Zambia - Specialized training study

Reprt No 607G-ZA Zambia Specialized Training Study June3, 1986 Education and Manpower Development Division Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Document of the World Bank This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.  CUIRRENCY EQUIVALENT (1986) US$1.00 Kw 5.75 Kw 1.00 - US$0.17 ACRONYMS CSO Central Statistical Office DMUT - Directorate for Manpower Development and Training DOA Department of Agriculture DTEVT D Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training EHC = Evelyn Hone College -FI Farm Institutes FTC F Farmer Training Centers MAWD - Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development 10M0 Manpower Development Officer MGEC = Ministry of General Education and Culture MHE Ministry of Higher Education MOF - Ministry of Finance MSB Management Services Board NAMBOARD X National Agricultural Marketing Board NCDP National Commission for Development Planning NIPA - National Institute for Public Administration NORTEC - Northern Technical College, Ndola NRDC - National Resources Development College TNDP - Third National Development Plan TTI ' Trades Training Institute T&V Training and Visit TVTC = Technical and Vocational Teachers College. UNZA University of Zambia ZCA Zambia Colleges of Agriculture ZCCm -Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines ZESCO - Zambia Electrical Supply Corporation ZICA = Zambia Institute for Certified Accountants ZIMCO - Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation ZIT = Zambia Institute of Technology, Kitwe Fiscal Year January 1 - December 31  F OFFCIL USE ONLY ZAMBIA SPECIALIZED TRAINING STUDY TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. HIGHLIGHTS (i)-(iv) I. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 1 II. OVERVIEW OF MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN _ZAMBIA 8 Ill. ANALYSIS OF MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT 3.1 Manpower Development Planning 31 3.2 General Education 40 3.3 Technical Education 49 3.4 Agricultural Education and Training 58 3.5 Business Educration and Management Training 65 3.6 Cost of Training and Education 71 IV. ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS, PROPOSED STRATEGY 79 ANNEXES I - Participation and Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age, 1980 2 - Secondary School-Leavers, 1981-1990 3 - Composition of the Labor Force, 1964-1984 4 - Civil Service Training Policy. Cabinet Office Circular No. 19/1983 5 - Zambia Civil Service Salary Scales (October 1985) 6 - Structure of the Education System 7 - Principal Manpower Planners, Administrators and Trainers 8 - Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT). Organization Chart 9 - DTEVT Institutions and Courses Offered 10 - Technical Colleges in Zambia 11 - Agricultural Training Institutions in Zambia 12 - Educational Statistics 13 - Education Costs This report is based on a mission to Zambia in September 1985 by Messrs. J. Segerstrom (Technical Educator/Mlssion Leader), D. Deguefu-Dawit (Agricultural TrainxUgg pecialist - EAPIT), C. Dougherty (Manpower Planning Specialist, ILO Contualt~it), C. Fuller (Management Training Specialist, ODA Consultant), A. Johnaon 'Technical Educator, ODA Consultant), and M. Leonor (Education Economist, ;J Consultant). This document ha a restrcted distribution and may be used by rcipints only in the pRfo e of their official dutis. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Dnk ao n.  (i) ZAMBIA - SPECIALIZED TRAINING STUDY HIGHLIGHTS Purpose and Scope of Stud- 1. In view of the present financial crisis in Zambia which also affects the education and training system, the Bank, win agreement with the National Commission for Development Planning (NCDP), has conducted a specialized study on manpower development and training. Concentrating on an assessment of skilled manpower supply and demand in the -civil service, parastatals and private sector, the main objectives of the study are to examine the nature of the reported skill gap and recommend policy changes and strategies to bridge that gap in the most cost-effective manner. Special attention has been paid to crosa-sectoral skills in short supply, e.g., accountants and specialized engineers. The key sectors of the economy identified as crucial for economic development have been assessed, including agriculture, manufacturing industry, transport, and energy. The mining sector manpower development plan, now scheduled to be completed in draft by June 1986, is expected to provide further useful information, particularly with regard to po.-sible transfers of skilled manpower to other sectors. The study also examines the 0ost implications of existing and planned training programs and recommends savings and a redirection of resources with the purpose of improving training standards and quality in a rationalized training system. 2. The findings and recommendations provide the basis for (a) discussions with the Government regarding an overall manpower development policy and strategy, and following such discussions, (b) the preparation of external assistance requests. General 3. The training system in Zambia was developed during more prosperous times and originates in the mining sectorts needs for skilled manpower. As a result of the economic crisis, the demand for skilled manpower, with few exceptions, is less than the potential supply, and the Government's ability to finance the system has been severely reduced. Until now, little has been done to accommodate the training system to a lower level of financing or to identify priorities for training in light of the changed circumstances. There is scope for better utilization of existing resources if wasteful spending were avoided and funds redirected -for priority use. Manpower Situation 4. The labor force is growing much more rapidly than the long-term capacity of the economy to generate additional employment in the formal sector. Large numbers of school-leavers every year contribute to an ever increasing youth unemployment. From the mining sector, skilled manpower will be released as operations decline due to decreasing deposits of ore.  (it) In the manufacturing sector prodtction facilities and staff are seriously under-utilized due to shortages of imported raw materials. The employment in the construction sector has been cut in half during the period 1974-1984 and consequently there is an abundance of skilled building craftsmen. 5. To-restructure the ailing economy, the emphasis should be on development of the agricultural sector. Despite several unsuccessful attempts to increase production, make use of idle land and enhance the effectiveness in the sector, the Government will noW direcc more of its resources to make this sector productive. Such measures will naturally have direct impll.cations on the manpower situation, both in terms of formal and nonformal sector employment. 6. In a deep economic crisis, it is naturally more essential than ever to redirect the economy without delay. As the availability of relevantly trained manpower is crucial for successful utilization of other productive resources, it is of the utmost importance that the national manpower planning system be able to respond quickly to a changed manpower situation. This requires intense monitoring of the situation at the highest planning level, with inputs from the key economic sectors, supported by well-processed, up-to-date statistical information. The Manpower Planning and Research Department of NCDP is not fully equipped to carry out this assignment. Lacking trained and experienced personnel, hampered by continuous staff changes and without a clear idea of its role in national manpower planning and related decision-making, the Department is in no position to direct national manpower planning as required. 7. As regards the coordination of manpower and training needs in the civil service, this responsibility rests with the Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT) under the Cabinet Office. The newly Introduced system of seconding Manpower Development Officers (MDOs) to Government ministries and offices for assessment of training needs has not yet proved successful, as the MDOs have low status, need more training and should be brought more into the decision-making process of their recipient ministries. DMDT tends to focus on processing requests for overseas fellowship training. Manpower Development 8. In the absence of relevant information on manpower demand, the intake level of government training institutions depends on the availability of recurrent funds and on appropriate training facilities, rather than on the employability of graduates. Moreover, the substantial decline in real terms of recurrent and capital funding has caused the training system to deteriorate in terms of the repair and maintenance of existing facilities, and to find it ever more difficult to meet the direct recurrent coets of student materials, boarding and lodging. Frequently, existing facilities cannot be fully utilized due to a shortage of recurrent financing.  (iii) 9. The fact that available financing is too thinly spread is particularly visible in such high recurrent cost areas as technical education, vocational training, and agricultural education. For many specialized institutions, financing has reached such low levels that the quality of instruction is unacceptable, resulting in loss of confidence in the system on the part of prospective employers. Agricultural education and training pose a particular problem as this sector has been selected to carry the country out of the present economic crisis. At the same time that there would be tremendous training needs if the Government's policy is to be implemented, the available financing has gradually been reduced, causing a curtailment of training places. 10. In addition to these constraints in specialized technical training, there is a paramount need for trained managers at all levels and in all sectors. In a situation where limited financial resources should be allocated according to stringent criteria and highest priorities, management skills are more important than ever. Across the board, Zambia is poorly equipped in this respect and therefore managerial skill development and upgrading should form an integral part of economic recovery. Existing training is neither focussed nor coordinated, and the presence of a large number of institutions leads to duplication of programs. It appears that the management training system itself is short of managerial skills, resulting in slow improvement of the system. 11. Certain specialized training is handled outside the formal training system and within industry itself, particularly training for sector-specific skills. No doubt this type of training is more effective than the formal one, partly because on-the-job training can be carried out in the actual work environment. The costs are high, however, as evidenced in the mining and energy sectors, for example, and there is scope for cost reduction without substantial lowering of quality. Recommended Strategy 12. The present approach to manpower development in Zambia -- to keep the outmoded training system going regardless of the availability of financial resources or the demand for graduates -- is neither logical nor cost-effective. It should be noted that over the medium term the financial resources allocated for training would not increase and perhaps the most optimistic future scenario would be to assume constant funding in real terms. It should also be noted that manpower development activities take place in all economic sectors in one form or other even though formal technical/vocational education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Education. Obviously, all manpower development activities need to be coordinated at the national level to appropriately respond to demand both now and in the future. It is recomended that such coordination take place through the creation of a Manpower Monitoring Unit within NCDP. 13. In the short and medium term, agricultural education and training should have -the highest priority if the Government's sectoral policy is to be implemented. This Will not be possible with existing financial resources, even if they were redistributed in accordance with priority -needs, and hence additional budgetary-allocations to the Ministry of Agriculture for agricultural training will be necessary.  (iv) 14. Industrial training as offered by the Departme.it of Technical- Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT) needs substantial redirection of focus and hence redistribution of existing funds. Technical Colleges should continue existing programs with modifications as niw technologies develop, but increased attention should be paid to maintenance of facilities and quality of instruction. Close and continuous monitoring is required with respect to curricula and course content so that new and existing programs actually prepare trainees to suit employers' needs. With regard to the eight Trades Training Institutes (TTIs), the output should respond to manpower demand, which probably means that about half of the existing programs should not be used for pre-service training. Released funds in terms of teachers' salaries and other recurrent funds should be used for the much needed in-service training. 15. Business education and management training Is in need of substantial improvement, and the first priority is accountancy training at all levels. Management training needs rationalization, and present duplication of efforts should cease. 16. Inasmuch as the proposed strategy would have implications on the financing of the training system, the following major points should be considered: (a) The boarding system should be reduced and boarding costs largely ' transferred to parents; (b) Employers in industry should share in financing training costs by offering on-job-training that complements institution-based training; and (c) The teaching force should be reduced whenever the number of students are reduced. The intake level should correspond to manpower demand. 17. Savings should then be utilized for: (a) repair, maintenance and replaeement of equipment and other facilities, (b) introduction of more in-service training, using surplus facilities, and (c) improvement of central planning at the DTEVT level and strengthening of the examination system, curricula, the inspectorate and other central services. Aid Coordination 18. Zambia has been assisted by a large number of donors to develop its education and'training system. This trend continnes, and assistance to manpower development is a high priority In most aid programs. However, coordination of such aid, as well as a constructive policy and strategy dialogue with the Government has, by and large, been lacking. The importance of allocating scarce training resources according to priorities Is a theme throughout this report and, of course applies equally to external grants, credits and other assistance to the sector. The major issue is to adjust the education and training system to suit the level of available resources and to meet Identified manpower demand. In this process, the Bank would be prepared to take the lead, if so requested, to coordinate external inputs and a'sist in revising, planning and adjusing the education and training system to suit employers' requirements for skilled manpower.  1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND The EScotomy -1.01 Between independence in 1964 and the slump in the price of copper in 1975, Zambia was considered to be a rich country with every prospect of making good the deficiencies in its infrastructure inherited from the colonial administration. However, the country is almost wholly dependent on copper for its export revenue and, with that mineral losing more than SO% of its value in real terms, the balance of payments has been in a critical state since 1975 and payments on external debt have fallen into arrears. It is unlikely that the country will be able simultaneously to finance investment for growth and meet Its future commitments, projected at 30-40X of exports for the next five years. 1.02 Government revenue, heavily dependent on income from copper and on taxes on imports financed by its exports, bas fallen to roughly half of its level of the early 1970s. Government expenditure has therefore been forced to contract, but the combination of a policy to maintain employment and an increasing need for teachers has caused the payroll to expand. The burden of adjustment has been confined to a painful reduction in real salaries and, as-a matter of government policy, those of the more senior grades have proportionally been the hardest hit; very generous before the recession, they have fallen by up to 60X in real terms. 1.03 Despite these measures, government expenditure has exceeded revenue by between 20% and 60% each year, and deficit financing has fueled inflation -- the average rates for consumer expenditure and capital goods being 14% and 21% per year, respectively, over the period 1974-1983. 1.04 The decline in export earnings has also had a very adverse effect on industrial production, which is heavily dependent on imports of both materials and spares. So acute is the situation that some enterprises have had no option but to cease operations for weeks at a time and others are willing to export at a loss in order to obtain foreign. exchange (50% of which they are allowed to retain). The unpredictability of foreign exchange allocationsl/ has itself had an adverse effect on export earnings. exporters find it difficult or impossible to quote-reliable delivery dates and, unable to place orders far enough in advance to take advantage of low-cost sources because they cannot pay promptly, they are quoted unfavorable prices. 1/ As the mission field work was completed before the introduction of the auction system (October 1985) for foreign exchange, the effects of that system have not been taken into consideration here.  -2- 1*05 Import-substitution has in some cases done more harm than good; heavily protected producers of intermediate goods having priced their output at levels which render producers of flnished, potentially exportable good uncompetitive on world markets. Table 1.1 below shows the balance of payment and government current accounts for the period 1973-1983. Table 1.1 Balance of Payments and Government Current Accounts -Kwacha million, 1983 constant prices) Copper Price Government (US cents/lb)- Exports Imports Revenue Expenditure 1973 169 1,810 1,852 1974 155 5,058 3,953 2,793 1,810 1975 82 2,487 3,822 1,577 2,145 1976 91 3,224 2,852 1,327 1,824 1977 79 2,643 2,817 1,199 1,588 1978 70 2,121 1,333 1,105 1,301 1979 91 2,657 2,139 1,030 1,375 1980 92 2,192 1,445 1,201 1,693 1981 77 1,414 1,018 1,144 1,716 1982 67 1,172 1,623 1,028 1,618 1983 74 1,290 1,322 957 1,151 Source: Monthly Digest of Statistics, February/March 1985 and Zambia Country Economic Memorandum, April 1984. Copper price in 1982 prices. Exports (capacity to import) deflated using the implicit price deflator for Imports. Government current account deflated by the wholesale prices index for domestically used goods. 1.06 Until recently, agriculture has been given insufficient support. In an effort to mitigate the impact of the recession on urban incomes, the terms of trade for agriculture were allowed to deteriorate, depressing output and stimulating rural/urban migration. This problem has now been recognized and agriculture prices have been allowed to rise in real terms, but the economic contribution of the sector remains adversely affected by the inefficiency of the national marketing board. 1.07 The economic problems of the country have been compounded by the very high rate of population growth which will make it steadily more difficult for the Government to inerease the proportion of national income devoted to investment without further eroding the standard of living. This high growth rate will also be responsible for mass unemployment if measures are not taken to reduce it, despite the current priority given to generating nev jo!. in small-scale agriculture.  -3- Labor Force and Employment Labor Sueply 1.08 According to the 1980 census, the population aged 12 or older numbered 3.3 million that year, and of these 1.8 million were economically active. For the 20-64 age groups, the participation rate8 for wales and females were 95% and 40%, respectively, the corresponding unemployment rates being 12% and 17%. Youth unemployment is high -- 79% for males and 87% for females in the 15-19 age group, despite relatlvely low participation rates of 38% and 41% (Annex 1). 1.09 About 100,000 children are terminating their general education at the primary school level and about 25,000 at the secondary level (Annex 2). A small minority will proceed to specialized forms of training, including university, and others will temporarily remain outside the labor force for other reasons, but eventually each cohort will contribute upwards of 85,000 new labor force entrants if participation rates do not change. This figure will increase with each successive cohort and is estimated to reach 110,000 by 1990, with the proportion of secondary school leavers rising from 20% to 28% by that date. Structure of the Labor Force Table 1.2 Emploment by Industry and Sector, 1980 Formal Informal Sector Sector Total Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing 32,760 648,694 681,454 Mining, Quarrying 62,940 1,848 64,788 Manufacturing 47,640 17,900 64,540 Electricity, Water 8,270 830 9,100 Construction 44,420 - 36,772 Distribution, Hotels . 1,750 53,921 85,671 Transport, Communications 24,450 24,216 48,666 Finance, Insurance, Real Estate 22,520 - 22,137 Services 106,740 113,732 220,472 Not Stated - -69,44 Total: 381,490 852,110 1,233,600 Sources. Total employment from preliminary data of the 1980 Census; formal sector employment from the Monthly Digest of Statistics.  -4- 1.10 Of the 1,234,000 in employment in 1980, about 381000 were in the formal sector and the remainder in the informal sector. r-ole 1.2 above provides a breakdown by industry, the figures for total employment being preliminary data from the 1980 census and those for the formal sector being taken from the June 1980 Employment and Earnings Survey. (There are anomalies in the data for the construction and financial servicea industries, but these may be attributable to sampling errors in the survey and to the fact that 69,000 did not state their industry of employment in the census.) Formal Sector Employment 1.11 Formal sector employment peaked at almost 400,000 in 1975, fell by 5% in the next two years, and has since, remained virtually static (Annex 3). Zambian employment has fluctuated around 350,000 since 1975 with no discernible trend, but within this total there has been a significant shift towards employment In government services, much of it attributable to increased recruitment of primary and secondary school teachers (Table 1.3). Table 1.3 Formal Sector Employment, 1975 and 1984 1975 1984 Zambian Employment Government Services Teachers 18,570 28,660 Other 70,090 72,270 Total 88,660 100,930 Other Formal Sector Employment 276,670 250,260 Total Formal Sector Employment 365,330 351,190 Non-Zambian Employment 33,510 14,020 Total Employment in Formal Sector 398,840 365,190 1.12 These trends are likely to remain unchanged in the short and medium term.- MGEC predicts that the number of primary and secondary school teachers will increase by a further 8,900 by 1990, which, accompanied by further localization of posts, could bring the numbe- of Zambian teachers up to 39,000. However, in view of the shortage of financial resources, it is probable that the growth rate will be substantially lowe-:. Noting the recent expression by the Government of a commitment to reduee public sector employment, the figure for other government services may actually fall. The outLook for increased employment in the rest of the formal sector is not encouraging, since there is evidence that parastatal enterprises tend to be seriously overstaffed.  Manpower Development 1.13 To compete more effectively in che labor force, school-leavers have increasingly sought to attain higher qualifications, but the number of training places has not met the social demand. Table 1.4 below shows that the total enrollment in higher education and training courses (except UNZA) increased from 11,103 in 1975 to 13,359 in 1982. Since the courses are of two or more years' duration, the number of new admissions each year is 6000 at mDst. Thus, only about one-fourth of secondary school-leavers can be absorbed; in 1975 the proportion was about one third. As a result of these pressures the number of applicants per training place has been increasing and the qualifications of successful applicants have risen. For examples although the formal admission requirement for the Trades Training Institutes (TTIs) is completion of junior secondary education, many of the successful applicants have completed senior secondary school. Table 1.4 Enrollments in Teacher Training and Technical Eucation Courses, 1975 and 1982 1975 1982 Teacher Training General 3,070 3,843 Technical/Vocational 114 352 Technical Colleges (EHC, ZIT, NORTEC) 2,663 2,754 Trades Training Institutes 2,315 2,216 University of Zambia (UNZA) Degrees 2,507 3,772 Other 105 151 Other DTEVT 2/[ 329 271 Total: 11,103 13,359 Source: MHE Educational Statistics, 1983. - t' Includes Zambia Air Services Training Institute and Kasiya Secretarial College.  - 6- 1.14 In some specialized courses where there is a direct link between the training provider and the employer, recognition of the poor employment prospects of the graduates has led to a cutback in enrollments. One example is the training program for agricultural assistants (Section 3.4). But in most cases the leveling off of enrolments is attributable to the unplanned effects of budgetary constraints rather than to any labor market analysis. The Ministries of Finance and Higher Education (MOF, MHE) are being pulled in two directions. On the one hand the social demand for training, coupled with a reluctance to reduce the number of teachers, has led these rinistries to try to maintain the existing teaching establishment; on the other hand, faced with diminifhing real resources, MOF has had to reduce in real terms the recurrent budget allocated to the government sector in general and to MHE in particular. Considerations of the demand for trained manpower, which ought also to favor retrenchment, do not appear to be a significant factor. The typical outcome is that payrolls have been protected in nominal terms (though not real ones) and authorized non-payroll expenditure has been severely cut, with actual allocations lower still. The consequence is that many training providers are trying to teach an excessively large number of students with resources which are inadequate to maintain the quality of Instruction. Zambianization 1.15 Although the exodus of non-Zambians has had a relatively small impact on aggregate employment, it has had a disproportionately severe effect on the supply of experienced high-level manpower. This has been- caused by a combination of supply and demand factors, with demand, in the form of an active localization policy, the dominoit factor until the late 1970s. Supply factors, however, are more important now. 1.16 Because there was a shortage of Zaubians with advanced technical qualifications, localization in the earlier period was largely confined to administrative and managerial occupations. In recent years, with the government and parastatal sectors unable to maintain real salaries. non-Zambian technical staff have also been departing or Joining the private sector. The gap has temporarily been filled by the recruitment of Asian technicians but, with the further erosion of pay, there are signs that it is becoming increasingly difficult to attract replacements from this or any other source. The inflow of Asian immigrants - over 1,000 per year in most of the last 10 years - fell to 527 in 1982, 285 in 1983, and 132 in the first nine months of 1984 (MDS, February-March 1985). 1.17 The foreign exchange crisis has-to some extent masked the - difficulties in maintaining an adequate supply of high-level manpower, at least in quantitative terms. Most enterprises employing technical manpower are also heavily dependent on imported inputs and are running at a fraction of potential capacity. The shortage of foreign exchange is so severe that some firms are having to suspend operations altogether for A month or two - at a time (para 1.04).  -7- 1.18 - At the same time, however, the crisis has thrown into sharp relief some of the qualitative problems attributable to the rapid pace of localization and the consequent relative youth of-typical senior aumbian management. In the first place, there a the problem of developing expertise in the skills associated wit'. senior management, particularly the skills involved in using controls, especially- financial and performance controls. Although the principiss behind these techniques may be taught in a formal course, expertise in the- use is developed by the individual as he rises through junior and middle ranagement. It is during this period that he is able first to observe their operation and then to begin practicing them himself. The accelerated promotion of many Zamblans into senior management has deprived them Irretrievably of an opportunity to benefit from this learning process.  -8- II, OVERVIEW OF MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN ZAMBIA 2.01 National Commission for Development Planning (NC!MP). The Ministry of Finance and Planning has two branches, NCVP and-the Ministry of Finance (MOF), each with its own Permanent Secretary. NCDP is in charge of long-term planning and is responsible for the impending Fourth National Development Plan (1986-90); it also produces the Annual Plan and annual Economic Report, and vets the public sector capital budget. Its Manpower Planning and Research Department has the broad mandate to undertake comprehensive national manpower planning, including projections of manpower supply and demand and labor market analysis, and is also responsible for coordinating the programs of training institutions and for executing ad hoc manpower-related studies. Its establishment and present strength are shown in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Manpower Planning and Research Department, NCDP Professional Staff Present Establishment Strength Director I 1 Assistant Director 2 - Senior Economist 2 1 Economist (Planning and Analysis) 1 2 Economist (Training Studies) 1 _ Economist (Data-Processing) 1 _ 'Economist (Research) 1 2 Economist (Demographer) 1 1 Technical Assistance Posts 2 1 Total: 12 8 2.02 None of the present staff appears to have had practical experience related to manpower analysis prior to recruitment. Junior staff -have been recruited directly from the University of Zambia and have not always possessed appropriate qualifications. Most have received or are receiving in-service training in overseas courses, but these do not appear to be training programs with well-defined objectives. Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT) 2.03 The Directorate of Civil Service Training was set up in 1961'as a training section within the Establishments Division. In 1964/65 it was renamed the Directorate of Manpower and Training and located in the Office of National Development and Planning, Ministry of Finance. In 1968/69, renamed the Ditectorate of Civil Service Training, it was returned to the  -9- E-stablishments Division (now renamed-Personnel Division). This continued until 1980 when it was renamed the Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT) and placed under the Cabinet Office. 2.04 The responsibilities of DMDT have changed over the years. The most recent statement of these was in Cabinet Office Circular No.19 of 6 December 1983 (Annex 4). All ministries, commissions and provinces should be working according to the civil service training policy set out in that circular. It establishes DMDT's role as follows: (a) A cadre of manpower development staff comprising: Chief Manpower Development Officers (Grade S/8) Senior Manpower Development Officers (Grade S/9) Manpower Development Officers (Grade S/l1/10) Assistant Manpower Development Officers (Grade 5/13/12) would be seconded to ministries, departments and provinces at varying levels, depending on the size of the institution concerned. Salary Grades are shown in Annex 5. (fb) DMDT would take over from NCDP the responsibility for -administering training awards under technical assistance. (c) DMDT would be responsible for administering all training for the civil service, parastatals and private sector where this involved technical assistance. (d) DMDT would participate in all negotiations for technical assietance for training. (e) DMDT would hold all funds for in-service training, while ministries and provinces would hold funds for only those training institutions which they controlled. DMDT would allocate funds to ministries and provinces according to planned needs. To assist in this process, committees would be set up as follows: (i) Each ministry and province would set.up a Manpower -Development Committee chaired by the respective Permanent Secretary. ' (ii) A National Manpower Planning Committee would be set. up by NCDP, as proposed in the Third National Development plan. M'anagement Services Division 2.05 The Management Services Division is part of the' Cabinet Office structure, with a total of only 40 Administrative Grade staff. The main responsibility of the Division is consultancy services and staff inspection of the civil service. Weakened considerably in the past two years by the absence of its director on study leave, the Division has not been able to. carry out all its duties due to the lack of experienced staff.  - 10 - General Education 2.06 The responsibility for general education rests with the Ministry of General Education and Culture (MGEC), while the newly established Ministry of Higher Education (MHE) handles higher education, technical education and teacher training. Primary and Secondary Education Prior to the Educational Reform 2.07 Primary and secondary education both used to be divided into two sub-cycles: primary into lower (Grades -1-4) and upper (Grades 5-7), and secondary into junior (Forms 1-3) and senior (Forms 4-5). In principle, children ought to enter Grade 1 at age 7, but in practice about half enter at age 8 or older. As a consequence of a shortage of places, progression from one sub-cycle to the next has necessarily been selective. 2.08 The Educational Reform document published by the Ministry of Education in 1977 envisages nine years of universal basic education, which for organizational purposes will be broken down into three 3-year cycles: lower primary (Grades 1-3), upper primary (Grades 4-6) and junior secondary (Grades 7-9). Entrance to the final 3-year cycle of senior secondary education will continue to be selective. Some Grade 9 graduates will enter vocational training, for example on courses offered by the Trades Training Institutes (TTIs) or Colleges of Nursing, but others will enter employment directly. 2.09 As a first step towards this new arrangement,-the dividing line- between junior and senior secondary education has been brought forward by one year, the former now terminating with Grade 9 and the latter beginning with Grade 10. The nine years of basic education are thus already formally in place. It remains to convert it to a 3-3-3 year set of subcycles, as opposed to the present 4-3-2, and to provide enough places to achieve 100Z progression from one subcycle to the next. Annex 6 provides a diagrammatic representation of the interim and final structures. 2.10 As a route alternative to senior general secondary schools, MGEC provides an option, focussed on science and technical subjects and intended for outstanding students, in two senior technical secondary schools. The total enrollment in the two schools (in Lusaka and Livingstone) is about- 750, all boarders, while the teaching force amounts to about 65, including technical teachers. The curricula emphasize science and practical subjects (15 periods of science and 10 periods of practical subjects) with the intention of better preparing students for the science-related faculties in the University-of Zambia and of offering practical training to facilitate future employment for school graduates. MGEC plans to increase the number of technical secov:dary schools to 11 through conversion of existing academic senior secondary schools. University of Zambia 2.11 At independence in 1964 there were fewer than 100 Zambian university graduates. However, within a span-of two decades this number has increased dramatically. From 27 in 1968, the annual flow of graduates  - 11 - from the University of Zambia increased to 425 in 1975, 703 in 1981, and 618 in 1984. There were also a number of graduates in diploma, certificate and post-graduate courses whose supply has been jus-t as-impressive. In total, the University of Zambia has produced 7,927 graduates in various courses between 1968 and 1984. Current enrollment at the Lusaka and Ndola campuses is 4,554 students, of whom 246 are in agriculture, 32 in - veterinary medicine, 327 in engineering, 197 in mining, 653 in the natural sciences, 1,195 in education,3/ 862 in the humanities and social sciences, and 420 in business and industrial studies. Detailed descriptions of the various faculties are given in the sections of this report covering technical, agricultural and business education. Technical Education and Training 2.12 The formal system of post-secondary technical and vocational education and training constitutes an important and substantial subsector in the national education structure. The main responsibility of this sub- sector is to provide edutatlon and training at craft, technician and technologist levels to iieet the skilled manpower demands of the economy. Recognizing the need to establish a strong resource base for technical education, the Governmer.t created a Commission in 1969 to implement national programs in tld'is sector. The Commission later becam the Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT) (Organiztion Chart - Annex 8), initially within the Mlnistry of Education and since 1982 as part of the newly established MHE. The objectives of DTEVT, as outlined in the Third National Development Plan, are to: (a) continue to provide high-quality pre-employment certificate and diploma training programs to meet the manpower requirements of the Zambian economy for technicians, technologists, and business, commercial and industrial personnel; (b) identify manpower needs and to design new training programs, at certificate and diploma levels in both business and engineering fields relevant to the needs of rural, industrial and commercial development; (c) make qualitative and quantitative improvements in the Department's training programs; (d) increase the supply of technical, vocational and commercial teachers In order to accelerate the Zamblanization of staff in colleges; (e) expand the use of the Department's facilities for extension studies (continuing education for workers) and-provide professional assistance to other agencies involved in skill training; and 3/ Including 140 part-time and 615 correspondence students (Education 404 and Social Sciences 211). -  - 12 - (f) redress imbalances'in the physical resources of the Department's institutions to make the best use of the facilities in which investment has been made. 2.13 In its early development stage, DTEVT received substantial inputs of assistance from donor countries, largely in the form of technical assistance (advisory and teaching staff), provision of buildings and equipment, and awards of scholarships and fellowships, usually tenable in the donor country. In recent years the scale of assistance for-physical facilities has diminished, although staff'development based on overseas awards continues to be a major element. 2.14 DTEVT is responsible for 14 institutions. A list giving details of each institution is at Annex 9. Broadly, the teaching institutions of DTEVT fall into two groups: - four technical colleges offering technician and technologist level courses in mining, construction, automotive, mechanical and electrical engineering; one secretarial college for paramedical, hotel and catering, secretarial and commercial courses; one college for air services; and one technical teacher training college. - eight Trade Training Institutes (TTIs) offering artisan level courses in an overall range of 23 specializations. Structure and Organization of DTEVT 2.15 DTEVT may be regarded as a ministry within a ministry and indeed, from its early stage of development when it enjoyed a great deal of autonomy, the Department tended to operate as a free-standing organization. With the creation of MHE, the work of the Department is now controlled by that Ministry, although this control is principally exercised by direct high-level contacts between senior staff in the Department and the Ministry. 2.16 Resources for the three main elements of technical and vocational education and training -- i.e., staff development, curriculum development, and examinations -- and physical resources (buildings and equipment) are controlled by appropriate sections,'as shown on the organization chart (Annex 8). -2.17 - Work by the Curriculum'Development Unit (CDU)'follows a -long-established system of Advisory Committees, with representation from industry and commerce. The professional officers of CDU act as coordinators/secretaries to a number of Advisory Committees, in subject specializations appropriate to their experience and qualifications. In theory, the Advisory Committee system is designed to ensure that the curriculum content is relevant :i the needs of employers by constant appraisals leading to curriculum renewal. In practice, the system is handicapped by financial constraints, since travel and subsistence costs of industry particip&nts must be met by an inadequate budget.  - 13 - 2.18 The Standards and CertificAtion Unit (SCU) shares in the workload of professional support to the Advisory Committees. The work of SCU is confined to final examinations for TTI students, technician level examinations in business studies and paramedical studies- and trade testing (previously undertaken by the Ministry of Labor). Other technician and technologist course students are assessed for national awards by the teaching institution, through the use of continuous assessment techniques. In setting examinations with the assistar-ce of Advisory Committees, SCU makes use of an examination question bank. 2.19 -The main activity of the-Teacher Training and Staff Development Section is to implement the objectives of the Department's staff development program, namely: (a) to Improve the quality of instruction and administration at DTEVT institutions; (b) to replace expatriate-staff in the technical colleges with suitably qualified and competent Zambians, in keeping witb the Government's policy of Zambianization; and (c) to help teaching staff to keep abreast with technological advancement. 2.20 This Section services a standing committee within DTEVT-- the Staff Development Committee. Although the Committee has wide-ranging terms of reference aimed at strengthening staff development, its main preoccupation appears to be the selection of candidates for overseas training awards provided by donor countries. The Section has identified key areas of staff development through consultatlon with principals, and by carrying out an audit of personnel records to assess staffing strengths and weaknesses. However, little use is made of annual confidential reports and feedback from the Inspectorate on individnal and common training needs to systematically plan a comprehensive in-country training program. * 2.21 The Inspectorate of DTEVT is responsible for ensuring that the quality and effectiveness of instruction, learning facilities, and program administration are maintained at the highest possible levels. Its staff of six inspectors are engaged in a continuous program of inspections so that, ideally, each DTEVT institution is examined every year; however, in recent years it has not always been possible to maintain this level of inspection visits because of budgetary constraints. Technical Colleges 2.22 - 'Technician and technologist level programs under the aegis of DTEVT are offered at four purpose-built institutions: Evelyn Hone College, Lusaka; Zambia Institute of Technology, Kitwe; Northern Technical College, Ndola; and the Zambia Air Services Training Institute, Lusaka. A fifth college, the Technical and Vocational Teachers College, Luanshya, offers a wide range of pre-service and in-service technical teacher training programs. The current total enrollment in the colleges is 2,100 full-time students. In addition, part-time students (over 1,000 at-Evelyn Hone College) make up a substantial full-time equivalent roll. Details of student population and staffing levels in each college are given in Annex 10.  - 14 - 2.23 Development of the technical colleges over the past 20 years has been assisted by very substautial inputs of aid funds. In recent years, the aid has focussed on providing overseas training awards and supplementing the costs of expatriate staff. -This shift. reflects changed circumstances, insofar as the development of physical resources has reached a steady state, and present aid policies generally favor manpower development. However, it Is clear that national resources to maintain buildings, renew equ pment and provide an adequate level of recurrent expenditure funds do not match the levels envisaged by the Government and donors during the design and early development stages. Trades Training Institutes (TTIs) 2.24 The eight TTIs were developed in the 1960s and 1970s Vith -assistance from donor countries. Designed as purpose-built, craft-level teaching institutions and equipped with industrial type machinery and plant, the TTI system was planned as a substantial national resource for the education and training of skilled manual workers. The TTI system offers a very wide range of courses in civil, mechanical and electrical engineering. 2.25 The number of courses offered at individual TTIs varies from 14 (Kabur TTI) to four (Mansa TTI). The more popular trades (i.e., auto mechanics, electrical, carpentry and joinery) are offered at all TTIs. Subject curricula and examinations are centrally controlled by the appropriate sections in DTEVT, using the system of Advisory Committees (para 2.17). As to be expected in a trade institution, the curricula emphasize skill training, with 60X of course time devoted to practical work and 402 to related subjects. In practice, this balance is very difficult to maintain because of serious deficiencies in consumable material supply and unserviceable equipment and machinery. 2.26 The main source of recruitment for TTI instructors is former TTI students who have gained several years experience in industry. Given the marked difference between salaries in industry and the teaching service, it is surprising that skilled craftsmen should be attracted to work in TTIs. It appears that security of employment and the provision of housing is an important consideration. This supply route ensures that TTI instructors have live industrial experience in their subject area and are therefore competent and confident in teaching the practical content of the curricula. However, they also teach the technology sections and here the academic gap between instructor and student is narrowed. Although the minimum entry level for a TTI student is Form 3, the large number of applications tends to produce a norm of Form 5 entry. Staff development for TTI staff, through in-service training courses at TVTC and overseas training awards, is producing a steady improvement in technical subject and pedagogical skills. 2.27 The teaching of mathematics, English, and political education is undertaken by 'service sections' staffed by general education teachers. There is deep concern in DTEVT over the teaching of mathematics in the TTIs. Failure rates of 40-50% are attributed to a general weakness in math of students and to the subject knowledge of teachers who-have been trained to teach mathematics in secondary schools. The lack of textbooks and good quality learning materials also adversely affects mathematics teaching.  - 15 - 2.28 The present state of TTI workshops. is also a cause for concern. At least 502 of installed workshop machinery in the Lusaka and Luanshya TTms is out of action, and recent reports from the TTIs at Kabwe and Livingstone suggest that this is a general problem in the system. -Coupled with the severe shortage of consumable materials, it is clear that TTIs are experiencing serious difficulties In maintaining a proper balance between theory and practical work. Employers rightly expect a student who has spent two years at a TTI to possess basic practical skills and this serious deficiency is one of the reasons for poor employment prospects for TTI students. Industrial Training Centers - Parastatal and Private Industry 2.29 Although DTEVT institutions provide a wide range of tectitcal training, there are a number of other training centers, parastatal and private, which offer training based on DTEVT syllabi, or in-house schemes. In general, such centers (i.e., ZCCM craft schools; Zambia Railways Training School, Ministry of Work's Road Training Center; the automotive section of ZIM; and the mechanical training center at Kafue textiles) are better equipped and resourced than the TTIs in the DTEVT system. To some extent this is due to a ready access to company services and stores, for example a defective machine tool in a training center is repaired by the company's engineering department. It is also due to the importance given by senior management to systematic off-the-job training. Ia process industries like Kafue Textiles, the value of a skilled machine fitter is fully appreciated and the quality of the company's training facilities reflects this view. These training centers also benefit from external flows of expertise and teaching and learning material. Some parastatal and private companies have access to the training systems of large international companies, and such connections may be regarded as an education and training "umbilical cord." Because these training centers have more serviceable equipment and higher inputs of consumable items, they are in a better position to meet the requirements of the national syllabi. Moreover, the centers are able to augment the practical content of craft courses with realistic work exercises related to the particular needs of the mother company. For example, workshop practice in the electrical course at the ZCCM center at Luanshya deals with the type of heavy-duty equipment used in the mining industry, but still more than adequately covers the national syllabus. 2.30 The automobile and agricultural machinery section of the Zambia Institute of Management (ZIM) typifies the philosophy and operational style of industrial training centers. This section takes care of the maintenance of a fleet of buses, used-for driving instruction, and has a steady flow of workshop practice. The equipment-heavy-duty hoists, compressors, electronic ignition testers--are all in serviceable condition. Income from paid services to the community is used to buy spare parts and consumable items. The staff exhibit a commitment to general efficiency and appear to have a greater degree of job satisfaction than their colleagues in the TTIs. 2.31 Despite the high quality of instruction, the industrial training centers remain closed to outsiders. In 1982 there was a move to open the ZCCM training facilities to external trainees on - full-cost basis, but the proposal was shelved on the grounds that ZCCM would then be duplicating the role of the TTIs. =-  - 16 - Higher Technical and Science Education (UNZA) School of Natural Sciences 2.32 This School, established In 1965, has five departments (Mathematics, PhysLcs, Chemistry, Biology and Geography) and had a first- year intake ia 1985 of about 500 students for all courses. About 380 of the total intake would remain with the faculty for one or two years and would then be admitted to specialized faculties such as Engineering, Mines, Medicine, and Veterinary Medicine,. Science courses are also offered - through the School of Natural Sciences to admitted students in the Schools of Education and Agricultural Sciences. Only about 100 students would continue their studies in the faculty to become scientists and of these, only about 30 have selected natural sciences as their first choice, The overall dropout rate is 14%. 2.33 Staffing of the school is a major problem and vacancy rates are over 50% for certain departments. Also, the proportion of expatriates is nearing 50% and bilateral assistance is given through Japan, UK, Ireland and Sweden. The workload for existing staff is therefore high and focusses on lecturing and laboratory work, while research by and large is neglected. The school also offers a pre-university course for secondary school graduates to strengthen their knowledge and proficiency in -mathematics and the sciences. 2.34 With regard to equipment and consumables for the laboratories, the school has, despite foreign exchange shortages, managed to maintain good standards through direct foreign assistance. School of Engineering 2.35 This school has three departments: Civil Engineering; Electrical/ Electronic Engineering; and Mechanical Engineering. The departments are approximately equal in size, and the average annual intake of 95 students to the second year of a 5-year course (first year is taken in the School of Natural Sciences) is divided into the three disciplines. 2.36 Engineering was a very popular choice in 1985 - 164 successful first-year students with high marks applied for entry. This level of competition ensures that the entry threshold is maintained at a high level, which is reflected in a high success rate in the final year. 2.37 Students follow a common engineering program in years 2 and 3, and specialize as Civils, Mechanicals or Electricals in years 4 and 5. The exception to this pattern is-Land Surveying (within Civils) where students begin specialized studies in year 3. The degree of Bachelor of Engineering is classified in four grades: distinction, merit, credit, or pass. The school also offers post-graduate studies leading to M.Sc. in civil and mechanical engineering subjects.  - 17 - 2.38 Zambianization of teaching posts is steadily increasing as national staff return from overseas study programs. In 1985 the ratio of Zambian staff to expatriate staff in each department wass Electrical, 2:3; Mechanicals, 2:1; and Civils, 2:3. The school enjoys considerable support to its teaching establishment from a number of aid agencies, among them SIDA, NUFFIC, DANIDA, ODA, CIDA and the Government of Ireland. 2.39 Vacation trs;ning Is an essential part of undergraduate programs and students must satisfactorily complete at least five months of approved industrial training after the third and fourth years. However, the steady increase in the student population has not been matched by offers of training from industry. Emplovers have indicated that they are unable to expand vacation training because of (a) underutilization of existing facilities due to economic problems, and (b) lack of funds to pay trainees (especially in government ministries). In the 1984 academic year, only 12 out of 62 graduating students had completed the stipulated 21 weeks of training. 2.40 In spite of these difficulties in the Industrial training program, the employment prospects after graduation are considered to be very good, although the school has no system to trace graduate careers. Given the high numnber of expatriate engineers working in the government, parastatal and private sectors, it is clear that UNZA engineering graduates should find employment. 2.41 The school has established close links with industry, and a Technology Development and Advisory Unit offers a research, development., advisory and consultancy service. Projects include work commissioned by international agencies, the Zambian Government and parastatals. 2.42 The laboratory and teaching facilities are in good working order and are well maintained. Substantial inputs of aid for capital equipment in recent years have increased the school's equipment stock, especially in electronic engineering. The maintenance staff are well qualified and experienced. 2.43 The school's long-term plan (1986-1994) envisages an expansion of the intake capacity from 100 to 200 students. Considerable investment, on the order of Kw 10 million, will be needed to implement the proposed- plan. Diversification in the post-graduate programs and the setting up of chemical engineering facilities will depend on the timing and scale of capital inflows. School of Mines 2.43 This school, established in 1973, has three departmentsv Geology, Metallurgy and Mineral Processing, and Mining Engineering. The present total student intake is about 50, although the capacity is about 70. Students are accepted in the second year of the 5-year course, having spent the first year at the School of Natural Sciences. 2.44 As indicated above, engineering is a favored choice of eligible students. Unfortunately, studies related to mining are not equally popular  -~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~-1 and only seven out of 255 students listed the School of Mines as their first choice in 1985. This results in a high dropout rate, which currently is about- 302. Students specialize in one of the three options already In the second year, although a number of courses are common. The school relies on the engineering faculty for general engineering courses. 2.45 At present there are no severe staff shortages, and about 40% of the lecturers are expatriates. The school is supported by DANIDA and the Bank (Export Rehabilitation and Diversification Project, Credit 2391-ZA) for the supply of lecturers and laboratory technicians. 2.46 The School of Mlnes maintains very close links with ZCCM, and virtually all Zambian graduates are absorbed by the mining parastatal. Also, job prospects are good in the short term, considering the large number of expatriates (about 1,600) employed mainly in intermediate and senior technical posltions in the mines. Business Education and Management Training 2.48 Responsibility for business education rests mainly with UTEVT and U.JNZA. A number of training institutions in the parastatal sector also offer this type of education. Management training is offered by a variety of institutions, free standing, parastatal and private. Public administration training is the responsibility of the National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA) under the Cabinet Office. The main institutions offering accountancy and management training are: (a) Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Lusaka campus (UNZA) (b) School of Business and Industrial Studies, Ndola campus (UNZANDO) (c) National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA) (d) Business Studies Department of the Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce. (e) Zambia Tnstitute of Technology (ZIT)- (g) Management Services Board (MSB) (g) Management Training Department of the ZIMCO Institute of Management (ZIM) =(h) Accountancy Training College - Chingola:(ATC) of ZCCM ix) Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation  - 19 - University of Zambia, Lusaka Campus (UNZA) 2.49 The Faculty of Humanities aMd Social Sciences offers 4-year courses leading to B.A. degrees in African Development Studies, Sociology* Psychology, Economics, and Public Administration. The latter my be regarded as pre-service training in public sector management, and most graduates join the civil service. Enrollments for all B.A. courses have declined in the past two or three years because the University Is pursuing a policy of increasing the Intake to science-oriented studies. In 1985 the final examination results were as follows: No. of Pass, Credit To Part-time Candidates and Nerit or Deferred Fail Public Administration 41 31 8 2 Economics 50 42 6 2 African Development Studies 18 15 3 - Sociology 6 5 1 Psychology 7 6 1 University of Zambia, Ndola Campus (UNZANDO) 2.50 The School of Business and Industrial Studies is located on the campus of the Zambia Institute of Technology (ZIT) pending the construction of its own campus at Ndola. The School offers two programs of four years' duration, one leading to a bachelor's degree in Accountancy and Finance, and the other to a degree in Business Administration. After a 2-year common foundation course, students select their specialization and in the fourth year accountancy students choose between professionally oriented and financial management courses, while business administration students are required to develop both specialist skills and an appreciation of the interrelated nature of the various functional areas of management. In 1983/84, enrollment was in excess of 400 because of an annual intake of 130 in previous years. This will fall to about 200 from 1986 onwards as the annual intake reduces to 60. To date, about 80% of the students have opted- for Accountancy and Finance and about 20% for Business Administration.  - 20 - Enrollment in the'School of Business and Industrial Studies' - 1985 Year I - Common Course 90 Year 2 - Common Course 80 Year 3 - Accountancy 70 Business Studies 15 Year 4 - Accountancy 70 Business Studies 15 Total: 340 2.51 In a faculty of 31 posts, only 12 are in post, seven are on sabbatical or study-leave and 12 posts are vacant. The teaching is supplemented by four Staff Development Fellows (two each in Accounting and Management). The school has been strengthened further by two lecturers in accountancy from EDF funds. USAID has agreed to provide an Accounting Professor for three years from 1985 and a Business Administration Professor for two years from 1988. ODA (UK) has also indicated willingness to provile support in accountancy teaching should either EEC or USAID support fail i:o materialize. Despite the heavy shortfall against established posts, the school manages to keep going by using part-time lecturers who are available in the locality. 2.52 The school is desperately short of reference books, journals and teaching aids for all areas of study. USAID has a program to provide periodicals, journals, reference books, textbooks, and instructional equipment. National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA) 2.53 NIPA is responsible for in-service training of civil servants, particularly those in the administrative grades, and reports to the Permanent Secretary, Personnel Division, Liaison regarding courses is - directly with ministries and provinces and NIPA determines what courses are offered. NIPA is also responsible for carrying out training for decentralization, in conjunction with the Ministry of Decentralization. The three NIPA campuses comprise the following departments and sections: Main Campus * Accountancy Training Department 4/ * Administrative Training Department * Local Government Training Section. Health Service Training Department Legal Training Department 4/ Those departmeints, sections and courses'marked with an'asterisk offer management and accountancy studies and are outlined below.  21- - Burma Road Campus * Executive Training Section Secretarial Training Section Technical Training Unit Chalimbana Campus * Elementary Course In AccoUnts * Certificate in Accounts and Business Studies (CABS) 2.54 In the Accountancy 'Training Department, accountancy technician diplomas (ATD) are offered as (a) preliminary diploma with enhance requirement of four '0' levels, (b) intermediate diploma with the qualification of CABS or equivalent, and (c) final diploma requiring the intermediate diploma for entry. Currently the intake capacity is about 25 for each course. The ATD is a local award. Courses for the Association of Accounting Technicians (AAT), Level III, are also offered enabling successful candidates to qualify for membership in AAT,London. Those who pass AAT, Level III, with credit can move directly to ACCA II., 2.55 Entry requirements for state auditor courses at the intermediate level are three "'Q level passes, including English and mathematics. The courses are for serving officers in the-Auditor-General's Department, who have successfully completed (or are exempted from) the Auditor's Induction Course, and new entrants who have sufficient knowledge of the basic principles and techniques of auditing. The intermediate course takes 24 persons, selected by the Auditor General's Department, and lasts 18 months. Successful students go on to the final course, lasting one year. Both the intermediate and final examinations are internal to the Auditor General's Department and are supervised by the Public Service Commission through a committee. The Accountancy Training Department has an instructor staff of nine, of whom four are Zambians. 2.56 In the Administrative Training Department, short courses (2-5 weeks) are offered to senior civil service staff, including under- secretaries, planning officers, construction supervisors, education officers, etc. These courses are offered once or twice a year, with an average enrollment of about 20. In addition, the department is responsible for longer term diploma courses (2 years) with an intake of about 25 a year.- The departmental instructor staff totals five, all Zambians. - 2.57 - The-Local Government Ttaining Section biannually offers courses (2-4 weeks) for-councillors and commercial, industrial and development- secretaries. The number of training places for each course is 25. In addition, longer term courses for valuers (1 year) and local government administrators are offered yearly, in which the participants total 15-20. The section employs four instructors, all Zambians. 2.58 The Executive Training Section is responsible for courses in supervision, middle management, personnel management, etc., lasting 2-13 weeks~ with a frequency of two to three per year. Trainee places per course total 20, with seven Zambian instructors.  - 22 - 2.59 Elementary accountancy and certificate courses (CABS) are available at NIPAts-Chalimbana campus and have a duration of six months and two years, respectively. The annual output per course is about 100 for the short and 20 for the long-term course. - Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce 2.60 Established in 1963 this college is the largest institution (in terms of enrollment) controlled by DTEVT. The college has seven departments: Applied Sciences and Extension Studies; Business Studies; Communication Media; Education; Hotel Catering and Tourism Studies; Paramedical Studies; and Business Studies. Total student capacity is about 1,250, but only 75% to 80% of this capacity is used; however, over 1,000 students attend evening classes for extension studies. Of the staff establishment of 167, 128 posts are filled, more than half by Zambians. 2.61 Paramedical Studies is the largest department, offering 3-year diploma courses in Environmental Health, Medical Laboratory Technology, Pharmacy, Physiotherapy, and Radiography. There are strong links with the Ministry of Health and other employers of paramedical personnel. Zambianization is almost completed with the exception of the Laboratory, Technology and Pharmacy Departments. 2.62 The Secretarial Studies Department offers regular shorthand and typing courses at certificate level. These courses are a popular choice and consequently the employment market demands are well satisfied. Possible extensions to programs (e.g., advanced secretarial courses and specialist secretary work) are being considered. The department suffers from equipment shortages and a lack of teaching materials. 2.63 The Hotel and Catering Department facilities include an 80 bed College Hotel. Courses include a four-year diploma in hotel management and certificate level work in food and beverages, reception, cookery, and housekeeping. Employment prospects for students are reasonably good, although there is evidence that some employers'are critical of the standards being achieved. Shortages of consumable items, aggravated by a lack of financial autonomy (generated income is to be handed over to the Treasury), are causing serious constraints to the practical work programs. 2.64 The Communication and Media Department's printing section is not operating because of machinery breakdowns and the high cost of materials, although it is hoped to re-start the certificate course in 1986 with assistance from industry. 2.65 The Business-Studies Department has 181 students: 117 are studying accountancy; 59, marketing; and five, personnel management. This is mainly a response by students-to the availability of jobs in accounting. The department no longer offers its Diploma in Business Administration nor Certificate courses in Stores Supervision, Accounting, and Personnel Administration because of diminishing demand from sponsors and students (due to lack of finance and scholarships) as well-as a shortage of staff.  - 23 - 2.66 Difficulty in attracting and retaining competent Zambian staff is common to all public sector institutions and Evelyn Hone College is no exception. Thle main cause of this appears to be inadequate salaries, unsatisfactory housiiig, and poor staff development prospects. Three Zambian staff who obtained one-year scholarships in Ireland (one in accountancy, two in marketing) recently resigned to take up more lucrative -assignments in the private sector. The department maintains close informal relationships with the Administrative and Executive Training Departments of NIPA. Some Evelyn Hone lecturers teach part-time at,NIPA and there are short, informal exchanges of lecturers between the two Institutions in areas of short supply. The department has 15 lecture rooms and an understocked library. There is urgent need for reference books, textbooks and journals, which to some extent are provided by the Irish Government. Management Services Board (MSB) 2.67 MSB started in 1970 as an UNDP/ILO project to strengthen the Business Studies Department of Evelyn Hone College in the training of managerial personnel. The nine ILO staff were later joined by only four Zambian professional staff. In 1978 ILO pointed to the failure to appoint a Zambian Director and counterpart staff. By the end of 1978 only six Zambian staff had been recruited, although this rose to 12 by 1981. By Act of Parliament, MSB was formed in 1981 but without sufficient and experienced staff. Despite this unhappy start, MSB, with the help of the Cabinet Office and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC), has begun to equip itself to fulfill its role as set out in the Act, which emphasized "fostering sound management and organizational development in the parastatal and other sectors of the economy." A Zambian Director has been appointed along with two long-term CFTC consultants. An extensive review of MSB's role, structure, organization, staffing, conditions of service, etc., has been carried out and presented to its Board of Directors, whose Chairman is the Secretary to the Cabinet. Zimco Institute of Management (ZIM) 2.68 ZDM is a multi-occupational training center serving the Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation Ltd (ZIMCO) and its subsidiary and associate companies. Originally a low-level training institution (for drivers, mechanics, typists), it has now developed short (4 weeks) management and accountancy courses for supervisory, middle-management and senior executive level staff. In 1985 the Management Training Department offered supervisory (15), management development (11), functional management (10) and accountancy courses (6). Additional courses are available on request; these include Marketing Management, Salesmanship,,, Physical Distribution Managementj Training for Trainers, Work Study, ind Industrial Safety. However, since the number of classrooms available to the Management Training Department is 1imited to three (each catering for a maximum of 25 students), there is already a shortage of teaching accommodations to mount even the-regular courses offered.  - 24 - 2.69 ZIM would like to upgrade its accountancy training facility to and including-ACCA I, but does not have the staff. However,-ZIMCO has earmarked Kw 3 million for construction and staff development in ZIM. Most of this will be spent on expanding management training where, as noted -above,42 out of some 80 short courses are mounted. Although the Management Training Department of ZIM has only seven trainers, including the head of the department, ZIMCO's investment is likely to be supplemented by assistance from ODA (UK). 2.70 The management at ZIM is concerned about possible conflict with the Management Services Board (MSB) in areas where they offer similar training programs. It is looking forward to re-activation of the Joint Programs Committee (which has not met for two years) so that there can be dialogue and cooperation with other management training institutions such as MSB, NIPA, UNZA, Evelyn Hone College, the President's College, training units of ZCCM, PTC, Zambia Railways and NRDC, Mindolo. Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines, Ltd. (ZCCM) Accountancy Training College - Chingola (ATC) 2.71 The Accountancy Training College mainly serves ZCCM and its affiliate companies. It is administered by ZCCM's Manpower Services and Training Division (MST) at Kitwe and offers a series of accountancy courses. The College Certificate in Accountancy (CCA) is a two-year certificate which is taken by recruits to the mining industry from secondary-school. Those who pass this examination go on to take ACCA I and then ACCA II. Successful ACCA II students go abroad for ACCA III and AAT 1I and then AAT III. These courses are mainly for in-service employees of the mining divisions, together with a few students from other parastatal organizations. 2.72 CCA was developed by ZCCM, with the help of ACCA, to prepare students for admission to ACCA, whose minimum requirement for admission is -'A' level, which is not available in secondary education. The quality of output from ATC's CCA course may be judged by its first 11 graduates in 1983 who took ACCA I in June 1984. Seven of the 11 passed in their first attempt and the remainder at their second, which indicates that the level of performance is outstanding particularly since the international average is a pass rate of 40%. In 1982, two of the top five students in ATT's worldwide examinations were from the ATC at Chingola. 2.73 In addition to the principal, who is Zambian, ATC has seven trainers, five of whom are expatriate. The library'is barely adequate and many of the reference books are old editions, and textbooks are in short supply, especially in taxation, economics and accounting. There is a particular need for texts in financial accounting. 2.74 Five classrooms (which can take up to 24 students each) are fully utilized and the hostels, designed for 75 in single study-bedrooms, now accommodate 150. The result is overcrowding and the students must find other places to study.  - 25 - Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation 2.75 The Mindolo Ecumenical Foundalion offers commercial training courses for private, parastatal and goverament organizations up to supervisory level. Courses vary betweeu one and four weeks and are offered at an a-verage of twice per year; they include such topics as basic supervision, materials management, personnel management, costing, and budgeting. In 1984, a total of 309 participated in this training. The Foundation also mounts In-plant programs. In 1984, five of these were given-to 120 participants,- using three or four lecturing staff. In addition to its core staff, the Foundation receives assistance from companies and parastatals, sometimes on a fee b8si% and sometimes free. Correspondence Courses 2.76 Administrative staff have a great interest in correspondence courses leading to the acquisition of overseas, sub-professional qualifications. In some cases the students simultaneously enroll in domestic evening classes, and local examination centers may be organized (for example, Pitmans at NORTEC), but In others they are expected to work on their own. Little is known about the volume, value, cost or graduation rates of these courses. Some carry weight with employers but others do not, and the introduction of regulation needs to be considered. Agricultural Education and Training 2.77 The overall responsibility for the organization and management of the training functions in the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development (MAWD) is delegated to the Training Section of the Department of Agriculture (DOA). Until now, administration of overall MAWD training has been under the Office of the Training Chief, who is seconded to MAWD by the Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT). The main functions of the Chief Training Officer (CTO) are overall coordination of the administration of the existing training institutions under MAWD, coordination of scholarship arrangements, and liaison with training institutions in Zambia and abroad. At the DOA level, however, the Training Section and the Extension Service are integrated for administrative purposes and are under the Director General of Agriculture (DGA), with the Deputy Director of Extension (DDE) assuming broad responsibility for all field services to the farmer and the Senior Extension Training Officer (SETO) assuming specific responsibility for the Farm Institutes (FIs) and Farm Training Centers (FTCs). 2.78 At the level of each of the eight provincial headquarters the Provincial Agricultural-Officer (PAO) assumes overall responsibility, while the Provincial Extension Training Officer (PETO) is responsible for the daily routine administration of training lnstitutions. At the district level, both the extension and training staff function under the authority of the District Agricultural Officer (DAO). The organization of the Training Section of DOA is shown in the following chart:  26 - .ORGANIZATION OF THE TRAINING SECTION,- DOA . ~~Director of Agriculture [Deputy Director (Extension) Senior lExtension Training Officer Provincial Agricultural Officer Provincial Extenslo Training Officer _ _ manag_ial/uppo st.District Aricultural . 0 _ ~~Officer T n cio oft certmntCharge i I FT G .C Field Staff Existing Trao ning Under bAWD i 2.79 MAWD has the responsibility for training two broad categories of learners: (a) farm families and extension vorkers, and (b) research and managerialpsupport staff. Agrncultural training Is at present offered by eight FIs and 32 PTCs (Annex ll). Both the Fls and PTCs are managed by the Training Section of the Department of Agriculture (DWOA). Staff training to presently carried out through one diploma and 10 certificate granting Institutes, all of which are managed by MAWD. In addition, higher or degree level training is the responaibLlIty of -UNZA, while short- and long-term post-graduate and non-degree training i8 offered abroad, mainly through fellowships.  - 27- Farm Institutes (FIM) 2.80 There are eight FI, one in each province. As the total auimber of camps supervised by Fla is about 540 and the total number of field staff in these camps is about 450, there is roughly one staff member per camp, and since the total number of farm families covered in all the eight camps Is approximately 660,000, each staff member, on average, deals with about 1,220 farm families. The major function of the Fla is to train field staff and also farmers where no FTC exists. 1Farmer Training Centers (FTCs) 2.81 While the total number of FTCs is 32, very few are effective. The few which are operating train as many students as an-Fl, though with comparatively less efficiency. Even where FTC8 are operational, they function at less than 50% capacity and at present the obvious trend is to rely on a modified T&V (Training and Visit) system instead. Under a T&V system, farmer training functions focus on practical, 'hands-on' type training right in the farmers' fields, through demonstration. At present the FTCs, like the FIs, use little demonstration and resort to lectures. Feedback from the farmer is not well registered, as discussions are rare. This ineffective method of teaching is worsened by the fact that FTCs are constrained by (a) the lack of recurrent funds, (b) farmers' reluctance to come to the centers, (c) lack of adequate transport, (d) shortage of water supply, (e) the need to refurbish existing buildings, and (f) shortage of teaching materials. Zambia Colleges of Agriculture at Monze and Mpika 2.82 Pre-service training is offered mainly through the two certificate granting institutions, the Zambia College of Agriculture at Monze (ZCA-Monze) and the Zambia College of Agriculture at Mpika (ZCA-Mpika), and through the Natural Resources Development College (NRDC), all of which are under DOA management. In addition, DOA relies on the University of Zambia (UNZA) for degree level training of its staff and trains a selected few research, extension and managerial staff at degree, non-degree and post-graduate levels overseas. 2.83 The former Monze Agricultural Training School became the Zambia College of Agriculture In 1965 and shifted to its present campus. Since then there has been continuous improvement in the college buildings, laboratories and farm facilities. Improvements are evident in the quality of students, and enrollment is increasing. The course content, teaching methodologies and practical training also have improved considerably. Some important changes were the introduction of a two-year certificate course, a foundation course for veterinary students, and admission of female students. In 1976 a sister college was established at Npika in Northern Province. These two Colleges of Agriculture have similar curricula and  28- produce certificate holders of the same standard. The combined output of the Monze and Mpika colleges is about 150 graduates per year. The main subjects in the curriculum are Animal Husbandry, Crop Husbandry; Extension Methods, Farm Engineering, and Farm Management. At Monze, female students take Home Economics in place of Farm Engineering in the second year. All the Departments have fairly good facilities for training. Entry requirements for the colleges are Form 3 junior secondary school certificate with four passes and at least one year of practical training and experience in the field as Commodity Demonstrator (CD). The CDs are given three months' introductory training at the provincial Farm Institute and are then sent to a camp to work with camp officers. A CD with good potential and one year's work experience may be recommended by the Provincial Agricultural Officer for further studies. 2.84 The Monze college accommodates about 230 students, averaging 25 years of age. The college has its own farm of 657 hectares, including an arable farming area of about 70 hectares and about 570 hectares of grazing land. Maize, soyabeans and sunflowers are the principal crops grown. There is a herd of over 50 cows and a beef herd of 100 breeding cows. The college meets almost all of its subsistence requirements for students and staff through its own resources. Staff and student morale is high, and at present the college is attempting to clear all the backlog of CDs ao that some may be selected for further training. The intake is about 100 graduates per year. The staff consists of six senior lecturers, eight lecturers, and 10 practical instructors. Normally a few staff members are allowed to take training courses every year; this boosts staff morale and incentive. The table below shows the rise in the number of graduates from 1971 to 1983. Monze College of Agriculture Graduates Per Year No. of No. of Year Graduates Year Graduates 1971 50 1978 82 1972 63 1979 94 1973 71 1980 71 1974 73 1981 80 1975 77 1982 83 1976 65 1983 99 1977 114  - 29 - The instruction consists of 50% theory and 5OZ practice. Each student is given a plot of land, animals and fruit trees to provide firsthand experience in farming. Field vislts to commercial and traditional farms are included in the program. Natural Resources Development College (NEDC) 2.85 The first cohort of students was admitted In 1965 for a two-year diploma course and a one-year diploma course in home economics. Since then, considerable changes have been made in the curriculum and the college now offers a three-year diploma course with majors in crop science, animal science and agricultural business management, agricultural education, agricultural engineering, nutrition, and water engineering. There is considerable emphasis on practical training in laboratories and on the college farm and ranch. The students are expected to gain field experience during at least one long vacation. The college campus is located on 300 hectares of land, about 12 km outside of Lusaka. The college farm is primarily a teaching farm with an irrigated area and also has pig, poultry and dairy cattle units and a ranch of about 1,500 hectares, which has indigenous Angoni beef cattle and various exotic breeds and crossbreeds, along with flocks of sheep and goats. 2.86 The college admission is of two types: direct entry soon after "O" level; and in-service candidates who, in addition to earlier formal agricultural training, have worked for some time and gained experience and are recommended or sponsored by their departmental heads. Once admitted, both categories of- students have to undergo the same type of training and meet the same academic requirements. The maximum training capacity of the college is about 160 students per year, of whom about 130 receive the diploma. About 80% of the students are fresh from school ("0" level graduates) and 20% are in-service candidates. Generally, a diploma holder of NRDC joins the Extension Branch of MAWD as an agricultural supervisor. About 10 diploma holders every year go for B.Sc. (Agriculture) courses at the UNZA School of Agricultural Sciences. Most of the facilities for teaching soil, chemistry, botany and zoology are less than adequate and need replacement. University of Zambia School of Agricultural Sciences 2.87 The School of Agricultural Sciences of UNZA was officially established in 1971 at the Lusaka campus. The present program for the degree of-Bachelor of Agricultural Sciences is of five years' duration and covers five basic agricultural science disciplines: Crop Sciences, Animal Science, Agricultural Engineering, Rural Economy and Extension Education, and Soil Science. At present, the maximum intake at the School of Agricultural Sciences is 70, and the entry requirement is completion of secondary school with five passes at "O" level. In the fifth year, the students are offered optional subjects in their areas of special interest.  - 30 - All students are required to do a mlnimuu of 30 weeks of farm work before they graduate in order to gain practical skills in farming and to get exposure to the rural community and to existing farming systems. Up to 1983, the School of Agricultural Sciences had produced 163 B.Sc. (Agriculture) graduates, 125 of whom have joined MAWD and agricultural parastatals. Since 1983, an average of 60 students graduate each year. 2.88 Apart from the B,Sc. (Agriculture) degree program, a new B.Sc. (Agricultural Economics) program was recently approved by the Senate of the University. The main objective of this new program is to produce students who are technically sound in agriculture and are also well versed in agricultural economics. A B.Sc. (Agricultural Engineering) program with -specialization in farm power and machinery, farm structure, and soil and water conservation is also likely to start soon. Diseussions are also underway to start an M.Sc. program in selected subjects, but financial constraints may delay these plans. 2.89 Besides teaching, faculty members undertake research projects and assist in the development and maintenance of the university farms. The School of Agricultural Sciences has its own farm of 600 hectares. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine 2.90 In order to meet the challenge of its own increased animal production and the need to identify and effectively control the major livestock diseases in the country, UNZA is in the process of establishing a Veterinary Medicine Faculty at the Great East Road Campus in Lusaka. Locating the new faculty at the Lusaka campus has the advantage of utilizing the existing interim premises and research laboratories as well as using the services of academic staff whc are already available in the School of Natural Sciences and would teach basic sciences during the first and second years of the six-year program. While the level of veterinary education would be at the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine (B.Vet. Med.) degree, it would consist of theory and field and laboratory practical work. Although the faculty is starting with only 15 students, the aim is to produce about 40 every year, starting from the 1986/87 academic year. Current total enrollment is 32.  - 31 - lII. ANALYSIS OP NJOWER DEVELOPMENT 3.1 Manpower Development Planning Central Planning Authorities NCDP 3.1.1 The Manpower Planning and Research Department of NCDP (para 2.01) is at the center of manpower development for Zambia and has an establishment of 12 professional staff. Nevertheless, in common with most such units in other countrles, it is doubtful whether it has any significant impact on decision-making within its domain. 3.1.2 There are two reasons for this. One is shortcomings in its staffing. It appears that none of the present officers of the department had work experience in the manpower sector prior to recruitment. Most of the junior staff joined the department directly after completing a first degree at UNZA, and their academic training was not always in relevant fields. There has been a high rate of turnover of directors, the average tenure since the establishment of the department in 1980 being less than two years. The latest director has been in post for only two months. With each new director requiring training overseas, the effective length of service has been shorter still. As a consequence, the department has lacked sustaiued experienced leadership since its creation. For some time it has been operating with less than half of its nominal professional strength, several of the officers being absent on overseas training courses, and four posts (including the two Assistant Directorships) remalning unfilled. 3.1.3 There is some expectation that when the officers who are abroad have completed their training the department will be in a position to fulfill Its responsibilities, but such optimism does not appear to be Justified. The second reason for the Ineffectiveness of the department is a fundamental misconception of the role that it should play in manpower development planning - a misconception shared by most such units elsewhere. In general terms, the objectives of the department are well defined: the formal statement of its functions and the job descriptions of the indlvidual posts are uncontroversial and together cover most of the activities that one would expect of such a unit. What is lacking, both on paper and in practice, is any notion of how these objectives might be achieved. The department has adopted information processing (data in, reports out) as its primary modus operandi, with no clear idea of how this will help it to achieve its goals.  - 32 - 3.1.4 To overcome this problem, the department has to recognize that its func't on is to improve the quality of decision-making in the manpower development sector and those sectors related to it. It needs to make an inventory of key decision-makers in the sector (employers, training providers, other planning agencies), to become well informed about their decision-making processes and the more Important decisions made by them on a regular basis, and to work backwards from this analysis to a pragmatic interpretation of the Job descriptions of its own officers. 3.1.5 This would involve the'adoption of a less office bound, less data dependent and more eclectic work style. The department would'have to take the initiative in taintaining contact with key dectsion-makers on a regular basis. It would have to acknowledge that most decision-making in the sector is necessarily based on qualitative rather than quantitative information. And it would have to recognize the value of many activities-- entrepreneurial, managerial, catalytic-- that are not information dependent (e.g., establishing lines of communication between training providers and employers, and coaching key decision-makers in effective decision-making practices, checking that new training facilities are designed with sufficient flexibility so that they can adjust their training mix to changes in demrnd). 3.1.6 The current and past training programs of the officers of the department are not likely to foster this kind of reorientation. Although it is mostly a matter of common sense, external technical assistance will probably be required. Ideally, this should be in the form of an initial small input followed by coaching in short installments over the next few years. However, since the department has been provided with technical advisers in the past with limited results, particular attention should be given to the likely effectiveness of any future assistance. USAID is planning to provide the department with very generous technical assistance in the form of a long-term adviser, who should have been in place in early 1985. 3.1.7 The Manpower Survey undertaken in 1983 is expected to furnish data for a major program of analysis by the revitalized division. This is an illusion. Indeed, by absorbing more of their time, it will certainly have a net negative effect on their contribution to sectoral decision- making. From a statistical viewpoint, the survey appears to have been undertaken with a high level of professional expertise,but from an economic viewpoint its value is marginal. It was not designed with specific decision-making in mind and as a result it may not be useful for this purpose. The one-digit occupational classification used in most of the published tables renders them of negligible interest to a manpower analyst. Even the minor code classification is too highly aggregated to be used on its own, e.g., accountant assistants and accountants are lumped together, as are engineers and related technicians. It will be necessary to cross-classify by educational level before one can home in on a particular qualification, but even then the data would be of little value unless supplemented by a practical familiarity with the corresponding  -33- labor markets. Of the data published in the preliminary volume, only those related to posts currently filled by expatriates and to training are of obvious use. The former should be available more cheaply, more quickly, more accurately and in greater detail from the Zambianization Office of DMDT. The date on training are too broadly classified to be of much value. 3.1.8 In a recent submission to the Bank, NCDP proposed a training program for its officers for the next five years which included the following degree courses: M.Sc. in Mieroeconomics (two), M.Sc. in Economics (six), M.A. in Development Economics (25); M.A. in Project Eeonomics (one), Ph.D. in Economics (seven). The Manpower Planning and Research Department could benefit substantially from having on its staff an officer with a rigorous two-year M.Sc. in Economics to act as an anchorman for its economic analysis, but only if the reorientation described above were implemented. It would also benefit from recruiting one or two staff with an M.Sc. in Labor Economics, or by sending existing staff abroad for in-service training in that field. In view of the cost of such training, the staff members concerned should be carefully pre-selected for aptitude and should be expected to remain in post for at least five years after their return. Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT) 3.1.9 For the purpose of making efficient use of the training resources available to the civil service, DMDT has introduced a system which has parallels, both in terms of its execution and of the problems encountered, with that used by the Ministry of Finance (MOF) for allocating financial resources. Like MOF, it has established its own cadre of specialists, Manpower Development Officers, and has seconded them to the various branches of the civil service. The MDOs, each of whom services an average of 1,500 established staff, are not in a position to evaluate directly the training needs of their host branch. Their role is one of consciousness-raising and organization, the objective being to stimulate the responsible senior officers of the branch to set in motion and maintain an assessment process for their staff and to see that this results in- regular and appropriate training bids. 3.1.10 In 1984 this process of training needs assessment was supplemented by a formal survey which was extended to the parastatal and private sectors. Although the immediate purpose of the survey was to satisfy the requirements of a major donor agency, it also served as a pilot exercise for an annual budgeting procedure for training resources similar to-that employed by MOP for allocating financial resources. J.1.ll Civil service branches and other employers were asked to nominate candidates for training awards, having first evaluated them according to a points system devised by DMDT which took ,t'io account such factors as the age of the candidate and the priority rating assigned to his or her occupation by a DMDT classifieation based on a 1976/77 survey.  - 34 - 3.1.12 Although there was a disappointing response from the private sector and a weak one from the parastatals, probably caused in both cases by a failure to publicize the survey, the ratio of bids to available training opportunities was on the order of 3:1. The same overbidding problem used to be encountered by MOF when soliciting bids for budget allocations, and the survey report proposes the same solution, i.e., to indicate to the bidders their likely total allocation before asking them for nominations. Planning by Employers 3.1.13 Enterprises typically make long-term recruitment plans for only those types of specialized manpower for which they are the dominant employer. Since they are usually either directly responsible for the training, or indirectly responsible through a sponsorship scheme, their recruitment plans simultaneously generate training plans for these types of labour. 3.1.14 The most important example of a closed labor market is provided by primary and secondary school teachers. Their training and recruitment are the separate responsibilities of MHI and MGEC, but in principle these two ministries should be coordinating as if they were a single unit (which they used to be). Other examples of dedicated in-house training programs are the technical training facilities at ZCCM, the statistician training school at CSO, the various training programs operated by the Ministry of Health, the Forestry School operated by the Zambian Forestry and Forest Industries Company, and the technician training program at Posts and Telecommunications. Although at one end of the spectrum the courses may be as formal as those offered by MHB, at the other end they may be little mDre than Induction courses with a substantial on-the-job training component. 3.1.15 When the volume of specialized training is too small to Justify an in-house program, sponsorship is the usual alternative; overseas if no suitable domestic facilities exist. Attachments overseas may be a further option for firms with permanent commercial links with overseas firms, for example, those participating in joint ventures, those with minority external shareholdings, and those which have established licensing agreements. 3.1.16 From the point of view of national manpower development planning, in-house training and sponsorship schemes should be encouraged, on two grounds: (a) They decentralize the hurden of planning from the Manpower Planning and Researeb Department of the NCDP (which has neither the know-how for detailed planning nor the required resources) to the enterprises employing the manpower. This can be expected to have a beneficial effect on both the quality of the decision-making and the speed of response to changing circumstances.  - 35 - (b) They generally transfer the financial burden of training from MHE to employers, whose training schemes may in any case be more cost-effective. 3.1.17 The Manpower Planning and Research Department of NCDP should therefore en"-urage the establishment of in-house training programs when justified in terms of unit costs and sponsorship, and sponsorship schemes, helping to arrange technical assistance when appropriate. The department should regularly monitor unit costs of major programs and the quality of their output. 3.1.18 Since the quality of the output depends critically on the quality of instruction, the department should keep itself well informed concerning the factors affecting the recruitment and wastage of instructors and should take remedial action where appropriate. In Zambia as elsewhere, there is a chronic problem of a high wastage of instructors to other related occupations offering superior pay and other conditions. The only lasting solution is to increase instructor salaries, reducing the scale of the training program if necessary in order to reallocate the required funds. This solution, though obvious, is typically not adopted because it involves giving instructors salaries larger than those of employees with greater line responsibility and higher status. The department should take the initiative in persuading the administrators of the training schemes that the realignment of salaries is necessary and justified. For example, at ZCCM and also at Posts and Telecommunications, the training divisions, which are exceptionally well organized in other respects, have chronic problems in retaining instructors. At ZCCM the training division is unable to compete with the operating divisions with respect to pay and working conditions, and as a result there is a high rate of internal wastage. At Telecoms the lose is to the private sector. 3.1.19 These remarks apply particularly to the parastatal sector, where salaries are determined relatively rigidly. The little flexibility that does exist appears to be influenced more by a desire to maintain an orderly hierarchy of salary scales in enterprises of different sizes than to respond to the signals emitted by the labor market. 3.1.20 To some extent this reluctance to acknowledge the realities of the labor market has been encouraged by the willingness of donor agencies to sponsor the overseas training of new Instructors. The continuous inflow of new staff has mitigated the problem caused by the wastage of existing instructors, but this is nothing more than a palliative and an expensive one at that. Even if the company operating the training scheme does not have to bear the direct cost of training instructors, it normally is responsible for their salaries -and is constantly replacing experienced instructors with inexperienced ones. Donor agencies are right in assigning high priority to the quality of instruction, but their contribution could be more effective if part of their budgets were diverted from sponsorship to the provision of incentives for existing instructors to remain in post, for example, by supplementing their salaries.  - 36 - 3.1.21 In some of the larger companies, particularly in the parastatal sector, the establishment of a specialized personnel department has led to the neglect of on-the-job coaching. Whether this Is because the personnel department is preoccupied with formal schemes and has overlooked its value, or because the operating divisions have been too willing to shed even this training responsibility, the process by which new graduates acquire useful experience and practical competence has very often not received the attention it deserves. The Manpower Planning and Research Departmen- can play-a useful role in making employers more sensitive to this issue. One practical measure would be to require a coaching element to be included in the job description of posts held by expatriates and for this responsibility to be borne in mind when expatriates are recruited. 3.1.22 For types of labor which are not enterprise-specific, the employers typically rely on the open labor market, with short-term planning at most. For such types of labor, the burden of planning should be shifted to the training provider. 3.1.23 Three employers of high-level manpower merit particular attention: MGEC, the ZIMCO Group, and its subsidiary, ZCCM. Ministry of General Education and Culture (MGEC) 3.1.24 MGEC is by far the largest employer of high-level manpower in Zambia, its 30,000 teachers representing over 30% of all professional and technical workers. 3.1.25 The Planning and Statistics Divisions of MGEC should have up-to- date time-series data on the current stock and utilization of teachers and on- attrition rates by cause of attrition, and it should also maintain annually updated projections of the demand for teachers by location and qualification, and corresponding teacher-training requirements. 3.1.26 While two divisions do collect data and make projections on these lines, the lack of detail limits their usefulness for decision-making. The delay in compiling the statistica further detracts from their value. The weakness of the data-processing capacity is primarily attributable to the fact that the staff have to travel to UNZA, four miles away, to use the computer there. In-house facilities, either in the form of terminals linked to the UNZA computer or stand-alone equipment, are urgently needed. It is understood that SIDA is currently considering providing them. 3.1.27 -The second priority is to improve the data on the existing stock of teachers. MGEC compiles data on the stock of trained and untrained teachers by qualification and nationality, but does not appear to have data on the age-structure of the teaching force, their length of service or their geographical location of employment. MGEC needs to computerize key data from personnel records with two purposes in mind: monitoring the utilization of teachers, and monitoring their attrition rates. Premature attrition of teachers is a major problem for MGEC, but there does not  - 37 - appear to be any daca which would promote an understanding of the problem and which would-be useful in finding a remedy. The data on the utilization of teachers should be complemented by geographical data on educational quality and the number of over-size and under-size classes so that geographical imbalances in the employment of teachers may be detected and remedied. 3.1.28 A third priority for MGEC is the establishment of computerized forecasting model which takes as inputs demographic projections of children aged 7 and assumptions concerning dropout repetition and progression rates, and whose outputs are^projections of enrollments by grade, teacher requirements by qualification, and the implications for recurrent expenditure. Such a model is becoming a standard feature of a well- organized Ministry of Education planning department, and it is cheap to establish and to run. Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines, Ltd. (ZCCM) 3.1.29 Faced with a long-term decline in its mining operations, ZCCM is in the process of reviewing its activities and drafting a long-term plan. In the field of labor, it intends to establish a formal manpower planning system which will include a computerized inventory of its workforce, integrated with the payroll, and a job classification system. This should improve its ability to forecast its own needs and, in part-icular, to achieve the necessary reduction In its labor force in an orderly manner through normal wastage and early retirement schemes. The inventory was almost finished by September 1985, and the-demand side exercise is expected to be completed in draft by June 1986. 3.1.30 ZCCM's links with training providers are long established and efficient. At the highest levels (the University and Technical Institutes), its sponsorship of future employees eliminates the need for training institutions to forecast the demand from this source. Its willingness to sponsor some students for overseas training makes it unnecessary for domestic institutions to adapt abruptly to short-term variations in demand and reduces the pressure on them to deviate from long-term development plans. 3.1.31 In addition to its technical training facilities ZCCM operates an Accountancy Training College (ATC) at Chingo'a. The college works at full capacity and its courses are invariably over-subscribed. Planning at ATC therefore consists of ensuring that it has the staff and resources to continue operating at full capacity. Policy for ATC is determined by the parent company and its plans to meet its own needs. A few places at the college are offered to other parastatals when there is spare capacity.  -38- ZIMCO Group 3.1.32 The parastatal labour force totals approximately 140,000, most of the 80,000 outside ZCCM being employed by enterprises in the ZIMC0 Group. Manpower planning is executed both at the level of the individual enterprise and collectively at ZIMCO headquarters. Each firm is required to undertake a systematic annual review of the training needs of its employees and these, together with data on vacancies and the employment of expatriates, form the basis of a ZIMCO Group training program. 3.1.33 Some of the better managed firms have well-developed in-house training and/or sponsorship scheme. Typical among these are Zambia Posts and Telecommunications and the Kafue Textile Company, both of which have an in-house training center and a training plan fully integrated with the company development plan. 3.1.34 The main functions of the headquarters unit are to monitor the compliance of individual companies with ZIMCO conditions of service and policy on the localization of posts, supervise overseas training, and organize an internal Group labor market for senior positions. 3.1.35 While these functions are valaable, the centralization of policymaking for such a large and diverse collection of enterprises does create some problems which are not adequately appreciated. First, the central determination of pay scales and the linking of these pay scales to those for government service undermine the ability of the parastatal sector to respond to the realities of the labor market and places it at a disadvantage with the private sector, with which many of its companies have to compete. Adjustments in salary scales for a large group are necessarily made more slowly than those for an independent company and there is a greater risk of influence by non-economic factors, such as inappropriate value judgements with regard to the worth of specific ocupations. Failure to pay technical instructors adequate salaries is a case in point. The reluctance to pay the market rate for a job is doubly damaging: on the one hand it leaves the parastatal sector with unfilled posts or posts filled by individuals unattractive to the private sector -- the incompetent and the inexperienced; on the other hand, the artificial depression of salaries reduces the incentive for individuals to undergo the necessary training and contributes to perpetuation of the shortage. 3.1.36 Second, centralized manpower planning has a tendency to be overly concerned with numbers and insufficiently concerned with qualitative considerations. At the headquarters unit it is apparently felt that the localization of posts should take place as rapidly- as Zambians can be trained and that the training program should be accelerated, finances permitting. At the level of the individual firm, however, the problems arising from promoting inexperienced Zambians too rapidly into senior positions are more clearly perceived.  - 39 - 3.1.37 Related to the issue of pay is the problem of low productivity. It is clear that there is a tendency in the parastatal sector, and also in some private companies, to forego potential increases in productivity in order to protect jobs. In some cases this policy has been adopted explicitly. The number of jobs so protected is undoubtedly trivial by comparison with total employment or even the annual increase in the labor force, but the resulting inefficiency contributes to the lack of competitiveness of Zambian industry in world markets - directly if the firm is a potential exporter, indirectly if it is a supplier of potential exporters. 3.1.38 Third, centralized coordination and vetting of overseas training are beneficial only if executed effectively. The weak response of ZIMCO and other parastatals to the recent DMDT training needs evaluation is noted (para 3.1.12). 3.1.39 Notwithstanding these problems, a centralized unit can play a strategic role in improving decision-making related to manpower planning in the sector, and the Manpower Planning and Research Department of NCDP should establish a stronger working relationship with it. Private Sector 3.1.40 Private sector firms typically satisfy their manpower needs as best they can on a short-term basis from the labor market, specialized in-service training being confined to on-the-job training, secondment to overseas firms with which they have commercial relations, and equipment- specific instruction provided by suppliers. The absence of formal in-house centers and the low incidence of the use of sponsorship are explained by the fact that private firms tend to be small and their employment of professional and technical workers relatively low. Only about 7% of their workers are so classified, as opposed to 25% of parastatal workers. There are indications, however, that the private sector wishes to be more involved in manpower development including training program design and sharing in the financing of training. -Planning by Formal Training Providers 3.1.41 It is important to distinguish between planning carried out by training providers -- i.e., institutions and organizations actually engaged in training work -- and the planning activity in entities and organizations that control or advise the training providers. This section of the report is concerned with the former category. 3.1.42 In the formal technical education sector, there is little evidence that systematic planning takes place. The colleges and TTIs tend to adopt a passive role in a highly centralized system in which the institutions respond to intake levels Imposed centrally. The planning process is guided more by available financing than by actual manpower needs. A similar situation exists in the technical training institutions, since they take no part in the selection and placement of students and are often faced with last-minute problems concerning staff deployment and accommodations.  - 40 - 3.1.43 Uncertaincies in the scale and availability of capital budgets for new equipment or refurbishment, and also recurrent costs reduce the will and commitment of technical institution staff to initiate and sustain systematic planning mechanisms. This is unfortunate because planning takes on a special value in situations of tight resources and it is a useful tool in the management of lean budgets. Efficiency of Labor Markets 3.1.44 To the extent that labor markets allocate manpower efficiently and provide appropriate signals to training providers in the form of wage levels and other indicators of demand, the Manpower Planning and Research Department can delegate decision-making to those directly involved. Instead of becoming directly involved in planning, it can afford to adopt the less resource-consuming role of monitoring the general operation of the labour markets for different types of labor and of taking corrective action, when appropriate, on detecting distortions. This function is recognized in the internal document defining the objectives of the Manpower Planning and Research Department but it has not been exercised. 3.1.45 At present the markets for high-level manpower in Zambia are in a state of disequilibrium, with the government service paying lower wage rates than the parastatals and the private sector paying more than either. Since the government service is the dominant sponsor of high-level training and is the major beneficiary of donor-agency training, the majority of high-level trainees enter its service on graduation, remaining in that employment during the period of bonding. After the bonding has been worked off, some transfer to the parastatal sector where pay and other benefits are theoretically on a par with those in the government service but in practice are frequently significantly superior. After having gained further experience, those with superior ability may migrate a second time and take up employment in the private sector. As a result of the Government's efforts to protect the lowest paid workers in the economy, wages for middle and lower skill categories are presently higher in the civil service than in the private sector. 3.2 General Education Primary Education Enrollments 3.2.1 The two Third National Development Plan (TNDP) objectives for primary education were the enrollment of all children aged 7 in Grade 1 and 100% transition of lower primary graduates (Grade 4) to upper primary. On the surface the statistics suggest that the first objective has been achieved: it was estimated that 196,000 children reached the age of 7 In 1984 and 198,200 were enrolled in Grade I that year. However, of the latter, no fewer than 114,560 were over age (and 7,520 under age). Only 76,110 were actually aged 7.  - 41 - 3.2.2 The backlog of over-age children is attributable to the shortage of Grade 1 places in past years, especially in urban areas. Repetition is not a significant factor: only 403 children were repeating the grade in 1981, the most recent year for which data are available. Since the presence of over-age children in Grade 1 means that children currently aged 7 are denied entry, the backlog is self-perpetuating. It can be eliminated only by temporarily allowing Grade 1 enrollment to run ahead of the age 7 population, and this would appear to be ruled out for the present by a lack of resources. It follows that for the foreseeable future a substantial proportion of children will not have access to education duriug one of their mest formative years. 3.2.3 The increase in enrollment has been made possible only by highly intensive use of the schools. In the TNDP it had been hoped to phase out triple sessions, but the opposite has happened and they have now become standard practice. The pressure in urban areas has been aggravated by the influx of population from rural areas. 3.2.4 The transition rate from Grades 4 to 5 remains approximately 85%, well short of the second TNDP objective. Multigrade teaching of upper primary education may be introduced in lower primary schools-in rural areas where the transition rate is particularly low. 3.2.5 The TNDP document projected that total enrollment in primary education would be 1,154,000 in 1983; this target was exceeded by 40,000. Recent data on the proportion of primary school-age population enrolled in school are not available. The proportion declined marginally between 1974 and 1980, but may have improved since then (Annex 12, Table 3.2.1). 3.2.6 The student-teacher ratio has stabilized at about 33:1 for both lower 51 and upper primary education. This is substantially below the norm of 40:1, but is is likely to reflect imbalances in the distribution of children and teachers among schools, particularly between urban and rural areas, rather than a general over-provision of teachers. The quality of primary education leaves much to be desired. Entrants to teacher training schools for primary education have hitherto been required to have completed only Form 3 (Grade 10). In practice, with increasing competition for places in the training schools, many have completed Form 5, hut the training syllabus remains orientated to Form 3 leavers. 5/ However; In lower primary education a teacher normally handles two classes per day, amounting to a teaching load of about 10 periods.  - 42 - Employment Prospects for Primary School Leavers 3.2.7 Annex 129 (Table 3.2.2) provides data on the gross output (graduates plus dropouts) from primary education for the years 1981-1984 and projections to the year 1990. (Gross output in any year is most easily calculated by subtracting the increase in total enrollment in Grades 1-7 from new enrollment in Grade 1). The table also presents data on net output, i.e., the number of primary school-leavers who do not enter secondary education. -Net output has averaged just over 100,000 per year for the past four years and is likely to rise quickly to over 120,000 per year. Since MGEC is unlikely to be provided with the financial resources required by the projected rapid growth of Grade 8 enrollment, the net output may well approach 150,000 by 1990.6/ 3.2.8 Only a negligible proportion of these will find jobs in the formal sector. It follows that they will have to be absorbed by the informal sector if mass youth unemployment is to be avoided. The Goverrment is acutely aware of the problem and has accorded the development of small-scale agriculture a high priority in the Guidelines for the Fourth National Development Plan. Land as such is not a problem since 72% of cultivable land in Zambia is not at present utilized, but the provision of the necessary infrastructure and the aspirations of young people who prefer non-farming occupations and urban living will pose major problems. 6/ A lower rate of increase in Grade. 8 enrollment will not automatically lead to an increase in net output. It is likely that many children who could otherwise secure Grade 8 places will return to Grade 7 to await their turn, as is the practice now. For example, there were 147,100 children-enrolled In Grade 6 in 1983 and 162,200 enrolled in Grade 7 in 1984, at least 15,000 of whom must have been repeating the year. The- enormously high projections-of gross and net output for 1985 are attributable to an unrealistic assumption that this practice has stopped as of this year. The estimate of the increase in primary enrollment for 1985 should probably be closer to 45,000 than 30,000, and this implies a need for 400 more teachers than would otherwise be the case. MGEC urgently needs a computerized simulation model which would help it to evaluate the consequences of altering assumptions of this kind.  43 - Secondary Education Enrollments 3.2.9 Enrollments in secondary education have outstripped TNDP projections, the projected and actual totals for 1983 being-88,600 and 115-,100, respectively. Enrollments in all grades exceeded predictions, but the greatest excess was In Grade 10. According to the Educational Reform proposals of 1977, Grade 10 was due to be transferred from junior to senior secondary education In 1981. Since the progression rate from junior to senior secondary education is less than 50%, it was anticipated that the transfer would save some 11,000 places (22,000 places would be saved in junior secondary education, while 11,000 extra places have to be provided in senior secondary education). In fact, the transfer has taken place four years late. It will now be responsible for a net savings of 15,000 places and this should temporarily reduce the pressure on the secondary schools and permit some progress to be made towards three objectives: nine years of universal-basic education, Zambianization of the teaching staff, and employment of teachers with appropriate qualifications. Universal Basic Education 3.2.10 With the improvement in the retention ratios in primary schools, the main obstacle to the objective of universal basic education is the shortage of places in Junior secondary schools. Enrollment in junior secondary schools is increasing rapidly and the TNDP target of 27,400 enrollment in Grade 8 in 1983 was exceeded by 10%. Some junior secondary schools are being financed by donor agencies: three schools financed under the Fifth Education Project (Credit 1251-ZA) should be completed In 1985, and the construction of another five started; three schools financed by the African Development Bank (AfDB) should also be completed in 1985; and the Government is currently negotiating a loan for another five. But the greatest impetus, in terms of volume, Is coming from the self-help scheme under which local communities provide buildings and MGEC is obligated to supply teachers and assume responsibility for recurrent expenditure. By the end of 1984 there were 4-5 such schools in existence, 22 of them established in 1984 alone.7/ Some of them were built from scratch but many have been converted from other use&, for example, hostels of former boarding primary schools. As a result, deterioration in the progression rate from primary Grade 7 to junior secondary Form 1 has changed; it gradually fell from 23% in 1970 to 20% in 1980 and is now about 23% again. According to MGEC projections it will reach 41% by 1990, but this target is almost certainly overly ambitious. 7/ NCDP Economic Report, 1984. The data in the report do not provide a direct estimate of the quantitative impact of self-help schools on enrollments, but the report does state that the 22 new schools established in 1984 hold 88 Grade 8 classes, i.e., approximately 10% of the total in that year.  - 44 - 3.2.11 The overall student-teacher ratio for secondary education has risen from 21.6:1 in 1974 to 25.0:1 in 1984, and is therefore currently close to its target level (Annex 12, Table 3.2.3). Undoubtedly this ratio will vary between and even within schools, but in the absence of data on numbers of over-size and under-size classes it is impossible to assess the gravity of this potentially serious problem. The published MGEC data do not even discriminate between junior and senior secondary level teachers and it is therefore not posslble to estimate overall student-teacher ratios for the two levels separately, or to estimate the proportion of teachers possessing the required qualifications for each level. 3.2.12 The quality of secondary education is in need of improvement. The entrance requirement to the two secondary teaching colleges, Nkrumah and Copperbelt, is Form S graduation. In principle, upper secondary school should be taught by university graduates but in practice many of the teachers hRve lower qualifications. Mathematics teaching in particular is reported to be declining in quality. Many upper secondary school children receive no instruction at all in mathematics or science. Secondary Technical Education 3.2.13 The two senior secondary technical schools although staffed according to establishment, operate at about 60% of capacity, mainly because of inadequate funding. This means that costly equipment in workshops and laboratories is underutilized and physical facilities are left empty while awaiting repair and maintenanee. 3.2.14 The concept of senior secondary technical education appears to be to prepare students for (a) further science based studies at the same time as (b) some pre-vocational practical subjects are offered to seek to enhance employment possibilities immediately after graduation. 3.2.15 First, practical subjects as they are offered would hardly contribute to the employability of graduates, particularly in a situation where TTI graduates experience difficulty in finding jobs in the formal sector. Second, they occupy valuable time in the curriculum that could be used to strengthen knowledge in mathematics and science, which are important subjects for student survival in tertiary education. Third, the teaching of practical subjects is costly in terms of equipment, space requirements and consumables, and if that investment cannot be justified in terms of-a better qualified graduate, those subjects should be abolished or- reduced rather than expanded. Internal Efficiency of General Education 3.2.16 The transition rates in the first four primary grades seem high. For every 1,000 seven year old children entering Grade 1, about 834 reach Grade 3 three years later. This number drops to 765 in Grade 4 and to 553 in Grade 7. This implies that only about half of the children entering Grade 1 reach the terminal year of primary school in seven years.  - 45 - 3.2.17 The transition rates seem to be higher if under-age and over-age children are considered in the calculation. out of every 1,000 Grade I pupils, 9i3 reach Grade 4 in four years and 765 reach Grade 7 in seven years. These figures imply that in purely numerical terms the primary school system has achieved an internal efficiency of about 76%. 3.2.18 However, the rates from primary to secondary schools are much lower. Out of the 765 in Grade 7, only 145 continue their studies in - Form I and 143 in Form 2. These numbers suggest that out of every 1,000 school children in Grade 1, only 143 eventually complete nine years of basic education. This achievement is far less than the target for universal basic education. 3.2.19 From Form 2 onwards the rates are much lower than in the preceding years. Of the 143 students in Form 2, only 140 continue in Form 3, 68 in Form 4, and finally only 64 In Form 5. 3.2.20 Without doubt these rates reflect a screening and recruitment of an elite rather than a broadly based education for the masses. The figures also reflect an allocation problem of shifting boarding cost to parents who can afford it. According to estimates by MGEC, boarding cost alone takes up more than half of the total recurrent cost per pupil in secondary schools. If this boarding cost were spared, it could be used to open -mre schools, especially in the rural areas. Teacher Training Primary School Teachers 3.2.21 The training and recruitment of primary school teachers are not well coordinated. For the period 1975-1982 the average annual supply of trained teachers (those who graduated from the teacher training colleges the previous year) was 1,087, but the average net recruitment of trained teachers was only 729. As a result, the employment of untrained teachers actually rose by 269 during the period.8/ 3.2.22 Since the trained teaching force is relatively young, the discrepancy between the supply and employment figures is in the main attributable to resignations and/or a failure of teacher-training graduates to enter the teaching profession. It was not possible to discriminate between these two-factors in quantitative terms. Anecdotal evidence suggests that It was common for students to regard teacher-training as a form of employment insurance policy: they are guaranteed employment by 8/ Localization is not a significant issue. There were only 497 non-Zambian teachers in 1974. By 1982 this figure had fallen to 316.  - 46 - MGEC upon graduation and are thus supported while they embark on a search for a job with more ar-tractive pay or prospects. At ZCCM, for example, it is reported that many non-technical staff are former teachers. 3.2.23 Year-to-year data on the employment of trained teachers suggest that recently there has been an Improvement. During -the period 1974-1979, net recruitment averaged only 300 per year but has increased since 1979 to 1,260 (Annex 12, Table 3.2.5). However, it is likely that this change is largely attributable to the continued deterioration of the external labor market and that it would be reversed if the economy revived. 3.2.24 There are other aspects of teaeher utilization which give rise to concern. Despite the failure to retain new trainers, the student-teacher ratio has fallen to about 33:1, for upper primary grade the target being 40:1, implying that there would already be a surplus if enrollments and teachers were distributed optimally (1982 data). Of course, as in most countries, the distribution is uneven, but there are indications that the imbalances could be more carefully controlled. There are reports that teachers are too easily given transfers from rural to urban areas, and that as a consequence urban schools tend to be overstaffed while rural schools may have to make do with untrained teachers. 3.2.25 If the wastage of teachers wre- more carefully controlled, being reduced to, say, 2% per year, no more than 850 new graduates would be needed each year. This implies that the resources devoted to primary teacher-training, (approximately 5% of recurrent expenditure on education) could be reduced by approximately 50% in the short term. Secondary School Teachers 3.2.26 MGEC norms for class size in junior and senior secondary education are 40 and 35 respectively, and at both levels MGEC aims to have 1.5 teachers per class. These figures imply student-teacher ratios of 26.7:1 and 23.3:1, respectively, and about 25:1 overall. The published data do not disaggregate teacher employment by level, but the overall ratio -has risen from 22:1 to 24:1 during the past ten years and is therefore close to the target (Annex 12, Table 3.2.3). 3.2.27 The number of Zambian teachers has grown rapidly during this period. Initially, recruitment kept pace with the increase in enrollments but since 1.978 it has accelerated in response to the exodus of expatriates, the-proportion of expatriates falling from 76% in 1974 to 22% in 1983 (Annex 12, Table 3.2.6). 3.2.28 Nevertheless, as in the case of primary education, recruitment has been-greatly exceeded by the supply of new trainees. In the period 1974-1977 net recruitment was 1,050, while supply was 1,435. Even in 1978, the first year in which expatriates resigned in large numbers, net recruitment was barely 50% of supply and the total teaching force actually  - 47 - fell. Since that year the situation has improved, with net recruitment averaging 822 of supply; but again, as in the case of primary school teachers, this may be largely attributable to the deteriorLting external labor market and the trend could well be reversed If the state of the economy improved. Graduate Teachers 3.2.29 In princlple,- senior -secondary school'teachers should be university graduates. Since data on the employment of teachers by qualification are not published separately for junior and senior secondary education, it is not possible to assess how well this norm is observed in practice. However, the total stock of graduate teachers In employment greatly exceeds the number that would be required by the senior schools, assuming a class size of 35 and 1.5 teachers per class (.nnex 12, Table 3.2.7). 3.2.30 For two reasons, this position is likely to alter rapidly. First, the extension of senior secondary education to three years will automatically convert the surplus into a deficit of at least 400 if Grade 10 is taught by graduate teachers and if the progression rate fxom junior to senior secondary school is maintained. 3.2.31 Second, the present surplus of graduate teachers is entirely attributable to the employment of 1,542 expatriates. During the period 1974-1980 the net outflow of expatriates averaged only 30 per year; but since then during 1981-1983 (data for 1984 are not yet available) it has averaged 190. If this higher rate is maintained, there will be a deficit of graduate teachers by 1986 on this account alone. 3.2.32 The supply side is not encouraging. Durlng the period 1974-1980 the average number of UNZA-trained graduate teachers was 148 per year, but net recruitment averaged only 35. In retrospect it is clear that most students who enrolled in the two graduate teacher-training programs, the Bachelor of Arts in Education and the Bachelor of Science in Education, did so either because they were denied access to their first choice of faculty or because the subsequent guaranteed employment provided them with financial support during a risk-free search for a job outside the teaching profession. As with other teAchers,net recruitment has recently Improved, but the change has almost certainly been caused by a deteriorating external labor market and it has not been sufficient to offset the resignations of expatriates. 3.2.33 In the absence of appropriate data, it is not possible to make a quantitative assessment of the requirements and recruitment of graduate mathematics and science teachers, but it is known that the situation is critical. In recent years the number graduating from UNZA has been fluctuating around 35-40, and most of these have either not entered the teaching profession or have done so temporarily before moving on to other jobs.  -48- 3.2.34 It is reported that as a consequence many senior secondary mathematics and science classes are taken by teachers qualified only for- teaching junior secondary school (diploma holders from the Nkrumah and Copperbelt Teacher Training Colleges). EEC is currently considering the financing of an in-service training program which would bring the skills of these teachers up to the required standard. There is a risk that some of these teachers may subsequently be lost to other employers, but the wastage can be expected to be lower than that of the B.Sc. in Education graduates, for two reasons: the teachers selected for this training will be those who have settled down within the service and thereby have displayed a commitment to it, and they will not be given degrees or other formal qualifications which would assist them in securing alternative employment. University of Zambia (UNZA) 3.2.35 UNZA may face difficulties in maintaining the present enrollment at the same levels and standards. First, the supply of well-qualified school-leavers seems to be low and so far admission to the university has been confined to outstanding secondary school-leavers with "O"-level passes. The rather poor level of instruction in the secondary schools is perhaps part of the reason why students take much mwre time than normally required to complete their degree courses. Second, in Zambia university study (as is study in secondary and primary schools) is highly subsidized. Literally, the Government pays students to study by providing them allowances, room and board, and in some cases even transportationo This subsidy reduces the number of students who can be given further access to education. Third, the financial crunch in government expenditure programs has severely cut down university budgets, while a high inflation rate reduces the purchasing power of these budgets. 3.2.36 With sharply reduced funding the University of Zambia cannot operate efficiently at full capacity. This in turn increases unit costs which on average is already more than Kw 8,200 per student year. 3.2.37 This cost has a wide range. It varies from one course to another, from a little more-than- Kw_5,500 per student year in education, humanities and social sciences to as much as about Kw 8,800 in courses in mining. 3.2.38 The range becomes even wider when time to complete a course is considered. About five school years are required to complete courses in the humanities and social sciences, which normally need only four years, but a much longer time, i.e., seven to eight years on average, seems to be needed in the sciences and engineering. Even a four-year, science-biased university degree in education seems to take about seven and a half school years to complete. The extra time spent beyond what is officially required represents large sums of money, not only to the university but also to the economy-in terms of time lost in production-(Table 3.6.10).  - 49 - - 3*3 Technical Education 3.3.1 Guidelines for formulation of the Fourth National Development Plan (FNDP) issued in March 1985, envisage that the Plan should attach higher priority to skill formation and thus increase the local supply of skilled manpower to correspond with demand for manpower in various fields." The guidelines further state that this objective should be achieved through increasing the intake and out-turn capacities of technical and- vocational training and institutions of higher learning. 3.3.2 In the process of-continued work on the FNDP, It should be recognized that the likelihood of any substantial growth of formal sector employment is remote for the near future. In the past formal sector employment has been more or less static and has declined rather than increased. There is also evidence that trained technical manpower is underutilized and that some in the craft categories are unemployed. 3.3.3 Consequently, DTEVT should concentrate on upgrading the quality of existing trade training rather than aim at an expansion of the intake level, Most DTEVT institutions are operating below capacity, not because of an awareness of the demand situation but as a result of reduced financing, following the general economic crisls. 3.3.4 For the future it will be necessary to accept a lower level of funding and avoid wasteful spending and direct the scarce resources towards maximum benefit. Given that the manpower demand will pot increase, student intake should be adjusted to the likely absorbtive capacity of the labor market. This would reduce the salary allocation, which could be utilized for improvement and maintenance of physical facilities and equipment which are in poor condition. Also, a rationalization of existing facilities in accordance with adjusted intakes would free additional resources. Technical training should gradually focus on much needed in-service and upgrading training, and as this also concerns pre-service training, improvement of quality rather than quantity should be the target. 3.3,5 Advisory Committees, It is vitally important to sustain strong links with industry, and such contacts should be informal, continuous and spread across a wider range of industrial specialists in order to become more effective and complement the work in the committees. 3.3.6 Curriculum Development. A great deal of staff time is used in the design and preparation of standard curricula. The final versions, especially in ce.rtain subject areas, have a very marked similarity to existing craft and technician syllabi developed by external national and international examination entities. Although a nacional curricula should reflect the specific training needs of a country, the development of some specialized syllabi is nothing more than a "wheel re-inventing" exercise. In the international ma-rket there is a wealth of high-quality curriculum material, often available at low purchase or copyright fee costs. There is little evidence that UTEVT is aware of the nature and  - 50 - range of such resources which, if carefully used, could streamline the present system of curriculum development,thereby releasing staff and material resources for essential tasks related to actual curriculum implementation. 3.3.7 Examinations. The system of standards and certification now in use is ponderous. Although some use is made of banked items, the setting and marking of examination papers makes undue demands on staff time and lean budgets. There is evidence from the 1984 Report of the Standards and Certification Unit (SCU) that problems caused by lack of transport, lack of interest of external examiners, and heavy workloads imposed on the professional officers are having an adverse effect on the system. The 1984 examination results for TTI students show a 30% failure rate. Although such poor performance raises questions about the efficacy of student selection, standards of teaching and curriculum implementation, it also poses a question as to whether the examination system is merely testing individual student performance rather than the total effectiveness of two years of technical education. Thus, there are doubts about the proper role of SCJT and a more modern approach would certainly prove more cost-efficient over time. 3.3.8 Inspections. The Inspectorate is expected to carry out an annual full inspection of each DTEVT institution, as well as non-DTEVT technical institutions recognized by MHE. Due to financial constraints, the Inspectorate cannot discharge this responsibility; for example, three major institutions (NORTEC, ZIT and TVTC) were not inspected in 1984 and in that year only 60% of private/parastatal training centers were visited. However, in 1985 all but one Institution was inspected and it is planned that all will be assessed in 1986. DTEVT staff are concerned about this cut-back in the inspection program but it is perhaps more pertinent to raise concerns about the effectiveness of inspections that do take place. The present style of the Inspectorate includes the use of narrow guidelines set out in standard checklists, following a mechanical process in which routine checks and subjective judgements are made. This mode of operation is far from the modern concept of an inspectorate, staffed by experienced subject specialists who-advise principals and counsel teaching staff, and who constantly feed information to curriculum developers, planners, staff developers and other professionals. The present system lifts certain responsibilities from principals and heads of department; for example, inspection reports appear to be preoccupied with standards of record-keeping and examination of lesson plans-essential tasks which should be the responsibility of institutional senior staff. 3.3.9 The thrust of DTEVT's staff development program is directed towards the use of overseas award-bearing courses. Such courses are seen to satisfy the need to replace expatriate staff, improve the quality of instruction, and renew subject knowledge. Given that the provision of overseas scholarships is a form of aid favored by donor countries, it is not surprising that external training is regarded as the main staff  - 51 - development energy. The substantial program of overseas awards 91 is producing a steady increase in qualification levels and the ratio of Zambian instructors has risen from 35% in 1979 to 60% in 1983a The scale of staff time and money devoted to overseas training greatly exceeds resources available for internally based staff development. This imbalance between external and internal training seriously constraIns in-country based staff development. The Government and the donor countries should consider the possibility of diverting a proportion of national and technical assistance resources from external training to fund a much stronger in-country staff development program. Ways to strengthen this program could include: in-country workshops using specialists from overseas institutions, and inputs to provide a capacity at UNZA to mount in-service courses at levels equivalent to overseas diplomas. 3.3.10 Technical Colleges. The main problems at these colleges are related to a deterioration in the quality of education and training caused by depreciating levels of plant serviceability, lack of consumable items, and a paucity of teaching and learning materials. Technician education and training are essentially practical in character, but the resource constraints described above are Inevitably upsetting the proper balance between-theory teaching and practical training. Evidence from DTEVT reports indicates that the lack of adequate resources is having a demoralizing effect on staff, particularly those who have studied at overseas institutions. 3.3.11 Boarding. Boarding costs represent a heavy drain on recurrent budgets. For example, at NORTEC the 1984 allocation for boarding costs was Kw 174,741 while the actual expenditure was Kw 253,846--- an overspending of 50%. However, in the same year the student requisites allocation was Kw 88,274 while the actual expenditure was Kw 58,561, a cut-back of 30%. The inexorable high-cost demands of the boarding school system, established in better economic times, are stifling the educational process and measures should be taken to reduce the number of boarders. As a first step, students living near a school should be enrolled as day students. 3.3.12- TTIs. Craft training is also constrained by severe shortages of resources. Indeed, the quality of education and training in TTIs is under serious threat because of unserviceable workshop equipment, inadequate provision of consumable items, and poor teaching materials. The wide range 9! In 1985, 400 applications were received for 25 fellowships in UK.  - 52 - of pr^grams established during a period of growth and sustained by more favorable economic conditions cannot be maintained on present levels of resource inputs. There is urgent need to rationalize this program so that limited resources can be effectively utilized. 3.3.13 There is also need to examine the established pattern of craft- training, i.e., two years of institution-based training, followed by 12 months of related industrial experience. TTI graduates are finding it increasingly difficult to obtain related industrial experience and accordingly they fail to qualify for the final certificate. It is perhaps an opportune time for DTEVT and its industrial partners to reassess their respective contributions to a fully integrated training program. Alternatives may include an initial year of broadly based training, followed by specialist modules and in-plant exposure provided by TTIs and industry. This would also transfer part of the training cost to employers. 3.3.14 There is little doubt that a gap is appearing between the training value of TTI courses and those of a similar kind mounted in parastatal and private training centers. While it is true that there are marked differences in the serviceability of equipment, levels of financial inputs, and perhaps staff morale, it is also clear that the other centers bene'.it from a closer relationship with the world of work. The industrial trailaing center student is constantly aware that for the purpose of his training program he will be involved in limited production runs or be instructed by specialist staff from the parent company. Technological Studies at University Level 3.3.15 Three of the schools at UNZA -- Natural Sciences, Engineering, and Mines -- educate and train high-level skilled manpower for mainly the industrial sector. The School of Natural Sciences provides the foundation for the three streams; successful first-year students of the school go on to study engineering or mining, or stay in the school to become scientists. Accordingly, the School of Natural Sciences has a crucial role in bridging the academic gap between secondary education and specialist studies in engineering, mining or science. It sI.>'tdd be noted that the school also provides a foundation for studies in medicine, veterinary medicine, and agriculture and acts as a service department of science and mathematics for other schools.  - 53 - 3.3,316 In its foundation role the School of Natural Sciences is necessary- because of the poor performance in mathemati-cs and science in secondary education. Although there are advantages in providing pre-degree studies in close collaboration with other schools, and also in the use of a general fir-st year as a diagnostic period, the question remains as to whether the use of full university facilities for advanced secondary school studies can be justified. Given that the vacancy rates in some departments are over 50%, thus imposing heavy workloads-on staff, it is not surprising that research -- a fundamental activity in a school of science - Is being neglected. 3.3.17 The School of Mines was established much later (1973) than its sister School of Engineering as a result of a decision that the requirements of the mining industry exceeded the scope and output of the Department of Mineral Engineering within the School of Engineering. It is clear that in terms of student choice the School of Mines is far less popular than the School of Engineering; in 1985 seven students opted for mining as their first choice compared with 164 for engineering. The relative long-term career prospects as well as the nature of work, may explain the low attraction rate for mining studies. 3.3.18 Given that the mining industry parastatal absorbs nearly all the graduates from the school, and considering that the industry employs a large number of expatriates, it would seem that the employment prospects for Zambians with degrees in mining are good. However, it should be noted that expatriate mining engineers generally occupy senior positions and there is a time-scale for industrial experience before graduate engineers are ready to fill such posts. As the mining industry eontracts over the next decade, the career prospects of mining engineers will become less attractive. 3.3.19 Unlike the School of Mines, the School of Engineering has no difficulty in attracting high caliber students from the foundation program. Plans to diversify post-graduate programs and establish chemical and process engineering programs cannot be implemented unless the school expands its.laboratory and teaching fac lities. Although such initiatives would considerably extend the range of modern technology programs, it is unlikely that the necessary capital and recurrent funds would be available. However, resources could be released by merging the Schools of Engineering and Mines. The case put forward 12 years ago for creating a School of Mines was based on the perceived needs of the industry at that .-time. Furthermore, in 1973 the resources to sustain a new school were more readily available. In 1985 there is an equally strong case, in terms of- the industry's requirements and the need for the most cost-effective use of university resources, to return the three.mining departments to the School of Engineering.-  - 54 - Demand for Technical Manpower 3.3.20 The Fourth National Development Plan guidelines assigning higher priority to skill formation do not in fact constitute a departure from existing policy. The Third National Development Plan placed such great emphasis on training that the supply of new graduates during the period 1979-1983 was projected to be approximately double the projected demand. Demand and Supply for Technical Manpower, 1979-1982 Supply Supply Demand (Projected) (Actual) Technologist/Technician 1,645 3,410 1,530 Craftsman 3,290 8,600 2,950 Source: Projected demand and supply from TNDP document; actual supply from Ministry of Higher Education Educational Statistics, 1983 (technologist/technician, ZIT and NORTEC graduates only). 3.3.21 While the actual supply figures relate only to the first four years of the Third Plan, it is evident that the output of technical manpower has been very much lower than expected. The annual output rate has been little different from that in the years immediately preceding the Third Plan. 3.3.22 In view of the uncertainty about future changes in the various factors affecting the market for technical manpower, demand projections are at best speculative guesses. In the present case the projections were based on an assumption that formal sector employment would grow by 26% over the period 1976-1983; in fact it fell 3%. Nevertheless, it appears that there has been little open unemployment of new trainees, employers in aggregate evidently having taken the opportunity to upgrade the quality of their labor force but with no overall increase in numbers. 3.3.23 Discussions with employers reveal that most would, in principle, wish to recruit more technical manpower but are constrained from doing so by one or more of three factors: static or declining demand for their output, a shortage of foreign exchange for purchasing raw materials and an Inability to pay the market wage rate.  - 55 - -3.3.24 Declining demand has particularly affected -the construction sector, where employment has fallen from 70,580 in December 1974 to 33,610 In June 1984. Employers report that there is no shortage of craftsmen employed by the industry. If the future level of construction activity does not improve, the operati.on of the already underutilized Trades Training Institutes should be further curtailed and mergers might be considered.IO/ 3.3.25 Employment in the mining industry has likewise been declining but at a slower rate. It peaked at 67,800 in June 1985 and is now 58,500 workers, almost all of whom are employed by ZCCM and its subsidiaries. This decline will continue. The Kabwe mine, mostly producing lead and zinc, will become uneconomic in a few years and will close with a loss of 2,600 jobs. In the remainder of the company, a steady annual decline of 2-3% per year can be expected in the mining divisions. The non-mining subsidiaries are expected to grow, but with only 5,000 jobs, they account for a very small proportion of the ZCCM labor force. 3.3.26 Despite this decline, ZMCM is expected to remain a substantial recruiter of high-level technical manpower. At present there are approximately 2,000 expatriate workers and nearly 400 outright-vacancies in technical fields, mostly in engineering, metallurgy and maintenance, but also in other areas such as geology and chemistry. If the expatriates continue to be replaced at the present rate, the graduates of the corresponding courses at UNZA, ZIT and NORTEC are assured of employment for the foreseeable future. There is, however, a risk that in the long term these jobs will disappear again as the operations of ZCCM continue to contract. ZCC4 is in the process of developing a formal long-term production plan and no doubt the resulting manpower plan, as yet not available, will address itself to this issue. 3.3.27 In addition to the replacement of expatriates, there will be a continuous need to replace high-level technical manpower lost to the private sector and related technicians. The recruitment and training of lower-level technicians and artisans in general do not pose a proolem tor the ZCCM, as the company possesses its own training facilities. 3.3.28 Manufacturing employment increased from 44,100 in 1974 to 48,200 in 1984. There are no data on bow the employment structure within the industry has altered over the period, but it is unlikely that the increase in the demand for technical manpower in manufacturing will have done much to offset the decline in construction and mining. 10/ Under the TNDP, the number of TTI graduates was projected to rise to 1,990 in 1982 and 2,230 in 1983. The actual number of graduates in 1982 was 658 (1983 data are not yet available).  - 56 - 3.3.29 The two growth areas-for technicians have been electricity generation and telecommunications. There are no published data on employment in either industry but electricity generation, which rose from 6,000 million kilowatt hours in 1974 to 10,600 in 1982, may be taken as a crude proxy. Much of this increase (3.8 million kwh) is attributable to the Kariba hydroelectric project coming on stream in 1976 and reaching capacity three years lacer. But 1982 was the peak year and output fell to 9.8 million kwh in 1984. This decline is attibutable to a decline in the output of ZESCO, which is responsible for all electricity generated outside the Kariba project, and the negligible output of the C6pperbelt Power Company. 3.3.-30 The demand for additional technical manpower at ZESCO is now slackening. The company, which has a total labor force of approximately 5,000 (not including classified daily employees), still employs 80 expatriates and has a further 25 vacancies, but the posts in question are either not easily filled or are posts where the company feels expatriatres can make a special contribution. As elsewhere, there is a shortage of experienced senior engineers; many of these positions are filled with Asians who are expected to be replaced over time. Localization of the especially responsible protection engineering posts is also proceeding cautiously. The company continues to employ a substantial number of expatriate technologists and expects to continue doing so, placing special value on their role in the transfer of technology. - 3.3.31 Zambia Posts and Telecommunications, based at Ndola, also employs about 5,000, of whom nearly 3,000 are on the telecoms side where output is growing at approximately 20% per year. There are only 30 expatriates still in post; 14 are engineers, 12 are technicians, and the remainder are administrative staff. As at ZESCO there is a shortage of senior engineers, eight of the 15 senior technical posts being filled by expatriates and another two being vacant. However, the company expects to be able to localize most of these and other unfilled senior technologist posts through internal promotion and recruitment-from UNZA, despite chronic losses to the private sector which offers better wages and benefits. 3.3.32 With an average of 10 applications for each post, the company has no trouble in recruiting for higher levels. For those who, on being confirmed in post, start at the entry-level Technician III, the "0"-level requirements are almost as stringent as those for university admission, good marks in both mathematics and science being required. Their pre-service technical training is provided at the in-house training college on a modular basis over a period of 18-24 months. At present, 187 of the 191 established posts at this levei are-filled, only one by an-expatriate. -  - 57 - 3.3.33 The main growth in technical employment at Telecoms will come at the lower technical levels, particularly on the external side (cable-laying, etc.). Despite lower academic requirements, nearly a third of the posts graded Technician IV or lower are unfilled. But this shortage does not imply a potential demand for graduates of DTEVT institutions. Telecoms also recruits graduates of general-secondary education, providing them with pre-service technical training in-house, and the failure to fill the posts is a reflection on the quality of mathematics and science education in the schools. 3.3.34 Joint Ventures. Links with overseas firms are of particular value when major items of equipment embodying new technology are installed. Prior to installation, Zambian employers may be sent to plants belonging to the overseas partner for on-the-job training in the use of the equipment. The overseas firm will later send engineers to Zambia to collaborate in settiag up the lines and to provide further equipment- specific on-the-job training. These types of training may also be provided by suppliers who do not have other commercial links with the Zambian firm, but if the supplier does not have a long-term commitment the training may not be as effective. 3.3.35 The other major manpower benefit accruing to a firm with an overseas partner Is access to managerial expertise. This may be direct, the overseas partner filling senior managerial posts where appropriately qualified Zambian candidates are lacking or are not attracted by the salaries that are offered. Such an arrangement is especially valuable for parastatals whose salary scales are linked to those in the government service and constrain their ability to compete with the private sector in the labor market. Even if it does not second its own employers, the overseas partner may make an indirect contribution by monitoring and thus supervising the performance of the management of the Zambian firm. Although direct intervention may not be feasible, it may be able to remedy managerial weaknesses with training arrangements similar to those for technical training.  - 58 - 3.4 Agricultural Education and Training General - 3.4.1 In view of the declining role of copper production in the Zambian economy, higher priority will be given to the agricultural sector, for both maintaining aggregate output and providing employment for the rapidly growing labor force. The Government considers that agricultural production should be given top priority in the next Plan period (1986-1990). This policy includes self-sufficiency in major food crops and livestock products through increased production and enhanced productivity. Higher export incomes are anticipated through placing more emphasis on coffee, tea and tobacco production. Also,further development of agro-based industries is part of the Government's strategy. 3.4.2 Investments in the sector would be channelled to reclamation of land, acceleration of large scale farming and ranching with provision of irrigation, and the development of local manufacturing units for the supply, maintenance and repair of farm implements. In addition, local fertilizer production and food processing, for both domestic consumption and export, would have high priority for investment. 3.4.3 Obviously, realization of these plans depends not only on financial investment but also on-the availability of trained manpower. At present, large numbers of young people (100,000 in 1985) leave school at various levels of the education system and relatively few would have an opportunity for further education or to be absorbed in the-formal industrial and other sectors. In 1985 the net addition to the labor force was about 85,000. To avoid mass youth unemployment, it is evident that formal or informal employment, mainly in the agricultural sector, together with relevant training, would have to be provided for this group. However, skilled agricultural manpower requirements have received detailed attention in recent years, although sectoral expansion needs to be reflected in future training requirements. Manpower Considerations 3.4.4 Predicting with a fair degree of accuracy the size of the agriculturally trained manpower for the country as -a whole continues to be a problem. In order to implement the Government's policy, it would be desirable in principle to increase technically trained manpower by about 3,000 by the year 2000, with most of it to be utilized in the formal sector. However, an associated problem is the Government's inability in the short term to allocate the funds needed to employ such numbers even- though their presence would be necessary for production growth. This naturally has implications for the intake levels of UNZA, NRDC and the certificate agricultural institutes at Monze and Mpika. For the present (1985), the number of existing degree and diploma holders appears to be adequate to fill the existing skill gap and to replace wastage. On top of this, two cohorts are to graduate from Monze and Mpika in 1986 and 1987 at the rate of 110 per annum per college. This development, when viewed in  - 59 - light of the saturation of the established ptositions of MAWD in particular and the i.imited absorptive capacity of the labor market in generalt poses a real dilemma for the Government. Consequently, new cettificate graduates should be encouraged to seek employment in private companies and parastatals. Also, the provinces are instructed not to employ more Comodity Demonstrators (CDs), and the Extension Branch of- MAWD has adopted a policy of employing only degree and diploma holders for higher level jobs. 3.4.5 MAWD's present established professional-teebnical scale posts total about 2,100. The corresponding total established administrative and support scale posts total 2,226. Open-scale posts, secretarial scale posts and medical scale posts total 133. Of the 2,138 professional-technical scale posts established, the Extension Branch accounts for 2,066. Of this total, 1,013 staff are assigned at the Camp and Block levels. These Camp Extension Workers (CEWs) work directly with the 600,000 farm families and their service is crucial. Since one CEW covers only about 80% of his camp, or 480 farmers, due to the shortage of trained CEWs and to logistics constraints associated with extension, in order to reach the remaining 20%, an additional 250 CEWs are required, assuming a maximum practicable ratio of 1:480. Complementary services in the form of technical and administrative support would be expanded and upgraded at the sam time. The 1:600 ratio compares unfavorably with the 1:300 ratio indicated by FAO as a reasonable guideline, and if the ratio were to narrow down to that guideline, the number of incremental CEWs would reach a total of 1,000 by year 2000. 3.4.6 MAWD also needs to increase the number of its research staff and to upgrade the skills of existing staff through ln-service training. At present, MAWD has two Ph.D., four M.Sc., nine B.Sc. and 24 non-degree holders. By the year 2000, MAWD projects will require an additional 32 Ph.D., 60 M.Sc., 62 B.Sc. and 152 non-degree holders. Because the nature of the research task which the staff have to perform is not original, well- rounded M.Sc. degree holders with adequate relevant experience could manage the task of adaptive research, which would reduce- costs. The above view takes into consideration an assumption that all of the existing 62 expatriate degree holding staff in research (55 donor supported and seven Government funded) would be phased out by the year 2000. MAWD may seize the opportunity to identify available donor support for training, redirect such support to strengthen the capability of local training institutions, and occasionally promote post-graduate degree training overseas when in-country training is not feasible. 3.4.7 Water engineers are in short supply and the total establishment is 25. Seventeen of these positions are held by expatriates and seven are vacant. The one position held by a Zambian is the post of Director of the Water Affairs Department. At present, UNZA does not offer specialized degree training, in water engineering although a five-year course in civil engineering is available. MAWD plans to sponsor three 4th year agricultural students per year to pursue water engineer training at UNZA, leading to a B.Sc. degree.  - 60 - 3.4.8 Veterinary Science posts constitute another serious area of crucial manpower needs. There are only about 13 Zambians with basic degrees in veterinary medicine. The number of vacancies, including posts held by expatriates, is 25, which constitutes the incremental minimum requirement of Zambian trained manpower. The Zambia Institute of Animal Health (ZIAH) at Mazabuka, with astraining capacity of 150, offers a 2-year certificate course for veterinary assistants, veterinary laboratory assistants, Tsetse control assistants and Tsetse control scouts. The country urgently needs trained veterinary scientists at the degree level. 3.4.9 Through its new efforts to diversify the economy, the Government is aiming at realizing potential yields through new interventions. The proposed interventions include a revitalized focus on: (a) improving the operational quality and efficiency of the research and extension branches of the Department of Agriculture so that these branches can provide a more appropriate technological set of production packages, especially in the smallholder sector; (b) improving the functions of the existing parastatals; (c) improving the operational efficiencies of the existing marketing agencies, of which NAMBOARD and the provincial cooperative unions are the major ones; and (d) strengthening the management skills and financial controls of the existing cooperative unions through better management and supervision. Fuller utilization of the heretofore untapped portion of farm land and water resources and the provision of an improved and integrated package of production inputs, especially in the smallholder sector, are the two major methods which the Government has proposed to use in order to achieve its objectives of improved agricultural production. Toward this objective, the Government recently initiated a more iatensive effort to encourage the upgrading of about 120,000 small-scale farmers to the level of "emergent farmers" who would use limited methods of improved technical know-how in producing marketable agricultural commodities on a larger holding of 10-20 hectares of land per farmer. - The Training Scheme 3.4.10 As part of its long range future plans, MAWD is considering providing training to research scientists throughout Zambia and to extension staff through in-service and pre-service programs and at graduate and post-graduate levels, both in Zambia and abroad. Selected research technical officers and junior field extension agents, both male and female, would receive in-service and on-the-job training while professional level extension agents and research scientists, as well as research and extension managers, would receive in-service training abroad varying (6-12 weeks) according to requirements. locally provided in-service training would be conducted during the non-peak production season and would focus on the priorities set by the Research and Extension Branches. Training would emphasize the attainment of skills indispensable for achieving production goals; hence, particular attention would be given to skills in fertilizer application, pest and weed control, hybrid seeds, land management, and disease control. In-service training emphasizing technical management would also be provided for non-technical personnel to enable them to perform the routine administrative and management tasks which now take up about 40-50 of the time of research scientists and senior extension staff.  - 61 - 3.4.11 In-service extension training would be provided iri both Zambia and abroad and would comprise both theory (orientation) and practice (laboratory and field training). (a) Staff who possess the M.Sc. degree would be encouraged to initiate new programs; such staff would be relieved -of their day-to-day routine of administrative duties which hinder them from being innovative in their extension functions. (b) In-service training provisions would be arranged through workshops for Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs), so that they 'would be able to upgrade and update their skills in the latest innovations in technical agriculture and extension methodology. Along with such staff incentives as scholarships, subsistence allowances, improved salaries and transportation, improvement of training conditions would be undertaken. (c) While the two colleges at Monze and Mpika should reduce their pre-service enrollments, they should iaprove the quality of training and introduce in-service training. To improve the quality of in- and pre-service training, curricula should be revised to make training more relevant to agricultural production, both in appropriateness of content and quality. MAWD would then employ only some of the graduates, thus absorbing new staff at a level that suits its demand, and the remainder should be absorbed in the private sector. 3.4.12 The followiug specific strategies for trained manpower in extension are now being considered by MAWD for extension during the next five years: (a) Orientation training: During the 1986-1989 period, short-term orientation training would be provided for about 200 provincial, district,and field staff. (b) In-service training: During the 1986-1991 period, in-service training would be provided for the same group and would consist of (a) pre-season, short-term technical training comprising training in planning extension strategy at district level for about 500 staff; (b) fortnightly 3-day field staff training for about 5,000 staff; (c) extension methodology one week of training for about 900 BSs and Camp Extension Workers (CEWs); (f) one week of farm management training for 200 BSs; and (g) selected training for about 120 staff in specific subject matter areas, i.e., monitoring and evaluation, work planning, and management. The local in-service training would be conducted by provincial and district senior staff and would include provincial and district SMSs, Research and Extension SNSs, the University of Zambia--Faculty of Agricultural Sciences (UNZA-FAS) staff, research and extension senior staff, and headquarters and -provincial agricultural extension methodology specialists. Management training would be conducted by local training  - 62 - institutions, including private ones. The orientation training would generally be for one or two days, the in-service training from one to I$ days, the exchange 'iisits from one to six weeks, 'the short-term fellowships from one to three months, and the long-term fellowships (Ms.Sc. degree) from 18 to 24 months. (c) Exchange visits to other districts in Zambia would be made to about 500 of the total extension staff, to observe and evaluate extension methodology implementation performance both with and without technological and methodology inputs. About 40 extension staff, mainly middle-level and senior extension staff, would undergo overseas training, including visits to extenslon centers in selected international agricultural institutions of higher learning. (d) Degree and Post-graduate Degree Training: Whenever possible, degree and post-graduate training for extension staff would be conducted at UNZA; however, based on the recommendation of the Extension and Research Branches and evaluation by the Research and Extension Training Unit (RETU), the need and justification for such training abroad would be supported. (Under MAWD's proposed Bank-financed Agricultural Research and Extension Project, four extension staff with B.Sc. degrees would be trained abroad for the M.Sc. degree during the 1986-1990 period.) Research Staff Training 3.4.13 The objectives of upgrading research staff by MAUD are to (a) increase the number of research scientists with degrees; (b) upgrade all professional, administrative and technical staff through continuous In-service and on-the-job training, degree and post-graduate training; and (c) promote staff development through career ladder incentives by rewarding professional competence and excellence in achievement. 3.4.14 Although training to the Ph.D. level is desirable and possibly justified in exceptional cases, it is generally not necessary in the initial phase. Although Zambian aspirations for such Ph.D. degree holders is understandable, the level of present needs and the nature of research and extension services to be provided in the next five years could be handled adequately by staff with M.Sc. degree training. FTCs and FIs 3.4.15 The average population per FTC and FI in the areas where they provide training is about 80,000. Management of these institutions rests with MAWD's Department of Agriculture. Advice to the rmral population is provided by field staff of the department; hence, these staff represent the major link between residential training institutions and the rural population. They also provide the linkage between the farmer, the National Agricultural Marketing Board (NAMBOARD), the Agricultural Finance  - 63 - Corporation (AFC), and other government services. The training section of the department has about 35 agricultural assistants (AAs), 38 senior agricultural assistants (SAAs) and seven technical officers (TOs), representing 8% of all field staff (AAs) and about 12X of all technical staff (SAAs and TOe) of the department. Nearly all of the training section staff have had one year of training in general extension, and less than one-third have more than 10 years work experience. 3.4.16 Ake recruited from Form 3 are given a brief induction course at an Fl, a probationary period as a CD in the field, and a 2-year course at Nonze or Mpika. Then, in due course the Aks are promoted to SAA level. T08, on the other hand, are recruited after completion of Form 5 and three yearst instruction at NRDC. The training provided for both extension and training staff contains more basic technical topics than educational methodology. In general, the utilization rate of the FTCs and FIs is very low, due mainly to shortage of funds. Teaching is authoritarian, conducted through lectures with the help of some demonstrations. Blackboards are virtually the only visual aids used, and available film and slide projectors are rarely used due to shortages of software and operational knowledge. Some of the FTCs and FIa have unused land, since the institutions use only a small portion for demonstrations. In farmer training, the more prosperous households now receive a disproportionately large share of attention as these households benefitted greatly from -previous courses for improving their operations. Consequently, training officers wish to continue their successful involvement in this area and are reluctant to recruit subsistence farmers. 3.4.17 Thus, while MAWD's original intention in establishing 32 Farmer Training Centers (FTCs) with 150 extension staff was to conduct courses for farmers, rural female population, cooperative staff, local leaders and other community groups, the results have proved to be poor, for two reasons: (a) funds for FTC operations were reduced in real terms over the past few years and a number of centers are now non-operational; and (b) the existing system requires farmers to travel long distances to attend courses, As part of MAWID's future plan, FTCs would be phased out and replaced by frequent visits by extension staff, supplemented by mobile training units. 3.4.18 For the future, several factors would contribute towards making the task of training farmers more achievable: (a) provision of improved logistIcs for farmer training, e.g., mobile units and mass media equipment; (b) upgrading of the skills of extension staff through in-service and on-the-job training; (c) training of contact farmers and the farming community in farmers'-fields and in camps through demonstrations; and (d) provision of adequate transportation for use by extension staff.  - 64 - 3.4.19 Diploma level training is handled by NRDC, which plans to develop in-service training for diploma holders in consultation with the Extension and Research Branch of MAWD. For this training, however, NRDC would require support in the areas of student and staff accommodation, dining hall extension, classroom space, workshop space, library expansion, transport, and recurrent funding. Funding for other capital support to NRDC would also be required, possibly through bilateral assistance. Research and Extension Training Unit 3.4.20 In order to introduce an effective staff development program for the Research and Extension Branches, MAWD is considering establishing a Research and Extension Training Unit (RETU). This unit would have direct links, through DGA's office with the Research and Extension Branches, training institutions in Zambia and abroad, and DOA's Training Section. RETU would be responsible for administration and coordination of the training program. Incentives for Staff Retention 3.4.21 Efforts are being made by MAWD to promote professional staff development through fellowship arrangements. To be eligible, candidates need to have a B.Sc. degree and two years of government service. In addition, a candidate is required to obtain release by his or her section chief, which depends on the availability of a replacement. 3.4.22 A number of incentives are required to ensure professional staff retention upon completion of training. Although staff are entitled to receive an extra "qualification allowance' on an incremental basis, once they complete a training period of up to 12 months or more, the existing salary scale in extension is low and needs urgent revision. The existing strategy which MAWD uses to retain staff is the bonding arrangement whereby staff are obligated to serve for as many years as they were supported in school. The creation of an atmosphere that enhances the development of creativity and initiative should also be a motivating factor in staff retention. In-service training in the field, laboratories and workshops would provide the staff with continui-ng opportunities for upgrading their skills and "catching up" with innovations. This would improve staff performance and morale.  - 65 - 3.5 Business Education and Management Training Accountancy 3.5.1 Accounting, being a profer.sional/technical service, is a key area in all economics and public services, and is particularly important in the present difficult economic situation in Zambia. However, because accounting information is frequently deficient or lacking, any analysis of shortcomings in the management of public sector organizations must, in many areas,-remain one which deals with symptoms rather than the actual underlying problems. The problem has been exacerbated by the fact that the present structure of accountancy training does not adequately reflect the needs of certain interest groups and institutions. Hopefully, the current EEC study of the accounting sector should indicate, with some precision, the nature and extent of the deficiencies in accounting in order to identify areas for remedial action. Accountancy Training 3.5e2 Among the institutions offering accountancy training there are significant variations in the standard of tuition which are partly attributable to management, partly to the competence and availability of trainers, and partly to the quality of the student intake. Chingola's results have been outstanding and mark it as possibly the best accountancy training college in the region. It has a small, highly qualified and experienced staff of seven (five expatriate) and the most able students (with the possible exception of UNZA Business Studies). This has been a good recipe for success. 3.5.3 The results of the Accountancy Training Department at NIPA have not been equally good, but this is probably due to student ability, which is partly a reflection on the quality of the intake into the civil service accountancy grades. Civil service employment is a third choice after employment in the private and parastatal organizations because of wage differences. NIPA's Accountancy Training Department has a staff of nine (five expatriates) and three of its local staff are due to go overseas for studies in accounting and4finance.- 3.5.4 The other accountancy training provider is the Chalimbana Campus at NIPA. Both courses offered are low level (an elementary course and CABS). Of its staff of eight (one expatriate) plus one an secondment from the Accountancy Training Department of NIPA's main campus, only two have accounting qualifications. In terms of the quality of its staff, the Chalimbana campus cannot provide--for more than a fraction of the accountancy training needs of the District Councils and what is provided is at a very low level. 3.5.5 The Business Studies Departments of Evelyn Hone College, UNZA, and Z-IT have proportionally fewer expatriate trainers and a higher - percentage of vacancies for staff.  - 66 - Structure of the Accountancy Profession 3.5.6 The future structure of the accountancy profession in Zambia is. likely to have three-levels, beginning with CABS, successful completion of which will qualify candidates for the next higher stage (at technical level) such as ATD or MAT, and the final stage (at professional level) should be ACCA. 3.5.7 ZICA has not yet stated the details of its regulations for the admission of registered students as members, but it is likely that ZICA will require a qualifying professionail examination with subject exemptions for those who have a diploma at accountancy technician level or who are university graduates in accounting. ZICA will also require a period of practical accountancy experience, probably of three years. In order to fully establish ZICA as a professional organization, external assistance would be required. 3.5.8 High priority should be given to establishing a suitable qualification for the State Auditors in the Auditor General's office and, separately, for accountants in Rural and Urban District Councils. Both are specialized areas of accounting for which special arrangements should be made. Staff of the Auditor General's Office 3.5.9 The present State Auditor's course (in the Accountancy Training Department at NIPA) does not fit into the three-tier scheme described above, but it is desirable that staff of the Auditor General's office should have equal status with their colleagues in other parts of the accountancy profession in Zambia. Too many staff in the Office of the Auditor General have an inadequate educational background for coping with the increasing complexity and difficulty of the more advanced aspects of auditing. The minimum entry standard should not be lower than that for the ATD (at least four GCE 'O' levels which must include English language and mathematics). Ideally, a period of full-time study should precede practical experience and on-the-job training. An alternative would be a sandwich-type course. In either case, work experience should be closely related to the theoretical studies. A competent body should determine examination standards, appoint qualified examiners and moderators, and assess the results. Staff of the Rural and Urban District Councils 3.5.10 Before 1978/79, local government in Zambia was centrally administered by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. It was then placed under the Provincial and Local Government Division (PLGD) of the Prime Minister's Office, with the Prime Minister as its head. Local government also had its own training center at Chalimbana, which was taken over by NIPA. Now a third possible phase, following absorption of PLGD into the recently formed Ministry of Decentralization, would be the amalgamation of authority staff into the civil service by January 1986. In the meantime, local authority staff remain under the control of the Personnel Division of the civil-service.  -67- 3.5.11 - Accountancy training for local authorities at NIPA is not adequate either in numbers or quality. Furthermore, NIPA does not have the staff to train valuers for local authorities. It is therefore recommended that local government have its own training institution, as it once *id, so that adequate attention can be given to the special training needs of Rural and Urban-District Council staff. - 3.5.12 The parastatals under ZIMCO are responsible for 70% of productive economic activity in Zambia, and many are acutely short of qualified accountants. ODA (UK) has already agreed to provide the services of an experienced trainer in financial management and accountancy, who will set up and initially head a new Accountancy Training Department at ZIM. While it is appreciated that support in this sector is necessary and that ZIM is considered to be one of Zambia's most dynamic training institutions, it is hard to see the logic of assisting in the establishment of a completely new facility when existing institutions (EHC, ZIT and UNZA) which provide accountancy training are badly in need of support. 3.5.13 In conclusion, it is recommended that: (a) additional support should be given to the ATC at Chingola; (b) priority support should be given as technical assistance to the training of accountants and valuers for the Rural and Urban District Councils; (c) support should be given as technical assistance (books, manuals, etc.) to the providers of accountancy training for the parastatal and private sectors; and (d) support should also be given to accountancy training for the civil service and the Office of the Auditor General in terms of staffing for the Accountancy Training Department at NIPA.-ODA (UK) has confirmed its continued support to this department. Management Training 3.5.14 The survey of training offered in Zambia and of training received by Zambians overseas clearly shows the predominance of professional and ,technical courses. This training was and still is necessary, evidence being the existence of large numbers of expatriates i professional and technical posts and the number of posts held by underqualtfied and inexperienced Zambians. However, training in management -- the management. of people and institutions, of systems and procedures, of information and resources -- has been neglected. Even in the few areas where resources have been put into the training of line managers (such as the courses for Assistant Secretaries and Under Secretaries at RIPA) there is evidence that much of the content of such training is unlikely to meet the needs of the participants or of the organizations in which they work. The quality of line management (para 3.5.16) suggests that senior officials have not been trained, or if they have, it has had little or no effect on their performance.,  - 68 - 3.5.15 This neglect of-training for line managers applies equally to professional staff. The problem here is mainly attitudinal and is not confined to Zambia. It is one which assumes that professional staff, such as engineers, accountants, teachers, or agricultural officers need training at increasing levels of specialization in their particular professions. It is obvious that with the growth of knowledge and skills required of professionals due to advances in technology, etc., they need to develop their professional skills; but as they are promoted to increasingly higher levels, the nature of their work changes. While at the lower professional and technical levels there is need for specialization, at the highest levels there is additional need for management skills. Directors of agriculture or chief accountants are primarily administrators rather than agriculturalists or accountants. The failure of many development projects, and the low morale and staff wastage in public service organizations are just as much attributable to poor management as to professional or technical mistakes. However, very few in-country management training opportunities exist for professionals. 3e5.16 It is evident that the Zambianization of management -- e.g., personnel and line manager posts - frequently has proceeded too rapidly and has caused problems in both the civil service and parastatal organizations. As in most other developing countries worldwide, these positions were the first to be localized on or after independence. For political reasons, an especially high priority was given to the localization of line managers in the civil service, particularly at the most senior levels. Localization of personnel staff also was implemented quickly because it was assumed that such staff did not require advanced academic or professional/technical qualifications. This policy would not have had adverse consequences for senior management if line and personnel managers had been given training appropriate to their functions; however, in Zambia most of them have not received essential basic training and many have been rapidly promoted to senior positions in which they consider themselves to be competent and no longer in need of training. 3.5.17 This situation is not helped by the existing mltiplicity of training institutions, programs and courses, many of which aim at similar clienteles. The main weaknesses of these institutions are (a) lack of communication with prospective clients, (b) lack of training experience, (c) unfamiliarity with the organization they are supposed to serve, and -(d) interest in "empire building" and expansion rather than the training needs of the clients. These are some of the reasons which senior officers state in response to their reported reluctance to enroll in training programs. Another reason is probably that senior managers may think it is - demeaning to participate in training. -- 3.5.18 The chart in Annex 7 shows the main organizations responsible for the planning, administration and training of manpower and some of the linkages between them. A general observation is that organizational structures and systems, although logical per se, do not and cannot guarantee harmony within or between organizations. Incompetent, under-motivated staff may make well-designed -structures and systems ineffective, whereas competent, well-motivated staff will somehow produce  - 69- results without such guidance. Attitudinal and motivational changes in people are difficult to bring about and require more than organization charts and flow diagrams. This is perhaps why administrative reform exercises and institution-building are usually concerned with artificial structural change and rarely address the real, underlying problems;which have to do with people and their attitudes. 3.5.19 Acceptance of the need for changes in behavior and attitudes is a precondition for the improvement of managerial effectiveness, and there can be no doubt that the Government and its top officials are aware of the lack of accountability and the attitudinal problems which exist throughout the public service.ll/ Sending senior officials on traditional training programs likewise is of little long-term benefit in this respect. There is evidence, however, that arganization development seminars or workshops can be an effective way to tackle this problem. Two of the reasons why this can be much more successful than more traditional training methods are (a) it requires participants themselves to identify what factors hinder or prevent effectiveness and efficiency in their organizations; and (b) it demands from them that they determine the measures they should take to overcome the problems they have identified. 3.5.20 The key to the organization development (OD) method is commitment. When in a traditionally structured training program the content is determined by "outsiders" whether they be consultants or trainers, there is a tendency for participants to resist any message which is "painful" and to assign disfunctional factors or behavior to other participants or other parts of the organization. The OD method attempts to obtain commitment to both the problems and their solution by asking the participants to diagnose the problems, identify solutions, and indicate their role in implementing the solutions (action planning). It may be worthwhile to organize OD seminars for public servants, starting with top officials and then moving to successively lower staff levels. 3.5.21 Reference has been made to the provision by training institutions of courses which reflect their own needs and aspirations rather than those of the organizations they are supposed to be serving. A prime example of 11/ As an example of this, the two national daily newspapers' main leading articles recently reported on a meeting called by the Prime Minister the previous day for all top government officials. On the subject of accountability, he was quoted as saying that it is "a vital component of any position of responsibility. I am afraid I must state here that you have not done well in this respect. I must say that you have done quite badly and was it not for the presence of the press 1 would have - said a lot more-on this." Later, he added, 'You have spent too much time on the things for which you sre not paid and little time on those for which you are paid. You have failed to ensure efficiency in your ministries and departments because you are not efficient yourselves." He then demanded a change of attitude on the part of government staff.  - 70 - this is NIPA, whose motto is 'Service before Self.". A large proportion of the civil servants interviewed expressed dissatisfaction with courses offered by the Administrative Training Department, the Local Government Training Section, and the Executive Training Department. The main criticisms were that much of the course content was irrelevant to the work needs of participants, that time was wasted by offering longer courses than necessary and that the trainers were inexperienced and/or unfamiliar with the realities of work in the civil service. NIPA's own Annual Report for 1984 refers to other problems: in the Administrative Training Department, to shortages of staff in some specialized areas and, conversely, underutilization of staff in others due to under-enrollment, and in the Executive Training Section, to staff shortages which affect training in government accounts, personnel management, and office administration. 3.5.22 There is strong support for holding a national conference on management and organizational development, which would bring together senior managers in the public and private sectors, the training and educational institutions which serve them, the professional associations, and donor agencies. Such a conference should be organized without further delay as the first phase of action which is necessary to bring relevance, system and harmony to management and accountancy training. A suitable institution with the necessary expertise for this purpose is the Management Services Board. Without prejudging the result of such a conference, it should be followed immediately by working groups, such as the donor agencies, the civil service and ZIMCO, to ensure that what is recommended by the conference is not undermined by indecision and procrastination. 3.5.23 With regard to the 2-year Diploma Program in Personnel Management and Public Administration, it is questionable whether NIPA possesses the competence for mounting such a course and whether the program is appropriate. The main training function of a civil service training institution should be to mount short, highly relevant and practical training courses geared to the needs of client organizations. The sections of NIPA referred to above are facing criticism from their clients and have staffing difficulties, and yet energy is devoted to the mounting of diploma courses which may be better placed at UNZA. It is recommended that a thorough and independent course review be carried out, inclusive of an -- assessment of existing instructor capability.  - 71 - 3.6 Cost of Education and Traiaing Aggregate Expenditure on Education 3.6.1 The decline in government revenue over the past 10 years (Annex 13, Table 3.6.1) has necessitated a cut back in all forms of public expenditure and the education budget has suffered along with the rest. Aggregate recurrent expenditure on education has been halved in real terms since the price of copper began to fall in 1975; aggregate capital expenditure has collapsed to a token amount. Since enrollments in primary and secondary education have increased by 50% over the same period, expenditure per student has declined even more. 3.6.2 The structure of expenditure within the education sector, disaggregated by type of education, remained relatively stable over the period, the only significant changes being an increase in the share of university education and reductions in the shares of technical education and general administration. Disaggregated by type of expenditure, however, these were shifts usually associated with severe budgetary constraints: an increase in the share of salaries and corresponding reductions in the shares of other expenditure. In primary -education, teacher salaries rose from 77% of total recurrent cost in 1975 to 91% in 1983. In secondary education where administration overheads are higher, they rose from 24% to 55% over the same period. The cuts tended to fall disproportionately, iainly on expenditure for student requisites -- a particularly vulnerable component of a budget during a recession. In -secondary education this component appears to have been protected, but in primary education it fell from 9.9% in 1975 to 2.0% in 1983 (Annex 13, Table 3.6.8). In DTEVT, per student expenditure for requisites is much higher, but even here the level is now so low that it is severely affecting the quality of instruction. 3.6.3 Despite the increase in the share of salaries, much of the burden of the retrenchment of recurrent expenditure has been borne by teachers and other staff-, who have seen their real salaries eroded to a fraction of their former levels. The salary compression has been exacerbated by the need to increase the number of teachers to keep pace with rising enrollments. 3.6.4 Most training institutions have done their best to maintain staff members and student enrollments despite the decline in financial support. However, the contraction has been so severe that this is no longer an appropriate response. It is now time for most -training institutions to recognize that their budgets are unlikely to improve in real terms in -the foreseeable future and that they should therefore undertake a more realistic assessment of the desirable scale of their operations and the variety of courses that they can offer. At the same time there is- urgent need to explore non-government sources of support.  - 72 - Unit Costs 3.6.5 The cost figures in this study were obtained partly from aggregate data collected from secondary sources and partly from micro level data obtained directly from training institutions and parastatal companies. The institutions were chosen in such a way as to cover representative courses at different levels. Many of these institutions fall under the administrative control of DTEVT. In some cases systematic records had been kept and the quality of the data was-good. In others, however, records were incomplete, not in a usable form or simply non-existent, and full-costing was consequently not possible. 3.6.6 In general, it was not possible to secure reliable data on capital costs, investment having taken place so long ago that book values bore little relation to current values. In such cases the estimates have been confined to recurrent costs. When it was possible to estimate capital costs, amortized annual costs were calculated using a 10% real rate of interest and an amortization pertod of 25 years, both of those being arbitrary choices adopted in the absence of any objective criteria. The amortization rate was therefore 11%. 3.6.7 When recurrent cost items were not clearly demarcated by course or specific category, averages from aggregate costs were calculated. - Estimates of recurrent costs include the administrative costs incurred by the central office or ministry responsible for the program. Primary Schools 3.6.8 Recurrent Cost. The total expense bill in primary schools is large but, because of the large number of pupils (see Section 3.2), per pupil recurrent cost is small. At 1983 constant prices, Central Statistic Office (CSO) estimates of this cost fell from Kw 127 in 1975 to Kw 82 in 1980. Estimates for 1982 and 1983 are Kw 110 and Kw 89, respectively. These estimates include a small "administrative expense" incurred by headquarters and regional headquarters of MGEC, but not that of the Office of the Prime Minister, which controls the funding of primary schools. 3.6.9 Government expenditure on instructional requisites per pupil are the following: Kw 3.2 in 1982, Kw 1.5 in 1983 and, according to MGEC, Kw 1.81.in 1984. This level of expenditure is wholly inadequate, but it is increasingly being supplemented by parental contributions. Only a very small number of primary school children now board (1,200, or 0.1%). Boarding costs, not included in the above figures, were Kw 139 per student in 1983. 3,6.10 Capital Cost. MGEC has no information on per pupil cost of capital used ii primary schools. However, indirect estimates show that the capital cost of establishing a single stream primary school with support facilities for seven claases of 40 pupils each is about Kw 485,000 at 1984 prices. This amounts to Kw 1,732 per pupil place, or Kw 190 per amortized pupil year on average, or Kw 133 in Grades- 1-4 (double session) and Kw 266 per pupil year in Grades 5-7. -  -73- Secondary Schools 3.6.11 Recurrent Cost. CSO estimates of per student recurrent cost converted to 1983 constant prices are as follows: 1975 1976 1978 1979 1980 Kv 807 Kv 797 Kw 520 Kw 456 Kw 447 Our estimates, which include an administrative cost incurred by MGEC (net of boarding cost), are KW 434, Kw 331 and Kw 333 for 1982, 1983, and 1984, respectively; of this, expenditure for student requisites was Kw 15.5 in 1982, Kw 29.0 in 1983, and Kw 31.8 in 1984, Boarding costs for the same years were Kw 169, Kw 165 and Kw 152. 3.6.12 Capital Cost. According to MGEC, a two-stream junior secondary school -- I.e., for about 400 students in Grades 8 and 9 -- costs about Kw 3.0 million to build. The school includes a student hostel, teachers' houses, equipped laboratories and workshops, and other buildings for support services. Kw 3.5 million is required for a senior secondary school In an urban area and Xw 4.5 million for one in a rural area (the additional million is to cover the higher construction cost in rural areas.) At this price the amortized costs of capital per student year in junior secondary schools and senior secondary schools are about Kw 825 and Kw 1,250, respectively. The latter figure would be Kw 1,600 if the school were to be built in a rural area. Teacher Training 3.6.13 Recurrent Cost. Per student recurrent cost in teacher training in general education was Kw 1,422 in 1982 and Kw 1,221 in 1983. Details on expenses for boarding, student requisites and allowances are as follows: 1982 1983 Kw Kw Boarding 226.0 203.0 Student requisites 14.1 14.0 Student allowances 138.0 93.0 3.6.14- Capital Cost. No detailed information on the capital cost of buildings and equipment was available. However, it may be assumed to be on a par with that of senior secondary schools.  - 74 - Technical Education 3.6.15 Technical education and training in state schools are provided by UNZA and schools administered by DTEVT, A survey of recurrent costs of training in these institutions, shown in Annex 13, Table 3.6.3., reveal8 wide cost variations between levels of training and between courses-at each level. It was not possible to arrive at satisfactory estimates of capital costs. 3.6.16 In terms of recurrent costs, a university education in mining-or engineering costs between Kw 7,800 and Kw 8,400 per student year. Technologist or technician training provided by ZIT ranges from Kw 5,043 in industrial science to as much as Kw 5,850 in mining. Technical teacher training at LTVTC costs between Kw 4,132 and Kw 4,813 per student year, while the cost of craftsman training at Lusaka TTI Ls between Kw 2,090 and Kw 2,490 per trainee year. 3.6.17 The variation in cost is wide and seems to be caused by several factors: (a) class size, (b) enrollment, (c) qualification and salaries of instructors, and (d) cost of instructional requisites or consumables. Low enrollment underutilizes the physical facilities of the school and increases the unit cost of training, which seems to be the case in ZIT. To a certain degree this observation also holds true for the technical training at UNZA and LTVTC. The somewhat low (recurrent) cost of instruction in LTTI is the result of a combination of factors such as the low qualification of teachers (i.e.,- ex-TTI trainees with some in-service training) and the low allocations for training expenses Workshop instruction in this iustitution has to make do with whatever consumables can be obtained, most of which are obtained from recycled materials. University of Zambia (UNZA) 3.6.18 A C$S estimate of the recurrent cost per student in UNZA for 1985 is about Kw 8,200. This cost is an average taken by dividing total recurrent cost by total enrollment. Average recurrent-costs were estimated by faculty level whenever possible. Otherwise, averages were taken from aggregate costs. 3.6.19 The results for 1984 show that per student costs vary widely from one faculty to another. As expected, the unit costs in the faculties of education, humanities and social science are not as high as in the natural and engineering sciences. For reasons of large class size and relatively large enrollment, the recurrent costs in the "soft" sciences are lower. In addition these courses do not require very expensive equipment. Thus the range of recurrent costs varies from around Kw 5,500 in education and Kw 5,800 in humanities and social science to as high as Kw 11,900 in medicine. As shown in Table 3.6.4, a high proportion of these costs is in administration and general services. A good part of the latter is room and board which is about Kw 1,400 per boarding student, and salaries for the more than 3,000 general workers employed by the university.  - 75 - Business Studies and Management 3.6-.20 There is an acute shortage of competent accountants and managers at all levels. This shortage cannot be judged by numbers but by impressions on the quality of business service and by the precision of figures and neatness-of reports supplied to clienth. In many cases the accounting appears to be inadequate even In some schools that teach business studies. Hence, there Is a belief that the place to start to improve business services is in business schools, although the problem of improving management and public administration requires a much more profound solution than more and perhaps better management tratning, 3.6.21 However, if the supply of good business school graduates has to be increased, this should be done cost-effectively. The solution cannot easily be found in information on costs, as shown in Table 3.6.5, unless the quality of graduates can be determined. Quality may be judged by the results of standardized examinations and by performance in the labor market, i.e., in employment and earnings over a period of time. Until evidence of quality is available, it may be assumed that, by and large, the business studies in ZIT and In ERC are identical. At least these schools use the-same syllabus and their business graduates are employed by the Zambian civil service at identical starting salaries in the same grade. However, there are wide differences In recurrent training costs, mainly caused by variations in the salaries of administrative and academic staff, training expenses (mostly room, boarding, and instructional requisites), support services, sundries, and enrollment size. The last factor plays an important role in determining per student cost. 3.6.22 There are no unit cost estimates for management and public administration training because full information could not be obtained. However, annual financial reports of the Government reveal that the country has been spending large sums in this fIeld. NIPA, for example, spent Kw 1,257,000 as recurrent cost in its training facility in Lusaka and Kw 240,000 in Chalimbana in 1983. Agriculture 3.6.23 The recurrent cost is about Kw 9,100 per student year in the School of Agriculture (SA) at UNZA. In addition to one year at the School of Fatural Sciences, students in agriculture take four years to complete a B.Sc. degree, which implies that the cost of a full degree course is about Kw 45,000. The cost of a student year in the recently established School of Veterinary Medicine (SVM) is quite high, as the school is in the process of being built up.- Training in Private Industry 3.6.24 There is a wide variety of training courses provided by employers in the private sector. Some courses are common to a wide range of industries, and they follow the syllabi and certification requirements of  - 76 - DTEVT. Other courses are employer or firm-specific. The latter courses last from a few days to a few weeks or months, and they are conducted on site, i.e., in factory workshops, management offices or even in underground mineshafte. The main features of these courses are that they are flexible, ad hoc, and tailor-Made to immediate requirements. As such the courses are relevant to the needs of employers. The total cost of these training courses is very large. In the mining company (ZCCM) alone, the training c0ot in 1984 was Kw 23,553,000, an amount almost twice the recurrent cost of DTEVT training programs in that year. A survey of the recurrent cost of training in one of the d-ivisions of ZCCM is given in Annex 13, Table 3.6.6. Average costs per trainee show a wide range -- from Kw 81 for a first aid course and Kw 654 for metallurgical production operators, to Kw 5,315 for craftsman improvement and Kw 13,284 for graduate development. The last two mentioned are induction courses for new recruits. Levels of Cost - 3.6.25 The amounts spent per pupil, student or trainee are shown in Annex 13, Table 3.6.5. Where a firm comparison is permissible, the data show -that recurrent cost in secondary schools is about five times as high as in primary schools. This ratio is almost 12 times higher in teacher training and about 90 times highef in the university. Another feature of the data is that the costs are much higher in technical education and training than in general education. The recurrent cost of technical teacher training is about four times higher than academic teacher training. The unit recurrent cost of craftsman training is more than twice as high as in primary teacher training. Internal Cost Efficiency and Cost Overruns 3.6.26 If transition rates can be interpreted as input-output conversion rates or internal efficiency rates, then their residuals may be used as proxies for inefficiency or "wastage." (The quotation marks are used to note that the loss may not be a complete waste if pupils learn something before failing or quiting school, before completing a school cycle.) A transition rate of 76 suggests a wastage of 24%. This means that for every 1,000 pupils in Grade 1, about 240 failed or dropped out before completing the primary school cycle. At a per pupil cost of Kw 89 per year, the 240 figure represents-an expense of about Kw 26,360 "down the drain." 3.6.27 In secondary schools the loss is much greater because of high per student cost. A "smoothing" of transition rates per 1,000 for 13 cohorts gave a wastage of 265 student years in secondary education. At Kw 411 per student year, the wastage means a financial loss of Kw 109,000.  - 77X- .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3.6,28 In UNZA, we show financial wastage in terms of cost overruns. This is calculated on the basis of per student year cost times the extra number of student years that the university has to provide In order to produce a graduate. The total actual cost less the cost of what is normally required is the cost overrun. The calculations given in Annex 13, Table 3.6.10, show that the overruns per graduate range from about Kw 7,300 in agriculture to as much as Kw 18,900 in mining. If these overruns were expressed in multiples of 1,000 graduates or students as in the estimates for secondary and primary schools, the sums involved would be very large. Earlier reports had already indicated certain wastages in university education. The reports also mentioned probable causes for these wa8tages, namely, the level of preparation of school-leavers for university studies and certain institutional features of the higher education system. 3.6.29 As a result of the general economic crisis, financial support decreased and the scarce resources were spread thinly, if not too thinly in many cases. Programs for building new schools were cut back, repairing old ones postponed, and buying new equipment or spares foregone. Allocations for student allowances, room and board were reduced, while the level of spending for instructional requisites was too far below minimum thresholds to be of much educational value. Technical education and vocational training suffered immensely from budgetary retrenchment. For lack of foreign exchange to buy spares, many expensive machines and items of equipme-t could neither be repaired, maintained nor utilized. Allocations for room and board are excessively high for a country in a financial crisis. Moreover, from the point of view of a broad society, the high per student cost of training courses or degrees seems to defy economic logic. Indeed, the costs represent a large investment in people, but on the basis of existing wages and salary scales, the income streams from such an investment can hardly pay a good financial return. From the point of view of the individual, however, such a public investment is an economic windfall for the fortunate few who are-students or trainees. 3.6.30 At present, tuition is virtually free, while room and board, student allowances and even transportation in some cases are provided. This level of subsidy to education and training may be imperative for the political goal of rapid Zambianization (but it also touches on allocation problems and distributional issues that are beyond the scope of this report). However, as the financial crisis continues and support for education and training declines, the quality of instruction deteriorates- and Zambianization in the qualitative sense may be beyond reach.,  - 78 - Conclusions 3.6.31 Over the long term the Zambian economy may have to shift from a heavy dependence on mining to self-reliance in agriculture and export- oriented manufacturing industries. This observation implies a need for orienting the country's schools and training system towards a strong emphasis on science and technical skills and towards developing a certain degree of flexibility to respond to progressive shifts in the composltion of manpower demand. 3.6.32 The direct cost of primary schooling may still-be a major Government responsibility,but the costs of secondary and further levels of general education and training may be increasingly shared with parents, based on ability to pay. Boarding cost, for example, should be gradually shifted to parents or abolished whenever possible, and the savings from this expense item should be allocated for certain essentials such as equipment snares and instructional requisites. 3.6.33 The costs of occupational- or job-specific training may be shared with employers, such as the large employers and perhaps an association of medium and small employers. During a labor shortage, some employers are willing to underwrite these costs to assure themselves a good manpower supply of desirable quality. In fact, some private companies are aware of this responsibility, as shown by their preparedness to provide bursaries and sponsorships to a certain number of students as prospective employees. This is being done, for example, by ZCCM for students in mining courses at ZIT, UNZA and even at institutions overseas. In all probability this is also being done by ZESCO and other large and responsible employers. What seems to be necessary at this stage is to encourage these employers to do more by increasing their level of spending for occupational and job-specific training. In any case, not doing so can work to the employers' disadvantage. 3.6.34 Moreover, foreign aid for schools and training institutions may be sought to top-up whatever financing that parents and employers are willing to share and whatever savings can be obtained by improving internal efficiency and minimizing wastage and costly overruns. In the short run, external financing is necessary to give the Government room for maneuver and some lead time In a political process of sharing the financial burden of education and training along rational lines. Advice may also be necessary in restructuring the existing specialized manpower training prograus along cost-effective lines.  - 79 - IV. ISSUES ANDi RECOMMENDATIONS, PROPOSED STRATEGY Labor Force issue 4.1.1 The labor force is growing much more rapidly than the long-term capacity of the economy to generate additional employment in the formal sector. Large numbers of school-leavers every year contribute to increasing youth unemployment (para 1.09). Recommendation 4.1.2 In the long term, only a reduction of the birth rate would improve the situation. However, given the Government's policy to increase agricultural production, efforts should be made to genarate agriculturally related jobs, particularly, in the informal sector. Manpower Planning Issues 4.1.3 National manpower planning is the responsibility of the Manpower Planning and Research Department of NCDP (para 2.01). The department is understaffed and existing staff lack relevant training and experience. Departmental activities are not sufficiently related to decision-making In the planning of manpower development. Recommendations 4.1.4 The departmental term of reference need revision to focus on decision-making and to include close monitoring of demand and supply through a sectoral rather than an overall national approach. This would require intensive coordination with employers, planners and training providers. Hence, there is an initial need for technical assistance and tailor-made staff training to establish a manpower development monitoring unit within NCDP to undertake these functions (para 3.1.8). Manpower Needs Coordination Issues 4.1.5 The Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT), under the Cabinet Office, handles-assessment of manpower and training needs for the civil service and serves as a clearing house for its training requests. A system of seconding manpower development officers (MDOs) from DMDT to various ministries and government agencies for assessing training needs has recently been introduced. This system, however, has not got off to a good start because of-the low status of the MDO and their need for more training. Moreover, the strategy vis-a-vis in-service training emphasizes training grants abroad rather than utilizing and building up the in-country training capacity.  - 80 - Recommendations 4.1.6 The MDOs need additional training and improved knowledge of the entity they are serving to enhance their ability to advise on manpower development issues (paras 3.1.9-3.1.12). They should be more actively involved and have increased authority with respect to the screening of training requests. In-service training should be carried out in-country, except for highly specialized training, and the Government and all donors should focus on establishing an in-country capacity in lieu of continued reiiance on extensive overseas training which consumes large sums of hard currency. General Education Issues 4.1.7 Specialized training and higher education require a good quality input from the general education system to avoid repeating simple topics in higher learning institutions at much higher cost. The quality of secondary education is low, however, particularly with regard to the key subjects of mathematics and science, and this seriously hampers progress in science- oriented further studies (para. 3.2.12). Recommendation 4.1.8 This-issue can only be addressed through inputs with long-lasting effects, including improving mathematics and science teacher training, updating curricula, upgrading laboratory facilities and providing relevant textbooks and laboratory manuals. In light of the present shortage of qualified science and mathematic teachers, the Government should also consider providing incentives to such teachers. Secondary Technical Education Issues 4.1.9 At present there are two secondary technical schools enrolling gifted students and offering an option with emphasis on science, mathematics and trade-oriented subjects. The facilities are underutilized and there is no evidence that examination results correlate with the higher standard of intake. The Government's plan to expand this type of education would fall short of remedying the existing situation, as the focus is on practical rather than science subjects. Under current financial circumstances, the Government cannot afford the luxury of offering practical subjects at high cost for which a return is, to say the least, doubtful. Recommendation 4.1.10 The Government should not expand secondary technical education in its present form, but rather should use allocated resources to strengthen the teaching of secondary school mathematics and science (para 3.2.15).  - 81 - Teacher Training Issues 4.1.11 The total supply of trained teachers at the secondary level exceeds demand and there is a very high wastage rate of newly trained or recently trained teachers. Even so, a number of untrained teachers are used, especially in primary education. The Government guarantees all trained teachers employment and a salary but not necessarily a teaching assignment. The distribution of teachers is uneven, with overstaffed urban and understaffed rural schools and a surplus of arts-oriented teachers -and a shortage of those in mathematics and science. Recommendations 4.1.12 (a) Cooperation between MHE, responsible for teacher training, and G4GEC at the receiving end, must improve, particularly in terms of planning future outputs of trained teachers. The Planning Unit of MGEC needs strengthening to be able to maintain up-to-date statistics that facilitate the planning of teacher supply and distribution. A data processing capacity would support this effort. (b) Measures should be taken to reduce the scale of teacher wastage and hence make it possible to reduce the volume of teacher training. This would result in major savings in training resources (paras 3.2.24 and 3.2.25). Technical Education/Vocational Training Issues 4.1.13 The existing training system was built up during times of prosperity when the country's continued economic growth and industrial expansion were anticipated. At present there is no significant growth in employment in the industrial sector or, indeed, in the formal sector as a whole. The large mining sector is expected to shrink gradually as a result of the progressive exhaustion of ore deposits and this will further reduce formal sector employment. Government policy focuses on the development of agriculture and anticipates transfers of trained manpower to this sector. 4.1.14 Training provided by DTEVT is generally costly and inefficient and does not fully respond to employers' requirements. The necessary dialogue with employers is not effective. The TTIs are under-financed and operate below capacity. Curriculum development, inspection, examination procedures, and staff development policy have not adjusted to existing circumstances. Technical education at the university level is costly, with low utilization of staff and facilities. Further, the economic recession necessitates constant or lower levels of expenditure for training.  -82- Recommendations 4.1.15 (a) DTEVT should concentrate on the Improvement of training quality rather than on the expansion of pre-service training, with renewed efforts to eliminate wasteful spending. (b) The operations of the TTIs should be rationalized since they are running much below capacity and employment- opportunities for its graduates are not encouraging (para 2.28). The released training capacity should be used for much needed in-service trainins. The number of instructors should be selected accordingly and the surplus assigned to other tasks inside or outside the sector. (c) In order to maximize efforts to supply employers with the relevant types of skilled manpower, VTEVT should improve the dialogue between employers and industrial training centers so -that the latter may respond mDre quickly to changes in the demand for skills. The existing Advisory Committees have not proved effective in this respect and should either improve or be abolished. Close monitoring of the employment opportunities in the industrial sector, including availability of skills resulting from technological innovation, should complement the improved Advisory Committees. DTEVT, in cooperation with NCDP, DMDT and employers, should take the lead in introducing such a system. - (d) A modern approach to curriculum development should be Introduced with measurable target-oriented syllabi. Also, already existing developed modern curricula should be considered to avoid wasteful "wheel re-inventing' exercises (para 3.3.6). Inspection of institutions should concentrate on the quality of technical and practical instruction. The Inspectorate needs additional resources to be able to carry out its assignment properly (para 3.3.8). The examination system should be totally revised, adjusting to new curricula and Introducing standardized procedures for examination preparation and correction. Examination of practical course segments should be performed practically (pars-3.3.7). Staff development should be oriented more towards in-country training and should include school management as well as professional upgrading (psra 3.3.9). (e) Better utilization of university staff-and facilities should be aimed at improving cost efficiency. This should include increased teaching load and extra shifts in workshops and laboratories. The Schools of Mines and Engineering should merge (para 3.3.19), eliminating their substantial overlaps and duplication of administrative costs. Agricultural Education Issues 4.1.16 A continuing effort to increase farm productivity in Zambia requires improvement in the development of manpower, with relevant training in agriculture. The availability of such agriculturally trained manpower is crucial in mobilizing the rural population to increase food production.  - 83 - Successful transfer of technological messages to rural communities and the rendering of such services as research and extension, agricultural marketing, agro-industries, processing of raw primary products, and timely delivery of the appropriate production input package as well as the need for the supervisory role associated with it, would warrant the availability of such personnel. The Government would hope to achieve this objective through a combined strategy of tapping the country's heretofore unused cultivable land and through optimizing the use of modern technological production inputs. Moreover, incentives should continue to be given to private investment in the sector. Appropriately trained staff are indispensable for this effort. In the case of farmer training, the traditional system of using the Farm Training Centers (FTCs) did not prove to-be a successful operatica, as farmers had to be away from their farms for extended periods of time. Recommendations 4.1.17 To achieve the above long- and short-range goals, the following options should be considered: .(a) Provide incentives to selected young farmers; such incentives should include the provision of irrigatible land, an improved package of production inputs, and training. (b) Relax MAWD's existing guaranteed employment and bonding policy, and encourage graduates to seek employment in an expanding private sector (para 3.4.4). (c) Emphasize upgrading of the quality of trained manpower through in-service training at UNZA and other agricultural training institutions, rather than expand pre-service training. Actively involve UNZA and other Zambian agricultural training institutions in rural development activities; and complement this effort by making improved production packages available. (d): Phase out the FTCs in their present form and adopt a modified version of the Training and Visit (T&V) approach (paras 2.81 and 3.4.17), or alternative methods-., Business Education and Management Training Issues 4.1.18 in a situation of economic crisis currently facing the country, the need for well-trained managers and administrators is more pronounced than ever for all sectors. Unfortunately, Zambia is poorly equipped in this respect and is extremely short of accountants at all levels. Also,managerial skills are lacking, particularly in the civil service and the parastatals. A large number of training Institutions for this purpose exist, but their activities are not planned nor coordinated and the training offered is of poor standard. No doubt, the management training set up is Itself short of managerial skills.  - 84 - Recommendations 4.1.19 The Government should take stock of all training offered in this area, assess course content, trainees and staff qualifications, and coordinate training activities to suit employers' needs. In particular, auditor training and training for District Councils should be examined as well as the relevance of training offered by NIPA (para 3.5.11). In order to establish accounting standards and policies, the newly founded ZICA should be supported (para 3.5.7). 4.1.20 As a first step towards the improvement of managerial skills, the Government should consider arranging organization development workshops and seminars requiring active involvement of the participants (paras 3.5.19 - 3.5.20). This should be coordinated with similar workshops to be held under the proposed Second Technical Assistance Project. Education and Training Cost Issues 4.1.21 As this study has shown, the economic crisis in Zambia has seriously affected education and training. The simple solution to reduce expenditures is difficult to implement, as the system was designed to be supported by a larger budget. With regard to financing the general education system, the study on Implementation of the Education Reform (scheduled for completion in January 1986) will be of great value. The task ahead is to maintain an education and training system relevant to the country's skilled manpower requirements. 4.1.22 During recent years, education and training budgetary allocations have been reduced in real terms, and standards and quality have not been maintained because available resources have been spread too thinly. A continuation of the existing policy will erode earlier investment, with further deterioration of the system. Recommendation 4.1.23 To meet skilled manpower needs, a reduced system may be sufficient, thereby releasing resources to maintain the remaining institutions (para 3.3.4). Certain costs should be shared with parents, particularly the very high boarding costs in secondary, technical and higher education. With regard to vocational training, costs should be shared with employers, which could take the form of extended periods of on-the-job training in industry; this would also ensure enhanced quality of training, with exposure to real work experience. The reliance on overseas fellowships cannot be justified in the long term, and donors should be encouraged to assist in developing In-country training as a complement to training abroad. 4.1.24 To implement new policies and strategies, the Government needs external assistance in the short term, which should be geared towards rehabilitation, maintenance, and increased efficiency. As the system adjusts to respond to actual demand and eliminates unnecessary expenditure, the need for external financing would be less.  -85- 4.1.25 As a number of other donors are now involved and will continue to be involved in manpower development, it Is essential that:-external assistance be well coordinated and.allocated for priority use. Under forthcoming aid operations, the Government should seriously consider this issue, and if so requested, the Bank could take the lead in coordinating further development in this-important sector. Proposed Strategy 4.1.26 In line with the above recommendations, we would briefly elaborate on a proposed strategy for the technical/vocational education subsector. The discussion is limited to formal technical education and vocational training and focuses on DTEVT activities. 4.1.27 The scope of future agricultural education and training activities clearly depends on the rate of implementaiton of the Government's agricultural policy. Under the assumption that agricultural development will becom more successful than in the past, there will be a need for increased funding for agricultural training. Rather than resorting to pre-service training of large numbers for that sector, it would make more sense to primarily draw from existing sources of skilled manpower such as the mining sector, from which large numbers of workers will be transferred over time due to the decline of mining operations. These workers may not, however, be readily available without retraining in specializations relevant to the agricultural sector, but retraining workers with similar skills would be more cost-effective than pre-service training. In this respect, the question of wages needs to be resolved because the mining sector, by tradition, offers higher wages than anywhere else, while the agricultural sector underpays its staff in relative terms. 4.1.28 In DTEVT and in other sectors. the assumption would be that training and manpower development in the future would be financed, at best, at the current level in real terms. This would mean that wasteful spending must be avoided and funds utilized in accordance with established priorities. Consequently, the mast optimistic scenario would be constant .-financing in real terms, including redirection of funds to meet training priorities in line with manpower demand. 4.1.29 University education costs in Zambia, as In uDst sub-Saharan African countries, is high, particularly when compared with other levels of education (average unit recurrent cost at UNZA is about 90 times higher than that at primary schools). Although this study is concerned only with those faculties serving the key economic areas as identified previously (paras 3.4.1 and 3.6.31), some proposed general policy changes affect the university in its entirety. It is obvious that the generous number of support staff, including janitors, messengers and gardeners, could be reduced substantially since UNZA currently employs about 3,000 such staff - actually on a par with the number of enrolled students. Student boarding should be reduced to encompass only those students coming from outside Lusaka and who cannot find-accomodations elsewhere. In any case,  - 86 - boarding costs should be absorbed by parents or by the students themselves. Optimal use of teaching and learning facilities with expensive and sophisticated equipment should be made, even through using double-shifts in workshops and laboratories. In particular. the Schools of Mines and Engineering should intensify their cooperation3 with a view to merging them to achieve higher utilization of facilities and reduce administrative costs. The School of Agriculture should play a more dominant role in graduate and post-graduate agricultural education to avoid to the extent possible university education abroad drawing on scarce foreign exchange. An added advantage Is that agricultural studies benefit immensely from being carried out in the environment where the prospective graduate will be professionally active. 4.1.30 Under the responsibility of DTEVT, technician and craftsman training is offered. In general the system should abolish boarding and lodging gradually and strive towards a boarding rate of about 202. This would mean that about Kw 1.0 million could be saved in 1983 prices, constituting about 152 of DTEVT's recurrent budget. All remaining boarding costs, however, should be met by parents or prospective employers. 4.1.31 The existing cooperation between employers and the training system needs substantial strengthening, and more training activities should be transferred to employers as on-the-job training. Employers would be willing to finance this training if given more influence in the design of training programs. Assuming that about six months of the technician program and about one year of the craftsman program would be handled in industry as in-plant training, the savings would total about Kw 1.1 million, or about 20% of DTEVT's recurrent budget (1983 figures), less assumed savings for boarding. 4.32 The TTIe, operating much below capacity, should be rationalized. A logical solution would be to assign perhaps half of the facilities to pre-service crafts training in accordance with manpower needs and with a reasonable utilization rate (802) of workshops in particular. Remaining facilities could then be remodeled to accommodate in-service tralning as needed. Consequent savings would be in the order of Kw I million, assuming that boarding will have been abolished and part of the training program transferred to in-plant training with employers. 4.1.33 Savings, as proposed, should be used for improving central planning and administration at the DTEVT level including strengthening curriculum development, the examination system, the Inspectorate, and the domestic staff training program. In addition, some financing of in-service training over and above what employers are taking on should be considered. Finally, it is essential that funds are allocated for the repair and maintenance of facilities, including replacement of spare parts and outdated training equipment.  - 87 - Aid Coordination 4.1.34 Zambia has been assisted by a large number of donors to develop its education and training 8yatem. This trend continues and assistance to manpower development is a high priority in mst aid programs. However, coordination of such aid, as well as a constructive policy and strategy dialogue with the Government, has, by and large, been lacking. The importance of allocating scarce training resources according to priorities has been a theme throughout this report and, of eourse,applies equally to external grants, credits and other assistance to the sector. The major issue is to adjust the education and training system to suit the level of available resources and to meet identified manpower demand. In this process, the Bank would be prepared to take the lead, if so requested, to coordinate external inputs and assist in revising, planning and adjusting the education and training system to suit employers' requirements for skilled manpower.  - 88 - ANNEX 1 PARTICIPATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES BY SEX AND AGE, 1980 Participation Rates Unemployment Rtates Age Group Males Females Males Females 12-14 19 24 98 98 15-19 38 41 79 87 20-24 83 39 27 31 25-29 97 38 12 18 30-34 98 36 8 12 35-39 98 36 7 12 40-44 93 38 6 11 45-49 98 42 7 11 50-54 98 47 6 12 55-59 96 50 8 13 60-64 97 57 8 13 65-69 .65 24 6 5 70-74 58 22 5 .7 Total: 72- 37 - 21 38 Source: Census Population, 1980, preliminary data.  89 - ANNEX 2 PROJECTED SECONDARY SCHOOL-LEAVERS, 1981-1990 Grade 8 Increase in Total EnroUuant Secondary enrollment Gross Output. 1981 26,091= 4,267 21,824 1982 27,279 5,997 21,282 1983 30,906 10,229 20,677 1984 35,098 10,720 24,378 1985 40,000 10,910 29,090 1986 41,300 11,652 29,648 1987 46,800 14,400 32,400 1988 54,500 18,550 35,950 1989 64,500 23,550 40,950 1990 76,400 29,150 47,250  - 90 - ANEX 3 COMPOSITION OF THE LABOR FORCE 1964-1984 Zambian Non-Zambian Total 1964 232,000 32,100 264,100 1965 267,760 33,840 301,600 1966 284,480 28,880 313,360 1967 274,650 29,080 303,730 1968 290,800 28,930 319,730 1969 291,630 29,820 321,460 1970 310,320 27,430 337,750 1971 331,670 26,680 358,350 1972 338,750 25,990 364,740 1973 342,990 34,650 377,640 1974 351,190 35,060 386,270 1975 365,330 33,510 398,840 1976 346,310 33,090 379,400 1977 345,320 27,310 372,630 1978 344,480 24,830 369,310 1979 348,290 23,380 371,670 1980 360,980 -20,510 381,490 1981 355,220 18,500 373,720 1982 350,050 17,460 367,510- 1983 348,270 15,53Q 363,800 1984 351,190 14,020 365,190 Source: Monthly Digest of Statistics, Vol XXI, Nos. 2-3, February-March 1985, Table 6 and Supplement, Table 11. Data for 1981-84 provisional.  -91-A16 Paso of 3 RPPULIC OF -I -0.10WS7 P.O. Bos 802108, f : >,,,l~~~~~~~~~~~~- . af so f 6th December, 1963 CABINET OMCE CIRCULAR NO. 19t O1 9 To: All Pemanent Semtariess ip* l Privat Soary. Stae Hmo; All Ditict Executive SeetwW; SKretadim AD Svic Commiidons; Nc. and Incm c* Motnullon; Commsion for Investigtions; AMt-C p Comson; Reistrar of the ish Court; AU lads of Depamts. CIVIL SERVICE TRAIING POLICY De to rent devlopments in matters reatin to training in the cii Srvic, the polcy traing tatement ied under Establish t Circular No. B of 1970 haw bee revised. 2 No doubt the Party and its Govrnment recognise the importance of human riur a a factor for economic and socil develoPAMe. To this end it is _sgtial that a systematic and coordinated manpower development and nng established. Tbisb i paticuarly impoTnt because the CTil Sevie s ib f p ad Iplemeaio of Py Govement policies. a. Consequently the foRowing aan_gemt shal apply wit eft from the date of this Circular: (a) a cadre of power development sta which hs ben ceated hl be seconded to minies depar s and Prvnes at vabgjve depending m thesi d of the institution concered as follos: ChiefManpowerDevelopment Offlor 81 Senio Manpower Development OffiOewr 8/- Manpower Deveopment Officer 81111o Asistant Manpowe Dewelopment Officer St13/12 The Naonal Commission for Development Planning must surrnder respondbity for ad ng training awards under tecicl ast to the Directorate of ManpoweDevelopmeandTraing. (e) The Dectorate of 3anpowr Development and Traing shall be responsble for dministng all traig for the Civi Service, parnatat and private setor wh this involves tialasistance. (d) The Diec,to of Manpower Development aod Traiung shlU be involved in al negotatios for tecnical asitae for trasiing. (e) The Directorate of Manpower Development and Tining shall hold a*l fnds fbr in. service traing whils Misties and Provinc wil hold only- thos funds for runing any trainig istutions they contrd. The Directramt will allocate funds to Mits and Provines acoording to plannedned. ( The Tra of Civl Servants in the offies of the Provincial Members of the Central Committee and in Distaict ouncils will be dealt with at Provinca lvel -ardinated by Provinci and Loca Government AdiitalnDivision for the fAme being. :g) Rah Mjiaky and Prvne sa st up a Manpowe Delopment Comm chaed by thePePrnmant Sertay. (A) A nation anpower Planning Committee wil be st up by the National Commissok for Development Planing a proposed in the Third National Development Pla.  - 92 - AMIIEX 4 -age2 of 3 MANPOWU DEVEOPMNT CADRE STAFF 4. mpow ta" wiM be rpouale for plning and muangng the g.i ioftinen ow Provice They il sum that effetivo ~~~~~t Mmo d X wopmt stl o_f atr Provicidal level trainm- actrati the Ofice of the Member of the CeOtWra Comitt_e Inthei DisriCouncils, wl Ibe responsible for ensuring tbha qaeatis o iu f the Ownning sad magemmt of tainin ar ntroduoed for aU Counci em- . Mapowr Development staff wM report direct to the Assitant Secretary (Administra- 1). tI Under Secetay or their equivenlt. AU Pernent Secretazies olema that else, qhbl of eommunlatlon are esablIh All Manpower Develpmt sUff wi work full tm on triming matter. No cadg member should be asiged other dute or be traned without r onsultation with the Dictor, Mpowr Developmeat sad Traing. Cadre staff sould abo attnd any oargs of ntrctia copprwved by the Dretor, except in seciW circumstances. If it is neces- y for a *ad officr to act in anothr poition for adinWv conveni , the Director shoud always be consulted and If necemary the Diretoe will try to prvide a temporar 7. Al Ma7ower Dwopmet taff ar secod fom the Dietatof MaAnpow a _ ~a;4. Like in all other cadr this s an am ength reladionship, In their d t o day w, adre sff ate resose to tir Permaneut Sectay andlor Head of Departnt while the D ietoat of Manpower Development and Traning wi provide MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT COMMEE a. ode to si Manpower Devdopment staff in their wm* each inistr and Office fi th* Provna mmber off the Central Committee will st up a Manpower Development es Ios as pibe. This wl be chaired by the Permanent Soeretary and should =a% at Ioea qarhtey. Thimo busaip of the Committee should indude al Depareanta Beads, aw a all Executike Secretas in the am of Provines The Sertary doud be the mbwer of the Manpower Devlopmet CAdre in the Jinistry or Province. Howver, if ther ae mo than one cadre membrs, the more senior should be a member of thu ommitte uand the jnior hould serve" Secretary. TheChainnar may chanp the membership at his diassic The puo of the Manpor Development Committee is to plan and evaluate taiing atvit in a inisry or Province. This would include approval of training esumates and araoanIatis for aining. The team oftreference of theso Comuittees are: (6) To mm te performac problms of the Ministry or Province, to coider the contrMumo that taing old make to their olution and to mae conm- mendatlons fortraining accoringly. (b) To the npowreqe of the Miksy or Province and to makeeommendtos accrigy. To monitor th lprgm of Zambpanoaftion in the binstry or Province and to nake (d) To enuethageootive cuterpat trinig I being conduct in the Mistry or Province. (s) To consde the Minitry or Provinc, a al n taiig plan in the light of (a) and (d) () To m_nJtot andove applcton for training. O To review peforman of trines on thireturn and sure propr mme of their L to revew th prforma of the Manpower Development Cade staff h the Mntry or Province and make any sgws for Improvement. ( To povid any othe advic on mapow devopment asd training s ig nesa. s  - 93 - AN=E 4' P 3 of 3 0.Sector or "eudetsbcmlts a als, be "sto""e at the dIscretIon of tas arairuan. in a lulstiy whee a sil.i an cmmlte aleady esW Oi dhu be ~ to reflect the above gudenes Whe an a dos have any Manpowe outcarepous t a*notrquied that a Nomte eUNtlaise along tbe above TRAINING POLICY GUIDELIN 10. MIln*its and Provi nw be equred to prepore, thre-y.u tran plan which hoold be mwednwaoly. Thi shd d bemubmitted o tDintorte ofd)epow lop. mont end Training beforeit July of the your pro to the pa. The traiiag eeds d f_ will thb beip by -the DireEtoamt1. This Plan should be based on pnzty train eeds idented by thu M apowerwDelp Dvdo t - 11. -The f(&W- lus shoud apply In the ppation of tbis traiIg plan and In the seectiou ofcdats: ()l trai require approval for paid *udy leave befoe goin on taining. either at institutios in Zambia or abroad (so Personnel Division Cclur No. B of 1982); (1) courss. workshops smnan, eta. of thirty days duton or ls requira appova of authorty to go abroad obtained fom Cabinet Office thfugh the Diretorate of MnpowerDevelopmet and Training (a* Cabinet Olflc Crcar No. 12 of 1979); (e) all tnies will be bonded fm the duati df their ues up to a mazitnum of four years. Trainee beak ths bond wil be delt with aecording to the provisions of Ordw No. F41 1976; (d) tra pad ps cn ol createdw I than -me year, and job duties annot be fragmented (ue PersonnelDvisi reula No. $2 Of 13822); (-) trainig abroad will not be approved if a sutable altert eour is avallable at a loca istition. unles a spesi cae is made in wafting to the Dicoate. In this repec fit consideration wil be given to in-hutry training as welf as trainig wihin the region; (f) traklnngprwioty should be given to; starf intiuios R<epen otexptriates; .elh dcto,fnne engieerig.daricutur, siecean tcholgyseto (g) an Minitris ad Provines shl vide induetioA tg for their new staf. The Natoal Isiut of Public A ii provide orientaion traini for new entrnts to the Civil Service; (1k) a Ministries and ProriAce should provid planned on-job trairug for their staff where this is na ry; (s ftrinees must return and work Immedlaly after eir emu. They should be exeted to rve in the m p or am aM before the training so that aew skill can be fully utiied; j all cadidates for tin require the apporsol of the )anpowe Develoame Comnaiitee in their Miistor Province; (k) all traic g must be relevat to the work of the offier being slected; (l tries must not angeus without OA writtn permoisson of the Dieto. Manpower Developmt and Trainug: and (a) * roord of tUini completed ad equind should be inludad in the Annua Report of eac Minsty or Depatmnt. 12. Ujay, I wisb to stwiss tabt while It I ts responsibility of the Diretorate, of Man- power Development and Training tO oo-ordunote manpower tainsin the Civil Service, the National Commiion for Developmet Plaing is repomible for natil power plan and rearch as weD as -the formulation of mpow po In to Ipv the quaity - of human resource in geral for effective economic sad socl dveopmt. 2. L IL Wrla, 9a_l to the Cabiwad a  - 94 - ANNX 5 Page 1 ~of, 3 ZANBIA CIVIL SERVICE SALARY SCALES (OCTOBER 1985) Administrative Scales S/1 Kw 15,360 x 960 - Kw 20,160 Sf2 Kw 13,440 x 840 - Kw 16,800 8/3 Kw 12,216 x 720 - tor 15,816 Sf4 KW 11,424 x 540 - Kw 14,124 S/5 Kw 10,632 x 420 - Kw 12,732 S/6 Kw 9,936 x 360 - Kw 11,376 S/7 Kw 9,300 x 300 - Kw 10,500 S/8 Kw 8,676 x 300 - Kw 9,876 Sl9 -Kw 7,644 x 204 - Kw 8,664 S/10 Kw 6,840 x 204 - Kw 7,860 S/11 Kw 6,144 x 180 - Kw 7,224 S/12 Kw 5,400 x 180 - Kw 6,480 S/13 Kw 4,536 x 156 - Kw 5,628 S/14 Kw 4,080 x 144 - Kw 4,800 S/15 Kw 3,468 x 120 - Kw 4,308 S/16 Kw 3,084 x 120 - KW 3,684 S/17 Kw 2,784 x 96 - Kw 3,360 S/18 Kw 2,592 x 60 - KW 3,072 S/19 Kw 2,484 x 60 - Kw 2,844 General Professional Scales GPSI1 Kw 17,280 x 960 - Kw 21,120 GPS/2 Kw 15,120 x 840 - Kw 18,480 GPS/3 Kw 13,656 x 720 - KW 17,256 GPS/4 Kw 12,504 x 540 - Kw 15,204 GPS/5 Kw 11,472 x 420 - Kw 13,572 GPS/6 Kw 10,656 x 360 - Kw 12,816 GPS/7 Kw 9,900 x 300 - Kw 11,700 GPS/8 Kw 8,668 x 300 - Kw 10,968 GPS/9 Kw 7,236 x 300 - Kw 9,936 Technical Scales TS/1 Kw 9,276 x 300 - Kw 10,476 TS/2 Kw 8,436 x 204 - KX 9,252 TS13 Kw 7,607 x 180 - Kw 8,688 TS/4 - Kw 6,888 x 180 - Kw 8,148 TS/5- Kw 6,024 x 180 - Kw 7,Z84 TS/6 Kw 5,004 x 156 - Kv 6,252 TS/7 Kw 4,368 x 144 - Kw 5,376 TS/8 Kw 3,828 x 120 - Kw 4,788 TS/9 Kw 2,652 x 132 - Kw 4,224  - 95 - ANNEX 5 Page 2 of 3 Medical, Nursing and Paramedical Scales MS/I Kw 18,240 x 960 - Kw 22,080 MS/2 Kw 15,960 x 840 - Kw 19,200 MSJ3 Kw 14,376 x 720 - Kw 17,676 MSJ4 Kw 13,044 x 540 - Kw 15,744 MS/5 Kw 11,892 x 420 - Kw 13,972 MS/6 Kw 11,016 x 360 - Kw 13,176 S4/7 Kw 10,200 x 300 - Kw 12,000 MS/8 KW 8,676; Kw 8,656; Xw 8,928; Kw 9,060; Kw 10,164 x 300 - Kw 11,064 MS/9 Kw 9,396 x 240 - Kw 10,386 MSf/10 K 8,496 x 240 - Kw 9,312 MS/1I Kw 7,752 x 168 - Kw 8,760 MS/12 Kw 6,888 x 156 - KM 7,980 -MS/13 Kw 5,160 x 156 - Kw 7,822 MS/14 Kw 4,944 x 144 - Kw 6,240 MS/15 Kw 4,272 x 120 - Kw 5,592 MS/16 Kw 3,084 x 96 - Kw 4,716 Police Prisons and Rescue/Fire Services Scales PS/i Kw 15,360 x 960 - Kw 20,160 PS/2 Kw 13,440 x 840 - Kw 17,640 PS/3 KW 12,216 x 720 - Kw 16,536 PS/4 KW 11,424 x 540 - Kw 14,664 PS/5 Kw 10,632 x 420 - Kw 13,152 PS/6 Kw 9,300 x 300 - Kw 11,400 PS/7 Kw 8,676 x 300 - Kw 10,476 PS/8 Kw 7,644 x 240 - Kw 9,072 PS/9 Kw 5,616 x 204 - Kw 8,268 PS/10 Kw 5,676 x 156 - Kw 6,924 PS/lI Kw 5,112 x 144 - Kw 6,408 PS/12 Kw 4,500 x 144 - Kw 5,508 PS/13 Kw 4,200 x 120 - Kw 5,040 PS/14 Kw 4,176 x 84 - Kw 4,680 PS/15 Kw 4,044 x 84 - Kw 4,548 PS/16 KW 2,544 x 72 - Kw 3,912 District Messenger Scales DMS/I- KW 5,112 x 144 - Kw 6,120 DMSf2 Kw 5,500 x 144 - Kw 5,220 DMS/3 Kw 4,200 x 120 - Kw 4,800 DMS/4 Kw 3,528 x 72 -. Kw 4,320 DMS/5 Kw 2,880 x 72 - KW 3,240 DMS/6 Kw 2,784 x 60 - Kw 3,084 DMS17 Kw 2,592 x 60 - Kw 2,952  - 96 - ANNEX 5 Page 3of 3 Secretarial and Machine Grade Scales SS/I Kw 5,424 x 168 - Kw 7,104 SS/2 Ka 4,752 x 156 - Kw 5,844 SS/3 Kw 3,192 - Kw 4,468 x 144 - Kw 5,616 SSI4 Kw 3,708 x 144 - Kw 4,860 Education Scales ES/I Kw 17,280 x 960 - Kw 20,160 ES/2 Kw 15,120 x 840 - Kw 17,640 ES/3 Kw 13,656 x 720 - Kw 16,536 ES/4 Kw 12,504 x 540 - Kw 14,664 ES/S Kw 11,472 x 420 - Kw 13,152 ES/6 iw'16,656 x 360 -(v 12,096 ES/7 Kw 99900 x 300 - Kw 11,100 ES/8 Kw 9,828 x 300 - Kw 11,028 ES/9 Kw 9,564 x 240 - Kw 10,524 ES/10 Kw 9,360 x 204 - Kw 10,176 ES/li Kw 8,556 x 204 - Kw 9,372 ES/12 Kw 6,996 x 204 - Kw 9,136 ES/13 Kw 6,640 x 204 - Kw 8,484 ES/14 Kw 4,992 x 192 - w 8,064 ES/15 Kw 6,504 x 180 - Kw 7,224 ES/16 Kw 6,036 x 180 - Kw 6,756 ES/17 Kw 5,424 x 180 - Kw 6,144 ES/18 Kw 5,004 x 180 - Kw 5,904 ES/19 Xw 4,104 x 180 - Kw 5,292 ES/20 Kw 2,772 x 96 - Kw 4,500 Technical Education Scales TES/1 Kw 16,320 x 960 - Kw 20,160 TES/2 -K 13,656 x 720 - Kw 16,536 TES13 Kw 12,504 x 540 - Xw 14,664 TES/4 Kw 11,472 x 420 - Kw 13,152 TES/5 Kw 11,656 x 360 - Kw 12,096 TES/6 Kw 9,900 x 300 - Kw 11,100 TES/7 Kw 9.828 x 300 - Kw 11.028 TES/8 Kw 9,492 x 240 - Kw 10,542 TES/9 Kw 9,324 x 204 - Kw 10,140 TES/10 Kw 6,744 x 204 - Kw 9,396 TES/1l Kw 5,280 x 204 - Kw 8.544  -97- AkS5R1 6 ,; . i~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ l of 2 Interim structure of education 22 - ~~~- - -. _ - , . . - -- - - ,- 21 _D - MDM O _ . M- - -- - ---' - 18 . _8 M . __ -. _: 17B 16 - B - 14 I B~~~ Vaiu _rgams e.. giutr. Teh .oy omre Nusn.et. AE 1,o .e SENIORiSuCONDARYaSlyOOL a d .~~~~ - Mte 6-~~~~~ yer - Veei_ySine NB yer - -0iiilMhedicine.ilSS lal 4 _ _ 0 0PRIMARYf SCHOO OLii0i l ~~~~~~PR?E - SCHOOL EDUCATION NOTES A Various vocationae programmes, eg., Trades, Nursing, Teacher Training, etc., leading to a certificate. 8 Various programmes, e.g., Agriculture. Technology, Commerce, Nursing. etc.. leadi.ng usually to a diploma. C University degree- D - Doctorate- M - Master - -~~~ B^achelor- :4 years- Ordinary. 5 yeas - Engineering. Agriculture, etc. 6 years - Veterinary Science. flgs ~~7 Vears- Medicine. In A and 8 there are also some courMe Whieth takq les then 2 vtats- From primwy to "sior ncondar O n eeucOiofv YOst repre#nts a grade-  - 98 - AU 6 * - - Tag* of 2 Final structure of education iig * n _PR-SCO= . EDUCA._O MOES A variousvocationalorammseg.. Trades. Nursing. Teacher Training, etc.. leading to a ce tifice. E3 Various programmes. e.g.. Agriculture. Technology, Comnmerce. Nursing, etc.,_ leading usually to a diploma. C Universty degree: 0 -Doctorate. M a Maste. 8 Bachelor. 4 yeam - Ordinary. 5 yea - Engineering, Agrculture. etc. 6 Years - Vetinary Science. U~ ~S ~~~~~~~7 years ,- Meicne In A and It theme we also somne courme Which take Ioss than 2 vears. rm rima t* senir seoda an eduaioew y r re,resents a gradt. 4 _ ^: . v.v. .~~1  1 ftXCPAL t1A83US b *M A AND mnu s OP ttta Offs"e of b ~s01tt0r oi OS cretsrr to The, Cebloet I CShi0.t Office ministry of 14