enough income or assets to gain access to credit. Illiteracy and complex procedures further inhibit women from receiving credit. Education and Illiteracy 3.21. The low level of female education in Morocco is a major indicator of, and contributor to, the lesser status women enjoy compared to men. The gender gap in education becomes even more pronounced in Morocco's rural areas, where women typically receive less education than men or their urban sisters. Poverty causes serious educational handicaps throughout a woman's life: this situation has undeniable implications for the status of 42. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Sunmary Report. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 43. World Bank. September 1990. Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. 44. Morocco Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1992. Survey of the Living Standards of Households. 45. Kingdom of Morocco, Directorate of Statistics (CERED). 1993. Migration and urbanization in Morocco. Rabat: Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs. 46. World Bank. September 1990. Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. 24 human resources in Morocco and current and future possibilities of women in society. 3.22. The converse is also true: poor education is a primary cause of women's inability to break out of low- return economic activities in Morocco. The less education or vocational training they have, the less women's income-earning potential. Lacking strong prospects for off-farm wage labor, uneducated women also tend to have more children in order to gain economic security. Strong correlations between women's education levels and other social indicators suggest that female education has wide-ranging poverty effects. A variety of studies have found that lower levels in women's education lead to worse child health and higher mortality, less knowledge and use of contraception, and lower educational status of daughters." Primary and Secondary Education 3.23. The gap between boys' and girls' primary school enrollment is wider in Morocco than in comparator countries. Only 55% of girls are enrolled in primary school in Morocco, a figure which is 42% below the LMI average for female primary school enrollment rates and 35% below the Middle East and North Africa average. The net primary school enrollment rate for girls aged 7-13 in rural areas is only 28.3% (30.4%), as compared to 53.6% (58.1%) for boys in that age cohort.'" Girls' education is even more restricted in the poorest'of the rural areas where it is estimated that only one in ten girls are enrolled in school." A study by the Ministry of Agriculture and UNICEF of Essaouira, one of the poorest regions of the country, found a 4% primary school enrollment rate for girls.' Other studies showed that in the lower income bracket, only 19.6% of rural girls nationwide receive a primary education, compared to 52% of boys of the same bracket and 56.3% for the most wealthy rural girls and 84.1 % for boys of this wealthy bracket." 3.24. In the second three years of secondary school (14-16 years) education drops considerably for both sexes: 9.6% for girls and 26.4% for boys, the figures being 74.8% and 102.3% respectively for girls and boys in an urban environment." To keep these data in perspective, one should remember that the number of rural inhabitants of both sexes educated on the secondary level is very few, and only an even smaller fraction reach the higher level. 3.25. The female illiteracy rate in Morocco, 68%, is higher than in all comparator countries and 30% higher than the average for LMI countries (this compares to 39% for men). Rural illiteracy is estimated at 87.2% for 47. Cochrane, S., J. Leslie, and D. O'Hara. 1980. 'The Effects of Education on Health." World Bank Staff Working Paper 405. Washington, D.C.: World Bank; and World Bank. September 1990. Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. 48. LSMS data in: Morocco Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1991. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Summary Report. 49. World Bank. July 1993. Kingdom of Morocco: Poverty, Adjustment and Growth. 50. World Bank. September 1990. Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. 51. Morocco Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1992. Survey of the Living Standards of Households. Based on 1991 data. 52. Morocco Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1992. Survey of the Living Standards of Households. 25 women (versus 48.6% in urban areas) and 54.7% for men (versus 23.5% of urban men).' For the lowest one- fifth income bracket, female illiteracy is 91.2% versus 62.5.% for males.' BOX 3 GREATER WOMEN'S EDUCATION LEVELS LEAD TO LOWER CHILD MORTALITY RATES A World Bank study conducted in 17 geographically diverse countries found a significant negative relationship between the level of education a woman possesses and the mortality rates of her children. The study found that one additional year of education for the mother "reduces the mortality of the infants and children by 9 per 1,000." This result held true irrespective of the method of measurement used or of whether households were in rural or urban environments. The evidence also suggested that this effect is cumulative and increases for older women. The impact on child mortality of maternal education was at least twice that of men's education in all but one of the studied countries. The degree of universality in the results strongly suggests that female's lack of access to education is a significant barrier to lowering child mortality and that improving women's educational opportunities benefits not only the women being educated, but their children as well. Source: Cochrane, Leslie, and O'Hara, 1980. (From "Women in Development: Issues for Economic and Sector Analysis, 1989.) 3.26. Due to girls' extensive household duties, the opportunity cost of their time is often too great for their parents to send them to school. Thus, the potential for growth in education depends in large part on the progress made in improving household technology and reducing females' time and labor constraints. Another limit to girls' educational opportunities is the low return parents perceive female education gives due to the dearth of income opportunities for women and to cultural expectations of early marriage. Other more direct factors, such as transport constraints and high direct costs also inhibit girls' enrollment. 3.27. Thus, factors limiting the access of all rural children to school, such as the high opportunity cost of education, the long distance to schools, and a curriculum not fully consistent with parents' goals, pose especially strong barriers to girls. To the parents who must pay the direct and indirect costs of educating children, the private costs of female education are higher than for males. This is because girls contribute earlier than boys to the household production and are often responsible for time-consuming and essential tasks such as gathering water and caring for younger siblings. Moreover, the returns to girls' education are perceived to be lower than that of boys', as girls marry young and have more limited income-earning opportunities. The lack of adequate sanitation facilities and lack of female teachers--only 19.5% of teachers in rural areas are female'-may further deter traditional parents from sending their daughters to school, although other site specific data suggests that the latter, per se, is not an important factor in determining primary school enrollments for girls (see Chapter 4: Women's Views). 53. LSMS data in: Morocco Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1991. Living Standards of Households 1990/91 54. Morocco Directorate of Statistics, Division of Household Surveys. 1991. Living Standards of Households 1990/91: Vol 1, Sunmary Report. 55. Based on 1994-95 data provided by the Statistics Administration. 26 BOX 4 IMPROVING SCHOOL ENROLLMENT THROUGH INVESTMENT IN LABOR-SAVING TECHNOLOGY The time and labor constraints households face are a major factor limiting educational enrollment in rural Morocco. The opportunity cost of sending children to school in terms of their lost labor at home is often valued higher by parents than the benefits of education. This is particularly true for girls, whose duties often include the most time-consuming tasks, such as water collection, food processing and caring for younger siblings. Therefore, in addition to direct investments in educational materials and schools, investments in time- and labor-saving technologies can serve to increase enrollment rates. As improved technology decreases the value of the children's time and labor at home, parents are more willing to enroll their children in school. A recent study in Morocco of a sample of 3,652 rural children indicated that enrollment rates are better in regions with stronger investments in infrastructure, electrification, water availability, irrigation, and other such areas. The model created from the sample further indicates that the nature of the investment determines the relative educational benefit to girls as compared to boys. Improvements in electrification and water availability (piped water or well water) in the sample correlate with significantly higher improvements in girls' enrollments than in boys'. The researchers conclude that this was because time-consuming tasks which the new technology shortens or eliminates, such as water collection, are usually girls' responsibility. The results of the study suggest that investments in labor-saving technology can be an important supplement to direct educational investments in efforts to improve female education in rural Morocco. Source: Khandker, S., V. Lavy, and D. Filmer. June 1993. "Schooling and Cognitive Achievements of Children in Morocco: Can the Government Improve Outcomes?" Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Institutional Factors Legal and Personal Status 3.28. Political discrimination on the basis of sex is illegal, and according to the Constitution, men and women are equal before the law. Women use their right to vote and have increased their political participation, but they do not generally run for office and are rarely elected. The recent election of two women to the Moroccan parliament for the first time was a historic event which has helped to promote women's issues. In 1994 a woman was named High Commissioner for the Handicapped. Nevertheless, women have limited economic autonomy and do not have the practical means to express their desires through the governmental mechanisms legally open to them. Studies have shown that most women who have been successful entrepreneurs have had to rely on family or personal contacts to raise capital as they had very limited access to normal financial institutions, due to collateral and other requirements. 3.29. In this new climate where the Government of Morocco is actively seeking to identify actions to better integrate women into national development, the Ministry of Agriculture has suggested the following analysis of constraints on women's ability and desire to control decision making on their own and their family's situation: * the lack of an overall national strategy seeking to restructure relations between the two sexes based on equality; * the issue of decision making by women is not a priority in the strategies devised by the political parties; * the dominance of a male mindset that doubts the ability of women; * the limited lending by financial agencies to women, which is an impediment to the establishment of private businesses. 3.30. Certain traditional practices and cultural mores also limit women's capacity to improve their social and economic status. Particularly in rural areas, women are still largely confined to the traditional realm of household 27 duties and are given little, if any, control over income. Trade opportunities are also often barred to women; since selling and buying are mostly men's operations. Therefore, despite the economic need for women to participate in "outside" income-earning work - particularly in areas of increasing male migration to urban centers - traditional practices often prevent them from pursuing such work. This is aggravated by the inheritance laws which give females only half the share of land that males receive. 3.31. Because tradition also limits interaction between women and men who are not family members, agricultural extension efforts targeting women require female extension officers. However, female extension agents face considerable on-the-job differentiation from male agents, such as restricted access to vehicles and research funds.' Despite recent efforts to change the situation, the portion of extension agents who are female is still small and this has limited women's ability to benefit from their services. 3.32. While many women continue to suffer from the constraints imposed by tradition, Morocco is currently experiencing processes of economic and social change which are beginning to open up new opportunities for women, particularly the younger generations of girls. For example, the process of rural to urban migration begins to open up new opportunities (as well as difficulties) for women; and efforts to promote exports are increasing the demand for female labor in new high technology industries. International Cooperation 3.33. Since the approval of the Nairobi strategy on the promotion of women, most United Nations bodies have given priority to the integration of women in their programs and cooperation projects. Indeed, the key role that these institutions play in the development of women is not to be minimized. Nevertheless, this interest demonstrated by the international community in the integration of women has a very limited scope in practical terms, owing to certain circumstances: (a) projects focusing on women not always receiving priority, leading to low program funding, which means that often project requests made by women do not proceed any further; (b) insufficient awareness-raising as to the possibilities open to women as part of international cooperation; (c) a need to take into consideration national strategies to promote women and support the priorities set by the governments in this respect (the solutions proposed must be appropriate for the particular conditions in each country); and (d) a need to take into consideration the needs and aspirations expressed by women in all stages of development programs devised as part of international cooperation (formulation, implementation and evaluation). 56. World Bank. September 1990. Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. 28 THE PREST SffUATION HOW T11E WO~üN WOULD LEKETO IE T CHANfCE Coonns The larger the cucle, the more inportant the role of the institution. Cucles outside the main circle show negative relations. * The first diagram analyzos the present eiuation. Tho broker and tho buy ers from outuide the Prepare d by .village (of B2ioui djeflabas) aeshown outside, because aven though they are important (and amile, Khdio M ak,Zh, F at henco the big cirteio) they don't treat tho womeni welt ond they feet that they wro being erplmoed Feim, alke adMka~~F±n Tho grocer has atelephone androceives the rsil buot ho doer not treot themn well either ond they feel the elected representative ls ntot doing his job well. The second diagan showsa the changes thecy would like to see. Hence, they have include d a we avinE co-op (and elimmnated the broker) and the buyer would de at through the co-op weith themn O They hopo to have a better elected representative who will be reeponsible for gettang a osque cordor), the rolo of the frage will roduco and be lees important. FIlGUR1E 2: INSTlTUTIONAL ANALYSIS AGHEALOJU (CIHAAB3A), Nov. 5, 1994 4. WOMEN'S VIEWS:" KEY ISSUES FOR FOCUS 4.1. In this section we will describe the factors the women cited in their analysis of their situation and options for the future in each general sector, following roughly the order of importance in which they themselves ranked these issues in the PRA. In particular it is worth noting that although they explained many reasons why their daughters did not attend school for long or at all, they did not specifically point to girls' education in the traditional school system as an area of priority. For greater perspective on how widespread across the survey area particular situations and views were, we suggest that the reader consult the summary data tables in Annex VIII, or refer to the separately produced PRA report. Domestic Production and Time Allocation Water Collection 4.2. Lack of adequate potable water figured as women's highest ranking problem in many of the villages covered during PRA research. For example, women in the village of Outhdidou (Azilal) have to collect water from wells about three kilometers from their homes. They make 2-3 trips every day, either on foot or on mules. In Ouled Harrouch (Ouarzazate), the L'hrar have a half an hour mule ride to get to their drinking water source. The women of Sarte (Zagora) spend approximately seven hours a day collecting water (two in the morning and five in the evenings). In other cases the water chore is further complicated by steep terrain. In Imzaine, the women had scars on their backs from years of transporting water. In some villages (like Assour and Boutaghrer) the only source of drinking water is a river. It presents the danger of drowning during floods, especially for younger girls, as well as the danger of water borne disease. 4.3. The more difficult the access to water, the more time this task occupies for women. When the well is distant or deep, women organize themselves according to a schedule and fix the time for their turns to fill the water so that they don't have to wait for long for their turn and waste time in the process. But still, children, especially daughters, are expected to start helping their mothers from a very early age. Girls of five already fetch water in five liter plastic bottles on their backs. Fuelwood Collection 4.4. The PRA study confirmed the hardships faced by women while collecting fuelwood. For example, women in Igoudar (Al Haouz) collect fuelwood from five kilometers away. Most of them go twice a day, collecting up to ten kilos of wood per basket. In some larger households, women have to repeat the voyage four times a day. Wood is used there for preparing couscous and bread. In Imzaine, the women mentioned that they have to go as far as 25 km to look for fuelwood. If they are lucky and don't meet the forest guard, they bring back by mule or on their backs 15-20 kg of wood cut from the trees. If they meet the guard, they only pick up twigs. Little girls go looking for twigs within the village and usually come home with about 2 kg of wood fuel. Quite naturally, the women linked backache, pain in the joints and arthritis to the heavy loads of wood they have to shoulder. 4.5. With the exception of Igoudar and Imzaine (both in El Haouz), where women use cow or sheep 57. This chapter draws heavily from the forthcoming Reports on the 1994 Participatory Rural/Urban Appraisal (PRA) undertaken as described in Chapter 2, written by Ms. Meera Shah and Ms. Khadija Bourarach, which present more detailed discussion of findings. 30 droppings as fuel, women in all the villages said they baked bread using wood. It is interesting to note that even if the household is better off and can afford bottled gas, they still prefer to make bread the traditional way, necessitating a constant supply of fuelwood. Collective ovens were suggested by the women in practically all villages covered by the PRA as a way of allowing more efficient use of wood. 4.6. PRA also brought to light some effects of men's agricultural income increases on women. Instead of just working themselves with some family members, men hire larger and larger teams of laborers. The requirement of wood fuel increases during peak agricultural operations when the women have to cook for all the labor employed on their fields. Women mentioned that they would prefer more mechanized agricultural operations so that they could hire fewer people at harvest time and be relieved from cooking for so many. Transport 4.7. The PRA surveys confirmed that men and women feel severely constrained in all aspects of their lives by the difficulties associated with travel; distance was frequently a factor in their ranking of activities. For villages distant from cities (data shown in tables in the Annex), to go shopping or visit relatives, one must wait for market day, or-rent a car (if available). Communities such as Assour have tried to make access to a road easier (particularly for children, old people, and animals) by building bridges. Yet , designed by the villagers themselves and built with local materials, the bridges are washed out each time the river floods. Both men and women feel that their inability to build or maintain high quality roads limits their access to health care and to business opportunities. The track from Imzaine to Tabant (the nearest town, 60 km away) is currently being improved, and the entire village called this a dream come true. The lack of transportation also has an extremely adverse impact on children's school enrollment in surveyed areas. Distances of up to 8 km each way, the necessity for hitchhiking or stopping busses, and the danger and physical difficulty of these as viewed by the parents (for both sexes but especially for girls) discourage school attendance. Many parents, men and women, stated during the PRA that their daughters are not enrolled in school owing to the lack of transportation or the distances involved. Health Care and Family Planning BOX 5 Health Services THE PILL: CONTRACEPTIVE OR FERTILITY DRUG? 4.8. According to the women interviewed in the PRA study, due to the transportation problems Many women in Alt Bakhouch (Azilal) mentioned mentioned above, it is important to have some basic that they collect the birth control pills distributed free by the health facilities in the village, or to have mobile health team that visits the village periodically. When asked ambulances for easy transport, especially in case of how many women use the pill, they informed that "some use it for themselves." Intrigued, we asked how the others use maternity related emergencies. Only eight villages them. Laughing, the women said, "We feed them to our out of the twenty-seven had a primary health center hens." They explained that the pill is very effective in curing in the village, and only five had a traditional birth a particular skin disease the hens contract and when the hens attendant (these and distances to the nearest health are given the pill, they also lay more eggs! Some women center are tabulated in Annex VIII). Even when gave up using the pill for themselves because it made them feel sick, and heard about this alternate use of it in the souk there is a health center in the village, the women from women from another village. For best results, we were complain about the services. For example, women told, "dissolve the pill in water and leave it for the hen." say that the nurses do not treat them politely and in 31 TABLE 4 FREQUENCY RANKING OF CHILDREN'S DISEASES, AYT BAKHOUCH Diarrhea Fever Intestine Measles Cough Quinsy Skin Diseases Marks Order (D) (F) (1) (M) (C) (Q) (S) D D D D D D Diarrhea 6 1 F F F F F Fever 5 2 Made by a group I I I I Intestine 4 3 of 30 women. M M S Measles 2 5 Each letter indicates which of the two C S Cough 1 6 diseases represented by each intersection is the more frequent. Diarrhea ranks first as S Quinsy 0 7 the most common disease among children. Skin Diseases 3 4 some instances, even ask for bribes. At one site the women mentioned that, even though they were aware that contraceptive pills were to be given out for free, the nurse asked for 5-10 Dirhams or some eggs in exchange. In addition, many women say they hesitate to visit some of the health centers since most of the nurses are male. In their words, "you can't discuss women's special problems with a male nurse." 4.9. Some variation in the types of health problems in different villages was expected due to the differences in their location and conditions under which people live, but there are some commonalities also in the analysis provided by women in their respective villages: gynecological problems, headaches, arthritis, toothache, stomach disorders, boils and skin problems were cited in many areas, and a few had serious problems with goiter. Some women blamed health problems on contaminated potable water, others on their strenuous work load. Among children's diseases, women ranked diarrhea as the most frequent in many of the villages (see Table 4). For most diseases, women in nearly all the villages resort to using home remedies and plant extracts. Family Planning 4.10. Awareness and demand for contraceptive services is high in rural areas, but the quality of service is low: women know of the existence of contraceptives, but few know how to use them correctly. When passing through one village, PRA researchers observed that the mobile male nurse had visited and distributed the pill, not just directly to mothers, but also to children! More frequently, women complain that the pill is distributed to men, so when they give it to their wives, it is impossible for them to get answers to any questions related to its use. 4.11. However, a minority of rural women say they don't want to use contraception. Society expects women to produce children once they are married. The ability of a woman to keep on producing children is seen as a reflection of her being young and able in the eyes of her husband, and is a deterrent for divorce (they all mentioned the nafaka, payment made by a man to his former wife or wives to cover the needs of his children until they are of age, as a deterrent because more is paid with each additional child). The Ouled Azzi women and men cited the same proverb: "Almrah belouled bhalelbghra laighra, oulah jayha lemakadir el baed, aish bgha edir bihah rajel?" (A sterile woman is like a sterile cow or a hen which can't lay eggs, of what use is she to a man?) 32 4.12. Another factor playing a role in high fertility rates is the heavy workload women have to bear. In villages where the women have to spend long hours collecting water and fuelwood (Dhar, Outhdidou, Alit Bakhouch etc.) having more children gets more hands and feet to help a woman with her work. Economic Activities Agriculture Extension 4.13. According to women's testimony and their wealth classification, agriculture (size of farm, type of crops, heads of cattle, sheep and goats, etc.) is regarded as the strongest indicator of wealth, except in Aghbalou and Targha. The communities believe that agriculture is the best source of income, despite the uncertainty of rain in bour and pastoral areas and the large amount of effort required. Women are pivotal to agriculture and the amount of energy they expend on it varies by region. In all the villages studied, women spend no less, but usually more, time on agricultural activities than men. 4.14. With the exception of cloistered women in the Zagora villages, women in all villages surveyed play a visible and significant role in agriculture. For instance, even though plowing is predominantly a male activity in nearly all the villages, women in Chefchaouen villages work alongside men. In resource-poor households, women and men pull a modified plow themselves. Women from poorer households seem to participate more in the fields, while women who are better off tend to have an indirect role such as preparing food for the labor used on their farms. In all the villages studied, women usually spent more time on agricultural activities than men in hopes of increasing their earnings. BOX 6 4.15. However, despite women's broad participation in agriculture, many claim they have NUMBER OF MEN INVOLVED IN DIFFERENT never been visited by an agricultural technician or a ACTIVITIES, OULED IIARROUCII veterinarian and seem unaware of the services available. Only women in the irrigated region Activity Social group referred to extension services for women provided by officers from the El Haouz Development Office. L hrar Draoua Chorfa Total In the other regions, visits by experts are very rare Farming 20 3 1 24 and when they occur (especially in the regions of Figuig and Zagora) they are limited to men. For gricult. - 6 - 6 example, in Dhar (Chefchaouen) the women mentioned that a male agriculture extension worker Traders 7 - - 7 comes to the village but only meets the Mukkadam. Salaried 1 - - 1 The Mukkadam, in turn, never informs the women about anything he learns from the extension service. Abroad 3 - - 3 The women used to grow a lot of beans as a staple Migrants 16 11 2 29 food. The crop has now been wiped out because of Unem- - 7 - 7 a weed and the women know of no solution. They ployed have stopped consuming beans as they can't afford them. They also used to have plenty of wild grapes in the village but for some unidentifiable reason, 33 TABLE 5 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN THE RURAL SURVEY REGIONS Chefchaouen Azilal Ouarzazate El Haouz Tendrara On-farm: cereal crops X X X X X olives X X X olive oi X X X fruits X X X X vegetables X X X X sharecropping X Micro-Enterprise: poultry X X X X X rabbit rearing X X X livestock X X X X X milk prod. X X X X X handicraft X X X X X petty trade & self-employment X Use of Commons fishing w/license X fishing w/o license X collecting wood X X X X X collecting fodder X X X X X grazing animals X X X X Other: domestic migration X X X X X migration abroad X X X X X casual labor X X X X X tourism X X they don't grow any more. In Berkouk, women raise poultry and rabbits on a small scale, and mentioned that they have problems with animals dying during the winter. They would like someone to help them identify the problem and find a solution but they are not aware of where they can get such help. It is worth mentioning that men as well as women in PRA interviews had strong opinions in particular on agriculture, and project planners are encouraged to consult men's and women's specific comments in the site reports. Job Market Participation 4.16. Women in most douars, urban and rural, make handicrafts of various types. There is a large pool of skills and knowledge among the women for making items like carpets, rugs, blankets, baskets, etc. For example, in Outhdidou (Azilal) women produce five different types of carpets/floor coverings: Ahdoun, 77ika, Gtifa, Tellis, and Hssau. Some women would like to make more of these products to earn some extra money but they lack capital, knowledge about markets, or time prevents them from taking their interests BOX 7 "SINCE WE HIRED A WOMAN, WE NO LONGER HAVE PROBLEMS" "Since we placed a woman in our accounting department, we no longer have any problems," says a human resources director of a large export firm in Casablanca. "So we have decided to fill all the administrative posts with women. We hope to have 90% women by the year 2000. It's too bad that the social environment doesn't keep up with changing times. Women are divided between their outside work and housework. Urban governments and the private sector must develop day care to relieve women, and the husband must participate equally in child care. We must work together at all levels in all circumstances. Progress and development is a matter for everyone, woman, man, old, or young.' Najat, a 35-year -old mother of two, has a high school diploma and is co-manager of one of the biggest restaurants in Marrakech. She hires men and women for the restaurant with a goal of complementarity of skills: the office staff is 50% female, the cooks 90%, servers 25%, and entertainers 50-75% female. She intentionally does not use age or marital status as hiring criteria, but does assign those of certain age groups to certain tasks. The restaurant picks its employees up from home in the morning and drops them off in the evening (a 14 hour day including breaks). Najat feels that the special qualities of women employees are that they are more patient and self-sacrificing, get along equally well with men or women, and can get men to listen to them. BOX 8 FACTORS IN EXTENDING CREDIT TO WOMEN: A STUDY BY MOROCCO'S CNCA The CNCA (Caisse Nationale de Crddit Agricole) is the bank in Morocco responsible for lending to the country's rural and agricultural sector. When 1986 statistics showed that only 15% of those receiving credit from the institution were women despite the wide and active role women play in agricultural production, the CNCA began to implement changes in its practices. A study conducted to identify the barriers facing women found that fixed collateral requirements, complicated administrative procedures, long distances to credit institutions, lack of female staff, and high illiteracy rates among women all created obstacles deterring women from obtaining credit. In response to these discoveries, the Credit Agricole initiated several reforms in its credit processes. Group guarantees became an acceptable form of collateral, procedures were simplified, mobile facilities to bring credit to isolated regions were expanded, female staff were hired, and activities specific to women were targeted for new loans. The efforts made by the Credit Agricole illustrate the capacity Morocco's institutions have to improve women's credit opportunities. Expansion of these and other efforts are necessary to continue to open up financial markets to poor rural women. Source: Fong, Monica S. and Heli Perrett. 1991. Women and Credit. Milan: Finafrica-Cariplo. BOX 9 CREDIT AGRICOLE AND FARMERS: WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD? In the pastoral regions of Ouled Azzi and Ouled Ahmed, men were not very happy with the results from loans granted by the CNCA. One nomad stated that the lack of preliminary (feasibility) studies, market/weather contingencies, and farmers' and livestock-raisers' unfamiliarity with management practices frequently led to failure. Other men mentioned failure to receive extension services, and not being well informed about the interest and repayment system. By contrast, farmers in the irrigated regions expressed approval of CNCA operations, though they suggested that loans should be granted to individuals rather than in the name of a cooperative, as is currently done. This inter-village difference probably results from the quality extension services and technical assistance provided in the area. 35 BOX 10 IMPROVING FEMALE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE: VILLAGE EXPERIENCE Educating girls did not emerge as a high ranking priority in the villages selected. The main reasons given for the low enrollment of girls in schools included: * the girls have to help their mothers with the housework (especially when drinking water and fuelwood are not easily accessible). * long distances to the nearest school. This includes natural barriers such as rivers which may sometimes hinder children from reaching school (e.g. in Oued Assour-Azilal- a flood may block the passage for up to fifteen days). a lack of economic resources among the parents. * traditions and local customs. This applies especially to the L'hrar and M'rabtine communities in the Zagora circle. a the usually poor quality of teaching. For example, it was mentioned that the syllabus is never completed and that there is no rigor in the teaching. As a result, many of the students from village primary schools are not able to perform satisfactorily if they go on to high school. For example, two boys and one girl from Mangoub (Figuig) who went to complete their education in Bourfa (Figuig) had to give up after a year due to inability to "cope with the level of other students from the town". * lack of suitable work opportunities. In some villages (e.g. Aghbalou, Azilal), it was mentioned that there are no jobs available even after obtaining a degree; and hence education was perceived as a waste of time. * poor relevance of the course content of the subjects taught at school vis-a-vis the rural way of life. A common complaint was that the courses taught in the schools had no relation to the rural life and environment in the village. Accordingly, children have problems in comprehending what is taught and are not even able to apply their knowledge in their daily life. further. The only rural douars where women engaged inB regular income earning activity was Aghbalou (Azilal). BOX 11 The village is known for its Bizioui djellaba, and nearly TO GET A JOB YOU MUST BE IGNORANT all the women are engaged in activities related to making them. On average, a woman spends ten hours a A young urban woman told this story: day making djellabas (it takes 5-6 weeks to make one). It is interesting to note that in villages like Aghbalou "We are told that the way to improve our an srir resting wonoen hainvags u e o coe chances of getting a job is to stay in school or complete thrg Assing wh dcat aoen the villagce hs ice professional training. But reality is another thing through selling handicrafts and the village has basic entirely. With my bachelor's degree in hand I had no facilities of drinking water and also electricity, women's chance of finding a position. So then I took a training needs have moved on to a different level. They are program in style/modeling. When I looked for work, I looking forward to having a day care center in the was never hired because factory owners want robots to village for the infants so that they could spend more work tirelessly and without complaint, and a woman with my level of education is bound to be troublesome. time making their handicrafts. Women in these villages So I played the game: I submitted a resume omitting also mentioned the need for literacy classes for them SO my degree but claiming experience in sewing. And I that they could manage their businesses better, was hired! Those degrees and all that time I wasted, did they work for me or against me? To get a job with 4.17. In urban areas, women, like men, cite difficulty those people you must bejahala, ignorant." 36 with the high unemployment rate and discriminatory hiring practices used by some employers. Women also complained of gender based discrimination, harrassment, and unhealthy or unsafe living and working conditions. The situation is not hopeless, however. There is some appreciation for women as workers, and there are some jobs and possibilities for entrepreneurship. Box 7 illustrates employers' view of women employees in Marrakech and Casablanca. Credit 4.18. In the rural areas studied, credit is usually linked to agriculture and livestock, the only areas in which rural populations invest. Only men have been concerned with credit in the bour areas. The men of Ouled Azzi and Ouled Ali said that after a loan has been granted, there should be a proper follow-up on the use and valorization of money. Many nomads in the regions surveyed said the same, particularly those experiencing a repayment problem (see Boxes 8 and 9). For urban areas, women generally have great difficulty gaining access to formal credit because their activities often are on a very small scale. Instead, they use a tontine system of revolving funding where all the women in a self-selected group contribute the same amount monthly, and by turn, one woman receives the total collection each month. Education and Illiteracy 4.19. The Social Map, Institutional Analysis, Focus Group Discussions, and Semi-Structured Interviews with women and men generated during the PRA showed very few literate women above the age of thirty in the twenty-seven villages covered under the rural study. Part of the explanation is the past low number of girls attending primary school. From all the regions covered under the study, El Kalaa had the highest percentage of girls in primary school (42.5 percent of the students are girls), while Ouarzazate had the lowest with 27.1 percent (Table 6). The average for all the surveyed areas was 35.1 percent (of 2107 students). As noted above, few women ranked primary school access for girls as first rank priority. The reasons for not sending the girls for long or at all fall into four categories. 4.20. First, as described in section 4.7, the difficult trails and long distances often worry parents for boys' and, especially, girls' safety. For example, in Aghbalou (Azilal), it is a common practice to provide the girls with a tkof (talisman) to prevent rape. Parents who are able to send their children to school in the towns either own a house in town or have relatives there with whom their children can live. 4.21. Second, preparation for marriage and their adult life force many girls to leave school early. In all villages except Assrir (Zagora) and Aghbalou (Azilal), girls usually marry between the ages of fourteen and eighteen, and leave school even before that age to begin their adult economic contribution to the household, doing housework, cleaning, and collecting water and fuelwood. Urban girls, by contrast, leave school to get jobs, sometimes by their own choice, other times encouraged by their families. Young, attractive, and strong girls are favored for the many factory jobs available, and the girls and the parents are discouraged of any possibility of getting a better job through more education. In fact, Box 11 shows how too much education harmed one woman's job search. 4.22. Third, tradition deters girls from continuing their education. For example, six L'hrar girls in Ouled Harrouch (Zagora) attend school, but their mothers maintained that they would have to leave after four to five years because L'hrar girls do not go outside the home once they reach puberty. After primary school, continuing studies usually means moving to a town, and tradition does not accept girls renting rooms in towns and living alone. For boys, there is no restriction provided they can afford the expense. Parents' adherence to these traditions varies widely: while the nomads in Assrir (Zagora) send 37 TABLE 6 NUMBER OF BOYS AND GIRLS ATTENDING PRIMARY SCHOOL VILLAGE REGION SCHOOL ATTENDANCE (NO.) GIRLS BOYS Aghbalou Azilal 19 32 Alt Bakhouch Azilal 4 20 Assour* Azilal 10 20 Outhdidou Azilal 10 24 Igoudar El Haouz 22 23 Letnine El Haouz 35 56 Taizelte El Haouz 26 40 lmzaine El Haouz 20 23 Targha Chefchaouen 64 103 Berkouk Chefchaouen 19 46 Laanassar Chefchaouen 66 99 Dhar* Chefchaouen 2 8 Z.el Barania Zagora 10 71 0. Harrouch* Zagora 6 NA Sarte Zagora 33 223 Assrir Zagora 111 233 Mangoub Tendrara 20 40 Ouled Ali* Tendrara 0 6 Ouled Azzi* Tendrara 18 19 Maatarka Tendrara 16 63 Boutaghrer Ouarzazate 33 68 Alemdoune Ouarzazate 5 34 El Ikhlass Coop El Kalaa 48 65 Bab Rbah Coop El Haouz 12 21 *No primary school in village. Source: Social map, Institutional Analysis, Focus group discussions and Semi Structured Interviews with women and men in the villages. their daughters to school, and would like to have them educated, the Laarab (Tendrara) would not think of it. 4.23. Fourth, a factor cited by nearly all parents surveyed was expense. Primary education is free, but ancillary costs make it difficult to send children. In Berkouk, the beginning of the academic year expenditure for books, bags, pens, exercise books, proper shoes, and school clothing is approximately $20-30. Some men referred to these costs for their daughters' education as wasteful. A son's education is considered worthwhile since the son stays with the family and can share the benefits of his knowledge; by contrast, after daughters marry, their income will go to the husband's family. Institutional Mechanisms for Promoting Women Women's Centers 4.24. Some Moroccan villages have institutions called Nadi, a club or women's center where women can meet and craft lessons and other forms of adult education be organized; women in villages without a Nadi 38 often said they wanted one, and those that did have one suggested reforms. The Nadi in Letnine had strong attendance from its inception in 1974 to 1986, then experienced a marked decline from 180 members in 1986 to 32 in the period 1986-90 to 10 in the period 1990-93. A new Director was assigned in 1986 and the women clearly preferred the old one. Women's wishes to improve this Nadi include changing the content of courses from year to year and the methodology so that there is always something new to learn and to ensure that skills being taught are the most marketable; allowing enough space and equipment for everyone to have the opportunity to work; and presenting diplomas to recognize students' achievements. In addition, the women said that they wished the Nadi provided facilities for storing raw materials and marketing. If the Nadi couldn't fulfill this function they wanted a cooperative to do so. Personal Status 4.25. In Zagora villages women are almost invisible to outsiders. While building the new village settlement in Ouled Harrouch (because the old ksar collapsed), the men made separate streets for women and for themselves (a map showing this was prepared by the women in Ouled Harrouch). Women never use the men's street, except on market day when the men are away. This extreme case serves to illustrate the great diversity of social circumstances faced by women in different parts of the country. 4.26. Women's primary tool for stability in the absence of economic possibilities is their children. The greater the number of children, the lower the risk of divorce--owing to nafaka (see paragraph 4.11). Generally speaking, women are not well informed about this matter. They simply state that nafaka is a right until the children are over 20. Nafaka is subject to many conditions before it is granted; the number of children is only one factor, and sometimes a weak one. Yet a woman in Letnine put her feelings about it very directly: "Ntakafelrajel elyadin ouraljin bidrari back mankhalihch etir" (I want to tie the hands and feet of my husband with many children so he can't fly). FIGURE 3 RANKING OF WOMEN'S SOURCES OF INCOME, BOUTAGHRER rS 1, Comments Eggs and chicken are woman's assets. Other products are sold, without the knowledge of their husbands (because they belong to the husband) to mobile traders. They are sold in very small quantities, so that the husband does not guess they have gone missing. 39 BOX 12 BOX 13 A WOMAN'S POINT OF VIEW A MAN'S POINT OF VIEW In Ouled Azzi and Ali, women's discussions often center Ayat Belkhair of Ouled Ali is going through a around their dreams of settling down permanently in a village and difficult phase. Although he has married twice, neither of giving up the nomadic way of life. When asked to visualize the his wives live with him. He married his first wife in 1960 village of their dreams, the women selected: and took a second in 1983 (with the approval of the first). He divorced his second wife in 1990 because, according to * a grocer's shop. him, the two wives were not able to get along together. * a tribunal, because if they had easy access to legal services, Other women later explained that it was cheaper for him to they would like to take their husbands to court. divorce the second wife since there were only two children from this marriage as compared to seven from the first. The inherent tension between men and women over their nomadic lifestyles and the hardships caused by frequent In 1993, his first wife also left him to live in Beni household movement leads to frequent disputes. Women feel that Mathar. She sold the sheep she had raised and purchased they are not well treated by their husbands but currently have no a house for herself. She asked Ayat to join her in Beni way to seek justice. They can try to seek justice within their Mathar and give up his nomadic life, but he did not wish traditional system by asking the Sheikh to intervene. But the to settle in the town. He has the two older children, one Sheikh lives far away in Tendrara town and the women have no daughter and one son, while the five younger children are way to access him. The next person they can go to is the with his wife. Now their case is being settled in court and Mukkadam; however, in Ouled Ali the women said, "The he is expected to pay for their upkeep. Ayat was very Mukkadam does not take care of the women's problems. There bitter about the way he felt the court was showing favor is no point in going to him for justice. He even beats his own towards his wife. wife, how can he help us?" FIGURE 4 CHANGES OVER TIME LAANASSAR t - habita + [D D.13 +.-forest +3 DD D +30 + ++ ++ 0 3 + + +Aul6sP D D D 3 + + ++ ++ ++ + a D+ + ++3. 1+++ a , . ++++++ Aujouu'kni--Present Createdby L'MKademMustafa, Said. Bouhad, and a group of women 40 FIGURE 5 CLASSIFICATION OF WOMEN'S ACTIVITIES ACCORDING TO THEIR CRITERIA, EL IKHLASS COOPERATIVE 1 iirST1I (0P4 NE SRTDM ICOE) N I IN vovet ?O0O CI pe. %0.~ HOUPSE &d=A0c :~o ' 0000 ..000000 O*: 0. .Oo 0 0* C)*0 .:;~oo * 0000 00 0000 .* 000 0 Prepared by: Saadiya, Malika, Fatima, Mahjouba, Khadija, Mahjouba, Rabha, Fadma, Rkia, and Malika FREE SCORE/ RANK Notes o Meals are carried out to the fields during wheat, cotton and olive harvest times and when it is their turn to irrigate their fields. The husband leaves for the field at 8am and returns by 6pm. In the morning a woman carries bread, tea and olive oil for her husband and for lunch she takes bread and tagine. o Among the housekeeping activites, laundry is considered the most difficult, followed by flour sifting. o For the cattle, a drawing of a bucket was used to show milking and a broom to represent cleaning the cowshed and washing the cattle. The dots show the work incolved in providing feed supplements to the cattle. This is done every day. Most difficult is carrying bran (feed) bags and collecting the waste. o Wool work is done during "free" time. They make djellaba, djellaba ElHaba, bouchemate, selham carpets and laabana. o Women carry the weeds for fodder on a cart. They weed and harvest cotton. It is the most difficult work. Some people hire women from outside the village at 35 dirhams per day. o Women pick olives. 5. STATUS OF CURRENT EFFORTS FOR CHANGE 5 Government Efforts 5.1. Although the Moroccan Government has made substantial efforts to address the status of women, numerous institutional constraints have limited their effectiveness. Several Ministries operate programs addressing the needs of women, but no central unit exists to coordinate the various programs. Consequently, duplication and inefficiency are not uncommon in the different Ministries. Several Government officials have pointed to the need for a central coordinating office, or even a Ministry of Women." Many people follow with interest the experience of Tunisia which has created a Ministry of Women's and Family Affairs. 5.2. Currently, six ministries have structures (differentiated administrative levels) for specifically dealing with women's issues. These are the Ministry of Youth and Sports (MJS), the Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs (MEAS), the Ministry of Agriculture and Agricultural Development (MAMVA), Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation (MAEC), Ministry for Human Rights (MDH), and the Ministry for the Affairs of the Moroccan Community Abroad (MACME). MJS and MEAS both implement programs promoting training for women in economic activities, primarily home-based activities such as handicrafts and embroidery, MAMVA has designated part of the extension services department to specifically target the improvement of women's agricultural practices, and MAEC created an Integration of Women in Development unit (Cellule Femmes) with the objective of promoting programs which include women in the economic development process, through coordination of bilateral resources for women's development. 5.3. However, compared to other Ministries, MEAS and MJS are poorly funded and spend much less time on these issues than the other Ministries. Furthermore, because women's programs are relatively new, the quality and quantity of such programs suffer especially when funds are scarce. No evaluation of the activities of these ministries have been done, but apparently they are widely acknowledged to be insufficient, compounded by redundancy in activities of the various structures. MAMVA has recognized a need to strengthen its institutional capacity to reach women, and efforts are being made to recruit more women extension workers and to provide in-house training for staff on gender-related issues, especially with expansion of the PEDAEX Project (Population Education in Agricultural Extension) set up with the help of the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA). The MAEC Cellule Femmes was set up too recently for evaluation, as were an MDH Women's Rights unit, and a similar structure at MACME. 5.4. Other Ministries such as those of Public Health, National Education, and Labor do not have specific women's departments but still operate programs benefitting women. - The same constraints limiting MJS and MEAS also affect these Ministries. Moreover, without institutional mechanisms that specifically target women, the impact on women of these Ministries' programs is often small. For instance, the Ministry of Public Health allocates most of its resources towards urban areas, with 70% of funding in 1989 going towards large urban 58. This chapter draws heavily from Technical Report: Review of Bilateral and Multilateral Efforts, prepared in March 1995 with the help of bi- and multilateral agencies active in Morocco and is based on an analysis of the information gathered for the Technical Report. All statements not otherwise cited come from information gathered from the relevant organization. The report included an analysis of all Bank projects in Morocco. 59. Davis, Susan S. December 1989. Moroccan Women and Development: An Assessment and Strategy. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 42 hospitals, even though women in rural areas suffer the harshest health conditions.' 5.5. The effectiveness of these Ministries in improving women's status is also severely constrained by cultural factors. The majority of programs have focused on women's traditional roles in the household, such as programs to improve child care. Income generating projects emphasize activities such as sewing and avoid large scale commerce, credit, or other more expansive economic opportunities." Cultural factors also create institutional constraints by limiting women's employment opportunities in government and other influential positions. Because of cultural attitudes regarding male-female interactions, the dearth of female officials inhibits women from seeking help from the government. In rural areas, women repeatedly complained of this problem, particularly in health care services but also in agriculture extension and the court system. 5.6. Overall, it is difficult to speak of effectiveness, since there is no stated or coherent policy of integrating women into development. Current activities aimed at women are more like a body of disparate, uncoordinated measures which cause redundant use and waste of scarce resources.' The PRA studies have emphasized the need for an integrated approach for promoting women's greater economic and social participation. Frequently, women and girls are not able to take advantage of such programs as education, vocational training or increased employment opportunities due to a lack of access to essential services such as water, fuel and transport (as already discussed). Consequently, effective integration is required between different ministries and agencies to ensure that women (as well as men) have access to most essential services. Aid Organizations (Bilateral, Multilateral, Non-governmental) 5.7. The World Bank is increasingly including gender concerns in its lending operations. Recent World Bank projects in such areas as education, agriculture, health, and credit demonstrate increased attention to "women's" issues and the Bank's intention to increase targeting of women as project beneficiaries. In Morocco, most recent projects have not sought out women's views beforehand or had specific women-targeted components. However, by including components on problems affecting women more directly than men, such as credit for small farmers and non-agricultural clients (Rural Finance Project, 1993), family planning, nutrition, and maternal-child health (Health Sector Investment Project), some projects aim to benefit women in an integrated manner. Annex I gives an overview of current Bank activity targeted towards women in Morocco. 5.8. It is only recently that bilateral and multilateral development assistance to Morocco has begun to target women as a special priority group. A few bilateral or multilateral organizations have a specific budget for activities to benefit women, but most rather attempt to integrate women's needs into their general development activities. Most now include gender analysis in the preparation of all projects, aiming to assure that the women's interests and needs are explicitly addressed within the context of projects. Specific organizations and their current activities are detailed in Annex II; many have only recently begun focusing their activities on women. The lessons they are learning, discussed below by sector, should prove highly useful in development of this strategy and project design. A separate technical report as part of this Economic and Sector Work, cataloging Bilateral and Multilateral Efforts, was issued in February 1995 as a background draft report under this Economic and Sectoral Work. 60. Davis 1989. 61. Davis 1989. 62. Barkallil, Nadira. 1994. Technical Cooperation and Women's Lives: Integrating Gender into Development Policy. Geneva: UNRISD. 43 5.9. Only a few non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are covered here, those whose performance have been strongest in the areas of consistent follow-up and significant effect on the most disadvantaged groups and, in particular, rural women. Their work focuses on constraints rural women face and activities having the potential to bring the most profit. NGOs aim to support agricultural production through management of natural resources. Strategies often include formation of cooperatives, pilot operations, and awareness campaigns. Most NGOs, Moroccan and international, work closely with and/or receive financial support from the government, bi/multilaterals, and non-governmental organizations. Their main handicap, limiting their success, is a lack of national level coordination. Time/Labor Saving 5.10. Actions focusing on the problem of excessive time and labor devoted to subsistence activities can be difficult and expensive. Yet government and donor activity in this domain is remarkably sparse when it is considered that funds spent on other areas of activity cannot reach optimality as long as this problem persists. 5.11. In the domain of public infrastructure easing time/labor burdens, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and UNICEF have since 1987 engaged in a project to provide solar driven water pumps, but did not comment in their reports on the number installed or provide data on time saved, repair record, etc. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for site selection, pump installation, and training the population in equipment use and maintenance. Neither bi/multilaterals nor the Moroccan government have focused on collective ovens. Ministries and donors involved in electrification and road/transport projects have not, in general, analyzed their efforts specifically with regard to women. 5.12. Many efforts, however, have focused on the introduction of new technology. For example, many bilateral/multilateral organizations have sponsored the substitution of solar ovens for wood burning ovens (with mixed acceptance and no study of long term use feasibility completed as of yet).' Thus the willingness or ability of the women to adopt this technology is still uncertain. Research on other alternative energy sources, though recognized, has not been a priority for the government or the donor community. Peace Corps and a few NGOs conduct environmental education sessions in poor areas which include strategies for economizing wood and support for tree planting. Health Care Health Services 5.13. Reported donor activity in the health sector follows reasonably closely the areas of priority expressed by poor women, increased number of health centers and improved quality of the services. The Moroccan Ministry of Health cooperates with several bilateral and multilateral organizations, focusing most strongly on perinatal issues and widening the accessibility of services to those in rural areas. Participatory reports from urban areas indicate that vaccination programs since 1990 have been among the most successful of the Ministry of Health's (assisted by UNICEF) actions, with 80% of children immunized nationwide as compared to 40% in 1987." Within its Health Sector Investment Project, the World Bank has provided substantial assistance to the 63. As communicated to the Bank by representatives of Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), UNICEF and U.S. Peace Corps, December 1994. 64. From the forthcoming Report on Urban PRA Results. 44 Government's effort to establish public health programs in rural areas. These projects include a Maternal-Child program and a Family Planning program, which will greatly improve the access of rural women to pre- and post- natal care and increase the number of deliveries attended by trained medical personnel. NGOs such as ADRAR in the central High Atlas have also contributed significantly to the training level of women community health agents. 5.14. However, women at the PRA sites did not remark on expanded or improved health services supported by the Bank, Peace Corps, European Union, UNFPA, or United States Agency for International Development (USAID) programs currently under implementation in Morocco. Many regions are still untouched by this type of work, accordingly, these PRA sites were selected partly because the Moroccan Government and World Bank counterparts have selected them as areas of "Social Priority." Family Planning 5.15. Studies and programs for family planning have been implemented in coordination with the Ministries of Health, Education, and Agriculture; where many have concentrated their resources on educational activities in schools or hospitals. Yet given the access problems for these institutions as documented in the PRA as well as in other studies, it seems most effective to concentrate on mobile health teams. No multi/bilaterally supported programs other than PEDAEX (through Ministry of Agriculture) are currently focused on this type of extension. Economic Activities Extension 5.16. With the exception of recent World Bank, World Food Program (WFP), and GTZ activities directly researching on or training women, most agriculture extension support is not gender specific. The NGO Projet Oued Srou, however, with support from GTZ and ORMVA-Khenifra, is training a network of young women farmers to be extension agents. Cooperatives 5.17. The bilateral and. multilateral community strongly supports the organization of female production cooperatives, supporting artisans (UNICEF, UNDP, and CIDA) as well as entrepreneurs (salt production, animal husbandry). NGOs, too, show their highest activity level in the field of cooperative formation and associated training. The PRA results showed ambiguity on the part of women and men towards the cooperative concept. Decisions about the level of risksharing and resources seem to be most effective on as local a level as possible (see the section on credit also). Business and Job Market Participation 5.18. On a larger scale, CIDA/USAID have been researching Moroccan business possibilities and offering training for entrepreneurs in coordination with local NGOs. These activities directly address concerns voiced by women already participating in business or ready to start participation. 5.19. WFP and Japanese Overseas Cooperation Volunteer (JOCV) activities in particular have been very successful in finding employment to their graduates. Interestingly, one encourages training in non-traditional areas of employment for women, while the other has had best success sticking to traditional fields; clearly there are specific local conditions at work. A conference for individuals and organizations in the career training field 45 (including employers) could help them examine the long term outlook of various career fields. Credit 5.20. The World Bank supports Morocco's Caisse Nationale de Crtdit Agricole (CNCA) through the Rural Finance Project (lending to women for agricultural investments and artisan activities). Within various bilateral/multilateral projects, credits have been granted to individual women entrepreneurs and artisans, and women's production cooperatives. Pilot projects in the provision of micro credits for women all demonstrate excellent credit history and should be expanded. However, some farmers surveyed in the PRA working with CNCA credits indicated that they did not feel knowledgeable enough to use loans they had been given appropriately (see Box 12). Program designers need to give serious consideration to establishing an effective presence of a local support system of advice for borrowers. 5.21. Bi/Multilaterals and NGOs have primarily extended credit through their work with cooperatives. This can be a difficult strategy since the Moroccans surveyed seem to appreciate the benefits of cooperatives but do not have full confidence in them. Catholic Relief Service's work in micro-credit has had a slightly different but very successful approach by focusing on savings and encouraging Moroccan NGOs as well as wealthier individuals to facilitate credit for the poorest. 5.22. CIDA has had particularly interesting experience with credit. In 1993, through the Canadian Fund for Local Initiatives (FCIL), it sponsored two Canadian$ 15,000 pilot projects to provide micro-credits to artisan women following two different models. In Tendrara, the funds were distributed directly to the cooperative for purchase of materials, distributed to the artisan women, who in turn gave part of the profit from sales to the cooperative. In Boujad, on the other hand, the funds were deposited in a bank account on behalf of the cooperative, with a cooperative credit committee responsible for the funds. Members of the cooperative then submitted loan applications to the committee and if accepted, the artisan women were given the funds for purchase of production material. The loans were then to be repaid progressively and carried an interest of 4% to cover expenses of the cooperative. According to preliminary evaluations, the women did not hesitate to apply for credit, and the loans have been repaid regularly. Education 5.23. Efforts to improve education for women have primarily targeted economic constraints on school or training attendance, although the World Bank Rural Primary Education Project is funding an initiation of reforms in teaching materials to better address the needs of girls and women in society. This is an important departure as it shifts the focus to "willingness constraints" on participation in education. �а��� � Q�I�Q� � ����� � � �� � � �� �1�(���70�j� \�г�® �'°�� ® ���i �., °� $� �g � � ��� �� ® �� �, �� ����� о�� �ар�� оо ���`��10� ���'�� J ��G� � р� бд 6. EMERGING PRIORITIES AND SUGGESTIONS BASED ON THE PRA65 Reducing Time and Domestic Labor Constraints on Productive Work 6.1. The most important step towards unleashing rural women's economic potential is to reduce the time and labor requirements which their household duties entail. Sufficient technology exists to drastically decrease the time and labor necessary to complete women's household responsibilities. Installation of wells or piped water can save girls and women about 2-4 hours per day by eliminating the need of collecting water from distant sources.' Similarly, electrification reduces the time and labor women need for fuelwood collection and energy production. By using Butagos or a diesel grain mill, they can increase the efficiency of food processing and preparation while reducing the workload entailed. 6.2. The potential exists for widespread use of these and other technical improvements, but many rural women lack access to this assistance. For some technology, such as water infrastructure, the only major barrier is lack of funding or initiative for installation. For other types of improvements, such as alternative energy sources for food preparation, cultural barriers exist as well. Using new technology sometimes alters traditional practices to a point unacceptable to the women. This also applies to men, who are in control of most of household income, and refuse to purchase the necessary technology because it changes the taste of the food product or because they simply do not recognize the severity of women's workloads. 6.3. Raising men's awareness about the conditions women endure and about the benefits to the household of improving women's opportunities is essential in the process of improving women's economic status. If men are not integrated into programs addressing women's needs, they may resent and resist changes. Men's cooperation is necessary for effective improvements to occur, such as the purchase of labor-saving technology, changes in income allocations within the household, and expansion of women's economic opportunities outside the household. Box 14 describes how progress was made in India towards increasing men's sensitivity to the time and labor constraints women face. 6.4. Ile potential benefits of access to technical assistance extend well beyond the individual tasks which the technology facilitates. The time and labor women save in water collection, food processing, or other duties can be devoted to new productive endeavors, such as agricultural investments or labor market participation. Moreover, recent evidence from Morocco suggests that female educational enrollment rates improve with increased investments in labor-saving technology, particularly technology targeting tasks women traditionally complete (see Box Wood Collection 6.5. To relieve women of the drudgery of collecting fuelwood, affordable and acceptable alternatives are needed. In some of the researched villages, there are a few examples of solar energy being used for lighting. However, the solar cooker research and implementation programs of Peace Corps/Near East Foundation, GTZ and UNICEF cover only a limited number of regions, and so far none of the surveyed douars had women who have tried solar cookers. Clearly the research aspect still needs effort as these organizations have seen mixed acceptance of the cookers. Since it is usage modalities and not the technology itself that is in question, it is 65. This section was re-organized to reflect the general order of importance awarded by women to the various issues, starting with the most important needs/issues to be addressed first. 66. Davis 1989. 48 BOX 14 RAISING MEN'S AWARENESS ABOUT WOMEN'S WORKING CONDITIONS Increasing awareness among rural men about women's work conditions can be an important step towards improving women's status. When men realize the time constraints and difficult conditions under which women operate, they are more willing to support time-saving technologies and other improvements in women's labor conditions. A recent participatory rural appraisal (PRA) in Netrang, India served to sensitize the village community to the hardships women endure. The men in the Boripitha village had been very reluctant to support new technologies for women's tasks, such as biogas, pressure cookers, and flour and dal mills, because of the poorer taste of the food produced by these devices. A PRA facilitator worked with a group of village men and helped them to map out the daily work schedule of a typical village woman. The process was heavily participatory, with the facilitator merely asking initial questions and the men themselves producing all the input and creating the schedule. From the exercise, the men recognized the difficult work conditions women endure and the extremity of their time constraints. For instance, the schedule the men created indicated that "women work for 19 hours a day." Raising men's awareness about these issues encourages them to support time-saving technologies and other improvements in women's work conditions. Participatory exercises such as the one implemented in Netrang could prove constructive in many villages in Morocco, where greater awareness on the part of men about women's working and living conditions can help produce sustainable improvements in these conditions. Source: Bilgi, Meena. 1992. "Entering Women's World Through Men's Eyes." India: Aga Khan Rural Support Program. essential that women be at the center of these studies which ideally should be trying to answer the question, what are the long and short term costs and benefits to women of using a solar cooker and how can its design be improved to improve the benefit-cost ratios. Experimenting with biogas (in areas where water is not a constraint) is also worth undertaking in a similar manner. 6.6. The severity of these constraints on women's development suggests that efforts must be made by the government or other sources to build and improve infrastructure in rural areas. Transportation 6.7. The poor condition of roads and the lack of means of transportation prevent both men and women from engaging in remunerative activities. This situation has an adverse effect on the possibilities of innovation, realization of the village's potential (agriculture, livestock, handicrafts, and other activities) and the transfer of technology (extension services). This effect is felt more by women, who have stated during various discussions that they rarely can travel, and when they do, it is usually for family or medical visits. Indeed, if travel is difficult, expensive, and time-consuming for both sexes, for women and girls it is also seen as dangerous. As a result, women are often deprived of access to markets for remunerative work. Women's mobility is mostly limited to walkable distances. It has also been noted in the course of this study that the existence of a road to the village, together with some infrastructure (electricity or water) helps women not only to make better use of their time by engaging in an income-generating activity, but also markedly increases school enrollment percentages for girls (e.g., Aghbalou Chaaba, Aghbalou Zaouia, Assrir). Health Care and Family Planning 6.8. The lack of health infrastructure in most of the villages is accentuated by their remoteness, isolation, and lack of public transport. For women who by tradition do not move around much on their own in many of the villages, it is necessary to have some basic health facilities within the proximity of the village. Employing nurses from outside the village does not seem effective since they rarely stay permanently, especially if the village is remote. 49 6.9. Presently, the mobile h'ealth teams meet with women most of the time. They should also meet the men in the villages, not only to discuss about different contraceptive methods, but to talk about health problems and arrange for referrals to hospitals in difficult cases. Regarding contraceptive methods, there is a need to revitalize the awareness campaigns for contraceptives for men as well as women. Women in many sites specifically mentioned that they wished that the men both would agree more with practicing contraception, and that they would be more willing to use male contraceptives, i.e. condoms. Women also expressed a wish for help in pressuring reluctant husbands to take their wives to the hospital when necessary. 6.10. In cases where the distance to the nearest town and hospital is very far, it is necessary to have a doctor at a central location for a group of villages or an ambulance for their transport to shorten the distances patients have to cover in the event of an emergency. It is also important for the government to ensure that health staff carry out their duties properly. Stricter controls are required to check incorrect behavior towards patients. Economic Activities Agriculture Extension 6.11. Since women play a significant role in most of the agricultural activities, it is vital that the agriculture extension services not ignore them. In villages in Chefchaouen, where women play a major role in agriculture, extension services should be geared more towards them. A pilot agriculture extension program with women farmers in Chefchaouen Province was suggested, which can include: (a) Placing women and men field staff in the area, to help demonstrate and innovate. (b) Training the field staff in gender needs and participatory extension processes. (c) Working with women farmers in an area to design and develop an appropriate program which can be supported by the government. (d) Try out the process for about two years and evaluate the program to study its effectiveness. Depending on the results from this pilot exercise, it can then be decided whether or not to expand the program. Cooperatives, job market participation, and credit 6.12. Women in Morocco face strong barriers to obtaining productive credit, yet considerable potential exists to improve their prospects for obtaining it. Morocco can learn from the successes other countries with similar circumstances have had in targeting poor women farmers for receiving productive credit. One extremely successful and well-known rural credit program, the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, is described in Box 15. 6.13. In the irrigated rural areas, the women urged that micro-loans be granted for the development of income- generating activities. However, they noted that increased awareness among the men was essential, and went on to say: "They must understand that our other work must be facilitated if we are to be liberated.... Our partners must understand that we will make a better contribution if we are engaged in more profitable activities". 50 BOX 15 THE GRAMEEN BANK IN BANGLADESH The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh has for the past fifteen years been giving smallholder farmers modest loans to be used for a variety of productive activities. Although Bangladesh and Morocco have different social and economic environments, the circumstances of rural women in the two countries are sufficiently similar that the Grameen Bank can serve as a useful model for designing credit strategies in rural Morocco. The program targets very poor farmers, with less than 5% of those receiving loans owning more than half an acre of cultivable land. Participants organize themselves into groups of five farmers, and each farmer's loan is contingent on the repayment records of other group members. A farmer only receives a loan when repayments on the last group member's loan are on time. The wide majority of participant farmers are women; 84% of loan recipients were women in 1988, and almost 98% of new borrowers from 1986-1989 were female. A study of Grameen participants found that women had an 81% repayment rate on their loans, significantly higher than men's rates. The loans are put towards productive activities such as livestock care, output processing, product manufacturing, and trading. The credit program thereby increases the capital women farmers have at their disposal and even increases women's employment levels, as the credit generates new income opportunities for women borrowers. The extent to which the Grameen program benefits poor rural women and the relative similarities between women's conditions in Bangladesh and in Morocco suggest that considerable potential exists for similar credit efforts to benefit women in rural Morocco. Sources: Hossain, "Credit Alleviation of Rural Poverty: The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh," 1988. Hossain, Afsar 1988; Hossain 1987 (from "Women in Development: Issues for Economic and Sector Analysis," 1989). Hulme, "Can the Grameen Bank be Replicated?" 1990. Potential for Growth in Education 6.14. Growth in female education also plays an extremely integral role in improving Moroccan women's status and opportunities over the long term. Not only is education itself an area in which Morocco lags substantially behind other countries with similar economies," but education also has crucial consequences for other areas of development, such as income opportunities, fertility, and child health. Greater education gives women greater access to income-earning opportunities outside the household. The opportunity cost of a woman's time increases with increased education, as does her economic security. Both factors are highly correlated to lower fertility, further freeing her for productive endeavors. Box ? describes a study that shows this strong correlation between the level of education of a woman and the mortality rates of her children. The close connections between female education and other social and economic conditions suggest that improving female educational opportunities is a significant way to raise the status of women. Primary and Secondary Education 6.15. None of the douars surveyed listed education as a first priority. Clearly, rural women and men don't see the educational system addressing rural women's needs. There is a need to deal with the issue of structural and curricular reform that must take primary focus, so that school can be affordable for parents in the short term, and the long term perceived benefits significant so more girls enter the school system. This applies to urban families as well. 6.16. The PRA researchers suggest that the government consider arranging transport facilities to bring children 67. See Table I in section on Education and Illiteracy above. LSMS data in: Morocco Statistics Administration (CERED). 1991. Living Standards of Households 1990/91. Vol 1, Summary Report; and Khoudari,K. May 1993. Approaches to Improve Female Attendance to Primary School. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 51 BOX 16 IMPROVING FEMALE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE: LESSONS FROM PAST BANK EXPERIENCE In designing measures to close the gender gap in school enrollment, Morocco can learn important lessons from the Bank's experience in other countries. In addition to indirect measures aimed at easing cultural inhibitions or lowering the opportunity cost of girls' time (see Box 17), direct measures targeting the education sector itself are also essential. The following strategies emerge from Bank experience as especially effective means of promoting female primary school enrollment. 1) Put schools within reach: Physical proximity of schools allows parents to keep girls under closer observation, so situating schools close to homes can alleviate fears about girls' safety and reputation. Proximity also reduces the danger, difficulty, and opportunity cost of traveling to school. In Egypt, a one kilometer decline in distance to school only changed boys' enrollment rate by 4% but increased girls' enrollment by 10%. 2) Offer Flexible School Time: Because a major barrier to girls' education is the high opportunity cost of their time due to household duties, school schedules that accommodate the daily and seasonal demands on girls' time may allow girls to conciliate schooling with household responsibilities. This can encourage enrollment and lower dropout rates. For instance, in Maharashtra State, India, a program offered night classes in 22 villages to target working females. Of 4,000 participating children, 75% were female, and the dropout rate was only 25%. 3) Promote awareness: Awareness campaigns advertising to parents the benefits of educating girls have had positive results in several countries. Such campaigns have proven most effective when accompanied by other measures, such as reductions in the direct costs of education. Morocco itself has begun to include awareness campaigns in its efforts to improve primary education. (See Box 14) 4) Recruit, train, and house more female teachers: Improving women's access to teacher training programs and ensuring safe conditions for teachers create greater opportunities for female teachers. An example of the correlation between the availability of female teachers and girls' enrollment rates is found in Kerala, India, where over 60% of the teachers are women and where the female enrollment and literacy (66%) rates are the highest among all states in India. By contrast, the states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, where less than 20% of the teachers are women, have the lowest female enrollment rates in the country. In Morocco, PRA did not find this to be an important factor. 5) Lower the cost to parents of female education: Even when governments pay for many school costs, the direct costs of schooling fees, uniforms, textbooks, notebooks, pencils, etc. can represent a substantial share of annual household income for low- income rural families. Initiatives to lower the costs of school have included: feeding programs or canteens to encourage attendance and address nutritional deficiencies; provision of discounted or free educational materials; reduction or abolishment of school fees, uniforms, etc. Data from Peru indicate that when free textbooks were supplied to primary schools, controlling for all other factors, no effect was recorded for boys' enrollment but girls were 1.3 times more likely to enroll. 6) Provide Scholarships: Because the net social returns from female education tend to exceed the private gains to parents, special financial incentives may be required and economically justifiable. Although they have been mainly used to encourage girls' enrollment in middle and secondary schools, scholarships also have an effect on primary school attendance. In Bangladesh, offering scholarships for grade 6 led to an increase in female attendance in the lower primary school grades in program areas. Sources: Summers 1992; Khoudari 1993; Bellew, Raney, and Subbarao 1992. to school and taking them back to their villages, specially in regions such as Chefchaouen, Azilal and Tendrara, where the communities are dispersed and there is a general lack of transport facilities. Since many parents are worried about the safety of their daughters when they have to walk long distances to the school, this can be a positive factor in their decision to send their daughters to school. If the number of children using this facility increases, it could also become a viable proposition to ask the parents to bear part of the cost. Another area worth exploring is that of setting up hostel facilities for girls at central locations which would enable more girls to move out of their villages to complete their education. At present, hostel facilities are available at select places and are restricted to girls who obtain a scholarship. Since parents are restricted by tradition to allow their daughters to live in a town by themselves (in a rented accommodation), this can provide an opportunity for those who have the means to pay for it. This is more applicable to the regions of Chefchaouen, Azilal and Tendrara, among the surveyed regions. 6.17. In addition, it is worth considering the option of employing married couples as teachers in village schools, 52 BOX 17 IMPROVEMENTS IN MOROCCAN GIRLS' PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT RATES Current efforts addressing female education in Morocco are beginning to improve girls' educational opportunities. The Bank-assisted Rural Primary Education Project, launched in 1989, increases poor communities' access to educational materials by supplying textbooks and other resources at affordable prices. The project also provides facilities to areas lacking them. Because household constraints are a primary factor limiting school enrollment, the project promotes and educates families about the benefits of education, in particular female education, in order to encourage them to enroll their children. The emphasis the project places on female education seems to be proving effective, as initial data indicate a 5% increase in girls' grade 1 enrollments in project- affected areas since the project began. Other project measures include curriculum development, improved teacher training, and health education programs. The initial success of this project shows that fruitful efforts can be made on several different fronts to improve female education in Morocco. Source: Khoudari, "Approaches to Improve Female Attendance to Primary School: A Review of Recent Bank Experiences," 1993. since it provides them with the chance to live in the village and get to experience local traditions. For example, the people in Laanassar (Chefchaouen) mentioned that after having a married couple as teachers in the village primary school, the quality of teaching has improved as the teachers reside in the village and are not absent for long periods of time (as is the case with other teachers). Discussions with some of the teachers in the researched villages also brought out their concerns for having proper accommodations in the village so that they could live there rather than commute every day, which can be very difficult in the case of remote and inaccessible villages. They suggested that housing for them be constructed at the same time as the schools are built. On the whole, there is a general need for better supervision of the quality of teaching in the village schools, and the treatment accorded to students by the teachers. Adult Education 6.18. Women in villages who have their own source of income, like in Aghbalou (Azilal), Tabant (Azilal), and the urban areas, also showed an interest in adult literacy classes to enable them to keep records and avoid problems in "reading bus numbers" when they travel. These should be made available where women are interested and have the time to attend the classes. As was brought up in Bab Rbah Coop (Al Haouz), it is important for the classes be scheduled at the convenience of the women (and men, in the case of classes for men). Adult literacy classes can be introduced in other villages as well, but unless women are able to reduce their work loads, they will find it very difficult to find time for these classes and sustain their interest. 6.19. In four of the surveyed douars, women mentioned the need to have a creche or a nursery for young children in the village to relieve them periodically from the duty of having to look after them. This, they felt, would create some time for other activities. The initiative taken by one woman in Ouled Harrouch (Ouarzazate) to start a day-care center in the village seems quite popular with the women. A similar facility could be made available with a Nadi, where women could spend their time learning new skills while their young ones are taken care of (see discussion under Institutional Arrangements below). Institutional Arrangements Government Institutions 6.20. For improvements in women's status to be most effectively and sustainably developed, appropriate institutional mechanisms must be established. In addition to directly providing women with needed assistance 53 and opportunities, Government institutions can play a crucial role in creating an environment more conducive to women's development, such as helping to open credit and educational opportunities. Institutions can also help by channeling information to women about health care, income opportunities, training, or other services, thereby empowering them to take advantage of social and economic opportunities of which they had previously been unaware. There is a renewed interest at all levels of the government to address the development of women, and new WID offices have begun to appear (e.g., at the Ministry of the Interior). Measures to strengthen the institutional capacity of ministries to address gender issues 6.21. Various Ministries in the Moroccan Government have implemented a number of programs targeting women, but as discussed above, institutional constraints such as funding shortages and lack of coordination have limited their effectiveness. A separate and neutral bureau within the Government that deals with women's issues is needed. Such an institution may be optimally situated in the prime minister's office where it will have sufficient visibility and autonomy. Regardless of its location, the government must provide strong financial support for the institution to be effective. Several other elements are needed to make the government's efforts targeting women and families more effective: greater coordination of programs, increased funding, better linkages between research and policies, and expansion of programs beyond traditional household duties. We also suggest that the government place a female Cald in every area. Her responsibilities could be to travel to the villages in the region to meet with women at regular intervals. They could present their specific problems to her and seek her help and advise. The CaYd could thus be used as a liaison between women in the rural areas and the different government Departments and Ministries. Experience from many countries have shown that to effectively address gender issues in the programs and projects for which they are responsible, ministries must strengthen their internal institutional capacity. This requires aggressive policies to recruit and train more women, awareness training on gender issues for all ministry staff, redefining job functions to specifically include gender related activities, and providing incentives for staff to focus on gender. Measures to strengthen linkages between ministries and the female clients they serve 6.22. Agencies should also develop institutional mechanisms to strengthen their linkages with female populations for whom they must provide services to ensure that the views and priorities of these populations are adequately taken into consideration. Some of the ways to do this include: * Involving traditional women's organizations in the project and program design process. In Nigeria, for example, several hundred traditional women's organizations now meet periodically with the national and regional planning authorities to discuss the design and implementation of agricultural extension programs." * Incorporating gender analysis techniques into project selection and design. * Incorporating local and regional level NGOs into the project selection, design and management processes. * Providing institutional support to the NGO sector (financing, training, participation on planning committees, access to data etc) to strengthen the ability of NGOs to work effectively with government and international agencies. 6.23. The government must support NGO development efforts for women by repealing certain legal measures 68. Saito and Spurling. 1992. "Developing Agricultural Extension for Women Farmers." World Bank, Washington, DC. 54 which limit their activities. Thus, for example, BOX 18 associations should be allowed to raise private or public funds or receive gifts since it is major INSTITUTIONALIZING GENDER: EL SALVADOR contributor to development of the association AGRO-FISHERIES REFORM AND INVESTMENT movement. Considering that Morocco currently is in PROJECT, 1994 a period of budgetary austerity, support from the civil A number of internal reforms and institutional sector could be enhanced through these measures. development measures were introduced to strengthen the Moreover, there should be greater coordination of capacity of the Agro-Fisheries Reform and Investment Project efforts between the state and the NGOs for creating to implement its gender objectives. These included: synergies as has begun with MEAS in preparing for the World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995. (1) Define gender policies for the organization Women's Groups (2) Incorporate gender analysis into organizational planning (3) Review staff recruitment policies to ensure that sufficient In addition to government institutions, local- well qualified women are recruited level institutions can also play an important role in addressing the.needs of women and increasing their (4) Develop staff training programs to increase gender awareness awareness. In many countries, the formation of women's groups has proven to be an effective means (5) Modify the agricultural extension research program to for disadvantaged women to improve their social and ensure that issues of concern to women farmers are economic opportunities. By enabling women to included combine their resources, women's groups and (6) Hire a high-level gender specialist to advise senior cooperatives can serve a variety of functions. Women management on ways to incorporate gender in can acquire needed health and education services, organizational planning and management receive agricultural extension, obtain credit for agricultural production, and initiate improvements in their social and political status. Women's groups can also serve as important sources of information for women, giving them access to health, legal, and income information. Still, women's groups are rare in Morocco, a 1990 field study of rural economic activity found that many women were unaware of the benefits gained from working in groups and consequently were not interested in forming them.' Box 18, 19 gives examples from other countries of ways in which women's groups work to address the needs and concerns of rural women. Although circumstances and environments differ between countries, the experience of other countries with women's groups can be useful to efforts in Morocco. 6.24. Women in some villages expressed the need for a Women's Center or Nadi in the village. The government should explore the possibility of setting up such Women's Centers to provide a package of services. Although women in many of the sites studied recommended several Nadi activities, for example Letnine, where a Nadi has been functional for some years, gives a good starting point for lessons and planning other Nadis. Letnine's most valued features or expressions of need were: * training in handicrafts (oriented towards marketability, not just personal use, including helping women develop new designs, product ideas, and parameters for payments and quality control) * provision of work space and equipment * recognition for skill acquired * either fulfilling a cooperative function (where raw materials are available for women to purchase, 69. World Bank. September 1990. Kingdom of Morocco: Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society. 55 BOX 19 FORMATION OF WOMEN'S GROUPS: COUNTRY EXAMPLES The Women's Development Program in Rajasthan, India, facilitates the organization of women into groups for receiving technical assistance, education, and training. The associations also serve as empowering groups in which women can discuss the social, legal, and economic issues they face and plan their own future activities. The program has met with considerable success in improving the living conditions of women in the Rajasthan area and in generating self-help initiatives among women. For instance, women in participating areas receive better health care than those in non-participating areas due to the health education the groups receive. Many participating women have also gained access to safe drinking water thanks to the formation of groups which petition for, and ensure installation of, water pumps. Taking advantage of the strength of their combined resources, women's groups in Bangladesh have jointly hired their own agricultural extension agent to improve their productivity and to reduce time constraints on their daily schedules. Such a process could prove very helpful to women in rural Morocco, who are severely constrained by time-consuming agricultural tasks and by the lack of agricultural technology. In northern Pakistan's Aga Khan Rural Support Program, members of women's groups contribute to collective savings, which is used as collateral to obtain credit for agricultural investments. In this way, women farmers who would not individually have access to credit can obtain it by joining their resources with those of other women with similar needs. Surveys of villages in northern Pakistan indicate that these women's groups provide substantial benefits to their members. In addition to an increase in savings and in agricultural production credit among participants, members' self-confidence and access to social services has risen as well. Women are empowered through group activities and discussions to initiate changes not only in their economic situations, but in their social situations as well. This experience is particularly relevant in areas such as rural Morocco, where women's social rights are substantially weaker than men's. Sources: "The Aga Khan Rural Support Program in Pakistan," OED, 1990. Das, "The Women's Development Program in Rajasthan," 1992. Saito, Spurling, "Developing Agricultural Extension for Women Farmers," 1992. and where the women likewise can sell their finished products) or working in tandem with a separate cooperative entity * literacy and numeracy education through the Nadi (mentioned by women in several other villages although not Letnine as well as in the urban areas) * location where modesty in regard to strangers won't prevent women from going there (women in Taizelte mentioned this point) 6.25. Although training women in making different handicrafts is an important way by which women can have an income earning activity, it is of little consequence if there are no channels for marketing the produce. The role of a Nadi can vary greatly between a rural and an urban setting. In urban areas there are more options available for women to be self-employed, but even with freedom to move around women said that illiteracy needs to be addressed as it prevents them from fully participating in entrepreneurial activity. In rural areas, especially where women are not even allowed to visit the souk alone, there is little benefit from imparting craft skills unless there are facilities for purchasing raw materials and marketing the finished products available within the village. 6.26. Furthermore, a Nadi for a village, where basic infrastructure needs have not been met, must address its activities towards making the women's subsistence activities less time and health consuming. It is essential to examine the full cycle of subsistence and economic production to determine appropriate Nadi activities. It is, for example, worth considering additional housing facilities like a creche or day-care center for infants, collective ovens and a hammam (bath) in the center, suggested by the women in Assrir and in several of the douars noted, as a way of helping to economize time and resources, freeing time for economic activities. It may not be feasible to have such a Women's Center in every village. If so, a center can be located at a central place, accessible to women in 4-5 villages. An integrated approach should be developed in which community priorities are combined 56 with the rational and sustainable management of natural resources. Participation of the whole community in the planning and implementation of the relevant programs could be envisaged using an iterative and participatory management system for village land. Personal status 6.27. As noted in the sections above, women in Morocco see a relationship between acquiring power and security within the family--and even within society--and the number of children born. Those who have had the opportunity to become strong economically know that this, too, can bring them a secure social position. It seems that improvement in this area will be the natural result of improvement in other areas. What measures should be adopted to achieve the necessary level of well-being? A possible route would be through phases such as (1): basic infrastructure and facilities, and phase (2): improvement in the income of rural people through the appropriate gainful activities, have been implemented. 7. ELEMENTS OF A PRIORITY PROGRAM 7.1. Looking beyond this previously available information, this strategy paper takes advantage of the new perspectives gained during the PRA Surveys. Many of the issues poor Moroccan women raise are already familiar to government service providers, development agencies and experts. Yet our field research has shown that THEIR perspectives and prioritization of concerns do not match the set of priorities that were defined by US, the stakeholder group (excluding the intended beneficiary or the women themselves). After recognition of time and labor constraints affecting and affected by all sectors, we have focused on the issues of (1) access to education and literacy, (2) access to water and electricity, (3) access to better health care, and (4) access to credit. The women themselves, however, had more specific concerns and they defined these priorities somewhat differently. Their view of priorities could be divided into three clusters: 7.2. The first cluster is a focus on "measures to reduce daily burdens" (CLUSTER I). First and foremost for women, particularly in the impoverished and isolated rural areas, there is a need for addressing the immediate difficulties they face, to relieve them of the burdens of daily life that preoccupy them. To address these immediate needs, they have suggested: (a) time and labor saving measures such as ready access to fuelwood and/or alternative forms of energy, and electricity;' collective ovens; and ready access to water. (b) maternity-related and preventive health care measures such as mobile vehicles and ambulances; female doctors and nurses; and better treatment of patients by doctors and nurses and other staff. 7.3. The second cluster is "measures to improve incomes" (CLUSTER II). These measures will be most effective when issues in cluster I are already addressed or progressing. Women view as important the following: (a) extension services in agriculture and livestock sectors. (b) "women's groups" and credit. 7.4. The third and final cluster is "measures in the present to secure the future" (CLUSTER III). Yet it is urgent that these measures for the future start immediately, so that women that are girls today are able to emerge from poverty." These are: (a) measures to promote female education. (b) strengthening of a network of national institutions at local, regional and national level. (c) strengthening of NGOs and community-based institutions at all levels. 70. Provision of electricity or gas for cooking will not entirely mitigate the need for fuelwood due to cooking practices that require almost daily making of bread which will not taste the same unless cooked over clay ovens. To minimize fuelwood wastage associated in the making on bread in each individual household, women have uniformly across the country suggested the building of "collective ovens". Despite alternative forms of energy, in view of the likely demand access to fuelwood remains an issue for women in the vast majority of rural Moroccan areas covered under the PRA. 71. An uneducated female (or male) today has virtually no chance of emerging from poverty in the future due to a lack of this initial education. That is why it is important to view education as an urgent need (even though it is for the longer-term benefit and not the immediate). Experience in the urban areas has shown that those with education do not have necessarily have guarantee of a job or even financial security, but education does improve their chances tremendously. In many countries it has been found that literacy alone can have the largest impact and lead to significant improvements to a person's economic horizons. 58 BOX 20 CLUSTER I: Measures to Reduce the Daily Burdens CLUSTER I VS. CLUSTERS II AND III 7.5. Meeting these imminent needs will have The comparison between Assrir and Sarte measurable benefits in terms of improved focus of women villages is interesting. Both of them are close to Zagora in Ouarzazate, and have relatively easy access on more productive activities, instead of on mundane daily to town. However, women in Sarte have less time than chores that occupy their life's efforts. As their time those in Assrir and are not able to find time to make horizons increase, this will further allow women to better handicrafts for sale. The difference is on account of focus on their long term needs and those of the future easy availability of safe drinking water and electricity generations, on such items as education and protection of in Assrir. Women in Sarte spend a lot of time the environment. collecting water and that leaves them with little time for other activities. Having electricity in the village also enables Assrir women to watch TV which keeps Time and Labor Saving Measures them well informed. As can be expected, water ranked high in women's priority in Sarte and the women in 7.6. The objective of these measures is the easing of Assrir talked about a day care center for their younger women's chores to encourage them to perform lucrative children so that they could spend more time on making work that generates income by relieving them of various handicrafts.woktageeaeinoebreivnthm fvrou time-consuming tasks, and allow them to focus on long- term needs. To this end, the following is proposed: (a) Energy: There is a need to promote the more efficient use of wood and its substitution with alternatives. This would involve the support and promotion of collective ovens and alternative sources of energy. In many areas this would involve the promoting and proper distribution of subsidized gas for designated populations in the poorest areas (subsidized gas bottles should be of a new and uniform color, for example, to ensure that they are actually used by those who are supposed to receive these subsidies in the first placer). For other areas, extension of electric grids may be feasible, or the use of solar ovens and other decentralized sources of energy (solutions should be identified by specialists in accordance with the characteristics of each region). In addition, sustainable production of fuelwood for consumption by rural populations in some areas may be feasible. (b) Water: Water points should be provided for villages where this is possible. Otherwise, the use of traditional systems such as the Matfia should be encouraged or appropriate ways identified for long-term storage of water. Regular distribution could be envisaged, with help from the rural community, the National Office of Drinking Water, and local authorities. Hammam (community baths) are also considered important by the villagers. 7.7. Maternity Related and Preventive Health Care Measures (a) Mobile Heath Care Units and Ambulances: Mobile units must not limit their activities to vaccination and family planning services, but also examine other health problems in the communities they visit. With regard to serious illnesses, the team should have special tickets that can be issued to those needing them. The tickets should permit access to hospitals and various other services and examinations without long waiting periods or other constraints. 72. The benefits and costs of this subsidy have not been agreed upon. However, given that environmental costs of fuelwood use are quite high to the society, as well as from the inability of women and families to focus on productive activities, a subsidy in gas appears to be well justified. 59 (b) Female Health Professionals: It is essential that mobile units include a female nurse or doctor. The mobile teams should serve both men and women. Many women would like more involvement of their husbands in the matter of contraception. Others would like information to be made available concerning male contraception methods. Nurses of both sexes must be present at dispensaries as women are frequently reluctant to tell a man about their problems. There must be a female doctor or nurse in large villages, e.g., Aghbalou, Laanassar, etc. (c) Respectful Treatment: Regular checks should be made on medical personnel's conduct and the quality of their relations with the community. Medical personnel must be competent and aware of the conditions under which rural communities live. (d) Information: An enhanced radio and television campaign to show that family planning involves both partners, and about motherhood and preventive care. The pill is the most widely used, but it is also often used improperly. Greater dissemination of information on these would help ameliorate this problem. (e) Trained Birth Attendants/Village-Based Health Volunteers: Two individuals (a man and a woman) or a mixed group of volunteers may be trained at village level to maintain a supply of first aid pharmaceutical products to be dispensed to community members as the need arises. This supply of medicines should be replenished whenever the mobile team makes its call. The traditional midwife should be included among the individuals to be trained, and trained birth attendants should be provided. CLUSTER II: Measures to Improve Incomes Extension Services 7.8. As their current contexts dictate, these relate primarily to the agriculture and livestock sectors where Moroccan women play a major role. They wish extension and technical assistance in agriculture and livestock management that is customized to their needs; greater provision of female extension agents; training in marketing; adult female literacy so that they can read numbers on buses and travel around more easily; and training in bookkeeping and accounting so that they can manage their finances better. (a) Agriculture and Livestock Management Extension: Agricultural extension services should focus on efforts regarding women. PRA study has shown that agriculture is considered the best source of income currently available in the rural areas. Women are the major agents of both vegetable and animal production. However, there is virtually no training of the abundant human potential for development in this sector. Priority efforts are as follows: extension activities should be carried out by good communicators who are thoroughly familiar with the environment in which they are active, and who have been well trained in their field. Encouragement should be given through bonuses to those (men or women) who develop sound programs with the women and manage to achieve tangible results. (b) Female Extension Agents: Extension to female farmers will be easier if the extension agents are female. Extension service teams should therefore be mixed (except in milieux where women do not participate in the activity of interest) and take into account all aspects of the rural family, including ecological and cultural diversity (dialect and behavior). In some areas it may be more 60 conducive to have separate teams composed of all males or females for each of the target groups. Women's groups and credit 7.9. Women's access to productive credit is another area where much can be done in Morocco. By providing crucial start-up capital for investment in new income-earning activities, credit helps to free women from the low or no income work cycle. Access to credit enables women to invest in new endeavors which contribute both to their own incomes and to the agricultural economy. These investments can involve either on-farm or off-farm activities, ranging from agricultural technology to handicraft and micro-enterprises. Women see a benefit in women's clubs/learning and meeting centers or Nadis; and in the greater provision of credit and technical assistance for these. There is no clear sense of consensus on group credit versus individual credit. (a) Overhaul of Nadi System: The Nadi is the only place where women meet on a regular basis. However, the Nadi concept needs to be reorganized and restructured to bring it up to par of institutions enjoying a measure of authority and of interest in women's issues. The structure and function of the center should be modified, so that its management be provided by a senior official who has had experience in the area of management and marketing. It should not limit itself to being a training center for handicrafts and nonremunerative activities. Instead, the women's center should play a leading role in local and regional economic development through the expansion of women's groups for for-profit activities. (b) Income Generation: Train women in locally relevant handicrafts. Initially, it may be worthwhile to re-enforce local ideas and not transplant ideas from other regions, so that they may become specialized in their own products and place their own labels on these products. In some villages, the encouragement of ecological and "green" tourism may be highly financially beneficial for the community. Such exposure also enables women to preserve knowledge of regional products (handicrafts and cuisine) and traditional women's specialties (e.g. herbal medicine). In addition, it would provide support and technical assistance to these groups to promote and market their labelled products. Technical assistance should include the possibility of promoting innovation by designers, identifying markets where the products can be sold, and monitoring marketing activities. Such technical assistance should include training of women in the areas of management and marketing, to promote a spirit of competition based on profit, leading to an improved standard of living and well-being for women. (c) Capacity Building: Nadi centers should become a vehicle to teach members of women's groups and other women of the village to read and write. It is a place where information may be conveyed to women through training and briefing. It should be a meeting place for comparing experiences, where trips can be organized, access to fairs arranged, and professional training be provided according to local needs and interests (not using a pre-set curriculum that is taught year after year without regard for local needs). (d) Technical Assistance/Credit: The Nadi should provide an interface between the Crddit Agricole, other credit facilities, lenders, and the community of women. It should be able to act as an intermediary in the granting and managing of loans. Greater provision of credit for women is needed, flow of information on its availability, and technical assistance in obtaining the funds. 61 CLUSTER III: Measures in the Present to Secure the Future 7.10. Women are unable to attend to long term needs such as education due to a variety of reasons, since their primary focus is on short-term needs and survival (as seen above). These needs must first be addressed through measures suggested above before significant improvements can be expected from measures in this cluster. In addition, it will be essential in the short term to examine and modify school curriculums and programs available at all levels to better match educational needs with career paths; build more schools inside or within the close vicinity of each village so that average distances are reduced, and parents feel safe about their daughters walking to them, or; where feasible due to terrain, provision of mobile/mini vans/other means to safely transport children to and from schools that are not in easy reach, and; help with immediate expenses related to schooling that include uniforms/clothing, stationary, books and food, and day-care centers for younger siblings. Encouraging Schooling of Girls 7.11. The following recommendation could be tested following an awareness campaign in specific areas, e.g., Tendrara and Chefchaouen. If the results are favorable, the system could be expanded. (a) Boarding Schools: Set up or expand boarding school or dormitory arrangements at junior and high school levels in small urban centers (cercles). The ratio of girls in these centers should be high (study shows that families will rent their private homes to boys in town but not to girls). In addition to government scholarships granted to girls from poor families, a contribution should be required of families based on their income (full rate, half rate, etc.). Solidarity between rich and poor could also be encouraged by setting up a sponsorship system enabling wealthy families to contribute to the education of poor girls, and even sponsor small schools. (b) Food: Set up cafeterias in primary schools located in disadvantaged areas and strengthen those already in existence by improving food quality and quantity, ensuring that they are run properly. (c) Curriculum: Introduce manual activities in schools beginning with the fifth year of primary school (age 11-12). In addition to the usual activities of embroidery, handicrafts, electricity, agriculture, livestock, etc., other activities could also be proposed based on regional considerations. Introduce environmental education and civics. (d) Supply of Teachers: Motivate teachers and screen more carefully to identify those who are suitable for working and living in a rural environment. Priority should be given to couples to reduce absenteeism. During their pedagogical training, organize training courses for teachers on rural development needs, with refresher courses offered as necessary. Another important aspect of retaining teachers in these areas is to provide them with housing: houses for teachers should therefore be constructed along with the schools. (e) Transport: Adjust schedules for girls who live a long way from schools or introduce simple and appropriate arrangements for picking up pupils: small trucks, pickups, tractors with a trailer, etc., depending on accessibility. (f) Parents' Association: Encourage pupils' parents to form an association in order to deal with school-related issues. Improved organization will facilitate their awareness with regard to their girls' education. (g) Competition: Encourage instructors and students by supporting school competitions in academic 62 achievement, employment after graduating, and in the number of girls enrolled in the schools among others. 7.12. Literacy courses for Adults (a) Flexible Schedules: Schedules should be flexible and adapted to women's daily activities. (b) Interesting Content: These courses should not have a traditional structure where children's materials are used to teach adults (neither the methods nor the subjects are interesting and effective for adults). An adapted and motivating teaching method should be developed that focuses on issues of relevance and interest to the local populations using non-formal techniques such as visual aids, discussions covering areas of interest to the women, and going through problems that exist locally. Teachers should be allowed leeway in adapting their teaching method to regional and local conditions. (c) Competitions: Competitions should be introduced among teachers to encourage those that produce the best results (enrollment percentage, teaching methods, pupils' progress, etc.) Competition among women learning to read and write should also be supported. Strengthening a Network of National Institutions 7.13. Women have asked for a female Card in each region along with the present male Card to represent their affairs; and legal help to resolve issues that circle around financial disputes such as nafaka or alimony for child care and legal advice on inter and intra-household disputes where women are unaware of their rights and the legal recourses available to them. (a) National Office of Women's Affairs: A national level office of women's and family affairs is recommended. Such an office would coordinate the disparate efforts of the Government Ministries and provide information and technical assistance to them. It should liaise with the donor community and NGOs to foster a spirit of sharing and collaboration among them. The office would also maintain a database on the status of women, represent a forum for ongoing exchanges and discussions in connection with women, coordinate information about them in order to identify their needs, and encourage integrated and appropriate local activities. It would need to operate recognizing the context of the family in each area, as traditionally family plays an important role in decision-making (production, consumption, and social relations). The links existing between these various roles and functions must be taken into account when development programs are prepared and their results assessed. These preliminary ideas concerning the operational principles and guidelines for the organization and institutional development of a national women's office need to be discussed and refined collectively by the various stakeholders. To be effective, such an office needs to be placed at the same level as a Ministry (as in Tunisia) or be based in the Prime Minister's office (as in Iran). (b) Female Card: It is recommended that a female Card be appointed in each area along with the current Card. (c) Strengthening the Current Institutions: Several Ministries have now created focal points for addressing women's concerns. These offices need to be strengthened and assisted to expand a network of local and regional offices, and to liaise and work with other Ministries with overlapping mandates. 63 Strengthening of NGOs and Community-Based Institutions 7.14. This will, in the long term, provide a solid foundation for communities to organize themselves and mobilize their own resources in response to their ongoing needs and changing contexts. Locally based NGOs can and often do provide a liaison role between various stakeholders in development and assistance at the most decentralized levels. 64 8. CONCLUDING REMARKS 8.1. This Economic and Sectoral Work has examined the current constraints to women's productivity, income and social welfare, and identified processes and programs by which these can be addressed. Targeting women in development is needed in Morocco from two standpoints: that of efficiency and that of equity. special measures are justified to help them reach equal status. Preparation of the ESW included activities with at least three levels of stakeholder participation, first the Government, the Bank, and other bilateral/multilateral organizations, then NGOs and members of the academic community, then the people and the women themselves. Quantitative studies by the Government of Morocco and literature review show that the role of women in the development process has lagged behind that of men (even though men and women are considered equal before the law) partly due to poverty and social conditions. The views and qualitative assessments expressed by poor women and men through the PRA showed that women's responsibility of collecting water and fuelwood emerged as the primary concern in most of the douars; low attendance of girls in schools is likely to continue until there is easy access to wood and water. Government, bilateral and multilateral donor community, and NGO programs have only recently begun to target the development of women, few projects either integrate women's concerns or are explicitly designed to benefit women, and there is little coordination of activities. An evaluation of the various stakeholder views suggests three clusters under which a recommended program of action may be formulated (but should be kept flexible). The first cluster of actions was measures that improve the daily life of women; the second, measures that improve incomes. The last and final cluster consists of measures in the present to secure the future. Stakeholders at the level of the Government, multilateral/bilateral community, and NGOs have tended to prioritize education, but the PRAs have shown that schools will not be filled unless issues in clusters I and II are simultaneously addressed, and stronger compensatory efforts are made where girls' contribution to the household is prominent. Case examples from Morocco and elsewhere are available which point to approaches which have proven successful and to areas which call for expansion. We hope that the strategic framework developed in this paper will provide useful guidelines for adapting these lessons of experience to specific situations. 8.2. Two further lines of argument seem appropriate to complete this discussion. First, customs inhibiting women's opportunities are linked in part to poverty and social conditions, but, as anecdotal evidence from the PRA has shown, become less and less important (though never completely insignificant) as economic conditions in a village improve. The PRA interviews seem to reflect that in douars where economic conditions were better, women were freer, more girls attended schools, and other social indicators indicated a better positioning of women, and more reliance of husbands and families on incomes generated by women (e.g. Aghbalou). Moreover, improved economic situations did not seem to reflect negatively on core values and customs in the douars. 8.3. Second, the PRA has affirmed that women's view of priorities is different from men's, partly because of their different roles in society. It has also affirmed that while the needs of women require increased focus, it would serve them best to do so within the context of the family. Development programs need to involve the men, while also taking into account an increasing number, both in rural and urban areas, of female single heads of households who must find economic opportunities in the absence of income-earning males in the family. 8.4. Thus, there is a strong case for targeting interventions to women: there is no level playing field between the genders and the weight of tradition works against such a levelling while the chores of poverty present a veritable trap. There are major externality benefits providing women better access to opportunities and public goods and services. In keeping the status quo, society has much to lose due to the significant potential contribution of women to the process of development. Projects for the welfare of the populations that explicitly do not seek to integrate women, whether they be in social or physical infrastructures, or agricultural development, risk being ineffective for all the beneficiaries. 66 8.5. While these factors point to imminent and urgent need for action, major will is needed to achieve significant results. To be effective, any program for the enhancement of women will require the commitment of the Government at the highest levels. Without this high level of commitment and with it a legal and institutional provisions that provide a framework to support these measures, it will be hard to break the vicious cycle women face in the short and medium term. Given the magnitude of the difficulties women face and the severity of the problem, especially the poor in rural areas, the size of the task at hand is huge. Even in the most optimistic of situations, it will be hard to imagine significant results without this commitment. 8.6. The targeting and institutional mechanisms outlined in the previous chapter will have a higher likelihood of success if certain preconditions exist: (a) Adequate Resources. Targeting is costly and sustained financial commitment is needed. (b) Enabling Policy Environment. In particular, a labor-intensive growth strategy is needed in the short-term. When there is labor demand, women have a better chance to access market opportunities, and thus acquire the skills needed. (c) Commitment. While markets must be made more dynamic, government commitment and visibility is necessary at the highest levels. Address of gender issues requires a sustained multi- sectoral approach. Without such commitment, visibility and resources, community-based and participatory approaches are unlikely to succeed. As new approaches are needed, time is required for piloting ideas; hence long-term commitment is essential. (d) Removing Barriers. Age-old practices and traditions are hard to break. While much can be done to improve the welfare of women with improved infrastructure and better opportunities, these efforts remain thwarted unless women are accorded equal status institutionally. Removing barriers to reform in these areas will be paramount for ensuring sufficient security for women and their families to drive their own development. ANNEX I: STATUS OF WORLD BANK EFFORTS TO ADDRESS WOMEN IN MOROCCO 1. The World Bank is increasingly including gender concerns in its lending operations. The World Bank assisted in this Economic and Sectoral Work (ESW) for the development of a strategy to improve the increased opportunity for women to fully contribute to all aspects of Moroccan economic and social life. Recent World Bank projects in Morocco further demonstrate the increased focus on women's issues and the World Bank's intention to especially target women as project beneficiaries. World Bank Projects to Improve the Situation for Women in Morocco Education 2. Recent Morocco education projects financed by the World Bank have contained measures specifically aimed to improve female education, particularly in rural areas. The 1991 World Bank Rural Basic Education Development Project focused primarily on middle school programs, and although the project is not mainly gender- specific, a substantial portion of the project components are aimed to have at least as great an impact on girls' education as on boys'. Total project cost was US$ 238 million, out of which IBRD contributed US$ 145. Project efforts specifically aimed to target girls include identification of areas with poor female educational records, construction of middle schools in the rural regions that demonstrated particularly poor female education indicators, and the provision of scholarships, free or inexpensive textbooks, and boarding facilities. The project is also sponsoring a study to evaluate the impact of project measures on the school enrollment and attendance of girls. The research will evaluate the effects of other existing relevant factors on girls' enrollment and attendance. 3. The 1989 World Bank Rural Primary Education Project included several measures specifically targeting the improvement of female primary enrollment and the quality of female education. Main components of the US$ 165 million project include providing primary school facilities to disadvantaged rural areas, and supplying less expensive textbooks and educational material. Several efforts have been launched to promote the increased school attendance of girls within the project context. For example, child care for younger siblings is sponsored as a part of the school program to encourage the enrollment of girls, since for many girls a major obstacle to school attendance is the need for them to care for younger siblings. Other project measures to encourage the school enrollment of girls include giving girls priority for boarding opportunities in the younger secondary classes, initiating reforms in the teaching materials to better address the needs of girls and women in society, and encouragement of earlier school enrollment (5-6 years) for girls. Preliminary evaluations show strong project performance, with 5% increased school attendance of girls in the project areas. Agricultural Extension and Services 4. The 1993 US$ 34.7 million Irrigated Areas Agricultural Services Project is part of the World Bank's ongoing support to large-scale irrigation in Morocco. Women play essential roles in the agricultural production process in the nine project regions, and 25% of the small farms involved in the project are managed by women. Main components of the project include transfer of technology to farmers, provision of agricultural support services, promotion of farmer organizations, monitoring and evaluation of agricultural production and development in selected regions, and a series of studies of issues related to the implementation of the project. A portion of the transfer of technology program focuses on women farmers in the area, providing them with technical assistance and support services. Female extension agents will be recruited within the project to give technical assistance and to train women farmers in the new agricultural technology. Consulting services will also be provided to supply advice and help as the new technology is introduced. In addition, small investment projects targeting women's agricultural activities will be funded in three selected regions. The project will furthermore 68 fund studies on women's roles in agriculture in the target areas to more effectively respond to the needs of women farmers and how to best assist them to increase their productive capacities. 5. The 1989 US$ 60.8 million World Bank Agricultural Research and Extension Project includes measures directly targeting female farmers in both its research and extension components. The project assisted an ongoing nationwide Government study on the nature and impact of existing extension services for women. Once the study is completed and priorities defined, the project has allocated a budget and the use of training centers for the training of women farmers. Services provided within the project will include extension services with 150 female extension agents helping women to form cooperative ventures, establishment of a new extension services, introduction of a new extension scheme, and strengthening the linkage between agricultural research and extension. As women's agricultural activities vary considerably between regions, extension services will be specialized for individual target regions. Credits ror Women 6. In its efforts to increase the access for women to productive credit, the World Bank supports Morocco's credit institutions, in particular the Caisse Nationale de Crddit Agricole (CNCA). The 1993 US$ 1,150 million World Bank National Rural Finance Project supports institutional development within the CNCA to diversify its lending and increase access to credit for small farmers and non-agricultural clients such as women. The project will provide financing for both farm and non-farm activities, as well as provide support for training to improve management of CNCA and consulting services for clients. The project includes loan packages targeted for women. In addition to lending to women for agricultural investments, the project expects to finance approximately 14,400 loans (US$ 37 million) to support women's artisan activities. The project will make credits available for individual women entrepreneurs, as well as for women's cooperatives and pre-cooperatives. As part of an earlier World Bank pilot project, a number of CNCA staff work specifically to target and support female clients. 7. The 1989 World Bank National Agricultural Credit Project provided medium- and long-term credit programs for private farmers, largely through support and enhancement of CNCA's lending program. The project, which closed in December 1993, specifically targeted rural women of its credit programs, combining smallholder lending with the promotion of agricultural production and processing activities. Agricultural investments supported through the provision of loans included irrigation, farm equipment, tree crop and livestock development, and construction of storage facilities. Rural women were also supplied with savings and loan packages to enable them to complement their agricultural activities with off-farm work. Participating farmers furthermore received training and consulting services in the financial processes and for the investment activities. In 1991, 1700 women were involved in the credit program. Participants' savings rates grew substantially as a result of the project, reaching 35% of loan amounts, and women's repayment performances were quite high. Health 8. The US$ 171.3 million World Bank Health Sector Investment Project comprises the first phase in a long term effort to reestablish public health programs throughout Morocco. Among the programs to which the project gives special emphasis, the Maternal-Child Health program, the Family Planning program, and the Nutrition services program all focus on health issues that have a greater impact on women than on men. Project objectives include increasing the percentage of women and children receiving prenatal care from 25% to 35%, and improving the percentage of deliveries attended by trained medical personnel from 25% to 60%. To further these goals, a number of basic care facilities are being converted to health centers to serve needs such as maternity care. Other elements of the Health Sector Investment Project include environmental control programs to clean water in rural areas and improve hygiene, as well as support programs to expand and improve the collection and 69 processing of demographic and health data for rural communities. Lessons Learned 9. The World Bank education projects include several of the key measures needed to improve Morocco's performance in female education. In particular, putting schools within closer reach of poor rural communities has shown a significant increase in girls' school enrollment. Moreover, since a major obstacle to girls' schooling is the high opportunity cost of girls' school attendance in terms of the lost labor at home, measures which serve to reduce this cost such as providing child care for younger siblings as part of the school program have also proven effective. Introduction of labor saving household technology, especially for tasks that girls complete such as carrying water and gathering fuel wood, is another important way to encourage greater school attendance of girls. A World Bank sponsored study in Morocco showed girls' school attendance in regions with electrification or better availability of water due to wells or plumbing technology to be significantly higher than in regions without these factors. The introduction of labor saving technology to disadvantaged rural areas furthermore showed a greater proportional change in the school enrollment of girls than of boys, since it was primarily girls' time that was being freed. World Bank experience thus demonstrated that measures to reduce the opportunity cost of girls' school attendance and introduction of time and labor saving technology can be an important tool to increase the schooling of girls. 10. According to the experiences within the World Bank sponsored credit projects, women in Morocco are showing a strong interest in credit and savings facilities despite several constraints of legal and financial nature, such as lack of collateral, land ownership, fiscal income and identity cards, and the need for husbands to approve financial transactions. The credit history of the women participating in the World Bank sponsored credit projects has been very good, with extremely high repayment rates from loans for productive investments. Research 11. The 1990 World Bank study Towards the Increased Participation of Women in Society provides an assessment of the role of women in Moroccan society. The current ESW on integrating women in development in Morocco brings insights from the different stakeholders on WID in Morocco, including various Ministries, Bilateral/Multilateral organizations, Non-governmental Organizations, and the women themselves through an extensive PRA study. This includes within its fold training of Moroccans from the government and NGOs in the PRA methodology, to enable them to conduct a nationwide PRA using local expertise. Future Projects 12. Among the World Bank's upcoming projects to Morocco, the Social Priorities Project and Rural Poverty Project will be instrumental in addressing social and poverty constraints, and are designed to address the need to develop Morocco's human capital and rural infrastructure As rural women are recognized to be among the most vulnerable groups in Moroccan society, the two projects will include components that will result in benefits for disadvantaged women. The FY 1997 Rural Poverty Project will be based in impoverished mountainous regions of Morocco, to deliver upon the priorities of the target populations. The FY 1996 Social Priorities Project includes the provision of primary education facilities to disadvantaged rural areas, efforts to increase coverage and raise quality of basic health services including family planning services, and the formation of a social safety net. 13. A follow-on project is to be prepared following the completion of the Bank assisted Strategy for Integrating Women in Development. This Community Based Development Project will be based on the findings of the Participatory Rural/Urban Appraisal. 71 ANNEX II: STATUS OF BILATERAL/MULTILATERAL EFFORTS" 1. Infrastructure/Time Saving Many bilateral/multilateral organizations have sponsored the substitution of solar ovens for wood burning ovens. Peace Corps volunteers are working on a sociological study to assess the women's usage of wood from the national parks, to determine the rate of fuel wood consumption and estimate the benefits resulting from the introduction of the solar ovens. In its natural resources protection efforts in three of Morocco's national parks, GTZ (German Technical Assistance) has remarked difficulty for local populations in adapting to the solar ovens for a variety of reasons, but is continuing to assist in their introduction there and in the Draa Valley. UNICEF's experience with solar ovens in Chefchaouen was more positive: while UNICEF funded the materials, the local population constructed the ovens themselves. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and UNICEF have since 1987 engaged in a project to provide poor, rural communities throughout Morocco with easily accessible potable water through donations of solar driven water pumps. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for site selection, pump installation, and training the population in equipment use and maintenance. 2. Health Care (a) Health Services Several bilateral and multilateral organizations cooperate with the Moroccan Ministry of Health in their efforts to improve the provision of health services to women, focusing most strongly on perinatal issues and on widening the accessibility of services to those in rural areas. Participatory reports from urban areas indicate that vaccination programs since 1990 have been among the most successful of the Ministry of Health's (UNICEF assisted) actions there, with 80% of children now immunized nationwide as compared to 40% in 1987.' The Ministry of Health's program to improve maternal and child health services in disadvantaged regions is sponsored by the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Union (EU), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA), UNICEF, United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), and United Nations Development Program (UNDP). Within its Health Sector Investment Project, the World Bank has provided substantial assistance to the Government's effort to establish public health programs in rural areas. The World Bank sponsored project includes a Maternal-Child program and a Family Planning program, which will greatly improve the access of rural women to pre- and post-natal care and increase the number of deliveries attended by trained medical personnel. 73. This chapter draws heavily from Technical Report: Review of Bilateral and Multilateral Efforts, prepared in March 1995 with the help of bi- and multilateral agencies active in Morocco and is based on an analysis of the information gathered for the Technical Report. All statements not otherwise cited come from information gathered from the relevant organization. The report included an analysis of all Bank projects in Morocco. 74. From forthcoming Participatory Urban Appraisal Report by Khadija Bourarach and Meera Shah, prepared under the auspices of this Economic and Sectoral Work. 72 The project Motherhood Without Risk, coordinated by the Ministry of Health and sponsored by multiple bilateral and multilateral organizations aims to achieve satisfying pregnancy services for women throughout Morocco and to decrease maternal mortality. This program was initiated following a Maghreb regional conference on maternal health in 1991, and is intended to reinforce the Protection of the Health of the Mother project initiated in 1987. It includes seminars to raise the competence of health personnel active in rural areas, investments in hospital equipment for the purpose of providing improved maternal and child health services, and improved provision of maternal information. Forty-nine Peace Corps volunteers are currently working to promote awareness among the rural population on maternity and child health issues. An EU sponsored maternal health project just approved would include training of hospital personnel, establishment of emergency evacuation units in disadvantaged areas, and provision of maternity consultation. In cooperation with the Ministry of Health and UNFPA, USAID has sponsored a study to assess of women's health during and after pregnancy, and of children's health in rural areas. (b) Family Planning The USAID maternal and child issues study will also survey contraceptive practices in rural Morocco. USAID worked extensively with Moroccan NGOs focused on women and population issues in preparation for the 1994 Cairo Population Conference. An EU project has already introduced family planning units in 12 Moroccan hospitals. GTZ has sponsored two studies related to family planning in Morocco, and is currently considering sponsoring a family planning project with the Ministry of Health, as is JICA. The Ministry's Maternal Child Health Program also includes family planning services. Since 1980, the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) has worked together with the Ministry of Education to integrate education about population issues into Moroccan school curriculums, as well as with the Department of Agricultural Extension in the PEDAEX program for raising women's awareness of population issues in rural areas. 3. Economic Activities (a) Extension and Cooperatives The World Bank effort to provide agricultural support services to rural regions includes the transfer of technology to farmers. A large portion of the beneficiary farmers are women, and female extension agents will be recruited within the project to give technical assistance and train women farmers in new agricultural technology. Women are directly involved in agricultural training programs in the Abda Plain and the Rif provinces provided by World Food Program (WFP) in the areas of pottery production, apiculture, fruit plantation, small animal husbandry, and rabbit and poultry farming. GTZ field staff are engaged in dialogue with women in remote communities in the Middle Atlas to discuss production methods that may reduce problems of soil erosion they face. Peace Corps Volunteers, in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, conduct environmental education and resource management activities not specifically focused on women but which directly relate to natural resources used by women. The bilateral and multilateral community strongly supports the organization of female production cooperatives as a way to promote opportunities for women to engage in income generating activities, to improve the potential for women to gain access to credit and production technology, and to assure that women have the collective power to negotiate price and distribution of their products. UNICEF, UNDP and CIDA have all provided support for the organization of a limited number of female artisan cooperatives, including cooperatives for textile production, carpet production, and embroidery. UNDP has assisted in the organization and provision of credits and technical equipment for a female cooperative for salt production in Zerradonne. Several Peace Corps volunteers are working in the field to assist women within animal husbandry cooperatives; they point out that cooperative members are often more concerned with their own farm's improvement than those of the group. 73 (b) Business and Job Market Participation CIDA targeted the problem of access to strategic business support for women in a 1992 three day seminar in Rabat on women and business, including 60 Moroccan businesswomen, around the themes of strategies for enterprise development, communication technology, and the importance of business networking. Following the action plan recommended by a study to assess the potential for female entrepreneurship conducted with the Moroccan NGO ESPOD, USAID is currently providing training for women entrepreneurs in many sectors throughout Morocco and assistance for larger women's enterprises in networking and collaboration., such as at the Center for Moroccan Enterprise (CEM) in Casablanca. USAID is also conducting a baseline data survey on agribusiness productivity, to lead to a project to promote Moroccan Agribusiness. 200 agricultural firms were included; over 50% of the 800 workers employed in the selected firms were women, and the survey was conducted by gender. The final report included an assessment on female needs that have to be addressed to improve the agricultural productivity of women. WFP since 1985 has distributed dried food to trainees (to encourage parents to send their children) at rural vocational training centers under the Vocational Training and Employment Promotion Office (OFPPT) of the Ministry of Public Works, provided equipment for workshops and funded improvement/maintenance of facilities and post-training assistance (credits and other). The proportion of young girls enrolled at WFP sponsored centers has increased constantly since 1985: presently around 15%, the percentage is expected to reach 20% by 1997. The program organizes training in traditional women's activities such as sewing and dress making, but aims to promote women's attendance at training in domains traditionally reserved for men (car mechanics, electrical work, radio and television repair). The majority of women find employment after training; many have also set up their own small enterprises after training thanks to a government effort to make credit available. Within its Partners in Development program, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) provides financial support for female vocational training centers for artisan and handicraft production. Several Japanese Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCVs) are currently providing employment training for women in fields ranging from cooking to hairdressing and dressmaking in various disadvantaged regions in Morocco. (c) Credit Many bilateral and multilateral organizations provide funds for micro credits especially targeted to finance women's income generating activities. The World Bank's National Rural Finance Project and National Agricultural Credit Project, CIDA's Canadian Fund for Local Incentives (FCIL), USAID's New Enterprise Development Program (NED), and UNDP's Partners in Development Program (PDP) all provide funds to be distributed as micro credits to individual women entrepreneurs or female production cooperatives. Within various bilateral/multilateral projects also, credits have been granted to individual women entrepreneurs and artisans, and to women's production cooperatives. Pilot projects in the provision of micro credits for women all demonstrate excellent credit history. For example, USAID's provision of credits to female production cooperatives in a project executed by Catholic Relief Service (CRS) and the NGO Moroccan Association for Solidarity and Development (AMSED) resulted in a repayment rate of 97%, and the savings rates of women participants in the World Bank projects [which ones] grew substantially as a result of the project, reaching 35% of loan amounts. CIDA has had particularly interesting experience with credit. In 1993, through the Canadian Fund for Local Initiatives, it sponsored two Canadian$ 15,000 pilot projects to provide micro-credits to artisan women following two different models. In Tendrara, the funds were distributed directly to the cooperative for purchase of materials, distributed to the artisan women, who in turn gave part of the profit from sales to the cooperative. In Boujad, on the other hand, the funds were deposited in a bank account on behalf of the cooperative, with a 74 cooperative credit committee responsible for the funds. Members of the cooperative then submitted loan applications to the committee and if accepted, the artisan women were given the funds for purchase of production material. The loans were then to be repaid progressively and carried an interest of 4% to cover expenses of the cooperative. According to preliminary evaluations, the women did not hesitate to apply for credit, and the loans have been repaid regularly. In its effort to increase the access for women to productive credit, the World Bank supports Morocco's credit institutions, in particular the Caisse Nationale de Credit Agricole (CNCA). The Rural Finance Project (1993) supports institutional development within the CNCA to diversify its lending and increase access to credit for small farmers and non-agricultural clients such as women. In addition to lending to women for agricultural investments, the project expects to finance approximately 14,400 loans (US $37 million) to support women's artisan activities. 4. Education Efforts to improve education for women have primarily targeted economic constraints on school or training attendance, although the World Bank Rural Primary Education Project is funding an initiation of reforms in teaching materials to better address the needs of girls and women in society. In its efforts to improve access to education for children in rural areas, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) especially targets young girls. UNESCO has also organized a competition for NGOs that work to promote female education in the Maghreb region to increase the incentive for NGOs to focus on women's education. In support of the Ministry of Education's effort to improve the quality of rural primary education, the World Food Program is contributing to fund lunches in rural schools. Peace Corps volunteers planned a "walkathon" for March 1995 to raise funds for the education of women and girls in rural areas. The donations will be used to provide scholarships to girls from villages to enable them to attend schools in the cities. Two recent World Bank projects to improve rural education (1989 World Bank Rural Primary Education and 1991 World Bank Rural Basic Education Development Projects) included specific measures to increase girls' access to education and girls' enrollment at schools such as identification of rural regions with poor female educational records, construction of middle schools in these areas, giving girls priority for boarding opportunities, and initiating curriculum reform. Measures undertaken to decrease the opportunity cost of girls' school enrollment include provision of child-care for younger siblings as a part of the school program, provision of scholarships for girls, provision of free or inexpensive textbooks, and encouragement of earlier school enrollment (5-6 years) for girls. Preliminary evaluations show strong project performance, with 5% increased school attendance of girls in the project areas. To combat female illiteracy, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has joined the Ministry of Education in organizing a campaign to promote basic education for women in rural Morocco. UNFPA is also supporting the Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs in its effort to set up social centers in rural regions which will provide literacy training for adult women. ANNEX Ill: STATUS OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION EFFORTS Parallèlement aux différentes actions gouvernementales, de nombreux programmes de développement socio-économique des zones rurales et particulièrement de promotion de la femme dans ces zones seront à l'initiative de nombreuses organisations aussi bien nationales qu'internationales. Ces expériences restent, toutefois, génératrices d'activités intéressantes. Ces structures souffrent d'un manque de coordination à l'échelle nationale ce qui entrave une véritable réussite des actions entreprises. Nous ne citons là que les groupes dont l'action a été d'autant plus crédible qu'elle a été caractérisée par un suivi constant et une influence en profondeur sur les classes défavorisées et en particulier sur les femmes rurales: c'est cette crédibilité qui a permis entre autres et qui permettra surtout le reproduction de ces expériences. Ces actions sont axées pour l'essentiel sur la promotion de la femme rurale dans son environnement le plus proche et dans ses activités les plus contraignantes mais aussi probablement les plus rémunératrices. Elles sont liées au soutien de la production agricole dans les domaines de la gestion des richesses naturelles des régions concernées. Elles sont traduites pour la plupart par la création de coopératives ou d'unités pilotes et d'actions de vulgarisation. L'Union Nationale des Femmes du Maroc (UNFM) est consciente que l'une des causes fondamentales de l'exode rural et donc de tous les problèmes qui en résultent (habitat, emploi, éducation...) revient essentiellement à la pauvreté, au manque d'instruction et à l'analphabétisme. Si ces grands handicaps touchent à la fois l'homme et la femme, l'UNFM" considère qu'à partir de cette dernière, les retentissements seraient encore plus négatifs pour la société rurale. L'UNFM a donc décidé de venir en aide à ces catégories de femmes rurales en essayant de créer des coopératives tout en tenant compte des données locales et spécificités traditionnelles du milieu. Ainsi, en sollicitant l'aide de l'Organisation pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO), il y à eu création de 5 coopératives féminines rurales d'apiculture respectivement à Temara, Tiflet, Sidi Slimane, Benslimane et Taliouine. Même si la requête a été introduite en 1982, ce n'est qu'en 1985 que le projet a été opérationnel pour durer 2 ans. Ce retard est dû entre autre à une mauvaise gestion et donc à la nécessité de former dans les domaines concernés (la gestion, la comptabilité etc...). De la même manière, mais cette fois-ci avec l'appui du Fonds des Nations unis pour les activités de population (FNUAP), il y a eu création de 9 coopératives féminines rurales d'élevage d'ovins à travers toute la province d'Errachidia. Le point le plus positif dans la création de ces différentes coopératives a été le recrutement de près de 400 femmes qui ont toutes pu suivre des cours d'alphabétisation et le sens de responsabilité nouvellement ressenti par ces femmes. Le groupe de recherche pour le développement de la femme rurale6 a pris naissance à l'Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan-II de Rabat ayant pour objectifs de promouvoir des projets aussi bien pour les femmes analphabètes que les jeunes cadres sans emploi et surtout d'apprendre aux femmes à mieux gérer leur temps et flotter les possibilités de leur milieu. Ainsi, ce groupe a contribué à la création d'une coopérative de femmes apicultrices 'Abeille verte' dans le Gharb. Cette coopérative a bénéficié d'un appui financier du Fonds Canadien pour les initiatives locales (FCIL) pour l'acquisition du matériel apicole en 1989/1990 et d'un complément de l'équipement apicole en 1990/ 1991. ADRAR, qui est une association franco-marocaine, a été créée suite à un travail de thèse portant sur les transformations apportées par les processus de modernisation dans des régions défavorisées et isolées: ce travail 75. Séminaire national relatif aux femmes rurales, ENA, Meknès, 5-7 Mai 1992. 76. Ce groupe a participé à l'atelier Place des femmes dans le développement agricole et rural au Maroc, Juillet 1993. 76 a montré que ces processus ont plus défavorisé que servi le statut de la femme étant donné qu'elle est exclue de tout ce qui a trait à la commercialisation sur l'exploitation familiale, dépossédée d'une identité propre (analphabète donc non accès à une formation professionnelle) et de ce qui relevait de sa compétence tels que la santé et l'éducation. Cette association a voulu faire aboutir cette recherche théorique sur son application pratique en permettant à la population féminine étudiée de bénéficier d'une réalisation concrète qui tende à améliorer sa condition. ADRAR a donc mis en place un programme de développement (santé, scolarisation, activités économiques) dans la vallée de l'Assif Melloul (Haut-Atlas central) à partir de Septembre 1990. Des conventions ont été signées entre ADRAR et les ministères concernés tels que le MSP et le MEN: les différents programmes ciblent précisément les populations féminine et infantile. Donc, ce projet vise à conscientiser la population d'une région montagneuse aux problèmes de santé, à améliorer la couverture sanitaire (soins, vaccinations), à élever le taux de scolarisation des enfants, et surtout rendre plus performantes les compétences féminines et à faciliter leur intégration à l'économie marchande. L'association a d'abord procédé à des formes d'action aux résultats immédiatement repérables (création d'un dispensaire, apport de médicaments, suivi médical, apport de fournitures scolaires, approvisionnement complémentaire des cantines scolaires...) afin de prouver son efficacité et donc d'être crédible et de pouvoir assurer la participation de la population par la suite. En effet, à plus long terme, ADRAR vise l'essai de formation d'agents de santé communautaire (des femmes) issus de la population, qui serviront d'intermédiaire entre la population et le personnel soignant (dépistage de grossesse à risque, apprentissage de nouvelles pratiques alimentaires...); de même, elle se donne pour but d'aider 15 jeunes lauréats de cette région à poursuivre leurs études jusqu'à l'Université. Ce projet a été appuyé entre autres par le FCIL et le Catholic Relief Service (CRS). Le Projet Oued Srou (POS)" rentre dans le cadre de la coopération technique maroco-allemande représentée respectivement par le MARA/DPA de Khénifra et la GTZ. La zone d'action du projet se situe dans la région Sud-Ouest du Moyen-Atlas Central dans la Province de Khénifra, laquelle région est caractérisée par une surexploitation des ressources végétales aggravée se traduisant par la dégradation accentuée et irréversible du couvert végétal et une forte érosion; ces ressources naturelles étant la source principale d'approvisionnement et donc la base de vie de la population, le POS s'est donné pour objectif la lutte intégrée contre l'érosion basée sur une exploitation adaptée des ressources naturelles, en insistant sur l'amélioration des conditions de vie de la population et sur la vulgarisation de méthodes appropriées aux conditions locales. Conscient de l'importance que revêtent la promotion des femmes (qui forment la moitié du groupe cible) et leur intégration dans le processus de développement et que ceci ne peut se réaliser que par le soutien et la promotion des mesures identifiées par elles en tant que productrices, non pas comme instruments du développement, le POS a centralisé et coordonné toutes ses actions concernant les activités des femmes sous le régie de la Section Ménages Ruraux (SMR)" depuis 1990. Les domaines d'intervention de la SMR se résument aux points suivants: 0 sensibiliser les ménages et particulièrement les femmes en matière de protection des ressources naturelles (utilisation rationnelle du combustible ligneux, amélioration des fours individuels utilisés notamment pour la cuisson du pain, substitution à partir de la bouse des bovins ou des ovins), plantation d'arbres ou d'arbustes fourragers autour des habitations à usage agroforestier. 0 assister les ménages dans les activités agricoles avec création de jardins potagers par les femmes, transformation, conservation et stockage des produits et du petit élevage traditionnel qui est une 77. Rapport de synthèse Projet Oued Srou. Avril 1990. 78. Rapport des activités. SMR. Février 91 - Mai 92. 77 activité féminine généralisée dans la région mais négligée et non reconnue par la population; amélioration de l'aviculture qui permettra une augmentation des revenus des ménages par la commercialisation (oeufs, animaux) et par un apport supplémentaire pour l'alimentation familiale en protéine (oeufs). Avec le même but, amélioration de la cuniculture; amélioration de l'apiculture en utilisant des ruches modernes, former des apiculteurs/apicultrices, vulgarisateurs/vulgarisatrices, et créer des petites coopératives. • organiser et encadrer tout un réseau d'aides-vulgarisatrices (filles paysannes) au niveau des villages. Les critères de choix étant: un certain niveau scolaire (savoir lire et écrire), tire âgées entre 15 et 21 ans, avoir une bonne réputation (celle de la famille aussi), être en accord avec les élites locales au niveau des douars et enfin résider dans les douars concernés. Ces aides- vulgarisatrices encadrées d'une manière continue, devront prendre, à long terme, elles-mêmes cette responsabilité. Un stage de formation a été organisé par le Service de Mise en Valeur Agricole au profit de 25 filles paysannes. Ce système de vulgarisation a été très apprécié par les responsables de la ORMVA qui veulent le transmettre comme modèle pour tout le Maroc. 0 promouvoir l'éducation de base et la formation des femmes et filles rurales (organisation des cours d'alphabétisation, formations spécifiques destinées aux adultes). Pour cela, la SMR a collaboré avec différentes délégations provinciales (Education et Entraide Nationale, Santé Publique et Artisanat). La réaction favorable exprimée par les femmes a fait de cette opération un réel succès. Cette vulgarisation féminine a cependant rencontré des problèmes à deux niveaux. • La nature des travaux étant diversifiée, ce travail nécessite une vulgarisation multisectorielle et la disponibilité quasi-constante des femmes à former. * Les structures administratives et les moyens mis (logistique, personnel) sont inadaptés étant données les difficultés spécifiques à cette vulgarisation qui diffère de la vulgarisation classique. Le Catholic Relief Services (CRS) Maroc' a réalisé avant 1991 quelques projets au profit de la femme rurale comme, par exemple: • le Projet de création d'Unité Pilote pour le traitement des noix de l'arganier sur la demande de l'Association des Amis de l'Arganier dans le village de Tamanar, Province d'Essaouira. Le but du projet fut d'introduire une technologie et une machinerie modernes pour le traitement des noix d'argan puis l'extraction de l'huile avec une installation dimensionnée pour les besoins de 120 familles vivant dans l'arganeraie. En effet, l'obtention de cette huile, étant une des composantes du cadre de vie traditionnelle de la région, est une tâche exclusivement féminine utilisant des moyens archaïques, uniquement manuels et aboutissant à un rendement faible tout en exigeant un grand effort. Ce projet avait d'ailleurs pour objectif principal d'alléger le temps de travail de ces femmes pour d'autres travaux moins ingrats et plus rentables; il a bénéficié largement de la collaboration effective des villageois. • Projet Pilote pour l'amélioration de l'élevage de chevres dans la tribu Ait Imeghrane dans la province de Ouarzazate; En 1986, le CRS a entamé des études sur les travaux des femmes et les ressources disponibles après quoi l'ORMVA de Ouarzazate et la Near East Foundation (NEF) ont 79. Séminaire national relatif aux femmes rurales, Meknès 1992. 78 élaboré ce projet pour améliorer la nutrition des familles en distribuant les caprins laitiers améliorés et en vulgarisant les techniques modernes de l'élevage. Les premiers résultats positifs de ce projet ont incité les responsables à établir entre -eux un contrat pour poursuivre ces opérations et d'entamer en plus de cela, l'éducation sanitaire des familles bénéficiaires. o Projet Textile de Salé grâce auquel, en 1985, le Centre de Formation Professionnelle de Salé a vu le jour avec la collaboration du CRS, du Conseil Municipal de Salé et de l'Office Nationale de la Formation Professionnelle et de la Promotion du Travail. L'objectif du projet était de former des jeunes femmes issues de milieux pauvres, avant un certain niveau scolaire (lère ou 2ème) mais sans aucun revenu. Le CRS a ainsi assuré à 160 jeunes filles âgées entre 16 et 18 ans, une bourse mensuelle de 100 dh: ces jeunes filles ont bénéficié d'une formation spécialisée dans l'industrie textile (secteur de confection) au cours de stages qui ont duré 6 mois. Aujourd'hui, toutes les anciennes stagiaires ont été recrutées dans les usines textiles de Salé, à des postes importants pour la plupart (chef de repassage, aide magasinier, chef de confection). 0 Cette année, le CRS/Maroc" a conçu un Projet Micro-Crédit afin de lancer au Maroc des méthodologies de micro-crédit utilisées efficacement dans d'autres pays en développement. Ce projet se base sur les progrès réalisés au sein du Programme d'Initiative Volontaire Privée dont l'objectif principal est de développer la capacité d'ONGs marocaines à planifier et à exécuter des services sociaux et des projets de développement destinés au quart de la population marocaine la plus démunie. Huit mois après l'approbation du projet (fin Juillet 1992), le projet Micro-crédit qui a engagé deux associations locales, a accordé les premiers cents prêts, respectivement, aux bénéficiaires ruraux de l'Association Oued Srou (créée à partir du POS). Le CRS/Maroc semble satisfait des progrès réalisés jusqu'à présent, surtout vu le manque relatif d'expérience de son personnel dans la conception et la gestion de programmes de micro-crédit, ainsi que la nouveauté de cette approche au développement dans le contexte marocain. Les objectifs réalisés de ce projet sont: o la création d'un programme d'épargne qui sera mis en pratique par des ONGs marocaines o encourager les ONGs marocaines à fournir des services et en particulier des crédits aux entrepreneurs les plus pauvres travaillant à leur propre compte o la sélection de 2 partenaires de projets capables de développer la capacité de procurer des crédits à un nombre significatif de pauvres travaillant à leur propre compte o la réalisation de cet accord de petits prêts et le remboursement à une date convenue à l'avance. 80. Projet micro-crédit: un début au Maroc. Rapport périodique 1. Juillet 92/Avril 93. ANNEX IV: STATUS OF GOVERNMENT EFFORTS" Information was collected from seven ministries (Employment and Social Affairs, Education, Youth and Sport, Agriculture, Health and International Cooperation), and from the National Agricultural Credit Bank (CNCA) on the programs they organize for women. In the education field three ministries offer literacy programs for women and girls which are intended to reduce the very high female illiteracy rate of 68%, and particularly the rural rate which rises to 87%. Some of these programs are combined with teaching basic skills in arithmetic whilst others include materials on population awareness and family planning. The Ministry of Education also organizes a range of programs to encourage girls to attend and to remain in primary school. A number of programs focus on the special problems of girls in rural areas where education participation rates are significantly lower. Some of the approaches include: encouraging attendance; helping parents with their children's school expenses; increasing parents' awareness of the advantages of schooling. Carried out within the framework of a development project for the first cycle of basic education in the rural areas initiated in 1989, and which will continue until 1994, this strategy has included: extending the physical infrastructure via the construction of 11,600 facilities, 1,400 school canteens and 2,900 housing units for teachers ; improving the quality of instruction by revising school programs and improving teaching practices in classes at different levels; and introduction of a system for renting school textbooks to pupils at token prices. Some of these try to adapt the curricula and organization of education to the needs of women in rural areas. Some of these programs also develop an integrated approach to rural education which includes life skills, nutrition, and population education as well, This new approach, which was adopted in 1993 aims at the coordinated carrying out of activities in the areas of infants' education, basic education, literacy and other programs of informal education and support for schooling. This strategy is supported at the national and international levels by both government and non-government bodies. It includes: specific efforts to increase girls' education, with the precise objectives of improving girls' school access and retention rates in priority education areas; efforts to enhance the image of school, involving improving the learning environment by providing educational and sanitary infrastructure for schools, adapting school timetables and programs to specific local conditions, and developing outreach activities to make the school a real center of socio-cultural development, efforts to increase participation by local communities in all educational activities; activities to provide support for parents on order to ensure that their children do in fact receive free schooling, and to compensate for low earnings. A number of pilot schemes (for example the province of El Kelaa des Staghna) seek to encourage schoolchildren to seek fulfillment in rural areas, by initiating a new program in which the content matter is adapted to the socio-economic and cultural context, and the need and expectations of the rural population. Conceived with an intersectoral perspective and with the aim of promoting decentralized development, the project involves the mobilization of local communities, and the active participation and services of all relevant technical departments. It calls for close collaboration between the United Nations Agencies, and possibly with agencies for bilateral cooperation. With respect to employment and income generation two ministries organize women's cooperatives, and one organizes vocational training and employment centers; while credit programs are organized by the 81. This section is taken from the technical paper "A review of Government Programs to Enhance Women's Participation" which is being prepared as part of the Economic and Sector Study. 80 National Agricultural Credit Bank. Most of the vocational training programs focus on traditional women's activities such as dress-making and sewing, but a number if the programs also seek to prepare girls for a wider range of modern economic activities such as welding, hair-dressing, carpet making and leather work. The objective of the vocational programs is to provide artisan training for boys and girls who have dropped out of the school system. Over the past 10 years these programs have expanded rapidly and new areas of specialization have been added, including: electronics, carpentry, welding, and leather-work. The Ministry of Employment offers two types of centers: centers offering a 2 year professional specialization to candidates with a primary school certificate (courses are offered in the areas of electricity, automobile mechanics, carpentry, welding, dress-making and pottery); and those who offer professional training courses for students of both sexes who have completed the fourth year of secondary school. With respect to credit, CNCA's new management since 1987 has paid special attention to women's needs and gender specific policies have been adopted to reach women farmers and artisans. CNCA is the only bank in Morocco which has disaggregated its clientele by sex. In 1987, the World Bank financed a pilot women's credit project in Khemisset. The project began with a study to identify the specific agricultural and artisan activities that women engage in and to identify the reasons for their lack of demand for credit. The pilot project consisted of promoting and explaining deposits together with credit among targeted groups of women (farmers and artisans). The success of this project has demonstrated that women are credit -worthy despite the fact that 90% of the women are illiterate and only 6% have received vocational training. The volume of lending has increased nearly four times, the volume of savings has multiplied even faster, and women's savings mobilized under the project constitute over one third of the lending. In addition women have had an excellent repayment performance with recovery close to 100%. Clients increased from 400 in 1987 to 1719 in 1991. Women have become particularly active in the artisan sector as it corresponds to the return of immigrant workers during the summer months. The immigrants bring with them a purchasing power that is not only significant but expected by the women artisans. Summer is also a time of holidays and celebrations which allows women to sell more of their products. Based on the success of the Khemisset project the program has now been expanded for inclusion in the National Agricultural Credit Project. One of the 8 priority target groups for this project is artisan and women's activities in rural areas. CNCA has developed experimental saving and lending products for artisan and non-farm rural clients. These products have been particularly successful for women clients in the Khemisset and Rommani areas. The project plans to further develop these promising activities and to finance woman borrowers, cooperatives and precooperatives in new selected areas nationwide. The main objectives of the program is to help women located in rural areas to start and develop their own entrepreneurial activities in handicrafts and cottage industries. This component is expected to finance about 14,000 loans with the 37 million dollars representing about 3 per cent of the total investment under the project. To implement the project, CNCA has assigned a few dedicated and highly qualified staff to develop its female clientele and to make direct contacts with the target population. The artisan industries are particularly important source of employment and income for women and are well developed in both rural and urban areas, CNCA is now the only bank in Morocco that has disaggregated its clientele by sex, and the Khemisset project has been successful in developing deposits and savings tenfold in the area from 1987 to 1989 and in tripling them from 1989 to 1992. In addition, women receive high marks for loan recoveries. Under the project action to promote rural savings and loan packages from women clients would be expanded in several selected areas to help develop a combination of farm and non-farm activities which have shown a promising trend in Khemisset. The program will then be expanded nationwide. 81 With respect to population and health, there are at least 4 agencies offering population awareness and family planning, and 4 offering nutritional services and basic hygiene education. Several also organize public awareness campaigns and general health education campaigns (IEC) to offer basic maternal and child health services. Many of the programs organize and operate through community or women's centers, which, in addition to providing specific services, also try to build up the capacity of women to plan and manage projects to become more actively involved in the outside world. While many of these programs have made significant progress in agreeing in the access and participation of women and girls, they face a number of constraints. Among the internal constraints are limited budgets, limited numbers of qualified female staff, and frequently logistical problems such as lack of adequate transport facilities for female staff. Among the external constraints as the social and cultural attitudes and practices which discourage parents or spouses from allowing girls to study, travel work in non- traditional activities, demands on women's and girls time to fulfill domestic and unpaid agricultural activities and to collect fuel and water, limited employment opportunities and labor market constraints. вг ANNEX V: PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES: RATIONALE FOR PRA Abstract and Summary 7his annex describes a variety ofparticipatory development approaches and suggests ways in which they may be applicable to work with women in Morocco. 7hefirst section outlines the Participatory Rural Appraisal q`RA) method, gives examples of its application to women's work, and indicates respects in which it could be effective in Morocco. Yhe second section describes the Aga Khan Rural Support Program, an innovative participatory program in northern Pakistan, and emphasizes the applicability of the Program's methods in Morocco. Yhe third section summarizes three articles fi-om a World Bank publication on participatory development and points to ways in which the authors'points would be helpful to the design and implementation ofparticipatory projects in Morocco. 7he first article draws lessons from the experience the International Fund for Agricultural Development has had with participation; the second article looks at how best to apply participation to the evaluation components ofprojects; the third article points to institutional mechanisms which would improve participatory practices. 1. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)' a. Yhe PRA Approach An increasingly popular means of integrating participatory practices into development projects is the recently developed methodology called Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). An outgrowth of Rapid Rural Appraisal, PRA combines several different disciplines, including applied anthropology, agricultural field research, and agro-ecosystein analysis. The basic idea of PRA is to initiate a "reversal of learning" in which outside development practitioners learn from, and adapt to, the perspectives of the rural communities with which they are working. Heavy emphasis is placed on allowing village residents to do as much of the appraising, analyzing, planning, and implementation as possible. The PRA practitioner's role is more that of a facilitator than of a leader or an instructor. The primary objectives of the PRA process are to promote the sharing of information and perspectives and to empower village residents to improve their own communities. Open-ended interviews with individuals and groups are a central part of this process. PRA facilitators use these interviews to learn the needs of the community and to encourage villagers to take initiative towards meeting these needs. Frequently, the most effective PRA facilitators have stronger backgrounds in anthropology or sociology than in economics. Although facilitators may help train villagers in useful skills such as information-gathering, mapping, modelling, and project planning, actual implementation and decision-making are completed by the villagers, with the PRA facilitator observing and offering suggestions. One advantage to this process of self-help is that the community's own criteria for well-being serve as the basis for decisions and activities, rather than an outside observer's criteria. This both ensures that the village's primary needs will be addressed and avoids the possibility that external assessments of a village's needs will violate cultural values or social norms. The nature of PRA requires that practitioners remain extremely flexible and willing to adapt to whatever circumstances they encounter in the field. Methodologically, it is the diametric opposite of the blueprint approach. Consequently, changes in attitude may be required before development institutions strongly rooted in 82. Most of the information in this section is from Robert Chambers, "Rural Appraisal: Rapid, Relaxed and Participatory," 1992, and from Robert Chambers, "A Note for World Bank Staff on Participatory Rural Appraisal," 1993. 84 the economic blueprint approach to development will use PRA. Robert Chambers, a developer and advocate of PRA, reports that the largest (and perhaps best) manual in India on PRA is filled with blank pages, except for the first page, which states, "Use your own best judgement at all times." Willingness on the part of the facilitator to improvise and experiment based on the needs and abilities of the community enables new and more effective community development approaches to be developed. For example, several PRA practitioners have found that poor village residents often work and learn more effectively with visual planning methods than with verbal or written ones. Other innovative approaches which PRA frequently uses are work schedule modelling, area and resource mapping, and group question sessions for generating awareness and ideas. A small initial program is often the most effective way to begin PRA. As facilitators learn from their mistakes and the process becomes stronger, the program can then successfully expand. The proliferation process is often gradual and takes considerable time. Young programs can also benefit from the experiences of older ones. Lateral information-sharing between PRA programs enables the lessons learned by one PRA program to help others in similar situations. b. Drawbacks and Dangers While most reported PRA experiences thus far have been positive, several drawbacks to the method do exist. Compared to more traditional project approaches, PRA consumes a considerable amount of time before results occur because developing full participation and initiative on the part of the community can take several months. Facilitators must spend time establishing good rapport with communities and are guided more by the villagers' schedules and activities than by an external timetable. Moreover, as referred to above, the open-ended experimental approach which PRA entails may be difficult to accept for sponsoring institutions accustomed to concrete agendas. In addition to these drawbacks, Robert Chambers cites some dangers which he warns must be avoided in order for PRA to be successful. One potential problem is that executing institutions will standardize the process, turning PRA into a rigid process of required steps. This would not only violate the spirit of PRA, but would also make it considerably less effective, as villagers' specific needs and capacities were ignored in favor of standard procedures. Another danger Chambers cites is that organizations will rush the PRA process in an effort to "accomplish" participatory assessments. Again, this only harms the results, as the learning process is abbreviated, experimentation not allowed to flourish, and errors not responded to. A third danger present in PRA involves the resentment villagers may feel towards the intervention of an outsider, even as a facilitator. This could cripple the efforts of the facilitator to build participation. One way of preventing this from happening is to recruit villagers to be consultants and facilitators. Also, the more aware outside facilitators are of how villagers perceive them and the less they intervene in village affairs, the less likely it is that community resentment will be a problem. c. PRA4 with Women in Morocco Certain aspects of Participatory Rural Appraisal indicate it would be extremely useful in work with women in rural Morocco. In several other countries, PRA has already been effectively used as a means of empowering women and improving their living conditions. The inclusive and open-ended interview process entailed in PRA helps to ensure that the voices of a village's less powerful individuals, such as women, will be heard and considered. Moreover, because PRA emphasizes recognizing and sharing the perspectives of the entire community, specific activities are created to ensure that women's views are included. An Ethiopian PRA team which was helping a village in North Omo to model and map the village's land and resources grouped the 85 members by gender and age to ensure that the diversity of views within the village would be represented.' The women's group had a significantly different view of the village and its resources than the men's group did. For villages in rural Morocco in which women's needs and perspectives are frequently ignored in favor of men's, such a process would be very helpful in reversing this inequality. The empowerment which results from organizing women into focus groups for discussion and decisions also lends itself well to the situation of women in Morocco. Disenfranchisement by village males is a major barrier for Moroccan women to improving their status. By working in groups, village women involved in PRA can gain the confidence and power necessary for taking the initiative to improve their circumstances. PRA can also serve to sensitize the village community to the hardships women endure, a first step towards improving the women's lives. A PRA facilitator in India worked with a group of men who mapped out the daily work schedule of a typical village woman." From the exercise, the men gained awareness of the difficult lives their wives and daughters lead. Such an exercise could prove very constructive in many villages in Morocco, where greater awareness on the part of men about women's living conditions can help produce sustainable improvements in these conditions. In another innovative women's project facilitated by a PRA practitioner, women in rural southern Zimbabwe mapped their own bodies as a means of learning and promoting reproductive anatomy, health, and contraception. A similar body mapping workshop was held in India." These exercises also show what the perceptions of indigenous women are of their bodies and bodily processes. Other examples of the use of PRA to study and promote the role of women in village development include Save the Children Federation's examination of Palestinian women's lives and work in the Gaza Strip. The researchers used mobility maps, life cycle diagrams, and daily routine diagrams created by the women as sources of information about the women's lives.' Again, these processes could give valuable insight to both villagers and outsiders into the conditions under which rural Moroccan women live. This awareness in turn encourages initiatives from inside and outside the village to improve women's working conditions and their social and economic opportunities. 2. The Aga Khan Rural Support Program a. The General Program The Aga Khan Rural Support Program (AKRSP) is a private, non-profit organization that initiates participatory development projects in rural villages of northern Pakistan. The process AKRSP has developed involves facilitating the creation within villages of Village Organizations (VOs) and Women's Organizations (WOs), composed of individuals who share a common economic interest. Usually, VOs consist of all the families living in a given village. These VOs are the centers of subsequent development projects; they serve as the sources for ideas, decisions, labor, assessment, evaluation, and - except for the first project, which is funded 83. "Participatory Modelling in North Omo, Ethiopia: Investigating the Perceptions of Different Groups through Models," Jonfa, Tebeje, Dessalegn, Halala, Cornwall, RR4 Notes 14, 1992, pp. 24-25. 84. Meena Bilgi, "Entering Women's World Through Men's Eyes - A Participatory Rural Appraisal at Boripitha, Netrang," 1992. 85. "Body Mapping in Health RRA/PRA," Andrea Cornwall; "Participatory Methods for Research on Women's Reproductive Health," Elizabeth Tolley and Margaret E. Bentley. RRA Notes 16, 1992, pp. 63-79. 86. "Assessing Women's Needs in Gaza Using Participatory Rapid Appraisal Techniques," Save the Children Federation, RRA Notes 10, 1991, pp. 12-19. 86 by AKRSP - they provide the funding for the group's projects. Because participation in this program is so comprehensive from the start, sustainability has been one of its strongest suits. Many VOs have continued to operate after AKRSP withdrew from the project site. These groups often take over functions of the local government, extend their activities into social areas such as education and health projects, and continue to use collective savings to obtain credit. The program's process entails a continuing dialogue between AKRSP staff and the members of the VOs. Staff initiate the dialogue, explaining to villagers the concept of the partnership between the two organizations and seeking ideas for initial projects. Villagers discuss their economic and social needs and as a group identify a Productive Physical Infrastructure project (PPI) which they would like to implement. This first PPI is funded by AKRSP, but the VOs are responsible for all the planning, implementation, and assessment duties. Any subsequent projects must be funded by VOs themselves, either through the collective contributions of members (contribution to communal savings is a requirement of membership in a VO), or through credit obtained with the collective savings serving as collateral. All decisions and allocations concerning the PPI and the collective savings are discussed openly at regular VO meetings. The openness of the organization's business protects poor or marginalized individuals from being taken advantage of and gives all members input into decisions. AKRSP staff members called social organizers facilitate the establishment of VOs by explaining the process to villagers, listening to their concerns and ideas, and training villagers in the organizational skills necessary to maintain the organizations. These social organizers (SOs) serve as the primary communication link between AKRSP and the VOs because they are the individuals who maintain major contact with both groups. Because the primary objective of the SOs, and of the program as a whole, is to enable the VOs to operate independently, the organizers use a "learning process" model rather than a "blueprint" model. That is, because facilitating self-help involves many variable factors, several of which are site-specific, SOs adopt an open-minded attitude in which trial and error and learning from the villagers with whom they work play large roles. b. The Women's Program AKRSP also organizes groups comprised entirely of women to address those needs and issues specific to women in the area. Women play a very significant role in the economic activities of northern Pakistan, but they suffer from substantially worse living conditions than men. The social organizers who facilitate the creation of these women's organizations (WOs) are usually female, which helps to engender greater trust on the part of organization members. These groups serve as sources of training and technical assistance specifically targeting women's production tasks. As is the case with VOs, members of WOs are required to contribute to the group's collective savings. With these funds, the group obtains credit for investment in improved agricultural production. WOs have regular meetings which serve multiple functions: they are planning meetings in which the group organizes and plans their joint credit activities; they are educational forums in which labor-saving techniques are taught; and they are conduits for the distribution of labor-saving production packages such as spinning wheels and butter churners. Surveys of villages in two regions of northern Pakistan in which WOs were established indicate that the groups result in substantial benefits to their members. Savings rates and agricultural production credit use both increased considerably among women belonging to the organizations. Awareness about social services rose also, as WO meetings became sources for information dissemination. Research further suggested that self-confidence levels among women also increased, and that women belonging to WOs articulated their needs more clearly than those who did not. The technical assistance program showed mixed results. The labor-saving packages and training did yield greater knowledge and productivity in some cases. But the overall effect of the packages was small due to inappropriate technology and poor accompanying training. 87 The lessons that emerge from these project surveys offer direction to similar projects targeting women. Researching the technical needs of a community's women is essential to successfully improving their productivity and work conditions. Technical assistance must be appropriate to the tasks women perform. Furthermore, adequate training must accompany the introduction of new technology and techniques to ensure that women have sufficient knowledge to implement them. In general, though, AKRSP's experience indicates that the formation of women's groups can be a very effective means of improving the productivity and working conditions of women and of enabling them to obtain credit. c. Applicability to Women in Morocco In addition to promoting successful and sustainable development projects in Pakistan, the creators of AKRSP also intended the program to serve as a model for replication in other areas where participatory approaches are desired. Several aspects of this program suggest it is highly applicable to work with women in Morocco. To begin with, the social conditions of women in Morocco are in certain ways similar to those of women in northern Pakistan, where AKRSP operates. Because both regions are heavily Muslim, women are subject to Koranic law, in which their land inheritance rights are weaker than men's. Literacy rates for women in rural Morocco are very low, as they are in northern Pakistan. Women's daily work loads, an issue AKRSP's method directly addresses in Pakistan, are extremely heavy in Morocco as well. The labor-saving techniques and technology packages employed in AKRSP's women's projects would be very useful in Morocco, helping to alleviate the difficult working conditions women endure. In order to ensure that these labor-saving measures do in fact increase women's productivity, appropriate training needs to accompany the technical assistance. Participatory forums such as the organization meetings AKRSP facilitates may be an effective place to carry out such training. Sufficient participatory training is particularly important in Morocco because rural villages are frequently very isolated from other communities. Effective training would enable women to maintain the production improvements yielded by technical advances without extensive or ongoing outside aid. Poor access to agricultural credit is another characteristic which Moroccan women and northern Pakistani women share. Consequently, AKRSP's strategy of forming joint savings and credit ventures could be applied with beneficial results in Morocco as well. The positive impact such activities have on the self-confidence and initiative of participating women is an added benefit. Such empowerment could enable Moroccan women to pursue further endeavors which improve their situations. The Bank's Operations Evaluation Department's evaluation of AKRSP mentions certain conditions it deems necessary for replication of the program to be successful. Of these, only the first is directly relevant to women's projects. The OED report states that the strength of government programs in both technology and social services is crucial to the performance of AKRSP. In order for strong technical assistance to be given to women, programs must exist which develop and extend such assistance. Governments with poor R&D will not be able to provide women's groups with appropriate technology and training. Social services, particularly in the areas of health and education, play an important role supporting women and improving their general welfare. Women's organizations can only help women gain access to these services to the extent that they exist; poor government social services impair an organization's capacity to improve women's living conditions. Although more attention needs to be given to social services for women, Morocco has fairly strong government services in comparison to other developing countries. Moreover, Morocco's programs in technology and social services have been improving over the past decade, which bodes well for the applicability of a program such as AKRSP to women in Morocco. 88 3. Other Participatory Approaches' a. Participation Experience of the International Fund for Agricultural Development Pierre Spitz of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) explores several factors of participatory development in his article, "The International Fund for Agricultural Development: Experience with People's Participation." Spitz draws on IFAD's recent experiences with participation to offer suggestions for achieving strong participatory performance. He emphasizes that when seeking and selecting participants from a village, one must be sure to speak with individuals who are in the worst social and economic circumstances: women, landless, etc. For the purposes of work with women in Morocco, this means recognizing that women within a village are not homogenous. For women's participatory programs to be most effective, the concerns of widowed, landless, and very poor women must be considered and addressed. Therefore, it is important for organizers of participatory activities to include these individuals in the discussion and planning processes. This inclusion of the least powerful individuals is one reason why new local-level organizations may need to be formed. In some cases, previously existing groups such as farmer cooperatives may be tapped to generate participation. But these groups often favor the community's more powerful individuals, in which case either egalitarian reforms within the organization are necessary or new groups need to be formed. For work relating to women in Morocco, creating new local-level organizations will frequently be required because very few organized women's groups exist. In the course of the participation process, all the views and opinions of local beneficiaries need not be included in final project design and decisions. It will often be impossible or ineffective to try to meet the demands of everyone involved. Rather, facilitators should focus on eliciting the expression of the views of all concerned parties and on considering these perspectives in final decisions. Spitz points out that strength of academic background will frequently be a less important characteristic of a good facilitator than openness and respect towards different values and conduct will be. Sociologists and anthropologists can contribute strongly to the effectiveness with which participatory elements are integrated into projects. The benefits of an interdisciplinary approach will be particularly strong in Moroccan women's projects, which often heavily involve cultural and social issues. IFAD's experience also points to the advantages of appropriately choosing NGOs with which to work. NGOs with extensive experience working at the village level will be very valuable in efforts to develop participatory practices. Spitz recommends screening NGOs based on two main criteria: the extent of its experience in the project topic and area, and its commitment to antipoverty programs. Thomas Carroll adds a third criterion-field experience -for evaluation of an NGO's participation capabilities. Non-governmental organizations with substantial field experience, a strong antipoverty orientation, and background in a project's specific subject will prove to be strong partners in participatory projects. b. Participation in Project Evaluation In his article "Monitoring and Evaluating Popular Participation in World Bank-Assisted Projects", Norman Uphoff from Cornell University points to the importance of integrating participatory practices into the evaluation of development projects. Project beneficiaries are in many ways the best equipped to identify the aspects of a project which were successful and those which need improvement. Moreover, when beneficiaries 87. The information in this section is drawn from articles in 'Participatory Development and the World Bank: Potential Directions for Change," World Bank Discussion Paper #183, Bhuvan Bhatnagar and Aubrey C. Williams, eds., 1992. 89 can effectively monitor project results, evaluation and improvement can continue after project staff have withdrawn, contributing strongly to the capacity for sustainability. Participatory evaluation can play a beneficial role in all types of development projects, but it is particularly useful in projects that involve participation in their design and implementation. When farmers evaluate projects they have helped to develop and execute, they learn to be self-critical and to initiate improvements in their activities. The most basic methods of participatory evaluation involve general assessments by beneficiaries of project components and output. Farmers are encouraged to judge project performance using their own criteria for well- being. In work with women's groups in Morocco, observing group meetings and engaging in open-ended interviews with participants may be effective ways of acquiring beneficiary assessments. PRA methods such as visual mapping and group interviews also work to facilitate such assessments. These assessments can be supplemented by outsiders' evaluations of factors such as the extent of beneficiary independence in project implementation, and the economic benefits produced by the project. Uphoff believes that other methods beyond PRA are frequently more effective in generating participatory evaluation. He recommends organizing focus groups comprised of a representative cross-section of beneficiaries. An outside facilitator initially raises questions for discussion, but the majority of the meeting consists of discussion by group members of the project in question, its benefits, problems, and possible improvements. The exchange and interaction involved in such meetings produces a fairly sophisticated level of review and evaluation. Such meetings are easily and quickly arranged and may encourage villagers to pursue further group initiatives. With regard to women's projects in Morocco, when women's groups are organized for the project activity itself, these same groups could serve as evaluative focus groups. They will already be accustomed to working together as a group and will be in a strong position to determine which aspects of the project succeed and which do not. Another evaluation approach Uphoff suggests is participatory information-gathering, in which beneficiaries are responsible for collecting project data for the purpose of monitoring project progress. The types of data to be collected are jointly determined by project staff and participants. Grass-roots data collection often results in more accurate data than centralized collection does because beneficiaries are the most familiar with the environment from which the data comes and with the various factors affecting the data. An additional purpose of participatory data collection is that, as Uphoff writes, "The systematic acquisition of information is intended to empower local people to improve their conditions." One caveat Uphoff emphasizes in the context of using specific data to evaluate participation is not to depend too heavily on standardized indicators. For instance, evaluators of a participatory irrigation management project in Sri Lanka found that the frequency of meetings of the local farmer organizations around which the project was based declined as the project progressed. Although this appeared to be an indication of declining participation, the opposite was true. Because farmers saw each other every day while they worked together along the irrigation system, they did not need organized meetings as frequently. Issues were worked out together during the workday. When set data are used as sources of evaluation, they should be supplemented by situational circumstances as they were in the Sri Lankan project. Knowledge of such circumstances are most effectively obtained through the participation of beneficiaries in the evaluation process. A final set of participatory evaluation methods Uphoff describes involves exchanges between groups in both horizontal and vertical directions. When participants from one farmer organization operating a project visits another, two purposes can be served. The farmer can learn from the group and project he is observing and apply some of their knowledge and experience to his own project. Moreover, as an outsider with experience in similar project efforts, the farmer can serve as an astute evaluator of the host organization and its project. Lateral sharing of this sort can thereby benefit both groups involved. 90 The second type of sharing entails group members visiting organizations of a different level. When farmers observe supervising groups, they can gain valuable understanding of their project's broader context, as well as help the supervisors identify areas they need to improve upon. Conversely, when project supervisors attend local-level farmer meetings, they both gain ground-level perspective important for forming effective project measures and they are better able to evaluate project performance. Uphoff cites the Small Farmer Development Program in Nepal as an example of productive meetings between project beneficiaries and staff in which each group gained new perspectives useful for addressing project issues. Uphoff also lists a set of conditions which he considers most important to cultivating participation both at the project level and at the evaluation level. They include the following: continuity of staff so that relations between staff and beneficiaries can be developed and maintained; a network of staff who support participatory practices from a variety of government and non-government positions; and a strong sense of community among leaders and individuals, such that self-aggrandizement is minimized and communal benefits are maximized. Women's projects in rural Morocco would be well served by the evaluation methods Uphoff describes. Monitoring of project outputs which are easily identifiable and measurable, such as labor-saving assistance, can be achieved through beneficiary assessments and data collection. The women themselves will be best qualified to determine how much time and labor is saved by the technical assistance and training they receive. For less quantifiable needs involving health, education, and other social issues, participatory evaluation mechanisms such as focus groups, open-ended interviews, and general observation will prove effective. Because participatory women's projects are new in Morocco and because considerable experimentation, adaptation, and innovation will be involved, participatory evaluation methods will help optimize project performance. c. Improving Participatory Practices In his article "Demystifying Popular Participation: Institutional Mechanisms for Popular Participation", Thomas Dichter discusses common mistakes which occur in the course of planning and implementing participatory programs. Designers of participatory projects in Morocco and elsewhere should be aware of these mistakes so as to avoid making them themselves. When a certain process attains considerable success in generating participation, the project sometimes "locks in" the process, setting it as a standard methodology to be followed for obtaining future participation. This can severely limit the ability of project staff to adapt to a village's specific circumstances. Participatory projects by their very nature require flexibility in order for the variety of villagers' needs and values to be considered. When participation facilitators are dealing with cultural issues (as in work with women in Morocco), experimenting with different methods of generating participation is essential, but is impaired by too rigid a methodology. Another common mistake Dichter says participatory project staff are frequently guilty of is to concentrate so heavily on the concept of a community that they fail to design and evaluate projects in terms of individuals. The objective of participatory projects is to benefit individuals, and staff and facilitators should view the input they are receiving as originating from individuals, rather than from a community as a whole. The problem is that thinking in terms of communities prevents staff from differentiating between individuals, from considering the relevant differences between villagers, and from targeting specific individuals, such as the landless or the very poor. Thinking in terms of individuals prevents inaccurate generalizations from dominating project strategy and encourages project staff to seek the input and involvement of a diversity of village members. A final misconception commonly present in participatory projects, according to Dichter, is that participation is merely a desirable component for development projects to contain. This belief leads to attempts to add participation as if it were another type of agricultural extension to be taught in a systematic way. But participation should be a goal in and of itself. The awareness and ownership which villagers gain through 91 participation is vital to the success and sustainability of development projects. Project staff need to consider participation as much a goal of their work as any specific, concrete output. This attitude is especially important with regard to work with women in Morocco. The empowering process which participation entails is often of greater long term benefit to rural women than any specific skills they learn are. Empowered and organized into a group, women will be better able to help themselves and create opportunities for improving their economic and social circumstances. Participation must therefore be viewed not only as a means but as an end in women's projects. 4. Rationale for Use of PRA - La Methode Acceleree de Recherche Participative (MARP) or Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a new and well-developed method, and it gives good rank level statistics on the subjects studied. - The method uses focal groups and a carefully designed interview guide which is continuously refined throughout the interviewing process. - Different types of groups and cross-check methods based on a variety of participatory methods are used during the process in order to understand the issues related to a particular subject in the fullest sense possible. A process of triangulation occurs, enabling the greatest amount of information to be obtained and the best understanding of issues, problems, and solutions to emerge. - A key to PRA is a multi-disciplinary team approach, using local community members to assist with focal group discussions, which ensures that the various perspectives on the research issue are included and that the issues is addressed from all relevant perspectives. - The main objective is to generate information and solutions to problems from the rural women and men themselves living in the affected communities. In general this information involves what exactly they feel they need or want, when and why they need it, who will assist in undertaking the changes, and what processes each will need to take to achieve the desired results - With the above information gathered in a participatory manner, projects can be designed and developed that truly reflect women and men's concerns and views regarding their own development. Basing project design and implementation on such beneficiary input improves the likelihood that the project will significantly improve the conditions of the members of the communities themselves who contributed to the project ideas. 92 ANNEX VI: PRA AND CAPACITY BUILDING To address the greater integration of women in the Moroccan economy and to prepare the ESW, we began discussing in late 1993 the possibility of investing in a participatory exercise (PRA, more fully described below). Thus targeted populations (in this case women in rural areas and also in poverty context within urban areas) would be enabled to express their concerns themselves and define their own priorities. This would be the first such PRA in Morocco by the Bank. A successful pilot PRA survey was completed in the village of Tinfou in the Vallee de Draa. The novelty of participatory approach made it necessary for the Bank to start with an orientation program, to explain to the Government and the wider audience in Morocco the objectives and purpose of the PRA methodology and other participatory approaches. Two participation experts presented PRA at a workshop in November. After much debate and discussion at which participating ministries were present", and a simultaneous NGO session was held, the participants agreed that we should proceed with such an exercise in Morocco. However, there was strong sentiment that the PRA should be undertaken by local persons who would need to be trained in this new methodology. Thus in addition to having the results of the participatory survey, the training workshop would create a pool of PRA trainers within Morocco who could contribute to future participatory development work. As training programs, much less PRAs, are not customary in an ESW exercise, this was debated and discussed within the Bank (Department / Region level). It was decided that the benefits of such a participatory exercise would likely exceed its costs in terms of extra time and resources needed. The RVP special gender fund provided the critical funds needed to pursue this. The result was two training workshops held in June 1994. The first was a three day workshop (June 20- 22) to orient a larger audience on Participatory Rural Appraisal. This session, including general training in PRA and a discussion of strategy formulation for addressing women in Morocco and the Maghreb region, was held in Ouarzazate at the Berbere Palace Hotel and was attended by 100 persons representing eight of the nine participating Ministries and over a dozen NGOs and academic institutions. There were 60 participants from the Moroccan Government, 16 from NGOs, six from Tunisia, two from Algeria, and two from Iran. Moroccan participants came from all parts of the country. Most of the participants were women although there were a significant number of men. The purpose of the orientation workshop was to build on a basic understanding of the concepts and methods of participatory assessment, developed in previous workshops, and to lay the groundwork for the participatory assessment study. The workshop contained five modules: (a) strategies for the integration of women in development, (b) an overview of participatory research methods, (c) the organization and management of a participatory assessment study and the outline of the proposed study, (d) practical examples of the use of participatory assessment studies, and (e) the integration of participatory methods with conventional quantitative research methods. The workshop was designed to be participatory and presentations were combined with group discussions and practical exercises. Seven participatory appraisal experts made presentations and acted as facilitators in the group discussions. In addition, government agencies, NGOs, and the two Bank staff members made brief presentations. 88. The nine participating ministries are: Ministry of Economic Affairs and its Department of Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Youth & Sports, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Social Affairs, and Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 94 Following this part of the workshop, an intensive 10-day intensive training in PRA methodology was held June 24-July 4. A committee selected 34 persons (33 women and one man) for this training from an initial pool of 68 persons who had either been nominated by their Ministry or had expressed an interest in attending this intensive training. It was assumed that the best of this pool of trained resource persons would then undertake the PRAs in five rural and two urban areas of the country. The trainees were women with extensive field experience who came from geographically diverse regions in Morocco. The main characteristics sought in these trainees was open-mindedness and the ability to listen and facilitate discussion and ideas; such qualities were more relevant and important than academic qualifications although many of the trainees did have PhDs. The training was held in Sidi Flah, a village about 1.5 hours east of Ouarzazate and accessible via dirt road from Skora. All the trainees plus a dozen international trainers, facilitators, and Bank staff spent six days in this village with no electricity or running water, staying as guests in villagers' homes (food and lodging was provided for the trainees, but no fees were paid). The reason for holding this intensive training program in a rural setting with difficult conditions was twofold: first, to establish whether the trainees could live in village conditions for an extended period without difficulties, and second, to test some of the methods learned during the training program. Although the PRAs themselves were conducted primarily in Arabic or Berber, the training session were in French. Trainees received certificates for both the general and the intensive training sessions. The PRA experts and local teams finalized the thirty-point selection criteria (attached) for the PRA during the mission and selected five rural and two urban regions. The Ministry of Interior had already accepted the PRA experts' view on this, and had given their prior approval to the regional selection following the November workshop. As stated above, the Ministry of Economic Affairs (Direction of Statistics) gave their clearance during the mission, so that the PRA could begin immediately. The results from the workshops were better than we could have expected. It appears there is now a keen (and growing) interest in all Ministries to work on women's issues. This was clear from the larger than expected participation at the training workshops from all Ministries. From this pool of trainees, 20 were selected and 18 of these actually conducted PRAs in selected regions of Morocco, focusing on the role and needs of women. One of the main PRA trainers writes in her report: "It was again very difficult to select twenty participants from this group of 34 [to] carry out the (field) study in Morocco. Most of the participants were very good and very keen to learn. The selection criteria had to be developed carefully and there was a demand for transparency from the participants. Those left out were rather dejected and there were some tears as well."The remaining trainees served as alternates. The areas covered were primarily rural but also included two urban locations. The PRA facilitators worked in pairs and lived in the homes of individuals from each village in which they worked. The surveys ran over a period of approximately six months. Trainers were paid a small fee as per diem during this time comparable to the standard fees the Government pays field workers. These PRAs began directly following the training session. The research teams spent five days at each of the research sites. Each of the rural teams covered the selected sites in one Province. The rural research teams reconvened after completing the fieldwork to finalize their reports and share their experiences, as did the three urban research teams. Separate site reports were prepared by the teams for all the research sites. Two debriefing sessions were held for the survey teams to synthesize their findings from the field. Input from the NGOS, bilaterals and research community was formalized and included in the strategy paper. Input from the Government Ministries with whom we have been working was finalized for inclusion in the strategy paper as well. The fifth workshop (Workshop V) is planned for May 24-25 in Rabat, where the ESW and the gender dimension of development in the context of the PRA will be discussed with the group of 95 stakeholders. Following this, Workshop VI will be held sometime in September/October to discuss the wider implications of the PRA and possible follow-on activities. 96 ANNEX VII: SITE SELECTION A total of 43 research sites were selected in ten provinces to cover the diversity on account of: * agro-ecological zones * rural/urban areas * industrial/touristic areas * lifestyles * cultural/ethnic groups * level of access to infrastructure and services * relative visibility of women * women's activities While it would be unreasonable to claim that the study results represent the entire female population of Morocco, we can affirm that they show undeniable realities of the lives of many poor Moroccan women. While discussing the process of site selection with government representatives, it was suggested that we include areas that are ranked high in government's priority for future development programs. Rural research sites were selected in five regions which represent the different agro-ecological zones in the country: Region Province North Chefchaouen Southern plateau Figuig (Tendrara and Bouarfa) Agricultural (rainfed and irrigated) zones El Haouz High Atlas Azilal Southern High Atlas and oasis Ouarzazate A map of Morocco showing the location of these sites is given in Annex 2. The main characteristics of these regions that were considered while selecting the research sites are given in the following table: 98 PROVINCE CHARACTERISTICS Chefchaouen Azilal Marrakech Ouarzazate Figuig Haouz Zagora Tendrara Climate Subhumid Humid Semi-arid Arid Saharan Animal husbandry + +++ ++ + ++ Cereal crops +++ ++ ++++ ++ + Orchards +++ ++ ++ Oasis crops + Forests + + + + Sylvo-Pastoral + Plains 0 Mountains 0 0 0 High Plateau 0 Valley 0 Population ++ + + + + +. ++ ++ Women accessible +++ +. W. active, visible 0 0 0 W. active, not visible 0 0 -- - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - ---- - - SFT conserv. + +++ ++ + + ----- - -- - -- - - -- - ----- - Rich natural resources 0 0 Poor nat. resources 0 0 0 Degradation + + + + + Emigration +++ +++ ++ Rural exodus + + ++++ Sedentary population 0 0 0 0 Nomadic Population 0 Key: 0 Present ++ + + Highly frequent + + + Frequent + + Some presence + Rare 99 Douars" were selected in the rural areas only after discussions with the local authorities. A minimum of four villages were studied in each of the five rural areas initially and five douars in two regions were added later, taking the total number of selected villages to 27. Efforts were made to select villages in a manner that would cover the diversity in the area in terms of level of access to infrastructure and social services (agricultural and other). Following is the list of villages included in this research: Chefchaouen El Haouz Laanassar (agriculture, animal husbandry) Letnine - (Rainfed Dhar (ag., a.h., textiles) Igoudar | agric. Berkouk (ag., a.h.) Taizelte _j perimeter) Targha (ag., fishery) Imzaine (Mont.: valley ag.) Bab Rbah Cooperative -1 (Irrigated ag. Azilal El Ikhlass Cooperative J perimeter) Outhdidou (ag., a.h.) Tabant (ag., a.h., tourism) Figuig (Tendrara and Bouarfa) Aghbalou Chaaba (artisanry, a. h.) Ouled Azzi -I (Currently nomad, dream Aghbalou Zaouia (artisanry, a.h.) Ouled Ali J of settling to use groundwater Alt Bakhouqh (ag., a.h.) for agriculture) Assour Rja Fillah(Former nom., settled in Tendrara center) Maatarka (form. nom., settled in isolated area) Ouarzazate Mangoub (nomads settling around Assrir (Zagora) 1 recent groundwater exploitation) Ouled Harrouch (Zagora) | Sarte (Zagora) Zaouia El Barania (Zagora) -i (Oasis: ag., a.h., migration) Boutaghrer (Kalaa M'goun) -I Alemdoune (Kalaa M'goun) j (Mountain--difficult access: ag., a.h.) The main sources of livelihoods in these areas include agriculture, horticulture, sedentary livestock raising, nomadic pastoralism, casual labor, migration to nearby and far away towns, and handicrafts. One coastal village, where fishing is the main source of livelihood, was also included. A map showing the locations of the survey areas is given in Annex 2. It is important to note that the surveys did not include villages accessible only by long mule-back rides, for logistical reasons and for the safety of the researchers. Some such villages receive few or no visits from extension teams (health, agriculture) and are very distant from the nearest schools. Two urban centers, Marrakech and Casablanca, were also selected for this research.These provided an opportunity to incorporate the concerns of women living in low income urban areas in the ESW research. Since these urban centers are the destination of people migrating from rural areas, it also provided the chance to understand mobility patterns and the process of settling in a new environment. Within the Wilayas of Casablanca and Marrakech, a total of sixteen localities were selected in seven Prefectures. Following is the list of areas selected in the two cities: 89. Douar refers to a hamlet or a section of a larger village. A group of douars constitutes a Commune Rurale. For the purpose of this research we selected douars. However, in the text we use the term village instead of douar. 100 Casablanca Marrakech Prefecture - Ben Msik Sidi Othmane Prefecture - Sidi Yousuf Ben Ali Kariat Jemas Guenoun Bloc 18 Sidi Yousuf Ben Ali Sidi Ahmed Ben Lahcen Aazib Laayadi Lalla Meryem Belaagid Moulay Rachid Prefecture - Menara Prefecture - Hay Hassani Ain Chok Berrada PAM Iziki Prefecture - El Hay El Hassani El Askar El Kadim Lissafa Prefecture - Medina Prefecture - Sidi Maarout Trb Tabashi Ouled Lahcen These localities include both low-income urban and semi-urban areas at the periphery of the city. The main livelihoods in the urban areas included employment in formal and informal sectors and self-employment. In the semi-urban areas these also included farming and seasonal farm employment. Three teams (of two researchers) worked concurrently at the selected sites, spending two weeks in each of the two cities. LIST OF TEAM MEMBERS AT DIFFERENT RESEARCH LOCATIONS RURAL AREAS URBAN AREAS Chefchaouen Azilal Marrakech and Casablanca Nadira Barkallil Atika Bouachra Souad Alt Haddou Jamila Chantoufi Latifa El Gharbi Atika Bouachra Mimouna Houcini Atika Jeddi Souad Saad Zaghloul Tendrara Zagora Souad Slimani Khadija Hammouchi Aicha Aboulabbas Najia Souhail Atika Jeddi Sanae Bennesser Alaoui Souad Slimani Aicha Nadri Touria Tamsamani El Haouz (1) Ouarzazate Touria Eloumri Atika Bouachra Fatima Rammani Aicha Nadri Khadija Ramram El Haouz (2) Atika Bouachra Atika Jeddi Souad Slimani ANNEX VIII: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DOUARS SURVEYED IN PRA STUDY CHARACTERISTICS OF DOUARS IN CHEFCHAOUEN Vifage Berkouk Targha Dhar Lanasser Distance from provincial 50 km 60 km 50 km 55 km capital Distance from nearest 20 km 30 km 50 km 10 km town (Tetouan) Bab Berid No. of households 87 196 046 197 Men 95 157 044 214 Women 108 177 048 242 Boys 218 367 116 554 Girls 168 329 093 550 No. of children in school Girls 19 64 2 094 Boys 46 103 8 200 Literate Women 2 2 Men N/A N/A Age of marriage: girls > 15-16 >15 15-16 increasing celibacy Adult literacy classes none none none none Energy used for light petrol electricity petrol + gas generator 12 solar 4 gas Road 12 km path to road yes yes 100 m away yes Primary school yes* + lunch facility yes + lunch facility 1,5 km + lunch yes + lunch facility facility Primary health care none yes none hospital 15 km (dispensary) Public Bath none none none none Collective oven none yes none none Drinking water webs 30 wcls 27 web (public) I wcls 22 springs 2 (of which public =5) springs 2 springs 10 Childbirth at home at home at home Nadi (club) none women's co-op. none none Cooking fuel wood + gas wood + gas mostly wood wood + gas Polygamous families 1 0 1 19 (number) Handicapped (number) 2 6 8 0 Latrines (number) 7 196 8 197 (no pit) (no pit) (no pit) Village Berkouk Targha Dhar Laanasser Wealth of village relatively rich immigrants rich/ majority is poor rich compared to others others poor Decision making Migration (number) 2 74 0 10 Women's activities other agri., wood, water, anim. agri., anim. husb., agri., anim. husb., agriculture, animal than housework husb. food processing water, handicraft, finishing products husbandry, wood and needlework water Whether women go to sell/buy (agr. prod.) sell/buy (agr. prod.) yes to buy only souk Women allowed to mix yes yes yes yes with men Women's problems cannot buy medicine, no dispensary chores and animal polygamy (illicit crops) deforestation keeping Men's problems drought, low agr. unemployment unemployment alcoholism of young production Men-women relations some women beaten Contraception none pill (secretly because of none none religious beliefs) Main health problems fever, diarrhea, cold, skin problems, diarrhea, fever, diarrhea, fever, flu, diarrhea, Children laryngitis, pneumonia, fever cough, skin problems skin problems chicken pox, skin problems Main health problems Adults Travel Sources of income Women agr., an. husbandry handicraft, an. husb., an. husb., agr. an. husb., handicraft Men agr., an. husbandry agr. Infrastructure Red cross, mosque, women's co-op., cafes, mosque, Koranic 4 hill-dams Koranic school,6 oil- groceries, electric mill, school, oil-press presses,1 seed press water-tower Other illicit crops recent no illicit crops no illicit crops illicit crops center View of government dispensaries not good bad medical care, drug services prices inflated at pharmacy Use of pill thrown away not used not used not used Other technology cars 0 cars [many] cars 67 (number) TV 35 TV 196 TV 10 TV 197 Parb 4 Work time (hours) summer 19 16-17 19 17 winter 19 16-17 19 15-16 *There is an improvement in the situation this year: two female schoolteachers and a new director have been assigned here and the former problem of teacher absenteeism no longer occurs. CHARACTERISTICS OF DOUARS IN OUARZAZATE Vifdge Assrir Sarte Ouled :Zaouia El Boutaghrer Alemdoune Harrouch Barania Tamaloute Distance from provincial capital Distance from nearest 4 km 5 km 17km incl. 35km incl. 25km path to 40km path town (Zagora) 14km path 1 km path Kalas M'goun No. of households 199 110 30 52 105 102 Men 361 256 77 152 155 Women 352 269 73 194 198 Boys 453 381 101 266 255 Girls 425 377 86 241 252 No. of children in Girls 111 33 /15% (all 6 10 33 34 school berbers) Boys 233 223 /90% Not avail. 71 68 5 Literate Women over 21: No No No Men 100% 20yrs. Age of marriage-girls 18-21 Draoua, > 15 young young 16-17 16-17 Berber, 15-16 Adult literacy classes - - No No Yes, 1993 Yes, 1993 Energy used for light electricity generator generator/ gas generator/ candle/gas candle/gas solar energy Road Yes Yes 14 dirt roads 1 dirt road 25km 45km Primary school Yes, 1953 2km distant, 20mn walk, Yes, 1953 Nearby, 1953 Yes, 1958 1956 1956 Primary health care Hosp. in 5km from 17km incl. 15km from Yes Yes (dispensary) Zagora Zagora 14km dirt Taghmrout Hamam (Bath) No No No No No No Collective oven No No No No No No Drinking water Drinking tap 6 wells (wom. well 1/2 hour well 4km Oued M'goun wells water are in charge) away by mule (men go) Childbirth Nadi (club) No No No No No No Cooking fuel palmwood/gas palm wood/gas palmwood/gas palmwood/gas wood wood Polygamous families some some (number) Handicapped (number) 6 1 - - Toilets (number) Wealth of village Decision making Women Berber wom. Men Berber wom. Men Men consulted cons/not cons./not Draoua M'rab Migration (number) exodus 29 38 29 28 12 families 50 emigrant 15 3 3 2 14 25 Village Assrir Sarte Ouled Zaouia El Boutaghrer Alemdoune Harrouch Barania Tamaloute Women's activities other agr., anim. agr.,water fet- agr. (Draoua), Hajbat, anim. husb., agr., anim. than housework husb., ching, anim. anim. husb., M'rabtine handicraft husb. handicraft, husb., handi- anim. husb., (Handira) (Handira) sawing craft, wood agr. (Draoua) Whether women go to some in No No No No No souk Zagora Women allowed to mix at work in in the fields in No No Yes No with men Draoua Draoua Draoua at work Women's problems men's exodus can't go to hospital Men's problems no irrigation sand invading water agr. land Men-women relations good bad bad bad normal normal Contraception pill, IUD, pill pill, IUD None- pill not used pill not used c. interruptus. religious correctly correctly temp. method belief Main health diarrhea, diarrhea, fever, diarrhea, eye prob., pharyngitis, goiter problems/children fever, laryngitis, skin fever, ear diarrhea, cough, ear stomach rash infection, eye pharyngitis infection, problems prob. diarrhea, skin, teeth prob. Main health problems car, eyes, same same same same same men/women stomach, throat, gy- necol. prob. Travel None None None None None None Sources of women's anim. husb., handicraft, scarfs and handraft poultry farming, poultry income sawing, carpets, scarfs, other agr. prod. farming handicraft, eggs, agr. housework Infrastructure I mill, 33 30 motopump 20 motopump motopump stations stations stations, 2 water fount., 5 grocery stores, priv. daycarm Other TV w/ VCR, 2 cars, 94 TVs, 5 TVs, VCRs, 2 cars groceries, 15; sewing radio in every radios, 3 butchers, I mill, 3 mach., 5; cars, home generators, cars, 4 trucks bicycles,motos 3 cars View of government corrupt, inef- services ficient water, bread supply Working hours/day 16 -17h Drous: Hrar: 17-19h variable according Bame winter:17h 11-12h to seasons autumn:15-16h summer: 17-18h Draoua: 16-17h Berbers: winter: 15h autumn:15-16h summer:19-20h CHARACTERISTICS OF DOUARS IN AZILAL Villag Aghbalou Aghbalou All Bakhouch Outhdidou Tabant Assour Zaouai Chaaba Distance from provincial 80 km 80 km 65 km 110 km 90 km 115 km capital Distance from nearest Beni Mellal B.M. 80km Ouaouizert25k Ouaouizert Azilal 90km Marrakech town 80km m 50km 70km No. of households 118 54 60 56 36 32 Men 167 80 118 53 66 Women 167 68 123 52 51 Boys/girls 287 88 65/117 80 40/73 No. of children in school Girls all 19 4 10 3 10 Boys all 32 20 24 most 20 Literate Women 36 30 0 0 0 0 Men NA NA 3 2 7 17 Age of marriage girls 16 16-18 15 16 16 16 boys depending on 18 18 18 18 work Adult literacy classes 0 0 0 0 0 0 Energy used for light Elec. Elec. 0 0 0 0 Road 0 0 12km 0 65km Primary school 8 classes 8 classes 1 class 2 classes Yes 7km away Primary health care None None None 5km away yes 4km away (dispensary) Hamam None None None None None None Collective oven None None None None None None Drinking water water tower water-tower 2 wells 7 wells 3 wells Oued (UNICEF) (UNICEF) 3 springs 14 sources Nadi (club) None None None None None None Cooking fuel Gas Gas Wood Wood Wood/Gas Wood Polygamous families 0 0 0 0 0 0 (number) Wealth situation of rich rich very poor poor rich poor villagers Decision making Yes Yes None None Yes None Migration (number) Yes Yes None 8 men Yes None Women's activities other Handicraft 3 spinning- handicraft handicraft agr. for single agr. along than housework (Djelabba, mills, 36 cloth- (rare), agr. (rare), agr. women, with husband Bzeouia) mills, 23 handicraft rare scarves Whether women go to Yes to sell same 0 0 yes 0 souk and buy djellaba Women allowed to mix Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes with men Village Aghbalou Aghbalou Adr Bakhouch Outhdidou Tabant Assour Zaouia Chaaba Women's problems sell djellaba same water, same roads, electricity water healthcare healthcare Men's problems apiculture apiculture water roads, agr. roads electricity surroun-ding agr. of Douar Men-women relations very open same semi-open same very open very closed Contraception pill IUD same same pill badly same same used Main health fever, diarrhea, fever, diarrhea, same + car throat, diarrhea, same problems/children stomach throat & skin fever, stomac, infections fever, ear prob. skin prob., infections chicken pox Main health problems fever, same + back, head, fem.prob. same + goitre, back, women stomach, feminine prob. stomach ache, diarrhea, ear infections stomach rheumatism, cough fever, ache, tiredness laryngitis diabetes, skin prob. Travel Yes Yes No No Yes No Sources of income handicraft same 0 0 handicraft for 0 Women (Djellaba) tourists CHARACTERISTICS OF DOUARS IN TENDRARA Viflage Ouled Azzi Ouled Ali Maatarka Mangoub Rja Fillah Distance from provincial 100 km 80 - 130 km 118 km since 1945 40 km plus 6 km 34 km capital path Distance from nearest 70 Tendrara 50 to 100km of 84km of Tendrara 40km + 6 dirt in Tendrara town Tendrara roads 15 to 50km of dirt road No. of households 33 (tents) 100 (tents) 106 (10 61, 10 (tents) 30 tents Men 19 were interviewed) 66 Women interviewed 72 Boys 97 47 Girls 93 41 No. of children in school Girls 19 0 16 20 Boys 29 0 63 40 Literate Women None None Men some Age of marriage: girls 16-18 16-18 16-18 16-18 16-18 Adult literacy classes None None None None None Energy used for light petrol, gas same same generators electricity Road None None None None Yes Primary school None None Yes Yes, in 1979 Yes, in 1982 Primary health care None None None Yes Yes (dispensary) Hamam None None None None Yes Collective oven None None None None Yes Drinking water wells same same same wells outside village Nadi (club) None None None None NGO Cooking fuel wood, grass wood, gas wood, some gas wood, gas gas except in wooden tents Polygamous families 9 many 5 - - (number) Toilets (number) I in each house Handicapped 6 - 15 sterile women, - . 19 dwarfs Decision making men men few liberties shared shared if woman works Migration (number) 18, 23 families left 5 4 Women's activities other anim. husb., same wood fetching, handicraft, agr. same + wood than housework handicraft anim. husb., work tent building in town Whether women go to with husband, rarely with only old women with husband, yes for buying souk widows can husband widows alone sell/buy alone Village Ouled Azzi Ouled AU Maatarka Mangoub Rja Fillah Women allowed to mix close family only same Yes Yes Yes with men Women's problems nomadism same health unemploy- ment Men's problems nomadism nomadism unemploy- ment Men-women relations certain respect bad Contraception pill, plants, fkih, pill badly used pill, IUD same pill, rarely IUD sboub, el ketba Main health fever, diarrhea, skin prob., scabies, diarrhea, head aches, fever, head, back, problems/children eyes, teeth and vomiting, chicken fever, ear prob. tiredness stomac aches, head aches pox, measles fever, rhumatism Main health problems fever, head, chest fever, head aches, scabies, fem.prob. head aches, fever, head, back, Women eyes & ear aches, vertigo stomac, back, tiredness stomac aches, feminine prob. kidney fever Travel None same same same same Sources of income anim. husb., anim. husb. handicraft anim. apiculture, handicraft, Women handicraft husb. handicraft housekeeping View of government bad with CNCA, Same bad school, good same bad HC, good services good with Forestry with W & F NGO and Water Other technology mill 16 motopumps, (number) souk, 1 generator Work time (hours) 16 16 14-15 18 18, 12 (housewives, NGO workers) CHARACTERISTICS OF DOUARS IN EL HAOUZ BOUR AREAS IRRIGATED AREAS Village Letnine Igoudar Taizeke Imzaine El Ikhlass :Bab Rbah Cooperative Cooperative Distance from provincial 54 km 46 km 80 km 30 km to town 35 km to capital with high Marrakech school Distance from nearest Amezmiz 9 Amezmiz 13 Amezmiz Amezmiz 25 Timellalet Aitourir town km km 21 km of km (nearest middle 20 km which school) 2 km 2 km path No. of households 89 74 126 54 87 50 Men 87 72 120 84 240 36 Women 89 75 126 54 165 38 Boys 127 135 230 84 200 110 Girls 163 120 174 88 204 113 No. of children in school Girls 35 23 26 20 48 12 Boys 56 22 4 23 65 21 Literate 15 0 Women 0 0 Men 22 (30%) 5 (14%) Age of marriage: girls very young very young starting 15 y 16-20 tendency not to marry Adult literacy classes None None 20-25 women 25 men 30 men Energy used for light electricity candle, gas gas, other gas, other None None Road Yes Yes 3km dirt 25km dirt Yes 6km away road roads Primary school Yes 3 yrs. ago Yes+ 1 class Yes + canteen Yes + canteen canteen sincel989 Primary health care opened 1972 3km away 5km away opened 5 yrs. 2km away 6km away (dispensary) ago Hamam Yes None Yes None None Collective oven Yes None None None Yes but not None functioning Drinking water Yes + 35 51 metfia solar spring (treated Yes weils metia energy fountain water) Childbirth at home with prefer hospital midwife because of 3 deaths Nadi (club) Yes in 1974 None None None Yes None Cooking fuel wood & gas wood, gas, wood, other fertilizer, (80 houses) fertilizer wood, gas Polygamous families (number) Handicapped (number) Toilets (number) 51 4 1 BOUR AREAS IRRIGATED AREAS Village Letnine Igoudar Taizelke Imzaine El Ikhlass Bab Rbah Cooperative Cooperative Wealth situation of villagers Decision making partially same same same shared None shared Migration (number) 11 40 79 20 Women's activities other anim. husb., anim. husb., same + same than housework agr., wood, agr., wood handicraft cleaning Whether women go to No No souk Women allowed to mix relatives only same same same with men Women's problems goitre same same same Men's problems water, irrigation Men-women relations Contraception pill (irreg.), pill (irreg. due same pill (irreg.: IUD (5 to delays in cost, know women) getting it) how) Main health malnutrition, diarrhea, problems/children diarrhea vomiting, fever, headache, sore throat Main health problems back, head back, women aches, goiter rheumat., fem. prob. Travel None None Sources of income Women handicraft anim. husb., apiculture apiculture Men handicraft Infrastructure elec.mill, 2 groceries mosque, mosque T.V.(in 3groceries 75% of houses) daycare conf.room agr.cquip. T.V. CHARACTERISTICS OF DOUARS IN CASABLANCA Douar Kariar Jemaa L. Meryem B. Msik Bloc 18 0. S. Ahmed M. Rachid PAM (WFP) 0. Lahcen Lissasfa B. Lahcen Prefecture B. Msik B. Msik B. Msik B. Msik B. Msik H. Hassani S. Maarouf H. Hassani Commune B. Msik S. Otmane B. Msik S. Maarouf Resident population 1,300 300 1,100 341 1,000,000 1,000 35,270 Households 100-150 62 175 27 1,200 361 94 2,337 Electricity yes yes 0 0 yes yes 0 yes Potable water yes yes 0 0 yes yes 0 yes Well/pump -_-_Pump 12 - 1 - Dispensary I 1 1 - I I I I Primary school 5 5 1 1 2 0 1 2 Middle school 1 - I - - High school - 0 1 1 1 0 - Cultural center - - I - Women's center 1 0 - - 1 0 - 0 Mosque 2 - Youth center - - Job training center - - Post office 0 1 - 1 1 - Police station 0 1 - - - Arrondissements I I - - 1 1 1 (Districts) Factories/other 7 41 7 7 7 7 7 yes Market 0 - - 2 Donar Xaari Jeaa L. Meryem B. Msik B16c 18 0. S. Ahmed M Rachid P WP) . Lissasfa ___________B. Lahcen Shop(s) ? 7 - > 170 Public bath 4 0 - Community oven 4 0 - Train station - - - Types of houses 56-60 in2, 48 m2, partitioned shantytown (being 60-100 m2, mud 60 M2, partitioned 80 m2 shantytown 64 mi, partitioned cement partitioned) brick, mixed cement, 1-2 floors partitioned cement, shelters cement, 1-2 3' floor floors Lifestyle - semi-urban urban urban Changes socio- economic socio-economic - - socio- economic socio-econ., tradition socio- economic women living alone Activities /Women household, labor household, labor household, cleaning, labor household, household, labor household, household, outside home outside home informal outside home various activities outside home 4 % cleaning, labor various activities 2-3% 2-3% business, cleaning outside home /Children - - outside labor outside labor - outside labor - Contraceptives pill, IUD pill, IUD pill pill, tying tubes pill, tying tubes pill, IUD, tying pill, IUD, tying tubes tubes, condom Traditional no no no no no no rare contraceptive Common illnesses tuberculosis, TB, typhoid, scabies, no one particular no one particular TB, typhoid, no one particular Women: fever, typhoid, hypertension, conjunctivitis,TB, illness illness hypertension, illness common cold hypertension, headaches skin, diarrhea headaches Children: sore headaches throat, diarrhea Donar Kaat Jeraa L. Meyem B. Msik Bloc 18 0. S. Ahmed M. Rachid PAM (WFP) 0. Lahcen Lissasfa B. Lahcen Source of treatment traditional, self traditional, self traditional, self dispensary, traditional traditional, self traditional, traditional, self treatment, doctor treatment, doctor treatment, doctor, self (sometimes) treatment, doctor dispensary, self treatment, dispensary, treatment treatment, doctor Regaba doctor Use of Regaba very little Origins of the Casablanca, rural shantytowns of H. Casablanca, long- rural exodus Quarry B. Msik, shantytowns near recent exodus Quarry population exodus Mohamadi and B. ago rural exodus Abda, Doukala PAM, exodus Lissasfa, Msik Casablanca, etc. Casablanca, Abda, Doukala, female exodus Relations with Institutions: Good - - - Regaba with some dispensary, Nadi Poor - - primary school, primary school, dispensary dispensary dispensary _ _ _ _ Douar Karia: Jemaa L. Meryem B. Msik Bloc 18 0. S. Ahmed M. Rachid PAM (WFP) 0. Lahcen Lissasfa B. Lahcen Wealth: Poor - 40 % 80 % 70 % Medium - 52 % 20 % 30 % Wealthy - 8 % - - *Rank Criteria: Poor To To To Loc, Ch, Exd Medium Bq TRo, PUc, Ts Pig, Vc, Ig,Ts Wealthy 1_Ts, Or, Taxi - - *To: Occasional work; PUc: Small assembly; TRo: Having agricultural land; Loc: Renter; Ch: Unemployed; Ig: Emigrant; Bq: Shop; Ts: Stable work; Exd: Immigrant Priorities work, housing, work, housing, housing, work, basic work, safety, day unemployment, housing, work, housing, transport, health, transport, health, safety, hygiene infrastructure, care, respect for housing, sewer system, unemployment, rural exodus rural exodus, work, housing, workers' rights transport, health, electricity, water safety, female prmary school, hygiene, rural exodus rural exodus high school, authorization to Nadi, build, sewer authorization to system, piped build, bath, oven, water, electricity safety Dreams project, marriage project, marriage improvement of resolve land project, marriage home, employ, tenure issues, safety, electricity, water elimination of corruption N.B.: A zero indicates a nonexistent item desired by the population CHARACTERISTICS OF DOUARS IN MARRAKECH (*): no report 1Dona Iriki S. Y' Ben Ali Berrada Azib Ayadi 0. Belaagaid Guennoui Al Laskar Db Tabachi _L'KdiM Prefecture M'nara M'nara M'nara S.Y.B. Ali S.Y.B. Ali S.Y.B. Ali M'nara Medina Commune urban urban urban CR: Widane CR: O.S. CU: Nakhil Medina Brahim Resident population 12000 43576 2760 458 164 3700 4600 - Households 2100 - 460 59 25 360 600 - Electricity yes yes 0 yes soon 0 yes yes Potable water yes yes 0 0 0 0 yes yes Well/pump - 7 7 11 1 Pump - Dispensary 0 1 - 0 0 0 0 I Primary school 2 5 1 1 1 0 1 I Middle school - - - 0 0 High school - 1 - 0 0 0 - Cultural center - Women's center I - - - - I Mosque 2 - 1 1 - - several Youth center -_- Job training center - Post office - - - 1 - Police Station -- - Arrondissements - 1 - - - (Districts) Factories/other industry - - agricultural, tourism - - tourism I I_____ I___ _ I__ tourism I_I I I I Doar. iiki S. Y. Ben Ali Berrada Azib Ayadi 0. Belaaguid Guennoun Al Laikar Db Tabachi L'Kdim Market souk- - Shop(s) yes yes yes 3 1 yes yes yes Public bath 2 several -_-_-_-_ - _yes Community oven 2 several 2 - 2 - - yes Train station Types of houses mud brick cement, + 1 floor cement, mud cement, mixed cement, mixed cement, mud cement, mud cement, brick, mixed brick, mixed brick, mixed traditional Lifestyle urban urban semi-urban semi-urban semi-urban rural urban urban Changes positive positive, animals positive urbanization urbanization animals, rubbish, urbanized in home isolation Activities household, household, outside labor, outside labor, outside labor, outside labor, outside labor, artisanship, tWomen sewing, outside sewing, outside agriculture agriculture, agriculture, agriculture, artisanship, government job, labor, commerce labor, commerce, cleaning cleaning, artisanship, cleaning outside labor animals artisanship cleaning /Children - yes yes yes Contraceptives pill, IUD pill, IUD pill, IUD pill, IUD pill, IUD pill, IUD pill, IUD pill, IUD Traditional - rare rare - - yes contraception Common illnesses no one particular no one particular Women: uterine headaches, headaches, cholera, tension, tension, illness illness Children: eyes, diarrhea, back, rheumatism, sore meningitis, rheumatism, rheumatism, skin, diarrhea, conjunctivitis, throat, poison, diarrhea, scabies, diabetes diabetes fever, sore throat, bronchitis, skin, eyes conjunctivitis, vomiting rheumatism skin Douar Iziki S.Y'. BenAi BerrAda . Azib Ayadi 0. Belaaguid Guennoui A Laskr Db Tabachi .... ... .... L 'Kdinh Source of treatment - - Children: traditional traditional traditional, traditional, Regaba dispensary, self dispensary, self treatment treatment, doctor Origins of the rural exodus, rural exodus, recent exodus, rural exodus rural exodus, Marrakech, Marrakech, Marrakech, population Dmnat, Rhamna, Dmnat, Rhamna, Azilal, Sasi, Marrakech and exodus from exodus from exodus Ouarzazate Ouarzazate Dmnat environs Rhamna, Doukala Rhamna, Doukala Relations with institutions: Good primary school, primary school, primary school, dispensary, CaTd primary school primary school primary school post office post office post office Mukkaden Mukkaden Mukkaden Poor police, dispensary - - - - dispensary, police - Douar 1ihi S. Y. Ben Ali Berrada Azib Ayadi 0. Belaaguid Guennoun Al Lskar Db Tabachi L'Kdim Wealth: Poor majority majority majority 55 % 25 % 60 % 80 % Medium - 45 % 37,5 % 30 % 20% Wealthy 0% - 0 % 0% 37,5 % 10 % 0 % *Rank Criteria: Poor TT, Loc TT, Loc T, Loc TT TT T, Chom TT, Loc, Chom Medium Pm, Ts Pm, AvA, Ts Pm, Ts Ts small/land 30-40 Bt, Ts Ts, Pm, Rx Wealthy - Pm, HA, RL - - large/land TAg, >200 Bt - *Pm: Homeowner; HA: Businessman; RL: Rents out houses; AvA: Having money; Ts: Stable work; TT: Temporary work; Chom: Unemployed; Bt: Animals; Loc: Renter; Rx: External income Priorities Dispensary, work, paved road work, transport, work, land, transport, water, sewers, bridge, safety, middle school, + maintenance, water, electricity, water, road, dispensary, high electricity, water, maintenance/ maintenance of primary school, sewer system, transport, high school public bath, sewers, roads, day care, Nadi Nadi, school, school police, elimination of arrondissement, dispensary, day elimination of corruption, green day care, Nadi care corruption, space, workers' literacy rights Dreams work/men, worklmen, good living - marriage, future/ marriage, future/ conditions, work children children N.B.: A zero indicates a nonexistent item desired by the population ANNEX IX: ESW PARTICIPANTS AND CONTRIBUTORS (About 300 persons (excluding residents of the surveyed douars) participated in various aspects as PRA trainees, trainers, consultants, advisors, participants of the workshops, persons that contributed to the preparation of individual reports on behalf of their institutions, and others that were consulted with in the process of preparation of this strategy) RESIDENTS OF THE SURVEYED DOUARS Ms. Jamila Chihab Ms. Fatima Jari PRA RESEARCH TEAMS Ms. Fatima Outlit MEMBERS OF THE COORDINATING Ministère de la Jeunesse et des Sports COMMITTEE M. Mrabet, Director Ms. Fatima Ephani, Direction des Affaires Mr. Hassan Belkoura (Min. of Economy) Féminines Main Coordinator Mme. Fatima Dehbi Mme. Maria Amine (Min. of Agriculture) Mme. Khadya Raki, Chef, Division Promotion Responsible for Operational Matters Féminine Mme. Halima Nazih (Min. of Interior) Ms. Haja Zohra Responsible for Approvals/Advisor Ms. Fatima Demnati Mr. Mustapha* Tadili Fariss (Director of Statistics) Ms. Zahra Errahili Responsible for Technical Content Ms. Souad-Amina Saad Zaghloul* Mr. Abdeljalil Daouda MINISTRIES Ms. Zahra Bouhadi Ministère de l'Agriculture Ministère de l'Emploi et des Affaires Sociales/Also Mr. Mohamed El Firdawci, Directeur de Artisanal Affairs l'Enseignement, de la Recherche et du M. M'Hamed Laraki Développement M. Mohamed Boulasri, Directeur des Affaires Mme. Maria Amine, Chef, Division de la Sociales Vulgarisation (present) t M. Abdesslam Berka Mr. M. Abdelhadi Bennis, Chef, Division de la Mme. Naïma Senhaji Vulgarisation (former) Ms. Najet Boughalem Mlle. Khadija Ed Doublali, Chef, Bureau de la Ms. Aïcha Khidani Vulgarisation Féminine Ms. R'kia Charai Sakina Alaoui, Direction de la Vulgarisation Ms. Fatima Kerrich Agricole Mlle. Aziza Salhi, Direction de la Vulgarisation Ministère de l'Education Nationale Agricole Mr. Mohamed Radi, Directeur de la Planification Mme. Rabia Bouhima, Responsable de la Rédaction (Enseignement Primaire et Secondaire) de la Revue "Le Vulgarisateur" Mr. El Mostapha Hddigui, Chef de la Division des Ms. Latifa El Gharbi* Etudes et Objectifs Ms. Nouzha Messiaoui, DPA/SMVA Tanger Mr. Mohamed Ameziane Ms. Sadia Ibnouhaoua, DPA/SMVA Tanger Ms. Najia Souhaïl* Ms. Khadija Ramram* ORMVA Ouarzazate Ms. Khadija Hilm Mr. Ali Leghtas Mr. Moha Oujlouq Mr. Moha Ouhda Mr. Mohamed Amai Ms. Mimouna Houcini* Mr. Nour-Eddine Sallouk Ms. Fatima Ouarrouch Ms. Aïcha Nadri* Ministère des Affaires Etrangères et de la 120 Coopération Mr. Mustapha Tadili Fariss t Mme. Soraya Ottmani, Responsable, Cellule Mr. Mohamed Azhar Femmes Ms. Jamila Alaoui CNCA Mr. de Jong, Coordinateur du co-financement M. Haddaoui, Directeur Général de la Caisse Nationale de Crédit Agricole (former) Ministère de la Santé Publique M. Driss Ghannam, Directeur Financier Dr. Abdeslam Drissi, Directeur de la Prévention et M. Mohamed Chadaoui, Conseiller à la Direction de l'Encadrement Sanitaire Générale Dr. Amina Balafrej Mme. Ito Zeigdy, Division des Femmes Rurales Dr. Halima Mouniri Afaf Jazouli Dr. Mustafa Tyane Rhourri A. Ms. Saadia Dhaina Sakili M. Ms. Aïcha Aboulabbas* Ms. Malika Mazzine Cabinet de sa Majesté le Roi Hassan If Ms. Fatima Hasib Mr. André Azoulay, Advisor to the King on Ms. Malika Meskine, Centre de Planification Economic Affairs, Cabinet de sa Majesté le Roi Familial Hassan II Ms. Mina Harghaoui, Infirmière Mr. Mostafa Terrab, Cabinet de sa Majesté le Roi Hassan II Ministère des Finances M. Abderrazak Lazrak, Directeur du Budget MULTI/BILATERAL/UN ]INSTITUTIONS Mme. Fatema-Zohra Bakka, Chef, Service des Ressources Humaines et de la Formation UNDP Mr. Fawaz Folkeladeh, Resident Representative Ministère d'Etat à l'Intérieur et à l'Information Ms. Khadija Belfakir-Kabbaj, Assistante Resident Mr. Driss Guessab, Director Representative Ms. Halima Nazih t Mr. Abdelhay Bouzoubaa, Chargé du Programme Mr. Abdallah AI Kassi Mr. Taj-Eddine Badry, Assistant du Programme Mr. Mahjoub El Ghorfi (now consultant) Mr. Mohamed Bouassami Ms. Saida Belkhdim Ms. Atika Bouachra* UNFPA Ms. Amina Benaga Mr. M. Benzine, Resident Representative Mr. Mohamed Ait Youssef Mme. Zineb Touimi Benjelloun, Prog. Officer Mr. Mohamed El Ghalami UNICEF Ministère de l'Incitation de l'Economie Mme. Rajae Msefer Berrada, Admin. du Prog. Sante Mr. Hassan Belkoura, Chargé de mission auprès du Mme. Amina Bouhmouch, Private Sector Premier Ministre t Fundraising Director Mr. Ibrahim Idrissi Ms. Khadija Laraki Direction de la Statistique UNIFEM Mr. Ferjane Kebir Achola Pala Okeyo, Africa Section Ms. Naima Ghemires Mr. Eloraiby Amal UNESCO * Also served on the Participatory Rural/Urban Research Team t Member of the Coordinating Committee 121 Dr. Abdallag Kahlaoui, Regional Representative SWEDEN Mr. Kenneth Degerfelt WORLD FOOD PROGRAM Mr. Carl H. Tippenhauer, Director SWEDISH BITS Mr. Mbarek Tanarhte, National Project Officer Mr. Gunnar Pilhgren Dr. Eva Rosander, Consultant WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION Mr. Lars Gr6nkvist, Consultant Mr. Farih Fassi Fehri, Administrator (Technical) Ms. Marie Rosencrantz, Consultant FAO KfW (Kreditanstalt fiir Wiederaufbau) Mr. Khaled M. Abed Mr. Rainer Hartel, Charg6 de Projets Mr. Cortas Ms. Doris Kohn Ms. Alcha Rherile Mr. Mohamed Hanafi GTZ Mrs. Ursel Zaimi Dr. Winfried Zettelmeyer European Union Ms. Souad At Haddou* Ms. Magdaline Reid Ms. Sanae Bennesser Alaoui* Ms. Jane Robinson El Moutaouakil Zhor Bahsine Rafel Dochao Moreno Mr. Marc Pierini Swiss Ministry of Agriculture Mr. Ian T. Boag Mrs. Bencheikh, Chef de la Division de la Mr. Armin Lerch Cooperation USAID JICA Mr. Marc Kraczkiewitz, Economist Mr. Haddou Hrouch Mr. Charles Uphaus Mr. Chinone Fumio Ms. Joyce Holfeld Mr. Shoji Koichi, Volunteers Coordinator Mme. Wafa Moussa Ouichou Mr. Seiichi Oueda, Volunteers Coordinator Mr. Rick Scott Dr. Mohamed Ben Senia (Consultant) CIDA; Bureau de la Coop6ration Canadienne au Mr. Joe Kitts Maroc Ms. Laura Mitchell Mr. Marcel Faucher Erin Michael Ms. Amina Lofti, Directrice Adjointe Mme. Aouelif Alioua U. S. PEACE CORPS Ms. Wendy Lawrence Mrs. Ramona Muller, Associate Director, Agriculture and Environment WORLD BANK Mrs. Najat Sarhani, Associate Director, Health Ms. Sunita Gandhi, Task Manager Mr. Michael Bamberger, Senior Sociologist FRANCE; La Cooperation Francaise Mr. Tony Castleman, Research Assistant Mr. Oliver Weil, Attache de Cooperation Ms. Alexandra Barstow, Research Assistant Mr. Gustav Lindstr6m, Project Assistant NETHERLANDS Mr. Van Soesd NGOs * Also served on the Participatory Rural/Urban Research Team f Member of the Coordinating Committee 122 Mme. Alaoui-Terrab, Union National des Femmes Mme. Khadija Mesbahi, Association AI Misbah Marocaines (UNFM) Mme. Oum Kaltoum Ghalab, Association de Ms. Khadija Amiti, UAF (Union pour l'Action l'Entraide Familiale Féminine) Mme. Zhor Rachik, Comité National de la femme Mme. Fatouma Ben Abdenbi, Association Marocaine du Mouvement Populaire "Espace point de départ" pour la promotion de Mme. Najat Razi, Association Marocaine des Droits l'entreprise féminine (ESPOD) des Femmes Mme. Ben Abdelilaali El Batoul, Association de la Narjis Rerhaye, Collectif Marocain des Journalistes Renaissance Féminine Professionnelles Benjelloun, Société Marocaine de Nutrition Mme. Latifa Bennani Smires, Association de la Mme. Naima Benwakrim, Association Marocaine Protection de la Famille Marocaine pour les droits des femmes (AMDF) Ms. Annaahba Ennesouiya Tabriqt Mr. Abderahmane Bouftas, Association Iligh Ms. Fatima Zohra Tamouh, Union de l'Action Mme. Mounia Chadi Boustani, Ligue Démocratique Féminine pour les droits de la femme Ms. Fatima Tehbi Mme. Aicha Chana, Association de Solidarité Ms. Touria Tamsamani (ESPOD)* Féminine Association AI Eamra pour l'Education féminine Mme. Zahia Daddi Essakali, Ligue Nationale des Association pour le Développement social, Femmes Fonctionnaires économique, culturel et sportif Mme. Zhor Doukali, Association Marocaine de Club de la Femme "Fatima Al Fihria" Association Planification Familiale Fes-Saiss Ms. Fatima Drissi (ESPOD) Ligue des cadres Féminins Ms. Najet Echchihab, CRS (Catholic Relief Service) Mme. Fatima El Fakir, Association Nationale Femmes et Sport Near East Foundation Mme. Malika El Fassi, Association Al Mouassat Mr. Charles Benjamin Dr. Abdelaziz El Gahzi, Ligue Marocaine de Dr. Marlene Kanawatii, Manager, Center for Devel. Guidage Familial, Institut National de la Studies, Social Science Applications and Inputs Formation des cadres Unit Mme. Rafika El Khatib, Association Marocaine des Mr. Jean-Luc Bories Femmes de carrières libérales Mr. Abderrahmane El Mahadi Ms. Najia Fatine, Représentant CNJA Ms. Suzan Istefanous Ms. Hafida Guessous (membre, ESPOD) Mme. Mi-lourd Hazib, Organisation Nationale de la AMIDEAST Femme Démocrate Ms. Sue Buret Mme. Zahra Ibrahimi, Association Marocaine des Ms. Fouzia El Azhari Assistantes Sociales Ms. Latifa Jamai (ESPOD) (CDER) Centre de Développement des Energies Mme. Latifa Jbadi, Union de l'action Féminine Renouvelables Mme. Noufissa Kamari, Association Marocaine des Dr. Ali Fihri Sages-Femmes Ms. Khadija Kastal Ms. Amina Lemrini, AFDM (Association des Femmes Démocratiques Marocaines) ACADEMECS/CONSULTANTS Mme. Amina Massaoudi, Association Marocaine des Mr. Mohamed Abzahd, Association Maghrébine femmes de carrières Juridiques d'Etude de la Population * Also served on the Participatory Rural/Urban Research Team † Member of the Coordinating Committec 123 Mr. Abdellah Ait Baba, Professeur, Institut de recherche sur la femme, Université My Ismael Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan-Il, Rabat Mr. Abdellah Ouhmouch, Professeur d'Anglais Mme. Houria Alami, Professeur de Sciences Mr. Jean Peyratout, Programme d'Appui au Politiques Développement de la Montagne Marocaine Ms. Fatima Almou Ms. Souad Slimani* Ms. Cherifa Alaoui El Mdaghri, Sociologue Ms. Khadija Tnana, Ancienne membre, conseil Mme. Balenghien Anne, Economiste Enseignante citadin Chercheur Ms. Bouchra Touhami Ms. Nadira Barkallil, Faculté de Droit Université Roudies Guedira Wafaa, ENAP Mohammed V, Rabat; also ADFM* Mrs. Zelia Ms. Eysha Belarbi Mr. C. Benazzou, Statisticien - Economiste Institut Nord-Sud Ms. Malika Benradi, Faculté de Droit Ms. Jamila Bessaih Ms. Zineb Benrahmoune, Professeur, Ecole Mr. Abdellah Essoni Nationale d'Ingénieurs Forestiers Mr. François Gendron Ms. Françoise Bouchanine, Sociologue Bushra Boulouiiz, Economist and Consultant Groupe de Recherche pour le Développement de Ms. Bourqia Rahma, Université Mohammed V la Femme Rurale Ms. Najet Bouzri, Professeur, Institut Agronomique Mr. Mohssine El Hassasine et Vétérinaire Hassan-II Ms. Khadija Bourarach, Institut Agronomique et Ms. Jamila Chantoufi, Institut d'Education National* Vétérinaire Hassan-II Ms. Jeanne Chiche, Professeur d'Economie, Ms. Safia Zary, Association Iligh pour le Université Mohammed V Développement et la Coopération (Taroudant) Mr. Lou Cristillo, Teacher of Moroccan Culture, Mr. Mohammed Ben Hafoune, Institut Agronomique Rabat American School et Vétérinaire Hassan-II Mr. Jouad Dich, Hyatt Regency Ms. Touria El Oumri, Enseignante de l'Education OTHER NGOS AND OBSERVERS Nationale* Ms. Yamna Agni, Monitrice de Garantie Mr. Dennis Fourmeau Mr. Mohamed Ahlafi, Délégué Provincial, Ministère Ms. Fatima Hajjarabi, Professeur de Sociologie de l'Education Nationale Aref Hassani, Département de Sciences Humaines, Ms. Fadma Ait Bouhsini, Etudiante Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan-II Mr. Redouane Ait Ider, Etudiant Mrs. Fatima Hassar Ms. Fatima Alaoui, Journaliste Mr. Hachem Jamal, Crédit Agricole Ms. Latifa Almou, Agent à l'Assoc. Tichka S. Khalli Mr. Larbi Aziz, CNERV Nezha Lamrani, Professeur d'Economie, Université Ms. Martine Besseteaux, Consultant Mohammed Ve Mme. Gabriella Boemio, Ambassade d'Italie, Rabat Mr. Dominique Lebastard, Ambassade de France au Ms. Fatima Bouahriss, Assist. étudiante Maroc Ms. Chedati Brahim, COPE (MEN) Mr. Abdelmajid Makni, Save the Children Mlle. Faouzia Chakiri, Agro-économiste Chargé de Ms. Fatima Mernissi, Sociologue Coopération avec le Système des Nations Unies Ms. Somaya Naaman-Guessous Ms. Susan Davis, Consultant Ms. Rabea Naciri, Professeur de Géographie, Ms. Fatiha Doudou, Vulgarisatrice au project NEF Université Mohammed V Mr. Boumnich Driss, Assoc. El Jaouhara Mme. Rajaa Nadifi, Tanit: équipe pluridisciplinaire Ms. Bakhkhat-Aicha Drissi, Etudiante Aiso served on the Participatory Rural/Urban Research Team † Member of the Coordinating Committee 124 Mr. Houcine El Achrrab, Etudiant Ms. Thouriya Boumokrane, PNUD, Algiers Mr. Mohamed El Azzioui, D616gu6 de l'artisanat Ms. Hassiba Chaabane, Ministbre de la Formation Ms. Malika El Hata, Ingdnieur d'Etat Professionnelle et de I'Emploi, Tunisia Mr. Ihsane El Ghazi, Ligue Maroc. Guidance Famil. Ms. Samira Chaker, MAFF, Tunisia (Tanger) Ms. Fatma Felah, Tunisia Ms. Touria Erouhi, ONG (Casa.) Ms. Dalila Khorsi, Enterprise COSIDER, Algiers Ms. Khadija Goumdiss, Institut. Educ. Nationale Ms. Fatma Larbi, Ministbre de I'Agriculture, Mr. Mohamed Hammadi, Administrateur Province Tunisia Ouarzazate Ashraf Nahdaug, Responsible for International Ms. Khadija Hammouchi, Etudiante, also ACAET* Affairs, Office of Women's Affairs, Iran Ms. Atika Jeddi, ACM* Yazdekhasti Tavakoli, Sociologist, Iran Mr. Abdelhamid Jenfl, Instituteur (Tend.) Nasha Kraman PRA RESEARCH TEAM MEMBERS Mr. Azaddou Lahcen, Mouvement Twiza Rural areas Mr. Abdellah Larbah, AFJEM, "Junior Enquate" Aicha Aboulabbas, Ministry of Social Affairs Ms. Zohra Lhioui, TANIT Sanae Bennesser Alaoui, staff GTZ Libre Kella des M'gouna Nadira Barkallil, ADFM (NGO) Ms. Echata Malika, Projet Oued Srou Atika Bouachra, Ministry of the Interior Ms. Rachida Manaar Jamila Chantoufi, Ministry of Education Ms. Fatima Mouchtati, Etudiante chercheur Touria El Oumri, Ministry of Education Ms. Nadia Nejmaoui Latifa El Gharbi, Ministry of Agriculture Mr. Minoune Ouargui, Etudiant Khadija Hammouchi, ACAET (NGO) Ms. Fatima Rammani, C.S.E. (Affaires Sociales)* Mimouna Houcini, Ministry of Agriculture Ms. Latifa Rohi, Enseignante Atika Jeddi, ACM (NGO) Ms. Noufissa Sbai, AFJEM, formerly CIDA Aicha Nadri, Ministry of Agriculture Ms. Khadija Serghini, Projet Ddveloppement du Fatima Rammani, Ministry of Artisanal Affairs Haut Atlas Khadija Ramram, AMDE/ University ISJ Ms. Najab Yamouri Saher, Assistante Directeur FES Souad Slimani, Ministry of Agriculture Ms. Fatima Zahid, Enseignante en vulgarisation Touria Tamsamani Mr. Nail Zary, Observateur Ms. Najat Zouhari, AMSED Urban areas Souad Alit Haddou, staff GTZ MOROCCO TRAINING/SURVEY Atika Bouachra, Ministry of the Interior PRA Experts Atika Jeddi, ACM (NGO) Ms. Meera Kaul Shah, Institute for Development Souad-Amina Saad Zaghloul, Ministry of Youth Studies, University of Sussex, Consultant and Sports M. 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