Mali - Country environmental strategy paper

Report No. 1 1 642-MLI Mali Country Environmental Strategy Paper June 30, 1994 Country Operations Division Sahel Department Africa Region FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ FILE COPY Report No: 11642 MLI Type: SEC Document of the World Bank This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization  CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (January 1994) Currency Unit CFA Franc (CFAF) US$ 1.00 = CFAF 592 WEIGHTS & MEASURES Metric System 1 metric ton (tn) = 2,205 pounds (lb) I hectare (ha) = 2 47 acres (ac) 1 kilogram (kg) = 2 2 pounds (lb) GOVERNMENT FISCAL YEAR January I - December 31  FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AV Association Villageois (Village Associations) CILSS Comite Inter-Etat de lutte contre la Secheresse dans le Sahel (Sahelian Inter-State Committee on Drought Control CITES Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species CMDT Compagnie Malienne pour le Developpement du Textiles (Malian Cotton Company) CRD Comite Regional de Developpement (Regional Development Committees) CRL Comite Local de Developpement (Local Development Committees) DNA Direction Nationale de l'Agriculture (National Directorate of Agriculture) DNEF Direction Nationale des Eaux et Forets (National Directorate for Water and Forest) DNHE Direction Nationale de I'Hydrologique et l'Energie (National Directorate of Hydrology and Energy) FAO Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'Agriculture et l'Alimentation (Food and Agricultural Organization) ILCA Centre International pour l'Elevage en Afrique (International Livestock Center for Africa) IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NGO Non-governmental Organization ON Office du Niger Consolidation Project OPNBB Office du Parc National de la Boucle du Baoule (Baoule Loop National Park Authority) PIRL Programmes d'Inventaires des Ressources Ligneuses PIRT Programmes d'Inventaires des Ressources Terrestres PNCLD Programmne Nationale de lutte contre la D&sertification (National Program for Desertification Control) TLU Tropical Livestock Unit USAID United States Agency for International Development This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents rnay not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.   TABLES OF CONTENTS PREFACE I EXECUTIVE SUMMARY II L BACKGROUND: POPULATION GROWTH, AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1 Population Growth .....................................1 The Economy ..................................... 1 Agriculture .....................................1 Natural Environment .....................................2 Cultural Environment .....................................5 H. THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 6 Land Degradation ...................................6 Water Resources Degradation ....................................7 Biodiversity - Species and Habitat Loss ....................................9 Loss of Cultural Heritage .................................... 10 Air Pollution .................................... 10 Impact of Environmental Degradation on the Poor ................................... 10 mH. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION - DIRECT AND INDIRECT CAUSES 11 Direct Causes of Land Degradation .................................... 11 Causes of Rangeland Degradation .................................... 13 Causes of Deforestation ................................... 16 Degradation of Water Resources ................................... 18 Reduction in Biodiversity ................................... 19 The Common Underlying Causes ................................... 20 Accelerating Causes ................................... 24  IV. GOVERNMENT, BANK, DONOR AND NGO SUPPORTED PROGRAMS 25 Environmental Programs of the Government ............................................... 25 The Bank's Portfolio ................................................. 26 Programs of Other Donors and NGOs ................................................. 28 V. TOWARD A NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY 29 Objectives of Environmental Strategy ................................................. 29 Tackling the Causes ................................................. 29 Protecting Cultural Heritage and Managing Tourism Development ............... 32 Going to the Roots ................................................. 32 Information Gaps ................................................. 35 LIST OF REFERENCES 37 TEXT TABLES 1.1 Agro-climatic Zones 3 1.2 Groundwater Resource and Estimated Annual Use, 1987 5 3.1 Decomposition of Production Growth in Major Crops, 1985-1991 16 3.2 Regional Population Growth Rates, 1987-2000 27 3.3 Environmental Degradation: Sunmmary of Problems and Causes 32 BOXES 2.1 Pollution of Underground Water System in Bamako 10 3.1 Loss of Livestock Markets and Range Degradation 19 APPENDICES Appendix I Mali - Environrmental Policy Analysis Matrix  PREFACE This Country Environmental Strategy Paper (CESP) is a result of a collaborative effort between the Government of Mali and the World Bank. The original report was prepared by Mr. H. Kordik (consultant) under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Emmerich Schebeck (AF5DR). Key contributors to this document were H. Van der Tek (consultant), H. Hennrich-Hanson (AF5CO), N. Sefta (AF5IE), C. Dejou and J. Hall (AF5AG) and Francois Falloux (AFTEN). J. Taboroff (ENVAP) prepared the draft notes on cultural property. The report also benefitted from the comments of Messrs. J. L. Sarbib (AF5CO), J. van Beuzekom (AF51N), W. Lusigi (AFTEN) and W. Floor (IENPD) The original June 1992 version of the report was discussed with the Government during 1993 in the context of the National Environmental Action Plan process which is currently ongoing. It was revised directly by the Government in April 1994 so as to incorporate Malian comments and priority concerns. The report documents the major environmental problems facing Mali, their direct and indirect causes and their impacts on long term growth prospects. It focuses on the critical linkages between population growth and environmental degradation in Mali as well as on the institutional, legislative and macroeconornic policy framework for addressing these problems within the context of a national environmental strategy. The report is divided into five chapters. Chapter I provides a general introduction to the rest of the report: an overview of the country, recent economic performance, description of the natural environment and an overview of the country's cultural heritage. Chapter 11 examines the increasing enviromnental problems, with particular emphasis on land degradation, surface and groundwater water pollution, loss of biodiversity (both species depletion and habitat loss) as well as loss of cultural heritage. Chapter III analyses the direct and indirect causes of environmental degradation and relates these to population growth. Chapter IV examines the on-going programs and planned projects of the government, the Bank, donors and the NGO community in environmental and natural resource management. Finally, Chapter V provides the framework for an environmental strategy for Mali.   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Population Growth and Environmental Degradation i. Population pressure on scarce arable land within a fragile ecosystem is the single most important factor influencing the rapid rate of environmental degradation in Mali. Mali's population is estimated to grow at an annual rate of 2.6% per year. With a fertility rate of 7 (well above the African average), the country's population is estimated to double to 17 million by the end of the next two decades. This relatively high population growth is occurring in an already fragile biophysical (and to some extent, socioeconomic environment), characterized by inadequate and irregular rainfall patterns and droughts. Rainfall adequate for rainfed agriculture (estimated at above 600 mm per annum) occurs in only about 25 % of Mali's total area, mainly the Sudanian-Savannah agro-climatic zone. In addition, only a third of the country's total land area of 1.24 million km2 is arable. Given these constraints, the unregulated interaction of population growth, fragile ecosystem and erratic rainfall has resulted in serious environmental problems, with major economic and social consequences for the rural poor, especially women. Major environment problems include land degradation (farmland, range and forest), pollution of surface and underground water resources, declining bio diversity (both specie and habitat losses), loss in archaeological and cultural property, air pollution and drought. ii. Land degradation. Land use practices (agricultural practices, livestock management, deforestation and fuelwood utilization) remain the major causes of land degradation. Agricultural production is largely labor intensive with production increases resulting mainly through expansion of cultivated areas rather than through intensive use of arable land resources. Conversion of natural forests into cropland and pastures has increased by nearly 33 % over the last two decades. Fallow period, a natural means of agricultural land rejuvenation under low population pressure, has been progressively reduced to between two to four years. In some high population density areas of the south, fallow period is virtually non-existent. iii. Rangeland degradation. The degradation of Mali's rangelands has been accelerated by inadequate range management practices, large populations of livestock and low offtakes from existing herds. Cattle offtake rates (the percentage of animals slaughtered to size of natural herd) have declined considerably, from a high of 16% in 1984 to about 12% in 1987, mainly in response to declining livestock exports, the lack of alternatives for small producers to invest receipts from livestock sales in rural areas and attitude of livestock producers toward risks of drought. Consequently, rangelands are often utilized at rates far exceeding their carrying capacity, leading to accelerated degradation. These factors also impede the adoption of long term conservation strategies. iv. Deforestation. Only about 2% of Mali's total natural forests area of 17.4 million ha is in reserves and parks. While a Forestry Code exists, the lack of enforcement and dependence on fuelwood have resulted in the over-exploitation of both forests and forest resources. Prices set by government in order to control the cutting and distribution of fuelwood do not often reflect the economic costs of fuelwood and revenue collected from sale of permits and licenses do not allow for self-financing of the sector. In some cases, tax policies, combined with lax enforcement, have actually accelerated the rate of deforestation, as firms expand their operations in order to recoup revenue lost for tax purposes and from periodic droughts. v. Deteriorating water resources. In spite of the occurrence of persistent droughts, Mali has substantial endowment of water resources in both surface and groundwater (aquifers). Both the Niger and Senegal Rivers account for about 44.1 billion m3/yr of surface water. In addition, clean underground water reserves have been estimated at 2,720 billion m3 with annual replenishment of over 66 billion m3.  However, surface water supplies are facing increasing pollution due to improper disposal of urban and industrial wastes, mainly from the gold mining sector. An increasing number of people (about 35% rural and 45 ent use of water occurs through poorly managed irrigations schemes, resulting in annual wastage of about 10,000 m3/ha per annum. vi. Biodiversity. Mali's ecosystem, despite its fragility, provides a natural habitat for a diversified bird and mammal fauna, especially around the inner delta of the Niger River. More than 136 species of mammals and 640 species of birds have been documented. In practice, however, very little proactive conservation actually occurs due to limited resources. Several large mammnal species, notably the cheetah, scimitar-horned oryx and Korrigum, and some plant species are already extinct. Poaching and other illegal activities remain widespread in protected areas. Habitat losses also occur due the expansion of agriculture and deforestation. The Delta also contains a large number of species of fish. It is also the original home of African rice (Oriza africana) and bourgou (Echinocloa stagnina). It is a unique eco-system in the Sahel and should be preserved. Most of the large mammal species of Mali are threatened with extinction. vii. Cultural Heritaae. Mali has a rich and diverse cultural heritage including four Unesco World Heritage Sites (Old Towns of Djenne, Bandiagara (Dogon Country), Timbuktu, and Gao) and more than 800 archeological and historical sites. But like its natural environment, Mali's cultural heritage is threatened by both natural and human factors. Looting and uncontrolled exports of artifacts destroy sites and deplete the country's patrimony while migration, especially of the Dogcn people, from rural to urban centers results in abandonment of historical settlements. Current protection efforts are insufficient to prevent and conserve these irreplaceable resources. viii. Air pollution is not as yet a serious environmental problem in Mali. However, as urban population increases the rate of air pollution, mainly from automobiles and the burning of fuelwood, reaching annual estimates of 6.7 million m3 for primitive stoves and 3 million for open f.ires, is expected to increase. Industrial pollution, even though not large in absolute terms, has effects on surface water resources. Most factories do not have treatment plants and dump wastes directly into the Niger River. In 1989, an inter- ministerial commission undertook an extensive study of industrial waste and! issued proposed measures to reduce it, after which several plants were cited as being particularly polluting., Indirect Causes of Environmental Degradation ix. While population pressure continues to be the driving force behind Mali's environmental decline, other contributing factors are lack of economic alternatives, especially among the rural agricultural population, general absence of environmental awareness, limited institutional capacity to enforce existing regulations, the absence of a comprehensive land use policy with clearly defined tenurial rights, macroeconomic policies and absence of general institutional standards. The lack of alternative economic activities have led, among other things, to overdependence on, and over-exploitation of, agriculture land. At the macroeconomic level, the loss of traditional livestock exports markelts due to loss of international competitiveness, price policies for fuelwood and inefficient tax system for forestry have contributed indirectly to the rising environmental problems. Role of Government, Bank and other Donors x. The government of Mali has become more concerned about the increasing environmental problems directly affecting food production, water resources and biodiversity and has, especially in recent years, adopted appropriate interventions with the assistance of the World Bank and other donors. In 1987 the  government of Mali initiated an eight-point program for desertification control (PNLCD) with particular attention to land management, training, research, fuelwood economy and development of appropriate policies. A household energy conservation strategy was drawn up in 1990. A national family planning program to check rapid population growth is currently undervay, as well as a Rural Development Master Plan, Water Use Plan and Tourism Development Plan. All these exercises represent building blocks of a national environmental action plan (NEAP). Such a plan would make the linkages between these more sectoral exercises and set them within an overarching framework that clearly links Mali's environmental concerns to its development strategy and defines environmental priorities. The next step in finalizing a national environmental action plan will be to identify missing elements in the environmental strategy and strengthen public participation in the overall process. The Road Ahead - Future Strategies xi. Mali's long term objective is to identify the primary factors affecting degradation and develop strategies for (a) halting the current rate of degradation, (b) preventing future deterioration of the environment and (c) restoring a functional natural environment. The strategy involves development of coherent policies on population growth, promoting greater efficiency in public resource management, training and better environmental awareness and increase participation of community associations. Key components of this strategy are development of local capacity, i.e., of community-based associations to foster stronger grassroots participation, provision of appropriate incentives, and revision and implementation of land tenure laws.   I. BACKGROUND: POPULATION GROWTH, AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1.1 Overview. This chapter provides a background to the rest of the report; it focuses on population growth, recent economic performance and the natural environment, especially the constraints and endowments of each agro-climatic zone. POPULATION GROWTH 1.2 Mali has one of the highest fertility rates in Africa (an average of 7 children per woman) with an estimated population growth rate of 2.6% in 1991. Even after accounting for out-migration, these statistics imply that Mali's current population of 8.5 million will double in the next two decades. Urban population, estimated at 19% of the total population, continues to increase rapidly, due to the high rate of rural to urban migration mainly in search of often elusive economic opportunities in urban areas and to escape the effects of intermittent droughts. Mali's urban population growth rate was estimated at 4.9% in 1991 and is expected to reach 3.2 million by the year 2000. Bamako, the capital and principal economic center, has been the target of most recent migrants: the population of Bamako doubled during the last decade, from 450,000 to about 850,000 and is projected to reach 1.5 million by the end of the decade. As will be shown (Chapter III), high population growth in combination with the existing institutional weaknesses and limited resource base has played a major role in exacerbating land and range degradation as well as in the disappearance of biodiversity. THE ECONOMY 1.3 Economic growth in Mali has been marked by major fluctuations which are linked directly to climactic conditions and the country's dependence on agriculture (see para. 1.6). Real GDP has averaged about 3.3% since 1985 but population growvth absorbed most of this growth, enabling a per capita income growth of only 1% per annum. The overall Government budget showed, despite significant improvements over the past decade, a deficit of 11.3% of GDP in 1991, limiting severely the potential scope for financial support by the government to promote specific (such as environmentally beneficial) economic activities. The current account deficit was estimated at 13.7% of GDP in 1991, despite equally significant improvements over the 1980s, pointing to the need for further export promotion (even if it may be conflicting with environmental considerations). AGRICULTURE 1.4 Agriculture and livestock are Mali's most important sectors. Cultivation is primarily rainfed, although important irrigation schemes exist for rice cultivation. Cereals, mostly sorghum/millet and maize, are the most significant food crops, grown by 90% of the farmers. They represent 60% of all agricultural production, as well as 80% of caloric and 70% of protein intake. Cereals are primarily cultivated for home consumption; only about 20% of total production is marketed. Rice is also increasingly important in consumption, particularly, but not exclusively in urban areas. 1.5 Cotton is Mali's most important cash crop, representing 11% of agricultural output. It is the major export crop, which provides 45% of foreign exchange eamings. Mali produced about 235,000 tons of seed cotton in the 1989-90 season and has over previous years experienced rapid expansion in cotton output. Groundnuts and maize are other, less important cash crops, grown for domestic consumption in the  2 southern areas of Mali. Livestock, mainly concentrated in the Sahelian grazing zone, accounts for about 30% of total exports and 20% of total GDP. 1.6 Average annual growth in agriculture is estimated at about 2% over the last ten years. However, annual growth rates fluctuate widely as a result of the large variations in the amount and distribution of the yearly rains. Agricultural output plummeted during the 1982-1984 drought period but has since recovered strongly due to several good rainfall years and an improved policy environment. Mali is today essentially self-sufficient in the production of coarse grains while it was heavily dependent on commercial and food aid imports during the 1982-1984 drought years. However, much of the agricultural growth has come as a result of expansion of agricultural land rather than intensification and this, in the absence of appropriate farming practices, has been a major cause of degradation. 1.7 Mali's formal industrial sector is very small, contributing only about 5% to the country's GDP. Most existing industry is agro-based. In addition, the mining sector, in particular gold mining, although still small, has been a growing source of export earnings and offers potential for further expansion. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 1.8 Agro-climatic Zones. Mali's environmental conditions are characterized by two major factors: its location in the Sahelian zone of West Africa, and the Niger River flowing through the heart of the country and forming a large inner delta in its center. Other factors important for the analysis of Mali's environment are aquifers (groundwater), land, and biodiversity. Mali has four broad climatic zones, whose boundaries are defined by the rainfall isohyets: Sahel North, Sahel South, Sudanian Savanmah, and Guinean Savannah. Description of these zones are in Table 1. 1. 1.9 The Saharan zone covers about 56% of Mali's total surface area. It produces, however, in a normal rainfall year only about 10% of the total herbage biomass. Most of this area receives less than 150 mm rainfall and both woody and herbaceous vegetation is sparse. The remaining part of this zone, receiving 150-200 mm p.a., has better vegetative cover. Population density is very low and most people are herders. 1.10 The Sahelian zone covers about 19% of Mali and receives a modest annual rainfall of 200-600 mm. This zone contains, however, most of the inner delta of the Niger. The productivity of the natural pastures in this zone largely depends on flooding, which is highly variable. Rainfed crop production, mainly millet, takes place in non flooded areas. Herders are, however, also commonly found. Population density is higher than in the Sahel North. 1.11 The Sudanian Savannah zone covers about 14% of Mali and receives good rainfall (600-1200 mm p.a.). It contains a small part of the flood plains of the Niger river. This zone has the most productive pastures and cropland in the country and a higher population density than the Sahelian zones. The Guinean Savannah zone represents about 11% of Mali and receives high rainfall (over 1 100 mm p.a.). It is covered with lush grasses, thick bush and tree cover, where it has not been cleared for crop cultivation.  3 Table 1.1: Agro-climatic Zones % of Annual Population Zone Total Area Rainfall Vegetation Density Saharan 56 < 150 mm sparse low (Sahel North) Sahelian(a) 19 150-550 mm woody, low, (Sahel South) herbaceous (high near Niger shrubs delta) Sudanian-Savannah 14 550-1 100 mm pastures, dense cropland Guinea Savannah 11 > 1100 mm Lush, thick high cropland and forests. (a) Contains most of the inner Niger delta. Source: Schema Directeur, 1990. 1.12 Most of Mali is dry, since practically no rain falls north of the 19th parallel. The rainy season lasts four to five months at Bamako but only about seven weeks at Gao. Average rainfall values are rnisleading because rainfall is extremely erratic from year to year, both in quantity and in distribution. These fluctuations are reflected in agricultural production and thence in performance of economy. 1.13 Mali is essentially flat with very little topographic relief. In most of the country, the Pre-cambrian Basement Complex rocks are overlain by loose sands or by flat bedded Primary sandstones with sheet intrusions of dolerite and gabbro. In a few places the sandstone is eroded into steep scarps, the principle ones being the Tamboura south of Kayes, the Manding Mountains and the long rise along the border with Burkina Faso. The other major relief feature is Adrar des Iforas, an extension of the Ahaggar mountains from Algeria whose dry valleys bear witness to formerly wetter conditions. Loose sands cover most of the rest of the country and are a relic of dryer climatic conditions. They are very extensive on the long border with Mauritania and Algeria. 1.14 Water Resources. The Niger River is, together with its tributaries, the most important river system in Mali. It is vital both as a waterway and as the lifeblood for the local conomy which is based on flood- dependent activities: flood recession agriculture, livestock and fishing. Over the last 20 years, irrigation las also become increasingly important. Flowing from southwest to northeast and then southeast again in a great arc, the river is divided into two navigable stretches by the rapids below Bamako, and used for transportation on both sides. As the seasonal floods retreat, they leave pasture for livestock. Flood water is sometimes retained for swamp rice cultivation. The flow in the Upper Valley is managed to some extend  4 with canals and simple barrages. The Lower Valley in the inland delta region, site of an old lake in pre- Tertiary times, is extensively managed by the Office du Niger (ON) for rice production, with an important dam and a network of irrigation canals. 1.15 Groundwater supplies provide a major source of water for the rural population, for livestock and for crop irrigation. Groundwater resources have been estimated at 2,720 billion m3 with annual replenishment of 66 billion m3 (Table 2.2). The use of aquifers is concentrated in Kayes, Koulikoro, Sikasso and Mopti which together account for about 6 % of annual groundwater use. There are no deep aquifers in the southern part of Mali, and the surface alluvium that covers much of the region is too shallow to hold much water. This surface layer is, however, quite heavily exploited. It is recharged by runoff and by direct rainfall. The highest yielding aquifers in the south occur in fissures of the sandstones at Koutiala, Sotuba, Sikasso and a few other sites. Depth to Nvater table varies from half a meter to 35 meters.1 Table 1.2 : Groundwater Resource and Estimated Annual Use, 1987 Utilization Aquifer System Reserve (bn m3) Human Livestock Irrigation (%) Continental Terminal/ 920 11,795 11,076 5,897 27.0 Quartenaire Cretace Superior/ 250 404 638 259 1.2 Eocene Inferior Continental I interclaire 450 315 758 259 1.3 Cambrien 34 3,967 1,987 9,SI15 9.3 Infracambrien Tabulaire 113 20,401 12,391 8,554 38.9 Infracambrien Plisse 15 1,963 3,107 1,231 5.9 Socle 98 7,125 6,759 3,413 16.3 Total 2,720 452970 381690 ,600 100.0 Source: Schema Directeur, 1990. IUSAID, 1990.  5 1.16 Biodiversitv. Mali makes a significant contribution to the planet's biodiversity, despite the negative impact of many years of drought during the 1970s and early 1980s. It is particularly rich in bird and mammal fauna, with, according to one report, more bird species (640) than North America, most of which are concentrated in the Niger inner delta2. Official attempts at wildlife protection in Mali date back to 1938 and a number of game reserves has been created, including an elephant and a giraffe reserve. There are also several forest reserves in the south with buffaloes and the giant eland, as well as the Boucle du Baoule complex of reserves northwest of Bamako, in the Sahelian zone, with a rich flora and fauna, including primates, lions and other carnivores, ungulates, elephant and a great variety of birds. Most of these parks are today largely nominal, since resources for protection are meager. Poaching for food or sport is acknowledged to be widespread. CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 1.17 Archaeological and Historical Heritage. Mali has an important archaeological and historical heritage, reflecting its cultural diversity and its location on the trans-Saharan trade routes. The Old Towns of Djenne, Bandiagara (Dogon country), Timbuktu, and Gao are inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage List. Nearly 800 archaeological and historical sites, many of which are concentrated in the Dogon area, the inland Niger delta, and Mena (Dead Delta) area, have been noted in the literature and it is likely that there are many more. Rock shelters, mounds, tells, and ancient settlements are among the most common cultural vestiges. Early agricultural sites such as Asselar provide evidence of pastoralism as early as 3,300 B.C. A range of tells with a long sequence of occupation are subjects of archaeological investigation. In the medieval period three kingdoms ruled Mali: the empire of Ghana (6th to I Ith century), the Mandinka Empire of Mali, and the Songhai Empire (15th-1 6th centuries). Colonial buildings of architectural interest are found in Bamako and Senou. The villages along the Bandiagara escarpment, with their multi-storied houses and granaries built into the rock faces, are the unique architectural heritage of the Dogon peoples. 1.18 The tradition of urban settlements dates from at least the 9th century in Mali. It is now accepted that indigenous urbanization took place in the inland Niger Delta long before the development of trans- Saharan trade or the spread of Islam. Among historic settlements of note are: the Dogon cliff area (abandoned city of Djenne-Djeno; Djenne, one of the best preserved medieval cities in West Africa), Timnbuktu, Kayes, Niani, and Sane. Bamako was founded in 1884 as a military outpost on the banks of the River Niger; in 1906 it was chosen to be capitol of the French colony of French Sudan. Segou is also distinguished by its largely intact colonial buildings. Important Islamic architecture is found in Timbuktu, Djenne, Mopti, and Nioni (Great Mosque). 2Warshall, Peter, Mali - Biological Diversity Assessment  6 II. THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL D)EGRADATION 2.1 Overview. This chapter examines the nature of ecological deterioration in Mali, especially the degradation of land and water resources, diminishing biodiversity, loss of archaeological and cultural property and to a lesser extent, air pollution. LAND DEGRADATION 2.2 Degradation of Mali's lands is a multi-faceted problem, including soil erosion, declining soil fertility, as well as range degradation, desertification, and deforestation. 2.3. Soil erosion is, on initial evaluation, not as spectacular in Mali as in some other countries, mainly due to the country's gentle profile (see para. 1. 13). Despite the absence of steep slopes, soil losses on an annual basis are, however, substantial, ranging from I ton/ha in the country's northern area to 10 tons/ha on cultivated land in the southern parts.3 The consequences of soil erosion are multiple. Not only does itcontribute to a continuous loss of a non-renewable natural resource, but also to a reduction in moisture retention and a decline in soil fertility due to depletion of basic nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and organic carbon in the upper layers of cuitivated fields. Loss of organic matter is of particular concern since it is badly needed to sustain "soil life" (bacteria, micro-organism, etc.), which has beneficial effects on stabilizing soil texture, an important factor in a country where sandy soils prevail. Without the stabilizing effect, soils would disintegrate into their basic components, sand and dust. Using crop residues as fuel in areas with woodfuel deficits, or simply burning them, is another source of clecreasing soil fertility in some regions.4 2.4 Degradation of the range is recognizable in most of Mali's ecological zones. It is most pronounced, however, in the Sahelian zone and the Niger inland delta. In the Sahelian zone, the ecosystem is very fragile and reacts immediately to unfavorable wveather conditions and over-exploitation. Depletion of the sparse vegetation cover, including the removal of the area's few trees/shrubs for use as livestock fodder/fuelwood, deprives the sandy soils of stabilizing factors. Range soils are consequently exposed to erosion, especially wind erosion and rain storms, leading to the establishment of sand dunes and eventually permanent desertification. Although desertification is evident in Mali, no data seems available on the loss of range land due to desertification. Pereinial grasses with deep roots, whose leaf growth is stimulated by small amnounts of rainfall, have almost totally disappeared in the Sahel North zone and have been replaced by annuals requiring more moisture to germinate and take root. Although it is generally accepted that the Sahel vegetation is resilient and is recovering rapidly after climatic calamities - and without too much negative interference by man - quality of the vegetation seems to suffer irreversible damage. 2.5 Availability of pastures and dry season grazing wvithin the inner Niger delta has also been drastically changed. Within the remaining grazing areas, Breman estimates that up to 51% of valuable plant species have already disappeared (see para. 3.14). The best source of forage within the flooded area, the bourgou (Echinocla stagnina), has been markedly reduced in area and yield because of competition 3Bishop and Allen, 1989. 4Experiments carried out in northern Nigeria during a 25 year period under ecological conditions similar to Mali indicate significant declines in crop output. Groundnut yields declined from 101 15 kg/ha to 511 kg/ha, millet from 922 kg to 330 kg/ha, and sorghum dropped from 543 kg/ha to 91 kg/ha. Source, Nye and Greenland, 1960.  7 with other land uses. Removal of tree cover for land clearing at an excessive rate is reducing shading of the soils thereby impeding vegetative growth and consequently leading to reduced fodder availability during the dry season in the southern eco-zones. Furthermore, the inland Delta is no longer flooded to the extent it once was, due to smaller water quantities received from rain and seasonal river flows. 2.6 Deforestation. Natural forest vegetation covers some 17.4 million ha, 14% of Mali's total land area, of which 12.9 million ha are natural forest stands, and 4.5 million ha are man-induced forests (bush fallow, 2.5 million ha and forest parks, 2 million ha). Natural growth rates average 0.4 m3/ha/year, rangipg from 0.75 m3/ha/year in the well watered Sudano-Guinean zone, to only 0.05 m3/ha/year in the northern desert regions. Total growth is thus estimated at about 7 million m3/year. Areas classified by Government and legally protected against encroachment include forest and fauna reserves, national parks, and gazetted forest areas. Together these areas cover about 25% of the forest land, but owing to limited government resources and growing population pressure, unauthorized/illegal exploitation occurs. 2.7 More than 90% of Mali's domestic energy requirements are supplied by firewood. Estimates put firewood consumption at about 0.8 to 2 kg/person/day in the rural areas and 1.2 to 3.0 kg/person/day (1.55 kg/person/day in Bamako) in the urban centers. Based on these estimates, annual firewood consumption at national level is about 3 million tons (6.7 million m3) and this demand is expected to increase with population growth. Several analyses have drawn attention to woodfuel deficiencies in Mali. A detailed inventory carried out in 1987 gives the most reliable overview of the standing stock of Mali's forests. According to this inventory, the current situation is less dramatic in the south than previously thought. The Sikasso and Koulikoro regions, for example, are heavily forested: 60 to 80% of the surface area is covered with old growth timber (about 10 million hectares). Annual productivity of the accessible portions of these natural forests can supply nearby urban populations for several decades, although pockets of resource degradation around urban centers are developing. In sharp contrast, the northern regions (which were hard hit by the drought) are experiencing increasing woodfuel deficits as the resource base is being mined and gradually destroyed. WATER RESOURCES DEGRADATION 2.8 Environmental problems regarding Mali's water resources are mainly (a) water pollution, which results in reduction of clean and safe water supply and, (b) sedimentation of existing waterways due to erosion and poor irrigation infrastructures and c) water control. 2.9 Pollution of Mali's water resources is a cause of increasing concern. While the most visible of these problems is surface water, groundwater contamination is, however, also likely to have occurred in the past and to continue unabated today. Monitoring of groundwater quality in designated areas is in progress but no results are yet available. 2.10 Deteriorating water quality can be found in the form of biologicaUchemical as well as physical pollution. The main contributor of this pollution is the draining of untreated sewerage into the rivers. Bank staff estimate that about 2% of Bamako's liquid waste enters the Niger daily and some 20% disappear in ditches and drains. Despite the introduction of improved latrines, seepage is still likely to occur. Staff is convinced that the groundwater table in Bamako and other urban centers is severely polluted (see Box 2.1). With an estimated population of about 850,000 inhabitants, and an average daily liquid waste discharge of 30 I/person, polluted sewerage enters the Niger at an estimated rate of 500 m3/day. No precise data, however, exists on this subject.  8 2.11 Some staff see the disposal of industrial waste with high content of biologically degradable material (slaughter house) or toxic materials (tanning, gold mining) as equally of high risks to both surface and groundwater due to drainage/infiltration as is household sewage. No data seems available on this subject either. As the country is trying to promote both gold mining and agro-based industries, the problem is also likely to become more important in the future. Box 2.1: Pollution of Underground Water System in Bamako Urban Water System High rate of urbanization, limited capacity of municipal government and lack of resources to provide services such as waste disposal and management has resulted in substantial pollution of the underground water table in Bamako. An estimated 55 % of the population of Bamako depend on wells for their water supply. However, these wells are often poorly constructed and located near latrines and gutters. Additionally, the high level of soil permeability has allowed, over the years, easy infiltration of solid wastes to the extend that the water is already polluted at source (underground). Tested Samples This was recently confirmed by the Direction Nationale de I'Hydrologique et l'Energie after testing 103 water samples drawn from the Bozola, Nairela and Banconi quarters. The laboratory tests revealed that underground water was heavily polluted with pesticides, metals (mainly mercury and lead) and other chemicals. The presence of nitrate ranged between 0.1% to 1.7%, more than three times the safe level. Strate2ies Strategies adopted by the municipality includes: 1. Better methods of construction of septic tanks to minimize seepage. 2. Respect of the required 15 meter distance wells and latrines 3. General public education campaigns. Source: L'Essor 2.12 Soil erosion from farmland as well as from the catchment areas of the Niger River has resulted in high silt transport by the rivers. With about 2 million ha cultivated and soil erosion losses high (1-10 tha, averaging 6.5 t/ha according to Bishop), on average about 13 million tons of soil are carried away by run- off water and winds. While part of the eroded soil may settle in depressions and the bas-fonds, substantial volumes reach the main rivers, causing siltation of waterways and consequently hampering river navigation. Silt also enters irrigation schemes and increases their operation and maintenance costs.  9 2.13 Regarding the safe drinking water supplv, only 35 % of the niral and 55 % of the urban population currently have access to clean water. The rest of the population obtains water from polluted sources. This is contributing to high infant mortality and Mali's general poor healtlh status. 2.14 Mali's arid climate and the occurrenice of droughts do not necessarily imply a general water shortage, at least at the current population size. The Schema DirectcurI 1990 presents the country's water balance: total annual flow of the Niger River amounts to 33.3 billion m /year, and the total of the Senegal River to 18.9 billion m3/year; total Malian groundwater reserves are estimated at 2,720 billion m3 with annual replenishment reaching 66 billion mn. Compared to this, the estimated groundwater use reached only 106 million m3 in 1989. Despite this, unpolluted groundwater does not seem to be accessible to the majority of the population. 2.15 There are also indications that Mali's water resources are not managed efficiently, in particular in the large irrigation schemes such as the Office du Niger. One source estimates that about 3.2 billion m3 (25,000 m3 per irrigated ha) of irrigation water, mainly drawXn from surface sources, was used in 1989, compared with actual crop requirements of 2 billion m3 (15,000 m3 /ha). The Niger River loses an estimated 30 billion m3 in the Niger delta in average years due to a combination of factors, including evaporation, percolation, and inefficient irrigation systems. As a consequence, river flows below the delta are already frequently insufficient to support downstream navigation. This problem is likely to be aggravated in the near future, as the govemment tries to encourage greater use of available water resources through private irrigation schemes, in an attempt to increase agricultural productivity. BIODIVERSITY - SPECIES AND HABITAT Loss 2.16 Documentation of Mali's biodiversitv provides bleak scenarios of the future of plant and animal resources. The IUCN (1989) lists a total of 136 mammals for Mali and indicates that 9 species are threatened. Another study estimates that no significant large mammal populations will be left in Mali within five to ten years, if no policy and funding changes take place. Two antelope species, the scimitar- horned oryx and the Korrigum were found to be already extinct. Elephants survive principally in the Gourma Elephant Faunal Reserve (about 600 animials), and this is considered a priority baseline population for West Africa. A further decline in this population is likely if no stricter measures are taken against poaching and to resolve human-elephant conflicts.5 Addax and gazelle may survive in the northern desert plains, but are under heavy pressure from poaching. All wetland species have apparently declined and a unique habitat, the inner delta of the Niger River, is threatened. Among reptiles, the crocodile is now seriously depleted throughout the country. Expansion of agricultural/irrigation development of the inner delta has led to a reduction of available wintering places for palearctic birds. Mali is also a major exporter of parrots and it is possible that this trade has had a negative impact on wild populations. There does not seem to be a consensus wvithin the Bank on the impact of dam constniction along major rivers for hydropower or irrigation development on bio-diversity. Disappearances of valuable grass/fodder plants due to overgrazing has been mentioned above. Dying and disappearance of baobab trees and other tree species in the Sahel zones has also been documented.6 5University of Arizona, 1 980. 6Rochette, 1988.  10 Loss OF CULTURAL HERITAGE 2.17 Mali's cultural heritage is threatened by a number of human and nal:ural factors. Looting and uncontrolled export of antiquities (especially terracotta statuettes) is a severe problem, resulting in damage to archaeological sites and loss of important art objects to foreign markets. Other sites are deteriorating due to erosion and flooding. Migration of rural populations to urban areas leads to the abandonment of traditional villages and neglect of adobe buildings. The Unesco World Heritage Site of Timbuktu was placed on the Sites in Peril List in 1990. The archaeological record is still insufficiently known: southern Mali, south of Bamako is little explored as are areas outside the major known urban site concentration of the Dogon country and Timbuktu. AIR POLLUTION 2.18 Air pollution in Mali is mainly caused by bush fires, partially deliberately set in the hope of regeneration of rangelands or flushing out animals for poaching purposes. Burning vast expanses of bushlands destroys about 5 million tons of biomass annually. Equally imporltant as a contributor to air pollution is the inefficient use of biomass through the burning of some 6.7 million m3 of firewood in primitive stoves or in the open air (about 3 million tons). However, accordin,g to a recent Bank study,7 using hydrocarbon fuels in place of biomass fuels (except for charcoal) for household use may increase atmospheric C02 emissions. Overall, Mali's contribution to global air pollution from deforestation can be considered as extremely low. With relatively minor road traffic, with the exception perhaps of Bamako, and relatively undeveloped industries, air pollution from burning fossil fuels is negligible. IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ON THE POOR 2.19 High population growth rates combined with some of the most dismal social indicators in the world are indicative of widespread poverty in Mali. Per capita income, estimated as US$ 270 in 1991, is quite low and this average masks much lower incomes in rural areas. About 90