Niger - Country environmental strategy paper

Report No. 13503-NIR N iger Country Environmerital Strategy Paper September 30, 1994 Afi\(- kR,gi,n Documient ote'l Worttl dBant Document of the World Bank  CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Currency Equivalents = CFA Franc (CFAF) US$1.00 = CFAF 592 (January 31, 1994) SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Metric US Equivalent 1 meter = 3.28 feet 1 kilometer = 0.62 miles 1 square kilometer = 0.39 square miles 1 hectare = 2.47 acres 1 metric ton = 2.205 pounds 1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds FISCAL YEAR January 1 - December 31  LIST OF ACRONYMS CFD Caisse Francaise de Developpement CGRN Cellule de gestion des ressources naturelles CIDA Canadian International Development Agency DANIDA Danish International Development Agency EA Environmental Assessment EC European Community ESW Economic and Sector Work FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GDP Gross Domestic Product GON Government of Niger GNP Gross National Product GRN Cellule de gestion des ressources naturelles GTZ German Technical Agency for Cooperation HA Hectares KG Kilograms KM Kilometers M Meters MHE Ministere de I'Hydraulique et de l'Environnement MM Millimeters NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NRM Natural Resource Management PAFT Plan d'action forestier tropical PANE Plan d'action national pour l'environnement PDRN Politique de developpement rural pour le Niger PIGRN Programme integre de gestion des ressources naturelles PNGRN Programme National de gestion des ressources naturelles PNLCD Plan National de lutte contre la desertification PIP Public Investment Program SCDR Sous-comite de developpement rural SDDR Schemes directeurs de developpement regional SLPN Service de lutte contre les pollutions et les nuisances SWISSAID Swiss Agency for International Development UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNSO United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office USAID United States Agency for International Development This report is one of a series of Country Environmental Strategy Papers prepared by World Bank staff both for internal discussion and to strengthen policy dialogue with borrower countries on environmental issues. It is based on a draft Niger Country Environmental Strategy Paper (CESP) prepared in June 1992 by Jostein Aarrestad (AFTES) that was revised and updated by Jamison Suter (consultant) and released as a yellow cover report in December 1993. The report was discussed with the Government and donors in April 1994. The Government's commnents and concems have been taken into account in this final version of the CESP which was revised by Jean-Yves Lalande (consultant), with the assistance of Claude Bemard (consultant), and Sarah Forster (AFSDR). The report has benefitted from contributions by Emrnerich M. Schebeck (AF5DR), Emmanuel Mbi (AFSCO), Abdelkrim Oka, Sidi Jammeh (AF5AG), Edward Brown (AF5PH), Jean-Marie Lantran (AF5IN), Nadjib Sefta (AF5IE), Yves Prevost (AFTES), Albert Greve (NEAP Multidonor Secretariat), and the Legal Department of the World Bank. Ms. Katherine Marshall is the Department Director.   TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................i I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................1 II. THE NIGERIEN CONTEXT ....................................................2 A. The Economy and the People .....................................................2 B. The Climate ...................................................4 C. Renewable Natural Resources ...................................................4 D. Non-renewable Natural Resources ....................................................7 III. KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ....................................................8 A. Land and Natural Resource Degradation ...................................................8 B. Degradation of the Urban Environment ................................................... 15 IV. EXISTING MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK ................................................... 17 A. Policy Framework .................................................... 17 B. Legal Framework ................................................... 21 C. Institutional Framework ................................................... 24 D. Scarcity of Information ................................................... 26 V. ACTM TIES OF THE WORLD BANK AND OTHER DONORS ................................................ 27 A. World Bank Activities in Niger ................................................... 27 B Other Donors' Activities ................................................... 29 VI. ELEMENTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY ..................................... .............. 30 A. Setting the Institutional and Regulatory Framnework ................................................... 30 B. Tackling Priority Issues ................................................... 34 C. Next Steps ................................................... 37 Annex: Niger - Environmental Management Policy Matrix References  I  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i. Niger is one of the world's poorest countries, with a per capita GNP of $300. Rapid population growth at 3.3% a year, rural-to-urban migration, and poor economic performance combined with a series of droughts have led to a host of environmental problems. As 70% of the country is desert, 75% of the population is concentrated on about 25% of the land. The nation's food production capacity is under exceptional stress, soil and vegetation are being dcgraded, water resources are declining, and biodiversity is threatened. In urban areas, water supply, sanitation, and waste disposal are wholly inadequate for the majority of the population, increasing at 7.4% per year. Unsanitary urban conditions cause high incidence of discase and high infant mortality. ni. Environmental policy-making in Niger has been concerned almost exclusively with desertification, w ith a centralized, top dowvn, and sectoral approach, and with public spending focused on physical invcstments, like tree planting. Little attention has been paid to the fundamental aspects of environmental managemcnt and establishing an institutional and policy framework to ensure the integration of environmental issues into development planning. The Government initiated a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) process in 1993 to define key policy and institutional reforms and investments. iii. This Country Environmental Strategy Paper (CESP) is designed to contribute to the ongoing NEAP process, improve the World Bank's understanding of Niger's environmental issues, and present options to improve environmental management in Niger. The Nigerien Context iv. Niger's economy is based heavily on natural resources; agriculture employs 80% of the labor force and contributes 32% of the GDP. Land degradation is the main environmental problem and careful management of the renewable natural resources--soils and vegetation--is essential to develop Niger's agrarian-bascd economv. Since the early 1980s, the economy has been in recession, with GNP declining about 1% a year. Public spending and investment have been severely constrained. v. Niger is among the least developed countries in the world. Its population of 8.5 million consists of five principal ethnic groups. The population is extremely mobile; drought poses a constant threat to farmers and pastoralists alike. The three main agro-climatic zones are: the Saharan/desert zone with 62% of the land area and less than 150mm of rain a year; the Sahelian zone, with 29% of the land, and 250-600 mm annual rainfall; and the Sudanian zone, with 9% of the land and 600 mm of rain per year. vi. Rainfall is extremely variable, with a downward trend since 1968. Extreme droughts in 1973-75 and 1984-85 caused mass rural-urban exodus. Surface water resources are very scarce, but groundwater of good quality exists. Most soils are relatively infertile. Wind and especially sheet erosion pose a problcm. The northern desert is virtually devoid of vegetation, but vegetative cover increases to the south. Forestrv plantations cover 20,000 hectares. Two wildlife reserves, the W National Park and Air-Tenere National Nature Reserve, though rich in biodiversity, suffer from illegal farming, grazing, and poaching. vii. Niger has 15% of the world's knowsn reserves of uranium, which provide its main source of foreign exchange earnings. Most mining is in remote desert regions. Key Environmental Issues viii. Land and Natural Resource Degradation. Population pressure has led to agricultural expansion into marginal areas and a shortening of fallowv periods, both of which are unsustainable. Crop yields are  I. stagnant or declining. The land tenure system does not give farmers incentives to improve or maintain their farmland. Herd overstocking in rangelands and overgrazing around boreholes has exacerbated rangeland degradation. Deforestation is being caused by land clearing for cultivation and fuelwood collection, principally in peri-urban areas. Some 2.7% or 70,000-80,000 ha of forest is being destroyed each year because of a lack of altemate energy sources and artificially low price for fuclwood. The six protected areas--parks and reserves-- covering 7.7% of land to preserve biodiversity lack financial resources and offer little effective protection for biodiversity protection. ix. Urban Environment Degradation. A fifth of the population lives is urban areas and is increasing at 7.4%, more than double the rate of population growth. Poverty exacerbates the problems of water supply, sewage and drainage, solid waste and garbage disposal, housing, and health care, among others. Respiratory problems are caused by high dust and smoke concentrations. Lack of urban planning and inadequate access to basic services are major problems in urban areas. Large numbers of people live in unsanitary conditions. Existing Management Framework x. Policy Framework. The 1985 PNLCD, focused on desertification, was the first comprehensive policy document to address rural environmental issues. Revised in 1991 and a forestry action plan added to it, PNLCD complements the PDRN or the rural development policy of 1992. These two policies place emphasis on integrated natural resources management bascd on an interdisciplinary and holistic approach, taking account of the fundamental ecological equilibrium. Increased emphasis is also placed on producers' participation and leadership, private sector, and local community empowerment, moving towards a more comprehensive view of rural production systems and a participatory approach based on incentives. Lacking still, however, is a clearly articulated policy that integrates environmental issues into an overall development strategy. Several important building block exist. The NEAP process produced a draft framework paper in March 1994 to be the basis for a National Environmental Action Plan; this paper will be discussed in a national workshop in the near future. xi. National policies intimately linked to environmental concems are: food security, population, and pricing of scarce resources--land, wood, water, and fertilizer, for example, and their impacts need to be assessed. xii. Legal Framework. Land tenure has been measurably improved through a Rural Code, adopted in March 1993; implementation decrees remain to be enacted. Other recent laws adopted deal with petroleum and gas and mining. The capacity to enforce these laws needs to be strengthened. Other laws deal with natural resources--water, forestry, and livestock--and with hygiene and public health and other sectors. Some of these need to be updated and harmonized to clarify roles and responsibilities of the regulators and the regulated parties. xiii. Institutional Framework. The Ministry of Water and the Environment (MWE) is the lead agency on environmental matters. The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAL) also plays a key role in natural resource management. A Natural Resource Management Unit was established in April 1992 to improve coordination between MWE and MAL and to develop a policy and strategies on natural resource management. But, responsibility for urban environment and pollution is split among five governmental agencies and lacks institutional coherence. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were granted legal  status in 1991 and can be expected to play a key role, especially among rural communities, in projects for small-scale infrastructure, such as wells, and in community land management and participation. Activities of the World Bank and Other Donors xiv. While the Bank is a relative late-comer to the environmental scene in Niger, a number of its recent operations and studies have enabled it to intensify its assistance to and dialogue with Niger on environmental issues. Through this CESP and preparation of the Natural Resources Management Program (PNGRN in FY95) the Bank is playing a major role in helping Niger develop its NEAP. The PNGRN is aimed to achieve sustainable agricultural production and growth and restore biodiversity by stopping and reversing land degradation and natural resource depletion. A number of other donors have helped Niger with the PNLCD, forestry action plan, Code Rural, altemate energy resources, and water conservation. PNGRN is a collaborative effort among more than half a dozen bilateral and multilateral agencies, including the Bank. Elements of an Environmental Strategy xv. Besides an adequate institutional and regulatory framework, successful environmental management will require effective implementation of policies, enforcement mechanisms in place, and monitoring. The institutional framework requires competent institutions with clear mandates and trained professionals with managerial and technical capacities to perform environmental functions. Because problems often arise at the local level, environmental committees need to set up at the municipal and communal levels, with representatives from government, private sector, community groups, and NGOs. Coordinated external technical and financial assistance focused on a selected number of programs could critically strengthen Niger's environmental efforts. The NEAP process should help define and clarify the institutional framework for environmental management; establish environmental standards; create incentives and disincentives to promote environmental protection and conservation; and issue guidelines for environmental assessments, among others. xvi. Public support and participation will be essential to foster constituencies that actively support and participate in environmental management and decision making. These can be promoted through public information campaigns and environmental education in schools at all levels. In addition, accurate environmental data will need to be gathered, standardized, and analyzed. Environmental research in priority areas will have to be identified, initiated, and institutional capacity strengthened to carry it out. xvii. To implement successful natural resources management, priority actions are: implement the Rural Code; ensure effective implementation of the community-based natural resource management program; wider implementation of household energy strategy, particularly in renewable energy; dissemination of sustainable agricultural practices; increase in off-farm employment opportunities, and promotion of multiple-use land systems. In the urban areas, improved urban planning, institutional responsibility, public participation, better land titling and land registration, and continued upgrading of basic infrastructure and services should greatly enhance the urban environment. xviii. After the NEAP is developed, the Government will need to agree on an implementation strategy through a participatory process; prepare more detailed action programs in coordination with donors; and also prepare investment operations to respond to the urgent needs identified in the strategy that are not addressed in the current public investment portfolio.   I. INTRODUCTION 1. The Republic of Niger's central development challenge is how to reverse the current trends of declining per capita income and social welfare in the face of one of the poorest natural and human resource bases in Africa. Integrating environmental management considerations into the development strategy will be essential to achieving sustainable development. Rapid population growth, rural-to-urban migration and poor economic performance combined with a series of droughts has led to a host of environmental problems. Approximately 70% of Niger is desert; three-quarters of the population are concentrated on a quarter of the total land area. Combined with rapid population growth of 3.3% per year, this is putting exceptional pressure on the nation's food production capacity and, in rural areas, is leading to problems of soil and vegetation degradation, decline of water resources and loss of biodiversity. In urban areas, water supply, sanitation and waste disposal are wholly inadequate for the majority of urban dwellers, whose numbers are growing at 7.4% per year. The health impact of unsanitary urban conditions is worrying -- disease is rife and infant mortality rates are high -- but goes largely unaddressed. 2. The Government of Niger is well aware of environmental concerns though, to date, its environmental policymaking has focused virtually exclusively on the issue of "desertification" (or land degradation), which has dominated the environmental agenda throughout the Sahelian region since the devastating drought of the 1970s. Environmental management was largely equated with combatting desertification and forest protection which was reflected in the environmental policymaking initiatives undertaken, such as the National Plan of Action to Combat Desertification. The approach taken to address environmental problems was centralized, top down, and sectoral with public spending for the environment directed to "physical" investments, such as tree planting projects. 3. Little attention has yet been paid to the more fundamental aspects of environmental management, such as establishing an institutional and policy framework to ensure environmental issues are integrated into development planning. Niger has also yet to build-up the capacity to carry out many basic environmental functions, such as monitoring and safeguarding environmental quality and implementing environmental assessment procedures. Recently, the Government has initiated a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) process which aims to make up these gaps. It will stimulate a broader and more intensive debate on the environment and be a process by which to define key policy and institutional reforms, and investments. 4. This Country Environmental Strategy Paper (CESP) is designed to serve as a contribution into the ongoing NEAP process, as well as to improve the World Bank's understanding of environmental issues in Niger and place them within the broader development context. The CESP (i) presents a brief overview of economic, social, natural and demographic conditions in Niger; (ii) explores the most pressing environmental issues facing Niger and the factors perpetuating them; (iii) identifies the current environmental management framework and issues that need to be addressed as part of the NEAP process; (vi) reviews the Bank's country assistance strategy and lending operations and what the Bank is currently doing to support environmental management in Niger; and (v) presents options to improve environmental management.  2 11. THE NIGERIEN CONTEXT A. THE ECONOMY AND THE PEOPLE 5. Niger is one of the world's poorest countries, with a per capita GNP of $300. It is also a country undergoing tremendous change -- from a primarily nomadic to a more sedentary society -- which is involving major structural changes in the very economic, political,and social fabric of the country. 6. Niger's economy is based heavily on the country's natural resources. Agriculture is the most important economic activity, providing employment for over 80% of the labor force and contributing about 32% to GDP in 1993. This heavy dependence on the natural resource base is at the heart of Niger's main environmental problem: land degradation. Apart from the uranium boom in the late 1970s, the economy has always been based on its renewable natural resources, particularly its soils and vegetation. These have suffered over the past 25 years, and their careful management is a prerequisite for developing Niger's agrarian-based economy. 7. The formal economy (accounting for about 28% of GDP) depends on uranium. Uranium exports accounted for 80% of export earnings from 1975 to 1989. However, this proportion has steadily declined and future prospects for this primary commodity appear bleak in the face of falling prices. Although employing only a small portion of the population, services accounted for 49% of GDP, of which the government share was about 14% 8. Trade, particularly with Nigeria, is very important to the Nigerien economy, though information on the volume and value of this trade is lacking. Niger's ability to capture an increasing share of the huge Nigerian market will be one of the major factors determining its economic future. Niger exports livestock and cowpeas to Nigeria and imports manufactured goods and coarse grain. One of the main determinants of this cross-border trade is the exchange rate. The successive devaluation of the Naira, coupled with the overvalued CFA franc, adversely affected the competitive edge of Nigerien products in Nigeria. The recent devaluation of the CFA franc should improve competitiveness, however, and is expected to increase the volume of exports from Niger. 9. Since the early 1980s, the economy has been in recession. Gross National Product (GNP) has declined at an average of about I% per annum. This recession has hit hard after an economic boom during the 1970s based on uranium exports, when government spending increased dramatically. When the bottom fell out of the uranium market in 1981-82, severe austerity measures were taken, including drastic reductions in government spending. The country became increasingly dependent on foreign aid which represented 15.8% of GNP or about 90% of the Public Investment Program (PIP) in 1991. 10. Despite the reforms the GON has undertaken since 1983, the economy remains in serious recession. Since the downturn of uranium prices in 1981, the national economy has had to shift principally towards agriculture and away from mining with a result that economic growth has become more fragile and fluctuates widely with the variability of rainfall and the resulting volatility in agricultural production. The ratio of public spending to GDP fell to around 15.5%, compared with an average of 30% for Sub-Saharan Africa. This low level of expenditure is caused by very low total government revenue, which was about 8.2% of GDP in 1992, compared with 20% for Sub-Saharan Africa. During the 1990s, tax revenues  3 declined while the civil service wage bill continued to grow, from 4% of GDP in 1985 to 6.1% in 1992, crowding out virtually all other public expenditures during the last three years. 11. Niger's social indicators reflect the nation's poverty. UNDP (1990) places Niger among the least developed countries in the world, based on an "index of human development." According to the 1993 World Development Report, the adult literacy rate in Niger is 28% (17% for women) and primary school enrollment is under 30%. Life expectancy at birth is 46 years, and nearly one child in three does not live to the age of five. Chronic malnutrition among children under age five is estimated at about 30%, and acute malnutrition at 14%. 12. Niger's population is estimated at 8.5 million in 1993 and, with an annual growth rate of 3.3%, is one of the fastest growing populations in the world. About 85% of the population lives in a 150 km wide strip north of the Nigerian border. If one compares productive land to total population, Niger is more densely populated than Bangladesh. 13. The Nigerien population consists of five principal, but not homogeneous, ethnic groups: * The Hausa represent 50%-55% of the population. They are agriculturalists living along the Nigerian border, and are most active in trading with Nigeria. Groundnuts was their principal export until production declined in the mid-1970s. I The Zarma-Songhai-Dendi are the main agriculturalists of southwest Niger, accounting for 22%-24% of the population. e The Fulani reportedly account for between 8.5% and 14% of Nigeriens. They are both nomadic cattle herders and settled agriculturalists in southwest Niger. e The nomadic, pastoralist Tuareg comprise between 8.5-1 1% of the population and are concentrated primarily in north-central Niger. The Tuareg's main source of income is pastoralism, which suffered a severe blow in the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s, though they are also involved in trading. * Around 5% of the population consists of the Kanouric (Beri-Beri) and Boudouma people, who are agriculturalists in the eastern half of Niger. The remaining 1% of Nigeriens are Arabs, Tubus, and others. 14. Niger's population is extremely mobile, largely by force of circumstance as drought frequently makes it impossible to eam a living from the land. According to government estimates, 80% of men between the ages of 15 and 35 years are migrants, who move both intemally and externally. There are four types of migration: (i) transhumance; (ii) seasonal movements to find work during the dry season; (iii) temporary displacement, for example in towns or the mining areas; and (iv) permanent displacement. Tahoua and Zinder represent the main emigration areas while Niamey (the capital city), Agadez (the mining center), and Maradi (the principal commercial center), represent the main areas of immigration. Intemationally, Nigeriens migrate mainly to Cote d'Ivoire, Togo, Nigeria, Mali, Senegal, Benin, Cameroon, Libya, Algeria, Sudan, and Saudi Arabia. Cote d'Ivoire, among all these countries, receives the largest number of Nigeriens.  4 B. THE CLIMATE 15. Niger's climate is hot and dry. Drought is a constant threat both to the physical environment and to the farmers and pastoralists, some 80% of the population, who depend on the land for their livelihood. Climate has a major effect on the state of the natural rcsource base and on agricultural production and divides the country into three main agro-climatic zones: (i) the Saharan or desert zone, with about 62% of the country's total area, receives less than 150 mm of rain pcr year; (ii) the Sahelian zone, 29% of the land, which receives 250-600 mm annual rainfall; and (iii) the Sudanian zonc containing only 9% of the country's total area receives about 600 mm of rain pcr year. 16. Rainfall is extremely variable. On averagc, annual rainfall increases as one moves southwards from an average of 100mm per year in the north to 800 mm in the far south. However, there are great variations in rainfall from year to year and from onc area to another. During this century alone, Niger has experienced both very wet periods and cxtreme dry pcriods. From 1950 to 1967, the country received abundant rainfall every year. Agriculture was extcnded northwards as a result, to areas which had not traditionally supported crop production and that later started to suffer from diminishing rain and increasing land degradation. 17. Since 1968, annual rainfall has bcen decreasing significantly compared with the long-term average, though it is not possible to predict if this dounward trend will continue. The decrease has been so significant that the present-day isohyets are some I O0kms further south from those of a couple of decades ago. This low rainfall period included two pcriods of extreme drought in 1973-75 and 1984-85 that led to mass rural-urban exodus as people left the countryside in search of food and wage labor. C. RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES Water 18. Niger is very poor in surface water resources. Surface water is mainly concentrated in the Niger River and its seven right-bank seasonal tributaries. These tributaries carry about 2160 million cubic meters of water to the Niger River each year. On the left bank, dricd up shallow stream beds, knoxvn as dallols, flow with water occasional!y during particularly heavy rains. Despite their low water discharge, they remain important for local farming activities, thanks to their recharge of surface water tables. 19. Elsewhere, one can still observe some seasonal streams such as the Majia, that reaches the Nigerian border southwest of Madaoua, and the Komadougou Yobe, which used to bring more water to the country until the construction of about 20 reservoirs in its upper-basin area in Nigeria. The surface drainage system is completed by a few permanent and semi-permanent ponds which provide potential for livestock, small irrigation, and fish-breeding. Lake Chad, which 25 years ago stretched into Niger, is now completely dried up in Niger's territory. 20. The Niger River has experienced very low water levels, notably in 1974 and 1984. A hydraulic threshold has been built in the Niger River in Niamcy to allow the formation of a water reserve during dry-weather periods. Despite such measures, cities that are dependent on the Niger River, such as Niamey and Tillaberi, have had to plan alternate ways to provision themselves.  5 21. Total annual surface water availability is estimated at about 30 billion cubic meters (of which 29 billion cubic meters run in the Niger River). According to the Ministere de l'Hydraulique et de l'Environnement (MHE), less than 1% of this potential is presently exploited. At present, surface waters are quite pure and Niger does not suffer from any major water pollution problems. 22. Niger is relatively rich in groundwater, which is of very good quality. In most of the country, except in parts of the southwest and the Air Massif in the center-north, various sedimentary formations overlie different bedrocks. This configuration provides good groundwater reserves within 60 m of the surface, although in central Niger the water table is deeper (200-300 m). In areas of less than 400 mm rain per annum, essentially no recharge to aquifers occurs; thus any water removed is mined. Only in the southern third of the country can groundwater be withdrawn sustainably. Certain heavily populated regions, like Liptako-Gourma, south of Maradi, and Damagaram-Mounio, are experiencing water supply problems because of their unfavorable geological setting (outcropping granitic or metamorphic basement). Overall, however, few problems have been encountered so far with aquifers running dry, except where wells have been dug too shallow and have been pumped dry. Niger's underground aquifers are plentiful enough to supply the population in the medium term, however, the possibility of future water shortages is a serious long-term concern. 23. Provision of water has had negative consequences in the arid northern areas where lack of water once prevented settlement. The construction of boreholes in the pastoral zone solved one problem - water scarcity-- but created another -- land degradation. Though originally built to provide water for livestock, farmers immigrated to the northern borehole areas and started to cultivate. The soils, never well-suited for agricultural production, quickly became exhausted and today most farmers in the north face declining yields and increasing land degradation problems. This vividly illustrates the importance of looking at the environmental impacts of development planning. 24. Water supply and quality in rural areas is improving. In 1990, 52% of the population had access to a clean water supply compared with 32% in 1980 (World Resources Institute, 1993). Traditionally, wells were hand-dug, shallow, and uncovered, and contamnination by people and livestock was common. However, efforts have been made to improve well structure and today health problems associated with water contamination are on the decline. Soils 25. Most soils in Niger are relatively infertile, with the exception of dallol and other alluvial soils. The southwestern and south-central zones contain the nation's best soils, especially in the dry stream beds of the Niger River and areas near the Nigerian border. The soils become progressively more sandy and unsuitable for cultivation as one moves northwards. 26. Niger is largely flat, consisting of vast plains and low plateaus with only the occasional valley. Water erosion is a problem in certain areas, notably along the slopes of the plateau fringes along the Niger River and its streams. Here, the rare but violent rainstorms lead to run-off that create rill and gully systems. Wind erosion is also a problem on bare soils. But the most significant soil erosion problem is sheet erosion. An enormous amount of soil is removed during the limited but sometimes violent rainfalls. Rainwater and water from flooded tributaries stream across unprotected land producing a powerful  6 sheetwash which rapidly erodes any faintly sloping surfaces (erosional glacis) that, altogether, constitute vast erosion plains (plantation surfaces). When the land surface is not sufficiently protected by vegetation, top soil can be washed away completely. Such soil-stripping exposes the intermediary, iron-oxide rich soil layer which dries up and hardens into a bare, thick crust. Such crusts are often as hard as concrete and stretch out as vast, barren, sterile plains. These "lateritic crusts" are widespread in the Sahelian areas of West Africa and their creation can result in tremendous losses for agriculture. In Niger, and in the Sub-Saharan region generally, past and present exposure of lateritic crusts by sheet erosion is one of the worst effects of violent rainfalls. Preventative measures can be taken against such sheet erosion occurring, such as ensuring vegetation exists to protect the topsoil or building water retention structures, which highlights the importance of increasing investment in such practices. Vegetation 27. The northern desert is virtually devoid of vegetation. Moving southward, annual grasses become more abundant, and gradually give way to perennial grasses and shrubs. Further south still, the tree-studded savannah appears. Only in the extreme south, and in dry river beds, can true, dense dryland forest,be found. Tree cover has been reduced in recent years because of drought and human consumption for fuel. Various wild plants provide Nigeriens with forage, medicine, fuel, construction material, and emergency food in times of drought. 28. Depending upon how "forest" is defined, Nig er contains between 2.6 million and 14 million hectares of forest (World Bank, 1993b; UNCED, 1991) of which only some I million hectares are closed forest with crown cover of 20% or more. One million hectares in six parks and reserves and 81 gazetted forests (forets classees) are officially protected from clearing and cutting, although many have been encroached upon by farmers and pastoralists (World Wildlife Fund, 1991). The remaining forest is either perimetres de restauration (70,000 ha), which are off limits to any use, or forets protegees (the rest), which may be used for collecting traditional forest products and tree-cutting by permit. Forestry plantations cover 20,000 ha. Average annual wood production is approximately 4.2 million cubic meters, although production fluctuates vastly from year to year. 29. The vegetation of Niger is well-adapted to its arid environment where rainfall is unpredictable and erratic. It reacts quickly to moisture, but can remain dormant for long periods. Thus it is constantly in flux and can give the misleading impression of being more desert-like or lush than the long-term mean indicates. Drought reduces the speed and extent to which the vegetation recovers when the rains return. Whereas rainfall is the primary limiting factor to vegetative growth in the north, soil fertility becomes a more limiting constraint further south. 30. The conditions of Niger's vegetation and of its soils are inseparable. Vegetation secures the soil, protecting it from wind and water erosion. Its roots make the soil porous so water can infiltrate. Vegetation adds organic matter to the topsoil, improving nutrient availability in the topsoil, nutrient-and water-holding capacities, and topsoil structure. The soil, likewise, fosters better or worse vegetative growth depending upon its fertility, structure, texture, density, and other properties. 1/ Definitions of forest span from moderately densely studded savannah, with 5% or more crown cover, to areas with only two or three trees per hectare.  7 Fauna 31. Natural habitats in Niger are rapidly disappearing due to agricultural expansion, that poses one of the main threats to the survival of wild plants and animals. Wildlife is also hunted and poached for food and sport, and today survives principally in reserves. Information on wildlife is available only for Niger's protected areas, which contain addax, various oryx, warthogs, elephants, buffaloes, hippopotami, baboons, and other monkeys. Several carnivore species, including the cheetah, lion, lynx, and leopard are found. Niger's reptiles include the crocodile, python, and various lizards and turtles. 32. Two reserves are of significance for their biodiversity: the W National Park and the Air-Tdnere National Nature Reserve, although both suffer from illegal farmning and grazing, and poaching. Park authorities are desperately short of financial resources and trained staff and have little capacity to protect the parks. Unprotected areas of high biological interest include Termit and Niger's wetlands, especially along the Niger River. Migratory birds stop at the wetlands around the Niger River, Lake Chad, and others that are scattered throughout the south. Fish live in Lake Chad and the permanent rivers, although their numbers fluctuate with water levels and how heavily they are fished. They are an important but threatened source of food for certain human and bird communities. D. NON-RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES 33. Niger has 15% of the world's known reserves of uranium in Air which provide its main source of foreign exchange earnings. The country also possesses small amounts of salt, gypsum, rock phosphate, limestone, tin, gold, and molybdenum. It has coal and oil deposits, but only the former have been developed. 34. There is little information on the environmental impact of mining activities in Niger. Compared with other environmental problems, such as soil erosion and deforestation, the effect of mining is a low priority, largely because the mines are situated in remote, desert regions where they have little impact on human health or water sources. More in-depth information on the environmental impact of mining and mitigation measures is required, however, to ascertain the exact extent of any problems and whether action is needed.  8 III. KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES A. LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCE DEGRADATION 35. Niger's central environmental concern revolves around the use of natural resources. With one of the highest population growth rates in the world, Niger's fundamental long-term challenge is how to meet the increasing demand for food and fuel in a sustainable manner. This section examines the current state of crop, livestock, and fuelwood production and its impact on the environment. Crop Production 36. Cultivable land occupies only 11.5% of Niger's area. Of these 15 million hectares (ha), barely 3.8 million are cropped each year, the rest is under rotational fallow or pasture. Rain-fed agriculture represents 99% of cropped lands and irrigated agriculture only 1%. Rainfed agriculture is drought-prone and crop performance is subject to the vagaries of the Sahelian climate. As a result, agriculture's performance and contribution to national income have been extremely volatile over the last three decades. Production growth has fluctuated widely between years according to rainfall; in the severe drought year of 1984, production fell by 20%, whereas in the exceptionally good rainy season of 1988, the sector's share of GDP grew by 24%. 37. Underlying this erratic performance is a trend of minimal increases in overall production. Total cereals production increased by only 1.8% per year during the 1980s, compared to population growth of 3.3% per year. Most of this growth has come as a result of the expansion of agriculture rather than increases in productivity. The total area under cultivation has expanded by an average of 2% per annum but with minimal gains in overall production. 38. Until recently, improving natural resource management was not a real issue. Land was abundant relative to the population and traditional production systems, which rclied on extensive cultivation or livestock, and were in relative equilibrium with the environment. Although Niger has never been densely populated, for much of this century it has supported high human densities given its biophysical conditions and levels of technology and investment largely because production systems were well-adapted to the environment and climatic conditions. The traditional land-use system of Nigerien farmers (still widely practiced) is to clear a field of vegetation, often by burning, which not only removes weeds but also reduces pests and pathogens. The field is planted with a series of crops, millet and sorghum being the most important, for several years until yields decline. The decline in yields is the result of several factors, including: (i) loss of fertility, and especially of nitrogen and phosphorus; (ii) poor structure, or water-retention capacity, due to loss of organic matter or topsoil, compaction, and reduced water infiltration; and (iii) weed, pest, and pathogen competition. When yields decline to the level where they do not justify labor inputs and the tithe paid to the chief, and where the investment to prepare new land for cultivation is justified, the old fields are left fallow. During this time the topsoil accumulates nitrogen and organic matter, and its structure improves. Eventually the field is cultivated again a few year- later. 39. In many cases, farmers and pastoralists use the same land at different times of the year. Crops planted in the beginning of the rainy season are harvested in September-November as the dry season sets in. Pastoralists migrate southward at this time, and with village elders permission, thcy let their herds graze on  9 crop residue, while fertilizing the fields with manure in return. When the rains return, pastoralists take their flocks north to where fodder is abundant and more nutritious than in the cultivated zone, and where they have sole land-use rights. 40. In recent years, many factors have contributed to opening up new lands for agriculture, upsetting the previous equilibrium and symbiotic relationship between farmers and pastoralists. With rapid population growth, land is no longer abundant relative to population yet demands for food require that more land be put under cultivation. This need has been met in two ways: first, agriculture has expanded into marginal areas and second, farmers have shortened fallow periods. 41. Both trends are unsustainable. Marginal land is usually marginal precisely because it has traditionally been considered too fragile for permanent cultivation. Soils in these areas were not traditionally used because they were low in fertility or prone to erosion, especially slopes and plinthic soils. Removing vegetation and tilling marginal land increases the risks of both vwind and water erosion. Marginal land is also likely to have lower natural production potential and so produce lower yields than land already in cultivation. Shortening fallows is also unsustainable in the absence of increased use of inputs to compensate for the lost recovery of soil nutrients. Fallow periods were reduced from 7.6 years at independence to 2.9 years today (UNCED, 1991) with little increased investment in inputs. Land productivity trends reveal this deepening crisis. Crop yields are either stagnant or declining, placing Niger's agricultural productivity among the lowest in the Africa. 42. The area under cultivation has expanded by 2% per annum during the 1980s, roughly doubling since independence. The results have been further loss of good topsoil, and further fertility decline. Faced with deteriorating soils and immediate needs for food, farmers have responded by cultivating more land to make up for the smaller yields they obtain from degraded fields, resulting in a vicious circle of declining yields, agricultural expansion, and increasing land degradation. 43. The rural population's 2.3% annual growth rate and the promotion of export crops, have led to recent pressures to produce agricultural surpluses. But the investment needed to produce surpluses without mining the soil has been out of reach for the vast majority of farmers. Inputs like fertilizers, improved crop varieties, and pesticides are not widely available, or they are too expensive for most farmers. Rural infrastructure and transport are inadequate. An effective agricultural credit system has been very difficult to establish. Returns on labor-intensive investments, like mulching and rain-harvesting or anti-erosion ridges, are not economically justifiable, especially compared with extensive agricultural practices like bringing new land into use. Moreover, limited security over land made such investments unattractive. Except in times of drought (and production deficits), cereal prices do not generally provide adequate revenues or incentives for farmers to produce surpluses. 44. The Government's dream of food self-sufficiency has been a partial cause of the present land degradation trend. The abundant rainfall from 1950 to 1967 led the government of independent Niger to believe that food self-sufficiency and a prosperous economy, based on agricultural exports, were possible. Good rains maintained land productivity and the Government encouraged the northward expansion of all agricultural activities. Reduced rainfall after 1968 dashed these hopes; agricultural production plummeted, and only in 1979-80 did Niger produce enough to feed itself. Yet the pursuit of food self-sufficiency has led to attempts to maintain or increase production levels even in drought years by expanding cultivation.  10 Such cultivation during drought renders the topsoil quite vulnerable to erosion and compaction. Without adequate moisture or vegetative growth, soil quality suffers and yields are poor. 45. The volatility of production levels illustrates how isky it is to rely on "own production" in the Sahelian region. The common lack of distinction between food security and food self-sufficiency tacitly assumes that own production is a less risky mode of satisfying domestic demand than is dependence on international trade. Evidence suggest otherwise. Increasingly, Niger must export in order to eat. 46. Another consequence of the droughts was to intensify the flow of young men in search of wage labor out of rural areas to the cities or coastal countries which has had several adverse effects on natural resource management. First, it shifted farming responsibilities to women who are not as likely to be reached by development programs and extension and are usually less aware of new technology. Second, it caused farmers to invest less heavy labor and cash in the land which frequently leads to mining the soil of its productive capacity. Third, it likely stimulated rural fertility as families tried to produce enough children (who will not emigrate) to till the land. The result is further expansion of agriculture onto new lands. 47. As land is in increasingly short supply, competition between farmers and pastoralists has increased. Gone are the days where farmers and pastoralists appreciated and benefited from each other's production patterns. Today, agriculture is highly concentrated in the moister southern zone, but has also spread to low-rainfall areas in the north that were traditionally pastoral areas. Low rainfall and poor grazing conditions have also forced herders to move south onto lands already under increasing pressure from farmers. The result is increasing competition for land and land-use conflicts which often take on ethnic and racial overtones. 48. Nigerien farmers are aware of the degradation of their resource base and the many factors causing it but often they lack the knowledge or means to address the situation. One of the main reasons why land is not better managed, aside from the fundamental issue of poor returns to cereal production, is that the present land tenure system does not give most farmers adequate incentives to improve or maintain the land they farm. Traditional land distribution systems allowed customary chiefs to control farmers' access to land, regulating labor, a scarce resource compared to land. With colonial rule and later independence, certain land-use rights were granted. For the first time ever, land began to be scarce too as rural elites and peasants alike had reason to cultivate as much land as possible. The results have been quite destructive to the land. Land which should not be cultivated is, causing soil and vegetative degradation and increased conflicts with pastoralists who are also traditional users. Fallows have been reduced to prove "continuous use" as the law states is necessary to gain title to it. Farmers are apt to maximize immediate returns, mining the soil, because they are not certain that they will benefit from its improvement or even its sustainable use in the future. Pastoralism 49. Overstocking of the Sahelian rangelands has long been claimed to be one of the main causes of desertification. Large herds above the carrying capacity of the land have purportedly been overgrazing the semi-anrd areas, exposing the fragile soil to erosion, ravaging the regenerative capacity of the land, and contnrbuting to the southward advance of the Sahara Desert. Fortunately, such tales of doom are exaggerated.  I1 50. The concept of over-stocking is ill-suited to pastoral production systems of the Sahelian region. It is based upon a notion of range management that does not consider dynamic ecological equilibrium states, climatic fluctuations, or opportunistic grazing and herd-size strategies. Commercial rangeland management posits that vegetation composition naturally tends towards a climax state, and passes through several other states on its way to the climax. Disturbance, from grazing for instance, sets the system back to a less desirable vegetation cover. In the Sahel, rangeland vegetation appears not to have a single climax state, but rather several states among which zones alternate. Thus for instance one area may have lush grass cover while a neighboring one may contain concentrations of scrubby brush, interspersed with bare patches. Fire, grazing, rainfall, and many other factors influence vegetative composition. Animal pressure is but one of many factors determining favorable or unfavorable grazing conditions. 51. The erratic, localized rainstorms of the Sahel can flood one area but leave another a few kilometers away, totally dry. This contributes not only to random variations in vegetation type but also chance distributions of lush growth. Therefore, Sahelian pastoralists employ opportunistic grazing strategies; they migrate to wherever "the grass is greenest" without being tied to particular parcels of land. The strategy allows the land to support much higher stock densities than would be possible with more sedentary herds. 52. Rangeland degradation is a problem, though the evidence suggests that it has been exaggerated, highlighting the need for more quantitative time series data on the state of the Nigerien range. Climate has played a central role in rangeland degradation. Drought decreases vegetative production and reduces the regenerative capacity of the range, especially after grazing. In addition to below-average rainfall over the last 25 years and the two severe droughts, the condition of rangelands has been exacerbated by wells drilled to supply pastoralists and their herds. Many boreholes were drilled during droughts to avert "imminent disaster". This short-term action has had long-term consequences. The boreholes opened new lands which traditionally did not support year-round grazing. The increased water supply encouraged pastoralists to maintain their herds in one area and increase herd size, when traditionally they would have decreased in size. This has exarcerbated problems of rangeland degradation. The areas surrounding many of these boreholes have been completely stripped of vegetation and trampled rock-hard, ruining their regenerative capacity. Additionally, farmers have begun cultivating near these boreholes, furthering soil degradation since the land is ill-suited to cropping. 53. Opportunistic grazing requires vast open expanses of pasture, which is not lacking in Niger, but presupposes no private ownership of the land. Such "communal property" or "open access" resources2 have long been mistrusted by many Nigerien and foreign development planners who blame pastoral land tenure systems for the degradation of Sahelian rangelands. 54. While communal pasture systems allow for greater productivity than those based on private ownership in the Sahel, stocking rates have undeniably increased over the past decades and rangeland has become degraded in some areas. Herds have increased in size, and are above commercial ranching's 2/ Whether rangeland is communal property or an open-access resource is a subject of much debate. The formner implies that the resources are owned by a group, rather than by an individual, and that it is in all group members' interest to care for them like private property. The second form of tenure implies that the resources are owned by nobody and that they are over-exploited because each individual's economic interest lies in exploiting them as much as possible, or else someone else will.  12 estimates of carrying capacity, for several reasons. Many pastoralist communities find themselves recently deprived of traditional sources of income. Livestock is their only remaining livelihood and means to accumulate wealth. Therefore thev increase herd sizes as much as possible. 55. Furthermore, classic notions of rangeland management look to maximize meat off-take, which implies lower stocking rates than maximizing other livestock products like milk, blood, transport, traction power, wealth storage, or prestige. Nigerien pastoralists tend not to value their animals solely in terms of meat production but also in terms of number of heads. Thus, they stock at a much higher rate than commercial ranchers would. Also, because the productivity of Sahelian rangeland fluctuates so greatly, depending on rainfall, assigning a single, ecological carrying capacity value makes little sense since it would be valid only in a year of extreme drought. Pastoralists are well aware that in drought periods of two years or longer, forage quality and quantity decrease, water is extremely scarce, and they lose much of their herd3. Nevertheless, they do not restrain herd sizes in good years just because they know drought will return and their herds will exceed the land's ecological carrying capacity. Losses serve to reduce grazing pressures in post-drought years when the range needs recovery time. 56. During drought periods, pastoralists sell much of their herds to survive. In recent years, their markets have shrunk bccause subsidized meat from the European Community is cheaper than Sahelian meat in the West African coastal countries. Were more efficient transport available, European dumping practices barred, and measures in place to buy livestock in times of emergency at fair prices, herds could be reduced efficiently at critical times and pastoralism would be more profitable to the nation. 57. Many pastoralists have been forced to sell their herds to rural and urban elites in the south. On the demand side, investing agricultural profits in livestock is more profitable for farmers than investing in agnculture (Shapiro et al., 1993). Many herders have become employees of absentee owners who are relativcly indifferent to rangeland quality or the pastoralists' well-being. Forestry 58. An estimated 2.7% or 70,000 ha-80,000 ha of Niger's forests are destroyed every year.4 Most deforestation occurs around cities and in the zone of cultivation along the borders with Nigeria, Benin, and Burkina Faso. This loss of tree cover has an immediate effect in this arid zone, where vegetation cover plays a crucial role in protecting and improving the soil. Loss of trees exposes the soils which are rapidly degraded by wind and water erosion. It also reduces wildlife habitat. 59. The two principal sources of deforestation are land clearing for cultivation and fuelwood collection, particularly to supply urban demand, although how much is due to each factor is difficult to determine. However, assuming 4 million ha are under cultivation, and this area is expanding by 2% per 3/ A single-season drought does not increase livestock mortality or degrade rangeland vegetation significantly. Two years or more of drought, however, are deadly. For example, the drought years of 1983-84 were lethal for Sahelian herds, although 1987, another year of extreme drought, was not reported by the Tuaregs as having been particularly harmful (Sollud, 1990). 4/ Using the 2.6 million ha estimate.  13 year, up to 80,000 ha of forest may be cleared each year for agriculture alone. Wood fuels represent 85% of all energy consumption, 87% of which is consumed in rural areas and 13% in urban areas. Rough estimates place fuelwood consumption at around 4-5 million cubic meters per year, and demand is increasing at 4.2% annually. At this rate, consumption doubles every 17 years. 60. In terms of fuelwood collection, urban demand has by far the most negative impact on the environment. Most of the fuelwood used by rural consumers is collected from dead wood that is available in the immediate surroundings of their villages. To date, it is estimated that rural populations are not consuming more wood than is naturally produced. Around urban centers, ESMAP-supported studies on Niamey, Zinder, and Maradi have shown that demand for fuelwood is above the sustainable rate of production and is leading to rapid deforestation in the periurban areas. The World Bank-supported Energy Project has a household energy component which aims to address this problem by implementing both 5 demand and supply side management measures 61. Increasing energy demands are in large measure a result of population growth, but the destruction of forest resources is also a matter of poverty and improper policies. Price distortions in the energy sector are one of the main causes behind the high rate of fuelwood consumption and limited substitution to alternative sources of energy. Normally, as household income increases, woodfuel is progressively replaced by other forms of fuel. The artificially low price of woodfuel, and the lack of comparably priced, alternate energy sources, make woodfuel the most attractive option for the impoverished Nigerien population, and do not provide incentives to economize its consumption with more efficient stoves. Levy taxes are well below the wood's true replacement value, which leads to a situation where, in 1991, firewood in Niamey was priced at about half what it should have been were consumers to bear the replacement cost. Removing economic distortions on woodfuel, promoting more efficient stoves, developing alternate energy sources, and increasing incomes would boost demand for cleaner fuels, reduce demand for wood, and slow the pace of deforestation. 62. The lack of proper management of trees is a legacy dating back to the colonial era. The French believed local populations were decimating forest resources and forbade tree-cutting without a permit. Only dead wood could be collected for firewood. Land tenure policies did not consider management of land for production, nor the collection of firewood, construction wood, and non-timber forest products as grounds for land ow-nership. Sustained agricultural use alone, which did not include tree planting, granted property rights. Any "unowned" land, hence all forested areas, automatically belonged to the state and became open-access resources. Local populations, therefore, had little incentive to manage forest resources. As urban centers have grown, the fuelwood trade has become a lucrative business providing a living for some 7,000 people. Until 1987, the incentive system in forest use favored deforestation for short-term gain rather than sustainable forest management. The state was theoretically responsible for forest management, but was more interested in protecting classified forests from illegal intruders to generate maximum revenue than it was in their sustainable use. Forestry agents alienated local populations, earning their distrust and lack of cooperation. Even today, very few Nigeriens will invest in or 5/ See: MME-MHE, 1990, Projet Energie II - energie domestique. Plan d'actions quinquennal. Version finale. Niamey, Ministere des Mines et de l'Energie (MME) et Ministere de l'Hydraulique et de l'Environnement (MHE), mars 1990, 79 p. Also: R6pub1ique du Niger, 1991, Schema directeur d'approvisionnement en bois energie de Niamey. Projet Energie II - energie domestique. Niamey, 128 p.  14 protect forests, because of their distrust of the state forestry agency and the ambiguity of property rights. The Code Rural, it is hoped, will rectify this situation. Biodiversity Protection 63. The main threat to biodiversity6 throughout West Africa is the loss of natural habitat. In the Sahel, over the past decade, over 400,000 ha of wildlands were converted to farmland and pasture. This expansion of agricultural land is in large part due to the rapid population growth in the region combined with the fact that, unlike most parts of the world, Africa has not responded to the demand for increased food by intensifying cropping, but by expanding the land area under cultivation. 64. From a global perspective, Niger is not an international "hotspot" for biodiversity. The country does not contain any known endemic species, though it is home to several endangered species including the West Affican ostrich, African elephant, cheetah, Nile crocodile, hippopotamus, dama, and addax. Niger's wildlife has decreased to approximately one-tenth of what it was at independence. Habitat loss, poaching, and hunting are the three primary causes for the decrease in wildlife (UNCED, 1991). 65. A protectionist approach has dominated biodiversity conservation efforts in Niger, as it has in the rest of Africa. Emphasis was placed on the establishment of national parks. Niger has six protected areas covering 7.7% of the country: the Air and Tenere Nature Reserve, Addax Strict Nature Reserve inside the Air and Tener6 Reserve, the W National Park, Dosso Partial Fauna Reserve, and Gadabedji and Tamou Total Fauna Reserves. Lack of political commitment, inadequate financial resources, and limited tourism potential mean that most of these parks are only "paper parks" with little effective protection on the ground. Since colonial times, hunting most wildlife has been made illegal. Local peoples, stripped of their traditional prerogative to use wildlife, have no incentive to manage it or protect it from poachers. As a result, settlement and expansion of agriculture in protected areas is commonplace and people continue to hunt illegally. 66. At a national and local level, biodiversity is important to Niger. Wild plant and animal species have many consumptive and non-consumptive uses, including foods (wild plants and game are nutritionally very important in some areas and provide a fall-back food source in times of drought), fuelwood, construction materials, medicines, ceremonial plants, and products for craft, tool, and clothing production. Natural habitats also play an important role in watershed protection (erosion control, water storage, and purification), small-scale erosion prevention (plants anchor the soil from water erosion and inhibit wind erosion), genetic stock supply (for maintaining a diverse genetic stock in crops and for crop-breeding purposes), allopathic pest suppression, shade, wind shelter, soil improvement (especially during fallow periods), nutrient cycling (animals and microbes help release nutrients locked in plant and animal residues), and seed dispersal by animals. These tangible elements and the functions they serve are indispensable, not only to a healthy physical environment, but also to human well-being and survival. 6/ "Biodiversity" refers to the variety of living organisms in an ecosystem or an area. It refers not only to the number of species, but also to the genetic diversity of the populations. Biological diversity is key to maintaining the integrity and continuity of ecological processes upon which production depends. The stability of production depends the full range of biodiversity and the latter's reduction can have unpredictable repercussions, as in 'simplified' agricultural systems which are vulnerable to pests and pathogens.  15 67. Wild animals and plants, therefore, are vital to economic development. It is fundamental that a national environmental strategy take into account the economic and cultural importance of biodiversity and regard biodiversity conservation not only in terms of protecting species for their survival's sake but for the economic and nutritional well-being of local populations. This highlights the need for more information gathering and analysis of the economic value of wild plants and animals, so that the value of biodiversity is factored into decision-making. Lessons may be leamed from programs developed elsewhere, particularly in Southern Africa, that aim to promote the rehabilitation and sustainable use of wild plants and animals, both for the benefit of local communities and for the conservation of biodiversity. Such an approach places greater emphasis on the use and perceptions of local people towards wildlife. Local populations must be offered tangible incentives to conserve natural habitats and limit agricultural practices. To achieve this, they must be involved in the planning, management, and distribution of benefits of protected areas. B. DEGRADATION OF THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 68. At independence, only 5% of Nigeriens lived in urban areas, compared with 20% today. The urban population is growing by 7.4% per year, compared with 2.3% in rural areas. Niamey, a city of 223,000 inhabitants in 1980, has about 850,000 today and is projected to have an estimated 1 million in the year 2000. Most of the newcomers are rural emigrants. 69. The environmental problems of Nigerien cities stem from this significant growth in urban population, urban dwellers' preoccupation with matters other than the environment, and the municipalities' lack of technical expertise and resources to address urban problems. These problems include water supply and quality, sewage and drainage systems, solid waste and garbage disposal, pollution from energy production and manufacturing, poor or absent city planning, and a lack of decent housing. The rural poor generally live in a safer environment than the urban poor. Poverty in cities forces large numbers of people to live in unsanitary conditions, without access to basic services such as clean water and health care. 70. Supplying water to Nigerien cities has not encountered the problems of permanent aquifer depletion or salinization, as in other Sahelian cities. In times of drought, however, Niamey and Tillabery, which are supplied by the Niger River struggle to provide water when the river runs dry. Surface and shallow water sources are easily contaminated by household, agricultural, and industrial waste. Many of Niger's health problems are directly related to unsafe water supplies, though this is an area in need of more data and research. The World Bank (1988) estimates that only 60% of the population had access to safe water in the mid-1980s. The remainder use public standpipes or buy their water privately. Only one water purification plant operates in Niger, in Niamey. 71. Sanitation and waste disposal facilities are inadequate. Sewage treatment exists in only the six largest cities, and generally not in their newer neighborhoods. Much urban sewage is deposited directly into pits, streets, or available bodies of water, such as the Niger River. Drainage systems are wholly inadequate to deal with the flash floods in the rainy season, which wash away roads and flimsy houses, and spread waste from households and dumps. 72. Solid waste disposal occurs mostly with donkeys carts, and is dumped in special lots in neighborhoods where it decays, attracts vermin, and is caught in floods. Collection is irregular, and in neighborhoods with recent rural emigrants who are not accustomed to living in crowded areas, garbage is  16 often simply discarded in the street. Poor urban road netxworks, especially in new neighborhoods, are a major handicap in effective solid waste removal. The Bank supported Public Works and Employment Project is helping to address this problem by supporting the establishment of a waste- collection system using donkey carts. 73. Higher rates of respiratory problems in cities than in rural areas are mainly due to high dust and smoke concentrations. Such significant concentrations result from several factors: urban street network is not paved, most automobiles are in poor shape, wood is the most common fuel, and common practices, such as uncontrolled waste incineration, contribute to the degradation of air quality. 74. Faced with overwhelming urban expansion, city planning has been inadequate or entirely lacking. The results have been haphazard urban sprawl, overcrowding, poor housing, insecure property rights, squatting, poor sanitation and health conditions, and a disproportionately low increase in municipal resources to provide for basic urban needs. Stemming the tide of rural emigrants is unlikely in the near future, and the flow could increase if another extended drought were to occur. Municipalities should provide and pass on the full costs of utilities and sanitation to urban residents, because the preventative health measures of clean water and air and a sanitary living environment are far more economical than curative measures. The challenge is to give access to the poor who most need, but can least afford, these services. Responsibility for garbage collection, road maintenance, and other elements of urban infrastructure upkecp should be decentralized to neighborhood committees when possible. Not only would municipal costs be reduced, but perhaps a less individualistic, "the-city-should-take-care-of-it," attitude can be fostered.  17 IV. EXISTING MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK A. POLICY FRAMEWORK Environmental Policies 75. The Government is presently in the process of developing a national environmental strategy or action plan. Environmental issues are not new to the development agenda of Niger; land degradation, in particular, has been a central governrnent concern since the mid-1970s. In 1984, a meeting was held at Maradi to discuss the drought situation and desertification. This meeting led to the initiation of several programs and plans with three objectives which still underlie environmental efforts today: (i) pursuit of food security; (ii) satisfaction of national energy needs; and (iii) protection, restoration, and improvement of the physical environment. Over time, other objectives were added, principally strengthening education, improving sanitation, and encouraging the participation of the population in the process of development. 76. The Plan national de lutte contre la desertification (PNLCD), which was completed in 1985, was the first comprehensive policy document addressing rural environmental issues. Its approach towards addressing desertification was sector-oriented, favoring physical investments to conserve and restore natural resources. However, the plan led to little action or investment largely because the main concepts were too broad, the strategies were not well spelled out, and implementation methodologies too weak. In 1991, the Government, with the assistance of UNSO, produced a new version of the PNLCD. The document contains a comprehensive analysis of the present state of natural resources and emphasizes the need for integrated natural resource management with a community-based approach as a solution to land degradation problems, reflecting the approach taken in the donor-supported Programme intJgrd de gestion des ressources naturelles (PIGRN). A Plan d'action forestier tropical (PAFT) was also prepared in 1991. Originally conceived as a free standing action plan, it was later made a component of the PNLCD which dealt with the forestry sector. 77. The PNLCD complements the Rural Development Policy (Politique de developpement rural pour le Niger (PDRN)) which has been a major undertaking of the Government and was adopted in 1992. The policy has a four-pronged strategy: (a) food security; (b) natural resources management; (iii) intensification and diversification of production; and (iv) organization and empowerment of rural communities and a modified (more supportive) role for the State. The PDRN reinforces the approach to be implemented under the PIGRN stating that the "national policy on integrated natural resources management will adopt an interdisciplinary and holistic approach, relying on an enabling judicial framework (the Code Rural) and aiming at a progressive transformation of agricultural and livestock production systems, while taking into consideration the fundamental ecological equilibrium." It also states that the gestion des terroirs approach is fundamental in natural resources management and that the latter must be accompanied by a sound population policy and must fit into a broader land use management framework to permit a long-term vision and optimal use of existing resource potential. Finally, the PDRN emphasizes "increased producers' participation and leadership," with particular emphasis on women, the progressive transfer of activities from the public to the private sector, and local community empowerment. 78. The PDRN marks a turning point in the evolution of Niger's environmental policy away from a sectoral approach to a more comprehensive view of rural production systems and from a command and control approach to a more participatory approach based on incentives. Agricultural policy is no longer  18 geared towards production increases and technological improvements, but pays more attention to the sustainability of natural resource use and the role of the private sector. The guiding principles of a rural development policy, the Code Rural, and the new decentralization policy are bound to play a major role in the definition of Niger's environmental strategy. 79. Despite the existence of several environmental policy-making initiatives, such as the PNLCD, none has yet achieved some important objectives defined for the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) process. Notably, broad national participation has been quite restricted. Some of the programs that have been proposed appear oriented more towards defining a list of projects for financing than on the key step of clearly articulating policy and institutional issues and priority areas for action. Further, most programs have focused on "green" issues related to land degradation, and have ignored "brown" issues, such as urban sanitation. They have also failed to clearly integrate and set environmental issues into the government's overall development strategy. Though several important building blocks exist, Niger still lacks a far-reaching NEAP that links environmental concerns to the development strategy and defines priorities and choices. 80. The NEAP process started in 1993 when, with the support of UNDP and CIDA, the Government of Nigcr undertook to draw up an environmental strategy framework paper which is to be the basis for preparing the future National Environmental A-tion Plan. The process of developing this framework paper involved substantial involvement of people and organizations concerned with environmental matters to elicit their perceptions and views on a national strategy that would integrate environmental concerns into development-related decisions. A preliminary draft was produced in Maryh 1994 and presented to the governmental agencies responsible for environmental management in Niger. The draft document is to be discussed in a national workshop in the near future. The next step should be the preparation of a fully- fledged National Environmental Action Plan. The Plan should provide the framework through which environmental issues are examined in the context of the overall development process and are prioritized and addressed in an integrated way. Relevant National Policies Food Security Strategy 81. Nutrition indicators place Nigenrens among the most malnourished people in Sub-Saharan Africa. Unofficial records from a recent nutrition survey show that nationwide, 33% of the children examined were stunted and among them, 15% were severely retarded in growth. The main factors for malnutrition are poverty and insufficient food availability, aggravated by poor feeding practices and hygiene. 82. Food secunrty issues are intimately linked to environmental concerns. Natural resource degradation is both a cause and an effect of food insecurity. The convergence of environmental and demographic pressures in a context of limited natural resources and stagnant agricultural production is at the root of Niger's food security problems. 7/ Lalande, Jean-Yves, 1994, Elements de strategie en matiere d'environnement au Niger. Etude present6e aux organismes gouvernementaux responsables de la gestion de l'environnement dans la Republique du Niger, in collaboration with Mahaman Mokhtar Sidi and Claude Bernard, March 1994.  19 83. There are three broad categories of people at risk of food insecurity in Niger: a. households and individuals in drought-prone areas, with an inadequate production base, especially land and resource-poor farmers, pastoralists households with small herds, households with relatively few workers per dependent, and households headed by women. b. households and individuals dependent on variable exchange and market relationships, including those who sell their own labor, pastoralists dependent on prices for animals and grains, and households whose income comes mainly from informal sector earnings. c. households and individuals with few stored assets, inadequate social networks, or claims for assistance that can be started in times of crisis; these are the destitute households, particularly the floating population around many towns in the north. 84. The socio-economic group that fall within these broad categories include drought-prone farming families, agropastoralists, nomadic herders, urban unemployed, low wage earners, and women and children. On average, almost 32% of the population is estimated to be food insecure in any given year. 85. The Government's food security strategy consists of three elements: (i) adjustment and liberalization; (ii) interventions in natural resource conservation, production, and services; and (iii) improving short-term household resilience. 86. The first component focuses on liberalizing input and output markets and prices so as to encourage competition, permit free circulation of food, and reduce transfer costs, all of which will contribute toward the improvement of people's access to food. It is also recommended that the Government have a credit policy that will permit small and new entrants easy access to credit. Adequate infrastructure, such as roads and storage and processing facilities, is needed, for markets cannot function without it. A well-organized and effective market information system has also to be in place so traders can move food to where it is most needed. 87. The food security strategy also highlights the importance of a conservation-led agricultural growth strategy recognizing the limitations of Niger's natural resource base. Dissemination and support of village- based water and soil management is the core program of the strategy which again reinforces the basic premise of the PIGRN. For crops and subregions that are responsive to modern agricultural technologies (fertilizers, pesticides etc.), a strategy of intensive cultivation should be adopted. Labor-intensive works will also be contracted as a potential source of income for food-insecure people. Attention will also be paid to improving livestock production. The linkages between farmer-oriented research and extension should be strengthened and support to agricultural training at all levels should be intensified. Non-farm small enterprises will be promoted by actions including supporting financial institutions that can address the needs of small entrepreneurs, skills training, and the establishment of a non-governmental enterprise promotion and development agency. 88. In the immediate future, many people will remain at risk from food insecurity so measures are suggested to ensure households have access to food at all times. These include food imports, limited stockholding of grain, health and nutrition education, and food aid.  20 Population Poliiy 89. Bringing down the rate of population growth is central to addressing environmental problems. In Niger, tackling this issue is difficult, however, as population control is a politically sensitive issue. Despite this, progress has been made both in terms of family planning and improving women's health. The Government adopted a National Population Policy in 1992. Its overarching goal is to tackle demographic growth and migratory flows so as to achieve a balance between demographic growth and economic development. 90. Efforts to reduce population growth are centered around a safe motherhood strategy, supported by the Bank-financed Population Project, focused on the provision of mother-child health care and family planning services at the district level. The Government has also made concerted efforts to improve education programs about safe motherhood and to increase access to information on family planning and AIDS/STDs (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrom/Sexually transmitted diseases). 91. The population program is making good progress given the difficult socio-cultural and religious environment. Family planning services are increasing and as of December 1993, the contraception prevalence rate (CPR) in Niamey was 24%, which compares favorably with other countries. Economic Policies 92. The present structure of Niger's economy, with its emphasis on agriculture and livestock, makes extensive use of Niger's scarcest resources: water and arable land. Population growth is placing increasing pressure on these resources and a continued reliance on extensive agriculture is unlikely to be sustainable. In its current macroeconomic policy framework the Government is committed to taking measures to encourage diversification of the economy. A deepening of these reforms is necessary to move Niger towards non-agricultural based goods and services in the long term. 93. It is difficult to determine what is the impact of current economic policies on the environment as the linkages between the two are complex and data is limited. Despite the lack of data, however, certain linkages can be made. Central to Niger's development strategy is the structural adjustment program which aims to reverse the economic decline of the 1980s and accelerate growth. Foremost among the economic reforms are efforts to put in place market friendly policies, to refocus the role of the Government on the efficient provision of essential services (health, education, agricultural services, and infrastructure maintenance), and to allow prices to reflect relative scarcities. In parallel, the structural adjustment program aims at diversifying the economy, strengthening policy-making, and facilitating the development of institutions -- public and private -- necessary for the private sector to prosper. These efforts were long thwarted by the overvaluation of the CFA franc. In January 1994, the Government of Niger, along with the other Governments in the franc zone, devalued their currency. 94. It is too early to judge the impact of the devaluation on the economy, let alone on the environment, though initial results of the parity change are encouraging. However, it is possible to hypothesize on the linkages between the devaluation and the environment and recommend steps to ensure that any possible negative impacts are mitigated. Agriculture is likely to be one of the sectors most affected by the devaluation. The devaluation will make export crops more competitive at the same time as making  21 imports, such as fertilizer, more expensive. One would expect farmers to respond by switching to export crops in the hopes of increased profits. This increased production can result either from expanding the area under cultivation or intensification. The current high rates of extensification in Niger suggest that the former option is more likely. The higher costs of inputs would also tend to push farmers in this direction, at least in the short run. Given the risk that extensification will occur onto marginal land where agriculture could lead to land degradation, it is vital to strengthen extension services and natural resource management programs to assist farmers utilize environmentally sustainable agricultural practices. 95. Pricing policies have a direct impact on the efficiency with which goods are used. Resources that are underpriced tend to be used wastefully. This is the case with many natural resources. Land, wood, and water are typically seen as free goods in Niger. As these resources become scarcer, attention needs to be paid to their pricing policies as a means of providing incentives for more efficient use. Inadequate charges for fuelwood has had a devastating impact on forest resources, particularly in peri-urban areas. The fees paid for tree cutting near urban areas are well below the cost of replacing the trees. They also do not take into account the value of the services tree cover provides, such as watershed protection, erosion control, non-timber forest products, and animal habitat. A more rational way to manage forests is to discourage cutting beyond the level of incremental volume produced by the forest, and to charge cutting fees equivalent to replacement costs. The resulting higher woodfuel prices would provide incentives to switch to other fuels, or to manage firewood more rationally and more economically. Water and water-related activities, too, are not priced to reflect their economic cost. Water supply both in urban areas and for irrigation is subsidized. Given the scarcity of water in Niger, this is a situation that needs to be addressed. B. LEGAL FRAMEWORK Land Tenure 96. Niger has made tremendous strides in developing a land tenure framework that aims to provide security of tenure to a variety of land users. Six years were spent developing a Rural Code which was finally approved and adopted by the National Assembly in March 1993. The implementation decrees, however, are still to be enacted. 97. The Rural Code constitutes a real breakthrough in Niger and the Sahelian region: it represents a complete framework, establishing rules for the access, use, and management of natural resources, principally land, water, forests, and wildlife. The objectives of the Code Rural are to: (i) give customary and written resource-use rights equal protection under the law; (ii) define the inalienability of property rights; (iii) protect customary grazing, transit, watering, and forest-use rights; (iv) protect both use rights of priority groups and third party rights; (v) allow hydrological, soil, and vegetative improvements, and trees and wildlife, in the case of ranching, to be treated as private property; (vi) vest use rights in individuals, voluntary associations, and traditional user-groups; (vii) give access to resources "without discrimination on the basis of sex or social origin"; (viii) provide a mechanism for recording use and property rights; and (ix) establish an administrative structure to evaluate appropriate land uses, take remedial actions in the case of inappropriate land use, legitimize property and all types of use rights, grant concessions or use rights to third parties, and resolve conflicts between claimants. All "vacant" land, defined as areas where "no proof of a property right can be established," belongs to the state; however, customary uses are protected by law. The state retains the right to take over land if it is in the public interest, but it must pay compensation for the land.  22 98. Two omnipresent themes are first, that all property and resource use rights are contingent on the development of the resources in question, and second, all property and use rights are contingent on good environmental management. Any entity owning property or with use rights of any sort may have all its use rights suspended if the resources in question are not put to productive use for three or more consecutive years. In the case of private property, use rights may be transferred to a third party designated by the owner or the state may designate a third party. Any activity by anyone with use rights that harns the environment is grounds for suspending the rights. If the area is degraded, the state may declare it une terre de restauration and halt all activity on the land. In such cases, property rights are not lost but merely suspended. Absentee livestock owners are to have contracts with their herders, and shall be solely or jointly responsible with the herders for any environmental damage caused by the animals. 99. The Rural Code aims to codify what currently exists as the unwritten law on the ground. The civil authorities are hoping that they will have to deal with fewer conflicts, notably as far as succession and inheritance are concerned, as citizen's and local communities' rights will be written down. Furthermore, the Code introduces new procedures including the establishment of Land Tenure Commissions (Commissions foncieres). Their task will be to assess land use, grant concessions, rule on disagreements between parties, and determine compensation, if appropriate. The new commissions are replacing the traditional chiefs in all matters concerning land. 100. The unbiased participation of chiefs in land tenure reform is crucial in obtaining the trust and participation of Nigeriens in the rural areas. Without the confidence that their rights will be recognized and protected fairly, the goals of halting land degradation, increasing investment in the land, stemming the rural exodus and increasing agricultural productivity and output will remain as distant as ever. 101. Under the Rural Code, sedentary farmners are given explicit title to land, while pastoralists have their use rights protected either as droit d'usage priorilaire or droit d'usage commun in their terroir d'attache. In no case, except when pastoralists are settled in a "fixed and perennial" manner in a delimited area, can they receive property rights to land. Owners with property rights can dispose of their property in ways permitted under private law, provided that all restrictions outlined in the Rural Code are obeyed. The restriction on pastoralists' property rights is to ensure that they do not sell their best lands to farmers in times of hardship. In other African countries, land sales have impoverished the pastoralists and resulted in the transformation of rangelands to fields. 102. The law is a major step forward in defining an appropriate land tenure framework, however, there are several areas that need to be clarified. In the opinion of certain Nigerien jurists, implementation of the Rural Code could bring about imprecise judicial results, possibly leading to problems in some cases. It is feared that when it comes to proof of land rights, differences between the civil law and the customary law might arise. The Rural Code states that the only applicable forms of proofs are those accepted by the civil law, a condition which could disfavor certain individuals and communities. As for pastoralism and right of priority use over the local resources, the Rural Code does not define the terroirs d'attache nor the procedures that one must follow to establish legally-recognized rights over those lands. This deficiency could lead to conflicts. Finally, land left vacant for more than three consecutive years can be taken away from its owncr and temporarily lent to another farmer but the notion of "vacant" is not defined in the Code. Problems can arise since the average traditional fallow period is 7-8 years; thus land left fallow may come to be considered "vacant", whereas in fact it is under management.  23 Other Environmentally-Related Laws 103. Besides the Rural Code, Niger has other laws, ordinances, and regulations that deal with various aspects of the environment. Certain texts are several years old and in need of updating, whereas others provide a good legal basis for environmental regulation. 104. Non-Renewable Natural Resources. The GON has adopted two laws dealing with non-renewable natural resources. The first is dated 16 September 1992 and deals with the Code petrolier (ordonnance No. 92-45). It defines the juridical and fiscal regulations for petroleum and gas prospecting, research, and exploitation, as well as related construction and installations. T1he ordinance also defines the rights and obligations of the firms involved in these activities. 105. The second law (ordonnance No. 93-16), dated 2 March 1993, is the Loi miniere requires developers to submit an environmental impact study to the ministry in charge of environmental protection, as a condition to get the required permits for mining activities. The law has a model mining agreement that contains a particular provision for environmental protection, and specifically for compulsory monitoring by any new mining firm of pollution and other environmental effects. These laws are the only laws that contain such clauses on the environment. The next step will be to strengthen the capacity to implement and monitor the laws to ensure that the standards are actually complied with. 106. Renewable natural resources. On 2 March 1993, Niger enacted a law (ordonnance No. 93-014) to define and determine water regulations throughout the country. The Code defines the obligations of users of public water. Notably, Article 11 states that "anyone who uses a watering place must take part in its management and maintenance." The article places responsibility on individuals and communities, in accordance with the observations and suggestions proposed by the Schema directeur de mise en valeur et de gestion des resources en eau , and it deals with quantitative and qualitative protection of water and the means to control pollution. 107. Niger has had a Livestock Code since 1970 (Law No.70-19) that deals with cattle breeding. The Code governs cattle health and the quality of commercial animal products. On 18 June 1987, the Code was complemented by a decree (decret No. 87-77/PCMS/MI) on cattle grazing and movement in agricultural zones. It prohibits cultivation in areas that are reserved for cattle movement. But the decree is not complied with in certain areas where farmers have become established in transhumance corridors. 108. Niger adopted a forestry law in 1974 (loi No. 74-7 and ordonnance No. 74-16). Officials in the Ministry of Water and the Environment (MWE) believe that the present law on forestry should be modified to take into account the policy recommendations of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (PAFT). A separate law governs the issuance of woodcutting permits (ordonnance No. 97-11) and determines the fee for cutting fuelwood that varies according to wood species and tree size. As a result of the work done in the framework of the Energy II Project, the law was modified in 1992 to accord with the ordinance concerning 8/ Republique du Niger, 1993, Schema directeur de mise en valeur et de gestion des ressources en eau. Niamey, Ministere de l'Hydraulique et de l'Environnement (September 1993), 105 p.  24 "market organization and transportation of wood in large urban areas, and applicable tax therein" (ordonnance No. 92-037 dated 21 August, 1992). 109. Hygiene and Public Health. Niger's Public Hygiene Code of 2 March 1993 (ordonnance No. 93-13) deals with waste and garbage. It defines hygiene rules for public roads, streets and areas, and deals with hygiene in houses, food, water, industrial plants, commercial settings, and the natural environment. It also governs noise and health inspection at the country's borders. The Public Hygiene Code supplements the law No. 66-033 of 24 May 1966 concerning hazardous or unhealthy establishments. That law governs industrial or commercial establishments likely to be unsafe for reasons of security, public health, or their impact on agriculture. 110. Niger has a set of sector-based laws governing some aspects of the environment, but the laws are incomplete. They need to be updated and harmonized to avoid overlaps and to clarify the roles and responsibilities of both the regulators and those regulated. C. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Government Institutions 111. Since January 1992, the Ministry of Water and the Environment has been designated the lead agency on environmental matters. Historically, environmental management has been equated with the fight against desertification and forest protection and hence, within this ministry, it was the Department of Forests that played the lead role on environmental planning activities, such as the National Plan of Action to Combat Desertification. This Department has now been renaned the Department of the Environmnent and its mandate extended to include pollution, as well as environmental awareness-raising and information. 112. The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAL) also plays a key role in issues concerning natural resource management. In order to improve coordination between MWE and MAL, the Government of Niger established a Natural Resource Management Unit (Cellule de gestion des ressources naturelles - C-GRN) in April 1992 to develop a policy and strategies on NRM which formned the basis of the project design of the National Natural Resource Management Project (PNGRN). 113. In other environmental areas, such as the urban environment and pollution, there is no clear assignment of responsibility. The results often are inaction and confusion. For example, five governmental divisions and services are concerned with pollution and sanitation: - the Service de Iutte contre les pollutions et les nuisances (SLPN) of the Direction de 1'environnement (MHE); - the Direction des etablissements dangereux, insalubres et incommodes (Ministre des Mines et de l'Energie); - the Direction de l'HygiMne el de I'Assainissement (Minist&re de la Sante pub lique); - the Service de l'assainissement of the Direction de l'urbanisme (Minist&re de l'Equipement et de I'A mnagement du Territoire); - the Communaute urbaine de Niainey.  25 114. This lack of institutional coherence will not be solved until an overall environmental policy is adopted and a strategy designed to implement it, with roles and responsibilities assigned clearly to the various institutions. The National Environmental Action Plan process is specifically designed to facilitate this type of institutional restructuring process. Decentralization and Community Empowerment 115. Clarifying rights and responsibilities for natural resource management is a vital part of the process of improving resource use in rural areas. Individual ownership of land and resources is not always the appropriate solution as many resources are communally owned. Crop land can be, and de facto has always been, managed at the individual level. However, pastoral and forest lands, water resources and infrastructure continue to be community or public property and their management and use in Niger is also often collective. Local communities, however, do not have the legal identity and power to administer these resources, that are therefore everybody's and nobody's property. In the early years of independence in 1964, Niger addressed these issues by passing the first decentralization law, giving local communities legal identity and financial autonomy. However, this law and the subsequent amendments were never implemented. 116. Under the new democratic Government, a new law determining the fundamental principles of administration of districts and municipalities (the Decentralization Law) was approved by the Government in October 1993 and is pending ratification by the National Assembly. Under the proposed Decentralization Law, districts and municipalities will become legal entities as "territorial communities" that will be represented by elected Councils. They will have responsibility over local finances and the management of local public services and community assets. The next step in decentralization, currently under consideration, is to set up local community-level village committees that have legal rights and responsibilities over local assets. 117. A number of inconsistencies exist between the Decentralization Law and the Rural Code which will need to be clarified before the law is passed. These include the role and power of the land commissions and the status and attributions of customary chiefs and the chairmen of the rural councils. The Role of NGOs 118. Until 1991, when they were granted legal standing, NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) did not officially exist in Niger. However, despite this lack of legal recognition, NGOs have flourished in Niger since the drought period when many were involved in emergency relief efforts. Recently, an umbrella organization has been established to promote the emergence of Nigerien NGOs. It has about 36 members, of which 17 are Nigerien, and it facilitates information exchanges and the sharing of the NGO experience. It also provides various administrative services to its members to assist them in the preparation and implementation of projects. 119. NGOs have already contributed a great deal to certain types of projects, notably those concerning small-scale infrastructure development, such as wells, and community land management (gestion des terroirs). Several future projects, especially those to be carried out in the PNGRN framework, anticipate using NGOs for various components, notably those concerning consciousness-raising and mobilizing the participation of rural communities.  26 120. As Niger moves towards a more decentralized system of government, Niger's civil society is bound to play an increasingly important role in the country's governance and development. NGOs and the village associations will increasingly become the essential partners of Government. The GON supports Niger's NGOs through a coordination mechanism that it has established in the Department of Regional Development in the Ministry of Finance and Plan and has even made a financial contribution to Niger's NGOs to support their work. D. SCARCITY OF INFORMATION 121. The lack of information on environmental issues in Niger is a reflection of the country's overall resource situation. It is also due in part to the lack of demand for data. Information is rarely, if ever, conceived or organized to satisfy specific operational management processes and objectives. It is designed to describe problems, but not to formulate or implement solutions. 122. Reliable data is lacking on the biophysical environment. Quite often, national and donor-supported programs accumulate a wealth of information, but it is highly specialized, region- and time period-specific, and in a format that is incompatible with other information so that it is useless for constructing a general database. A digitized inventory of the country's natural resources, including their location, abundance, condition, current uses, and use-trends would be the first step towards gathering useful environmental information. Long-term information gathering programs must be built into all development efforts, making sure to use compatible data standards and structures so that data from a smaller scale can be aggregated into a Digital Base Map Database. 123. Demographic, sociological, and economic data are often available, but knowledge of how to incorporate them into development planning is lacking. Information on the impacts of policies on the environment is quite scarce, as is the capacity to conduct environmental assessments (EAs), because policy-makers are not generally trained in the relevant disciplines. Training a specialized cadre of people to conduct EAs, and raising awareness of planners on their uses are essential.  27 V. ACTIVITIES OF THE WORLD BANK AND OTHER DONORS A. WORLD BANK ACTIVITIES IN NIGER 124. Niger's central development challenge is to reverse the trend of declining per capita income and social welfare, in the face of one of the poorest natural and human resource bases in Africa. Achieving that will require sustained assistance from the international community, carefully conceived to meet priority needs in sectors which are crucial for growth. Because of severe constraints and uncertainties, such as a relatively undiversified economy, limited natural resources, the price of uranium, and erratic rainfall patterns, Niger's development potential depends on the: (i) human resource development to build a skilled and productive labor force; (ii) well-targeted investment in critical sectors, notably education, health, agriculture and natural resources management, and economic infrastructure; (iii) mobilization of domestic savings and improvement of resource use efficiency in the public and private sectors through policy reform; and (iv) sustained irnprovement in the competitiveness of the economy through lower domestic production costs, and an environment conducive to private investment, including well-functioning factor markets. 125. The Bank's strategy in Niger aims to reverse the downward trends in per capita income and social indicators. Long-term poverty alleviation, human resource development, food security, improved nutritional status, capacity building, private sector development, reversal in environmental degradation, and maintenance and rehabilitation of infrastructure are the major objectives. The low absolute level of per capita income, coupled with the fact that the bulk of the population depends on subsistence agriculture or pastoralism, mean that poverty alleviation will depend in large measure on broad-based growth and expansion of basic services and, to a lesser degree, on directed programs of assistance. IDA's assistance strategy for Niger is based on four major building blocks: (i) addressing long-term human capital (including poverty alleviation) and natural resource and environment issues; (ii) building public and private sector institutions to promote private sector based growth; (iii) increasing efficiency of public resource management; and (iv) supporting actions to facilitate supply response in the wake of the devaluation of the CFA franc. Within the existing portfolio of current and planned operations are several projects that will help Niger address its environmental problems. It is well-recognized that the Bank is a relative "late-comer" to the environmental scene in Niger, having in the past left other donors take the lead in directly supporting environmental programs and projects. However, through a number of recent operations (see below) and studies such as the Food Security Study (FY93), Women in Development (WID) Assessment (FY94), Poverty Assessment (FY95, ongoing), and this CESP, the Bank has intensified its assistance to and dialogue with Niger on environrnental issues. Furthermore, through this CESP and the preparation of the proposed Programme national de gestion des ressources naturelles (PNGRN; Natural Resources Management Program), the Bank is playing a significant role in helping the GON to develop a NEAP. A number of projects through which the Bank is assisting Niger on environrmental issues are described here briefly. The Bank and other donors are working with the Govcrnment to develop an integrated approach to sustainable natural resource management. Building on earlier experience, the Natural Resource Management Program or Programme national de gest7on des ressources naturelles (PNGRN - FY95) will aim to achieve sustainable agricultural production and growth, and restore biodiversity by stopping, and ultimately reversing, the current depletion and degradation of land and other natural resources. The objectives of the first five years time slice of this long term program are to: (i) assist the GON in devising a national policy framework and strategies in NRM; (ii) assist rural  28 communities in designing and implementing sustainable NRM plans on their land; (iii) provide technical and financial support to on-going projects in their efforts to promote sustainable NRM approaches at the community level; (iv) provide training in NRM-related fields to concerned project and community members, and to associated government and NGO staff; and (v) set up environmental information and project-impact monitoring systems. The preparation of the PNGRN has also provided a vehicle through which the Bank has been assisting Niger to prepare its NEAP. * The Agricultural Services Proiect (FY92) represents the first five-year time slice of a long-term national program to strengthen agricultural, livestock, and environmental protection extension with a view to generate increased agricultural production and sustained income growth for farmers and herders. The program's main elements are: (i) efficient organization of extension services; (ii) regular and continuous staff training; (iii) better linkages between extension and national and regional research; (iv) strengthening of relations between crop farming, livestock, and environment services; and (v) functional literacy and numeracy training for men and women. * The ongoing Small Rural Operations Project (FY88) is providing support for the Government's decentralization policy by reinforcing the capacity of field-level technical staff in project preparation, execution, and evaluation and by facilitating the participation of beneficiary groups and NGOs in small rural operations and investments, such as bottomlands improvements, small irrigated perimeters, soil conservation and watershed management, and social forestry. * The National Agricultural Research Project (FY90) aims to establish and implement a priority national research program. This project will help extend viable technologies, such as water retention dikes. - A proposed Private Irrigation Proiect (FY94) aims to improve food security through the development of small-scale, privately managed irrigation schemes. X The Energy Project (FY88) has a household energy component that aims to improve the performance of the Nigerien energy sector through, among others, the promotion of (i) firewood conservation, substitution of energy sources, and improved management of natural forest cover; (ii) renewable energy; and (iii) conservation and provision of electricity at least cost. Urban area have been particularly targeted. The project has encouraged improved forest resources management and is redressing current trends towards over-exploitation. Most of the relevant regulatory framework was put in place in the past year. * A planned Infrastructure Rehabilitation Proiect (FY95) would include components to provide basic water supply service to the poorest people, tackle inefficiencies in the water supply system, improve the maintenance of existing water-supply infrastructure, and slow down the spread of water-borne diseases. * The Bank is supporting a Public Works and Employment Project which deals with the problem of effective solid waste removal. A waste collection system, based on appropriate technology and local carts, is being established.  29 B. OTHER DONORS' ACTIVITIES 126. Many donors have assisted Niger at the national environmental policymaking and planning level. UNSO played the leading role in developing the PNLCD and the UNCED Report. The FAO helped the Government develop the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (PAFT) and assisted the completion of the Code Rural, which was funded initially by USAID, SWISSAID and the World Bank. The PNGRN is a collaborative effort principally of the World Bank, USAID, CFD and NORAD, but also of CIDA, GTZ, DANIDA and the FAO. 127. Most donor-financed activities are focused on rural environmental problems and many of these activities are implemented by NGOs. Much donor activity has supported provision of water in rural areas. In the energy sector, a coal project, financed by CIDA, aims to substitute fuelwood and has started operating a pilot coke plant in Agadez. GTZ has an improved woodstoves program in Niamey. The EC, as part of a regional program for the Sahel, is financing a three-year program for the dissemination of subsidized bottled-gas stoves. An important conservation and development effort is under way in the Air and Tenere National Nature Reserve, supported by International Union for the Conservation of Nature, DANIDA, and the World Wildlife Fund. A German-sponsored urban solid waste removal project has pioneered appropriate technology solutions in some cities. 128. Some of the more successful natural resource management projects in Niger are water harvesting initiatives in Guesselbodi National Forest, Ouirihamija and Keita Arrondissement (supported by Swissaid, USAID and Italy, respectively), the construction of channel protection dams to stop channel erosion and gully erosion in Ouirihamija (SWISSAID), the planting of windbreaks in the Maggi valley (initiated by CARE), and soil fertility improvements by farmers planting and protecting Gao trees in the Dosso Arrondissement (UNSO).  30 VI. ELEMENTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY 129. Environmental problems in Niger pose an immnediate and critical threat to its sustainable economic and social development. Yet despite the gravity of Niger's environmental problems, the complexity of the solutions call for a long-term strategy. Such a strategy must be an integral part of the overall development strategy if it is to succeed. It must also be a strategy that is country-driven, developed by the Government of Niger, in partnership with the donor community. 130. Addressing environmental concerns in Niger is an integral part of reducing poverty, as it is the poor whose daily lives are most affected by environmental degradation. Reducing the rate of population growth and improving education levels are central. Sustainability and continued economic development demand that population growth, whether in rural or urban areas, should reflect resource limitations. Restraining population growth will depend primarily on education, particularly for girls, backed up by appropriate family planning. Ensuring sustainable development will also require that the economy diversifies to reduce the dependency on the natural resource base. This will require a massive investment in human resource development and in ensuring a macroeconomic policy framework is in place that encourages private sector investment and growth. 131. To achieve substantial and lasting improvements in natural resource management and environmental protection, experience in both developing and industrialized countries demonstrate the need for coherent institutional and regulatory frameworks, appropriate regulatory and economic policies, and the necessary capacity to implement cost-effective approaches to environmental problems. Given limited financial and human resources, investments need to be prioritized according to explicit criteria and the most cost-effective means of addressing the problems pursued. 132. The Government is in the process of developing a national environmental action plan that will put forward Niger's strategy to tackle its environmental problems. This chapter provides an input into that process. It highlights options that the Government may consider to improve the institutional and regulatory framework for environmental management. Ultimately, however, the NEAP will only lead to effective action if it has strong political backing. Time and effort, therefore, need to be spent in involving all stakeholders in the NEAP process -- government agencies, non-governmental organizations, community groups, and the private sector -- and building a consensus. Dialogue allows conflicting interests to be made explicit and resolved and it facilitates intersectoral collaboration allowing for more integrated decision- making, which is a necessary part of environmental management. A. SETTING THE INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK 133. Achieving substantial improvements in environmental management will depend in large part on the establishment of an adequate institutional and regulatory framework. This is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for improving environmental management. Implementation is key. Lack of effective implementation has too often been the cause of failed environmental policies and action plans in the past. Attention, therefore, must be paid to answering the question "how" will these policies be implemented and efforts made to ensure that effective monitoring and enforcement mechanisms are in place. 134. Building an institutional and regulatory framework for environmental management requires, at a minimum: (i) establishing an effective institutional framework which includes a clear and transparent  31 institutional structure and adequate capacity for environmental management; (ii) passing and enforcement of environmental legislation; (iii) involving public support and participation in environmental planning, decision-making and program implementation; (iv) strengthening information systems; and (v) carrying out research on environmental problems so as to guide policy-makers and refine interventions. Institutional Framework 135. Formulating and implementing effective environmental policies and standards requires competent institutions with clear mandates to develop and issue standards and regulations, enforce compliance, and establish the necessary regulatory and economic policy frameworks for effective environmental management. Priority actions to achieve this are: Clarify the Institutional Framework Articulate and clarify the mandates of environmental institutions and restructure the existing organizational framework, if necessary (see para. 136). Clarify the authority and accountability of each of these institutions. Train People in Environmental Management Functions. Prepare a program for the retraining and reorientation of personnel in existing environmental institutions and ministerial bodies to strengthen managerial and technical capacities for performing environmental functions. Decentralize environmental management. Environmental problems are often local problems that can only be tackled effectively at the local level. The role of local government in environmental management should be strengthened. Environmental committees could be set-up at the municipal and communal level involving representatives from Government, private sector, community groups, and NGOs. Provide technical and financial assistance. Given the lack of capacity for environmental management in Niger, external technical and financial assistance will be required. To date, the effectiveness of such assistance has been undermined by lack of coordination and duplication of efforts. The NEAP process should aim to ensure better coordination of donor efforts on the environment and focus on a selected number of programs; present programs should be reviewed to determine which should be accelerated, continued, postponed, or eliminated. 136. The institutional framework for environmental management in Niger may need to be restructured. Typically, elsewhere in the world, one lead agency is given the responsibility for central environmental management functions which include: * setting and adopting environmental standards; * creating incentive and disincentive schemes to promote protection and conservation of the environment; * reviewing and, when necessary, proposing changes to legislation; * ensuring compliance and implementation of legislation;  32 * issuing guidelines for environmental assessments; * assessing and monitoring policies, programs, and projects with significant environmental impacts. Supervision and review of any mitigation or corrective action will be needed; * gathering and disseminating information on the environment; * coordinating all govemment department actions which deal with environment; * following intemational developments in the environmental field and ensuring Niger is in compliance with intemational conventions. 137. An in-depth study and evaluation of available options and identification of the most appropriate institutional framework for Niger could be carried out as part of the NEAP process. This should identify if, and how, to restructure institutions to strengthen environmental management capacity. Most countries have either (i) established or strengthened a separate environmental ministry; (ii) delegated the responsibility for all environmental aspects to an agency administratively placed in a line ministry, but operating independently; (iii) given overall control of environmental management to one line ministry which works in cooperation with other relevant ministries; or (iv) have established an environmental protection agency directly under the Council of Ministers. 138. When looking at how best to structure institutions, attention should reach beyond the governmental framework to define more clearly the roles of government, non-governmental organizations, private sector, and community associations in environmental management and strengthen the linkages between these groups. Efforts should be made for the establishment of more participatory and people-oriented and less technocratic approach to environmental management. Regulatory Framework 139. The consolidation, expansion, and modernization of laws relating to the environment are important steps towards improving environmental management in Niger. Priority actions are: Adopt the Environmental Code. The Environmental Code presently under preparation needs to be completed and enacted. Formulate and Issue Appropriate Supporting Regulations and Standards. Once the Environmental Code is passed, existing legislation should be reviewed to ensure that it is in compliance with the framework law. If necessary, new laws should be enacted to regulate areas currently unregulated, e.g. waste disposal and industrial pollution. Establish Environmental Assessment Procedures. Environmental assessment (EA) guidelines and procedures do not currently exist in Niger. This is an important gap that merits priority attention. Strengthen Monitoring and Enforcement Capacity. Many of Niger's law are not abided by due to lack of enforcement capacity. This highlights the need to explore market-driven, easy-to-  33 implement incentives for environmental management rather than relying on command and control mechanisms. However, where regulation and enforcement is the best approach, enforcement capacity needs to be strengthened. Promoting Public Support and Participation 140. Experience throughout the world has demonstrated that environmental improvement cannot be initiated or sustained without constituencies that actively support and participate in environmental management and decision making. Programs to inform people about the risks of environmental problems and alternatives to solve them can motivate affected groups to participate in the process of environmental management, stimulate self-help and community action, and promote innovations. Priority actions are: Strengthen Public Information Campaigns. Awareness of Niger's dependence on a rapidly deteriorating environment should be raised at all levels. Public awareness campaigns should be launched to educate and motivate the public to take action (e.g., on using soil and water conservation technologies, waste collection, and improving sanitation arrangements). All forms of media should be used to disseminate information, including the radio, traditional theater, music, and posters and pamphlets in public places. In addition to more general campaigns, media campaigns can be directed towards specific groups and sectors (e.g., women, children, agriculture, and industry). Introduce Environmental Education. Environmental education should be introduced as part of school curricula. Education will initially be required of the teachers themselves at all levels (primary schools, secondary schools, technical schools, and universities). Information Systems 141. The capacity to plan and implement appropriate responses to natural resource degradation and the risks associated with urbanization is hampered by insufficient knowledge of both the nature and magnitude of the problems as well as the processes of environmental degradation. To address these constraints, efforts should be directed at building environmental data bases, promoting consistency in data and maps, expanding the network of environmental information providers and users, and strengthening the capacity of environmental institutions to access and analyze existing information. Priority actions are: Establish Environmental Monitoring Mechanisms. A network to monitor key indicators of the state of the environment, such as water quality, is required. Setting up such a network would require: determining environmental quality standards, improving and harmonizing existing data collection systems, and standardizing data collection and analysis procedures. Well-managed data bases would be the key to informnation use. Standardize Environmental Information. The establishment and adoption of a common information architecture (geographic scales, base maps, and nomenclatures) would greatly facilitate the compatibility of various types of information and their utility for analysis. Existing data should be converted to commonly agreed formats.  34 Establish a Network among Users of Environmental Information. Such a network would promote information sharing and exchange by making existing data accessible to the public and favoring the adoption of compatibility standards. Provide Training in Data Analysis. Building capacity in data analysis is another priority for effective environmental management. Training should be provided to ensure there is adequate capacity to assess available data, standardize it, and identify future data needs and data management systems. Environmental Research 142. Niger has accumulated considerable information on its natural and human environment. However, these data have largely been collected during the preparation of projects that are primarily sector-based or dealing only with a specific area of the country. The result is a large amount of fairly inaccessible data scattered among different institutions. Identify and Initiate National Research Programs on Priority Areas. Areas in need of research include quantifying the extent of land degradation and its impact on agricultural productivity, loss of biodiversity, the environmental impacts of mining, Niger's solar-energy potential, the level variations of the Niger River and their effect on the fishery potential. In Niger's urban centers, present information on the quantity and nature of waste are not sufficient to define efficient and appropriate solutions for handling urban waste. As regards the human environment, the significance, characteristics, and environmental impact of migration need to be better understood. What matters is not just to understand and measure the size and destination of population movements, but to achieve a better understanding of qualitative parameters such as "who is moving" and "why?". The environmental impact of the CFA franc devaluation is another area in need of study. Strengthen Institutional Capacity to Carry out Environmental Research. Efforts should be made to identify researchers in the environmental field and encourage increased research and links with policy making. Several institutions already exist that can carry out such work including several departments in Niamey University and AGRHYMET (Centre Agro et hydro-Mctorologic). B. TACKLING PRIORITY ISSUES 143. In the immediate future, the two priorities for environmental management are to improve natural resource management and urban environmental management. Underlying both these areas, is the need for prudent management of the country's scarce water resources. More attention needs to be paid to the specifics of these problems and prioritizing geographic areas where problems are particularly severe. 144. Priorities then need to be made as to specific actions. Priority setting is important as it helps target interventions to actions that have the greatest net benefit. This is particularly necessary in Niger where the Government has limited human and financial resources. Prioritizing actions and responses should ideally also involve selection of the type of policies and instruments to implement. All too often the immediate response to environmental problems in Niger has been to search for financing for investment projects. Too little consideration has been given to other environmental management tools, such as market-based  35 incentives and environmental education and information, which are generally more cost-effective and have longer-term results. 145. Possible criteria to prioritize actions include: (i) cost-effectiveness - the cost of the action should be weighed against the benefits of addressing the problem which may include human health effects, productivity gains, and amenity values; (ii) institutional and financial capacity; (iii) compatibility with other existing and planned programs; (iv) ecological effects including likelihood of irreversible damage without action; and (v) equity effects. Natural Resources Management 146. Reversing current land degradation trends associated with agricultural and forest practices is necessary for sustaining Niger's economy. Priority actions should focus on implementing the Governnent's community-based natural resource management prograrn, identifying economic incentives to promote sustainable resource, use and developing non-farm employment opportunities in rural areas. Implement the Rural Code. Any ambiguities in the Rural Code need to clarified and implementing decrees passed. Local populations then need to educated as to the content of the law and their rights and responsibilities under it. Ensure Effective Implementation of the Community-Based Natural Resource Management Program. This program represents an attempt to consolidate and increase investment in NRM throughout the country. Every effort must be made to ensure that the program is implemented effectively. Ensure Wider Implementation of the Household Energy Strategy. Several efforts are underway to implement demand and supply side measures to improve energy conservation and reduce deforestation. An evaluation of ongoing efforts should be done in order to identify areas in need of more attention. One area worthy of higher priority consideration is renewable energy. Research and Disseminate Sustainable Agriculture Practices. More applied research needs to be conducted on soil and water conservation techniques in partnership with farmers and the results disseminated widely. Promote multiple-use land systems. In an effort to protect Niger's rapidly depleting wild animal and plant populations, more attention should be paid to the economic value of wild resources and promoting wild resources utilization as an alternative land use. In areas that are to be completely protected, local populations surrounding the parks need to be move and become involved in park management and share in the benefits. Ensure Extension Services Integrate Notion of Sustainable Resource Use. Traditionally, extension services have focused on providing farmers with advice on how to increase crop production with little concern given to the environmental impacts of agricultural practices. Extension agents should receive environmental education and ensure that environmental considerations are integrated into agricultural extension messages.  36 Identify and Adopt Appropriate Economic Instruments. Continued efforts should be made to ensure that energy pricing reflects the economic cost of energy. Water pricing also needs to be examined and recommendations made as to the need for reform of tariff systems. Increase Off-farm Employment Opportunities. As Niger's population increases, concerted efforts need to be made to diversify the economy away from its dependence on the natural resource base. Measures need to be taken to improve rural infrastructure and access to markets, provide rural credit, and increase education and training for adults. Urban Environment 147. The challenge of rapid urbanization is to reverse environmental deterioration without slowing economic development. As cities grow, the risks associated with lack of sanitation and clean water, pollution, and congestion will intensify unless the necessary actions are taken. These include: Define Institutional Responsibilities. Achieving substantial improvements in urban living conditions will depend on clarifying the responsibilities of all levels of Governnent in formulating and implementing urban environmental policies as well as upgrading their managerial, financial, and operational capacities. Clarifying the responsibilities of institutions involved in urban planning, delivering urban services, and formulating and implementing relevant laws will also help to ensure transparency and efficiency in the planning and supervision of urban environmental programs and projects. Increase Public Participation. Successful waste management can only be achieved through much greater public participation. City residents should be encouraged to take part in identifying priority environmental problems and be involved in decision making regarding actions to take. Public education campaigns and greater representation of residents in local government councils would help raise public awareness of the problems and should lead to a greater level of participation. Conduct Studies of the Land Market. A poorly functioning titling and land registration system as well as inadequate land development regulations affect the supply of urban land for housing the poor and the participation of the private sector in land development, and consequently the occupation of hazard-prone areas and service facilities. Assistance should be provided to determine appropriate land titling and land registration systems as well as to assess how existing land regulations affect the land market and how they should be reformed. Facilitating a more towards private property rights would provide incentives to increase investment in land development and management. Continue to Upgrade Basic Infrastructure and Services. A critical means for reversing environmental degradation and improving health conditions for the urban poor is to upgrade the coverage, efficiency, and management of urban infrastructure and services. Mechanisms should also be developed to increase the private sector's role in the delivery of urban services. Given the severity of the problems and the magnitude of resources required to upgrade the basic infrastructure and services of Niger's urban areas, it will be necessary to assess demand and identify and prioritize types of interventions.  37 C. NEXT STEPS 148. Niger is in the midst of developing a national environmental action plan that will further develop an environmental strategy. The next steps of this process include: a) The agreement on the NEAP strategy and its consequent endorsement by the Government of Niger. This agreement is to be reached through a participatory process involving the different Government institutions, local authorities, NGOs, academics, and the private sector. This process is already underway. b) The preparation of more detailed action programs for the proposed strategic areas, that clearly identifies priorities, programs, and pilot investments. Such programs need to be developed with the close coordination of donors and multilateral agencies. c) The preparation of an investment operation to respond to those urgent needs identified in the strategy paper which are insufficiently covered by the current Government investment portfolio. 149. The environmental issues discussed in this paper pose a daunting agenda. The challenge of addressing them is made all the greater by its reciprocal and causal relationship with poverty. Yet recognizing this linkage and making it as explicit as possible is part of the solution, as it serves to bring environmental concerns to the center of the development agenda and ensures them a permanent place in economic planning. The challenge of the NEAP process is to make this linkage, to recognize the trade-offs where they exist, and to recommend options that build on the complementarities between environmental protection and poverty reduction.  38 ANNEX NIGER ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT POLICY MATRIX Area Overall Objective Action Time Frame for Action Institutional Strengthen institutional Clarify, articulate and precise the roles and Immediate Framework capacity for environmental responsibilities of each institution dealing with management environment. Clarify the authority and accountability of each Immediate of these institutions. Restructure the institutional framework for Mediuin environmental management, if necessary. Decentralize environmental management. Medium Analy. e institutional capacity and training Medium needs for environmental management and develop and implement a capacity building plan. Strengthen the links between Government and Medium NGOs and the coordination of respective programs. Regulatory Establish a legal framework Complete and enact the environmental Medium Framework to provide incentives for framework law (Code de lenvironnement). improved environmental management Review and update, as necessary, existing Long environmental legislation so as to ensure compliance with the framework law. Ensure all public investment Establish national procedures for Medium p r o g r a m s a r e environmental assessments and make environmentally sound compulsory for all development projects. Improve land tenure Clarify ambiguities in the Rural Code and Immediate security inconsistencies with the Decentralization Law. Adopt implementation decrees for the Rural Immediate Code and establish mechanisms to implement and efforce the law. Public Awareness Mobilize the public to take Strengthen public information campaigns. Immediate action to prevent environmental problems. Introduce environmental education to schools. Medium Infofnation Improve the use of Establish environmental monitoring Medium Systems information in analysis and mechanisms. l ________________ planning. Standardize environmental information. Immediate  39 Establish a network among users of Immediate environmental information, Provide training in data management and Medium analysis. Environmental Upgrade the level of in- Identify and initiate national research programs Mediumn Research country research, on priority areas. Strengthen institutional capacity to carry out Medium research. Natural Resource Improve the sustainability of Decentralize natural resource management to Immediate Management land and natural resource the local level. use Ensure effective implementation of the Bank- Immediate supported NRM Project and other existing programs. Integrate notion of suistainable resource use Immediate into extension messages; increase disseminati(on of soil and water conservation practices. Improve research and extension on drought Medium resistant crops and NRM techniques. Provide economic incentives Introduce workable economic pricing schemes Medium for the conservation of in the forestry and irrigation sect(irs. natural resources Increase off-farm activities Improve rural infrastructure. Long to reduce pressures on the natural resource base Promote tfiianccial minstitutiotis that can provide Mediunm credit to micro atid small enterprises. Provide business skills trainiig. Long Analyze potential tor agricultural processing Medium and diversification in the rural sector. C o n s e r v e n a t u r a I Provide econoimic incentives to local Mediumn biodiversity populations around protected areas to conserve biodiversity and reduce encroacibmettt onl protected areas. Strengthen the capacity of the national parks Mediumi service to manage protected areas anid control poaching. Household Energy Reduce deforestation and Encourage comniunity managemeint of Immediate improve the sustainability of fuelwood resources and improve techniques for fuelwood use charcoal production Consolidate reforms of pennit and fuelwood Immediate tax system so that charges reflect replacement cost of trees Facilitate increased manufacture and Immediate dissenination of inproved stoves Promote the use of altemative emiergy sources Medium  40 Urban Improve the quality of Define institutional responsibilities for urban Long Environmental urban life environmental management at the central and Management local level. Strengthen the planning and management Medium capacity of municipalities. Extend closed sewage collection systems and Immediate treatment. Upgrade waste collection and treatment Immediate services/facilities. 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"Staff Appraisal Report on the Agricultural Services Project. Republic of Nige", Africa 5 Agricultural Division, Washington D.C. World Bank (1993a). "NIGER Natural Resources Management Projeat Document", Africa S Agricultural Division, Washington D.C.  44 World Bank (1993b). -World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health", Washington D.C. World Wildlife Fund (1991). 'Biological Diversity in Niger", Washington D.C.  A - L , N'y N REPUBLIQUE DU NIGER ISOHYETES (Moyenne annuelle en mm) --U:ROUX- Movorweanmnee 194I- 1970 f-PijHRroECT -ayere196 1nmsea ~ i/ ) I> V. Of~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I 00~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - 300,I 3 6-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- >~~~~~~~~~.. - is>set.,.. 0 f bA00o S _ N,,,,,N  REPUBLIQUE DU NIGER L I B Y . ISOHYETES - - (Moyenne annuelle en mm) I 0 | LEROUX - Moyenne annuelle 1941-1970 , 70\ .I..*| AGHRYMET - Moyenne annuelle 1968-1985. V \lI> l""|||"|"|8|u"^gfi804ib": / /d I