Philippines - Education Sector Memorandum

Document of RETURN TO The World Bank REPORTS DESK rrWITHIN FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ONE WEEK CONFIDENTIAL Report No. 1704-PH F 0LE COPY PHILIPPINES EDUCATION SECTOR MEMORANDUM August 16, 1977 Education Projects Division East Asia & Pacific Regional Office This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its conlents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY CONFIDENTIAL PHILIPPINES EDUCATION SECTOR MEMORANDUM TABLE OF CONTENTS Page__No. SUMM11ARY ............ . ........ ................. i I. INTRODUCTION ...................... o .. . . ........ .. . 1 Evolution and Structure of the Present System ...... 1 II. EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS .... 3 Education and Training in Overall Development Strategy .,. ....... .. .............................. 3 Socio-Economic Requirements for Education/ Training ... ............... .... ... ..... *....... 5 Education Sector Plans and Programs .............. 6 Strengths and Weaknesses of the System ............. 7 Quality and Finance ...................... ..... 8 Equity .............*......*..... ......... 9 Internal Efficiency ......................... 10 Comprehensive Secondary Schools .. ........ 10 Industrial and Agricultural Skill Formation ... 11 Vocational Teaching .......................... 12 Brain Drain ... o................................ 12 Mass Media .................................... 13 Bilingual Language Policy .................... 13 III. THE ROLE OF "IBRD ........ o.......o......o............ 13 Previous and Planned Projects ...................... 13 Future Lending and Sector Work .. ................ 15 Prospective Lending Areas .................... 16 Non-farm vocational training in rural areas ......................... 16 Secondary and tertiary student loans ..... 16 Teacher upgrading ........................ 16 Mass media ............................... 16 Comprehensive secondary vocational facilities .....0.. 0 -.......... ... .... 17 Textbooks--second stage .................. 17 Agricultural manpower--second stage ...... 17 Fisheries ....... . ......... ........... 17 Public secondary and/or tertiary Level expansion ........... ............ 17 This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. -2- TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd) Page No. Sector Work/Studies *.......................... 18 Non-farm skills in rural development ..... 18 Secondary and tertiary quality control ... 18 Secondary and tertiary finance ........... 19 Secondary vocational teachers ............ 19 Comprehensive secondary curricula ........ 19 Accelerated vocational training .......... 20 Internal efficiency ..*................... 20 Phasing of Activities ....................... 20 APPENDIX I Coverage and Content of the System APPENDIX II Goals and Objectives STATISTICAL ANNEXES 1-11 CHARTS 1-3 SUMMARY i. Philippine education and training are characterized by high enroll- mert ratios at all levels, though more than half of secondary students and nearly all tertiary students are in private institutions. The overall enroll- ment ratios are somewhat misleading since, apart from the fact that the first two cycles together are 2-3 years shorter than in most countries, much of this schooling is of poor quality. At primary level textbooks and equipment are still in short supply, and learning by rote is almost universal. Beyond elementary level quality further deteriorates, mainly due to the consequences of low (by international standards) expenditures per pupil. In addition, the homogenizing influence oE central goVernment financial contributions is very small; local governments (in the case of secondary schools) and private insti- tutions spend at widely varying levels, and offer quality education to only a small minority of students, either public or private. Equity is thus a very real--if obscured--issue, in both spatial and socioeconomic terms. ii. A key element in these interrelated problems of quality and equity is clearly finance: more money must be spent if quality is to rise, while the sources and uses of additional funds will determine equity. However,- finance is not the main constraint on resolving the problems. Real expendi- tures on education/training were substantially-higher in the recent past, and the, strongest arguments against pursuing quality and equity by simply channel- ing, more central government resources into education derive from economic efficiency considerations rather than shortages in public finance. iii. Given these circumscribed options for upgrading the public system and/or driving out the poor quality private institutions with a widened (and improved) public system of post-elementary schools, a logical alternative is to coopt much of the private system. Thus the main constraints on greater quality and equity are administrative and socio-political. The largest is government's difficulty in finding ways of controlling better, (or else capturing for public sector use), the funds now expended upon the inferior parts of private schooling at secondary and tertiary levels. Only when there is a surer public grip on these teachers, curricula, fees, etc., will it be possible to even out the main qualitative differences in the system as a whole. And at this point it will also become more feasible to consider underwriting the increased fees/ expenditure necessary to improve both quality and equity without heavy recourse to general tax revenues. iv. The third majo::.problem is internal efficiency, with two-fifths of all educational expenditure going for students who repeat, dropout, or do both; (family finances are the main element in the dropout problem). The remaining problem areas Eor which Bank assistance is recommended are compre- hensive secondary schools (where reforms are being implemented very slowly), industrial and agricultu:lal skill formation (where more non-formal training appears desirable), voca:ional teacher preparation (where qualified teachers are, in short supply), and mass media (where coverage is still limited in rural areas). I. INTRODUCTION Elvo.L ution and Structure of the Present System 1. The main formative influences on current education and training in the Philippines have been the church-related institutions of the mid- to-late colonial period, the widened public system installed during the American administration, a series of government-instituted reforms under- taken after independence, and the rapid postwar growth of the economy and bureaucracy. The first two sets of influences contributed importantly to the broad humanistic strain still evident and to strong public support for mass education. The third set had its main impact through modernizing the content of the system, giving it a more indigenous character and developmental orientation. And the fourth set transformed a number of small, private teacher zolleges and business schools into burgeoning, vocationally-oriented institutions which today give higher education its main character. 2. The system as a whole has been critically scrutinized on numerous occasions in recent decades. The latest major review was the "Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education" of-1970, which in turn led to the Educational Development Decree of 1972. Thee left an PRssntially con- ventional overall structure, though the first two levels combined last 10 rather than the more usual 12 years (see An Chrt 2). education is not an important part of the formal system, but private kinder- gartens exist on a moudet scale in most urban areas. LTe normal entrance age for elementary education is seven; the six-year duration includes a four-year primary cycle and two-year intermediate program; attendance is free--mandated by the constitution--and compulsory for children aged 7-12, and more than 95% of enrollments are in the public system. The four-year secondary cycle is given through four types of schools: general, vocational, barrio and special science high schools; the vocational schools have programs in trade, agri- culture and fisheries but, along with the general schools, are being converted into a comprehensive secondary system; just over half of all secondary enroll- ments are in private schools. Higher education includes 2-3 year non-degree programs and 4-5 year bachelor degree programs, followed by masters (two years) and doctoral programs of 2-3 years in numerous faculties. Law requires four years and medicine five after the bachelor program, and graduates of both--along with those from nursing and engineering--must pass board exami- nations before practising; (teachers must pass a civil service examination before gaining tenure in public schools). About 90% of all tertiary enroll- ments attend private institutions. 3. Within the system as a whole, the pursuit of bilingualism entails instruction in English For science and mathematics courses, and Pilipino for all others; (the auxiliary use of local dialects is still permitted in grades 1 and 2). This policy is being phased in gradually during 197I-82. - 2 - 4. The more loosely-integrated, but widespread, system of non-formal education and training has had direct government support since at least 1908 (and an Office of Adult Education was established in 1936). Though diffuse, the main activities at present revolve around agricultural extension, vocational/technical trainihg at the semi-skilled level and functional literacy. There is no particular concentration on any age group, nor demar- cated progression through the activities of the system. The customary language of instruction is the vernacular. 5. The administration of the formal educational system was extensively reorganized in 1975, following recommendations of the earlier Presidential Commission. Responsibility for public schools and non-chartered colleges, as well as supervision of private schools, still rests with the Department of Education and Culture (DEC). The three main bureaus of the DEC (public, vocational and private schools) have been replaced by bureaus specialized by level of education (elementary, secondary and higher; see Chart 3), but they do not yet have effective control of higher education as individual school boards have considerable autonomy. The three parallel field organizations of the past have been consolidated into a single structure with 12 regional units responsible for administration and execution. A slightly reconstituted National Board of Education remains the principal policy-making institution for the formal education and training system.- (The non-formal system runs parallel to--and often separate from--the above, without any particular coordinating institution at the operational level.) 6. Planning and budgeting for the system is a widely shared activity, nominally directed by the Office of the Secretary of DEC, but heavily influenced by the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA), the Budget Commission, (and to some extent by the actions of private schools). Information on flows within the system is fed to the Office of the Secretary from the regional directors, the three bureaus and the offices/agencies under the DEC; demand projections are mainly the work of NEDA and the National Manpower and Youth Council (NMYC). Basic data lacunae severely inhibit what is still a relatively centralized planning process, and recent moves toward decentralization have (temporarily) further exacerbated the problem through the need for regionalized educational statistics. 7. Funding for the elementary school system is provided almost exclu- sively by the national government. Support for secondary vocational schools too is the responsibility of the national government, while the other public secondary schools are supported (inadequately) by local governments with some assistance from the center. Tuition fees are a substantial source of revenue for public secondary schools, and provide the bulk of funds for private schools. At the tertiary level nearly all funding comes from fees. The principal source of funds for non-formal education and training is the national government. An important aspect of the 1972-73 martial law reforms in education, as concerns finance, was the creation of special fund (F 50 - 3 - million annually during 1973-83) for education projects. This is serviced/ administered by the Educational Development Projects Implementing Task Force (EDPITAF) under the Office of the Secretary of Education and Culture. Table 1 /a BASIC DATA ON PHILIPPINE EDUCATION- Levels of Schooling Elementary Secondary Teritary Enrollments 6.74 mil. 3.17 mil 0.87 mil. (private) (5%) (55%) (90%) Enrollment Ratio 107 62 21 (female) (49%) (50%) (56%) Pupil/Teacher Ratio 31:1 36:1 32.1 (qualified teachers) (98%) (94%) (25%) Unit Costs (P) 214 170 800 (recurrent share) .(95%) (90%) (85%) /b Annual Dropouts- 11% 12% 15% Graduate Transition Rate 80% 70% /a Estimates are for 1975 unless otherwise indicated. b Recent years. II. EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES AND PROGRA4S Education and Training in Overall Development Strategy 8. The familiar socio-economic and educational goals of the Philippines (which are set out in Appendix II), are all broadly congruous, and--especially after amplification in various decrees--they are also reasonably comprehensive. But lacking quantification, their translation into strategies has raised questions. The Presidential Commission observed that "Philippine education has not been functioning on the basis of feasible operational objectives...", and added that planning has not been a major concern. Despite this, the educational strategies actually employed have been consistent with the economic development strategies pursued--for better or worse. 9. Philippine development strategy through the 1960's and early 1970's was essentially conventional in its stress on maximizing growth in output. Basic reliance was placed upon traditional exports, and the development of large-scale industry through import substitution and monetary/ fiscal incentives. The education and training sector was also growth- oriented during this period, and managed to implement a policy of free, universal primary education (while still at a relatively low level of per capita income) by avoiding the diversion of significant public funds to tertiary level institutions. But, like the economic development strategy of the time, the educational system tended to favor the modern sector to the neglect of the masses in traditional sector occupations, particularly agriculture. The focus was overwhelmingly upon formal schooling opportu- nities and--insofar as the schooling was not for consumption purposes-- the preparation was pointed toward participation in larger-scale, high- technology production processes. 10. More recently--facing uneven growth, declining import substitution possibilities, a relatively stagnant rural sector and growing unemployment-- economic strategy has been undergoing reexamination. Greater attention is now being given to (1) rural development, and (2) non-traditional ex-- port promotion. The first implies smallholder access to institutionalized credit, land reform, broadened rural infrastructure and government decentra- lization. The second revolves around helping medium and small-scale (i.e., labor-intensive) industries through fiscal devices, credit, specialized training, etc.. But it is not altogether evident that strategies and pro- grams are in fact following the rhetoric. A great deal of programmatic stress is being placed upon the accelerated development of heavy infra- structure and capital intensive,industry. Import substitution policies are not being abandoned so much as transformed into a "second stage", viz., production of intermediate and capital goods. And in agriculture, programs are once again aimed at "high potential" areas, (i.e., those already re- latively well off), with the task of raising productivity among the masses of smallholders receiving second priority. Though steps are being taken on behalf of smallholders, and increased resources will flow into non-traditional export promotion, these do not appear to be at the heart of Philippine devel- opment strategy for the next decade. 11. On the education side, new strategy initiatives call for priority to be given to improved educational quality, to strengthened educational administration, to redressed balances of educational opportunities between rural and urban areas, and to increased Governmental control over (the quality of) tertiary level schooling. The first is to be achieved by up- dating curricula, integrating academic and vocational studies at the secondary level, producing textbooks based on the revised curricula, and the use of satellite communication and other mass media to improve quality. Educational administration is to be strengthened through reorganization of the DEC, better planning and the provision to managers of a regular flow of up-to- date information. The imbalance of educational opportunities is to be re- dressed through construction of new secondary schools in rural areas, and the strengthening of barangay high schools. Increased Government control over - 5 - tertiary schooling is to come through an accreditation scheme, fiscal measures, and increased financial participation. While these measures owe little of their inspiration to economic development strategy as such, they are nonethe- less rational and consistent with economic objectives. The following section examines more concretely the implications for education of prospective economic growth. Socio-Economic Requirements for Education/Training 12. There are no up-to-date, nationwide estimates of the manpower requirements for various types and levels of skills. Several partial sur- veys of recent vintage exist: a DEC forecast for 1971-74, along with NEDA and NMYC projections for 1974-77. The latter two, however, do not break down either employment or education, and use implausibly optimistic as- sumptions concerning the growth in aggregate employment (4.5% annually). All three of these forecasts have in common the persistence of graduate unemployment, but offer little guidance to educational planners other than a general caution against rapid expansion of enrollments. There was also a very specialized survey in 1970 which concluded that Philippine engineers/ scientists had only 1.8 technicians to work with each of them, as opposed to a UNDP-recommended ratio of 5:1; but the validity of this comparison is open to objections. 13. There have also been efforts to estimate economic returns to different levels and types of schooling. A geographically limited cost- benefit analysis in 1966 found the highest returns accruing to secondary school, and a 1969 survey found corroboratingly low returns to college graduates. A detailed study in 1973 (using data from 1971) found generally low social returns to investment in all levels of education--about 6% for both elementary and secondary schooling, and approximately 7% for third level schooling. Equally striking, even private returns rise no higher than 9% (elementary 1-4, and bachelor degree holders). At tertiary level the returns were broken down by discipline for graduates of some 50 institutions. Private returns were consistently above 10% only in the case of chemical engineering; they ran from 6-10% for civil and mechanical engineering, applied and physical science, arts, and commerce; for education, business administration and agriculture they ranged from 0-5%; and home economics and architecture showed negative returns to investment in these fields. (Social returns would be lower in all cases.) The study also found that graduates of elite institu- tions, such as the University of the Philippines, received returns almost twice as high as the averages above. 14. Still another, more aggregative approach to estimating the economic demand for education is to fall back on the (international) cross-sectional studies which have been done for skilled manpower structures at various stages of economic development. While the limitations to such an approach are obvious, these studies suggest that both secondary and tertiary outputs should rise at the same rate as GNP, (which is expected to average less than 7% annually in the medium-term). Thus all the approaches give an essentially - 6 - consistent response, viz., the recent rate of growth in (secondary and ter- tiary level) outputs should be slowed. This is also suggested by the avail- able data on unemployment, but the situation is clouded by insufficient data on average waiting time before first employment. All that can be said is that "high school leavers and above" have higher average rates of unemployment than the rest of the work force. 15. In the case of the sub-group "skilled workers and technicians", evidence is equally fragmentary. Only a third of vocational-technical students have been finding work in the field for which they were trained, skilled laborers have unemployment rates higher than the experienced labor force as a whole, the wage differentials of skilled over unskilled workers have been decreasing in recent years, and surveys of employers document the usual complaint that trade schools are not producing useful graduates. 16. The general conclusion which emerges from all this--restraint on enrollment growth--is important, particularly as it impinges upon government plans,for altering public-private enrollment shares at the tertiary level. (The case for discouraging "consumption" in private-sector schooling is not argued here.) It offers little detailed guidance to educational planners, but such detail is spurious more often than not.1/ The problem of estimating the economy's need for trained manpower is, however, accentuated by the apparent divergences among strategies and programs. The rural development/non- traditional export promotion strategy implies a shift in public sector emphasis away from the formal system toward broadened efforts in non-formal schooling, both agricultural and non-agricultural. The heavy infrastructure and in- dustry/mechanized farming strategy, on the other hand, implies fewer adjust- ments in the present structure of output for the education and training sector. Education Sector Plans and Programs 17. The government's principal statement of intentions for education and training is the Four-Year Development Plan, 1973-77 (FYDP), though it is set within a more loosely specified "Ten-Year Educational Development Program." The main components of the latter comprise (1) administrative improvement, (2) expansion and improvement of secondary schooling, (3) expan- sion and improvement of technical and agricultural training, both formal and non-formal, (4) curriculum, material and staff development, and (5) provision of material incentives for development and improvement throughout the system. 1/ It has been argued, strenuously, that detailed guidance on rates of expansion is not needed since (a) different types of skills are highly substitutable, and (b) the main economic value of education is not cognitive or psychomotor, but affective. See ILO's comprehensive employment strategy mission report on the Philippines, Sharing in Development, (Geneva: ILO, 1974), Special Paper 17. - 7 - 18. The FYDP is more specific. The main projects, apart from support of the existing system, are (IBRD-assisted) rural development (agricultural high schools, colleges, radio stations, along with social extension labora- tories and village development schools), technical training (post-secondary institutes, regional centers) and quality upgrading (science teaching centers and educational development centers). These represent the "change element" in the development budget at present, of which they constitute 15-20% in expenditure terms. 19. The FYDP also proposes to tackle what are characterized as particular problem areas in the system. There is concern about the relative shares of educational levels in public expenditure, and a desire to free more central government resources for higher education by increasing the contri- bution of local governments to secondary schooling. Secondly, note is made of economically surplus graduates at tertiary level, e.g., teachers, and supposed deficits of middle level manpower; remedial measures are not specified, apart from college entrance exams to reduce enrollment. pressures. Thirdly, the Plan points to lack of instructional materials, textbooks, school facilities and highly qualified teachers, and their effects on school quality; special measures to redress these problems are mentioned only for textbooks. In addition, special efforts are to be made on behalf of the University of the, Philippines, and non-formal education is to be promoted--but only NMYC projects are mentioned in connection with the latter. Unfortunately, none of these programs are costed in the Plan, so it is not clear what priorities have been accorded in resource allocation terms. The main shifts, clearly, are toward (1) agricultural education and rural development, (2) middle level vocational-technical skills, and (3) quality upgrading by improved teacher training and textbook production. While not bulking large in total expenditure, capital and recurrent, they will nonetheless have significant effects on output flows in their res- pective areas. This is probably true also for instructional materials. 20. A synthesis of this section with the preceding one suggests that the education and training system has continued to be responsive to the needs of economic development programs actually undertaken. The public sector institutions have maintained (and improved) their services to modern, high technology clients, and simultaneously moved to expand services in support of a prospective drive to develop traditional sector activities. In doing so they have straddled a potential strategy conflict, without signi- ficant detriment to their services, and appear able to continue compositional shifts at least as rapidly as the rest of the economy. They have also under- taken modest steps toward upgrading quality. Strengths and Weaknesses of the System 21. The formal schooling system managed universal primary enrollment more than a decade ago, and there is now an adult literacy rate around 90%. It has also achieved secondary enrollment ratios above 60%, and tertiary level ratios around 20% of the age cohort. Non-formal education and train- in g have also reached impressive proportions, with around 2 million receiving instruction annually. Enrollments of women equal or surpass those of men at - 8 - all levels, pupil-teacher ratios are generally good and nearly all teachers are qualified. Many of these accomplishments reflect the dynamism of the private sector, and the willingness of Filipinos to finance most post-primary schooling through user fees, rather than await the day when general tax revenues can provide all the advanced schooling desired. In qualitative terms, the education and training system has been consistently in step with the developmental programs of the economy, and there are continuing efforts at curricular reform. The recent reorganization of the DEC undoubtedly will improve further their performance, especially as concerns planning capabilities. 22. At the same time, a number of problems areas remain in the system. The main ones are quality--at all levels of schooling, equity--at the post- primary levels, and internal efficiency--at all levels. It will be seen below that all three of these areas interact in direct fashion. Quality and Finance 23. Despite the (compositional) responsiveness of the system's output to the apparent needs of the economy, these outputs are not well prepared. At primary level the Presidential Commission observed that the curriculum is crowded with factual subject matter and textbooks are in very short supply, learning by rote is universal, standardized achievement testing is rare, classroom climates are authoritarian, audio-visual aids are inadequate, and educational guidance services almost unknown. Secondary level, the Commis- sion concluded, was worse: studies of college freshmen found weakness in all the basic skills--language, mathematics and science, (while employers of vocational graduates complain of their inadequate preparation); pupil-teacher ratios are higher (with books and supplies no more plentiful) than at primary level, mainly in consequence of the profit-oriented character of private schools and inadequate city-provincial support for public ones; both of the latter lead to wide variations in secondary school quality. At tertiary level pupil-teacher ratios are high, staff overworked and underqualified, and facil- ities poor; fewer than 5% of all private institutions are accredited and most private schools are open to anyone able to pay. The low revenue per student only barely supports relatively inexpensive courses of study in commerce and arts, and is totally inadequate to provide quality instruction in science and technology. 24. Virtually all of the above derive importantly from low per pupil expenditure, which has been falling in real terms for the past decade. Elementary student unit costs (as a share of GNP per capita) are slightly higher than those elsewhere in the Asian region, though not elsewhere in the world, but secondary unit costs are only two-thirds the regional average, and higher education unit costs are less than one-third. The comparison with all developing countries is even more disadvantageous. Thus, whether from user fees or general tax revenues, more money must be spent if quality is to rise (without simply reducing enrollments). - 9 - 25. Mediocre economic returns to educational investment argue against the use of general tax revenues, (except at elementary level where socio- political considerations clearly take precedence). If the equity costs of increased user fees at secondary level are thought socially intolerable, as is probably the case, they could be supported by a large scale fee-cum- scholarship scheme to protect poor but able students. It would also be recessary to eliminate any substantial qualitative differences between private and public schools, or else insure that the distribution of public facilities is perfectly equitable. At tertiary level nine-tenths of all students are already paying (virtually) full-cost fees; this unusual opportunity strongly suggests the use of a student loan scheme to permit needy students to borrow the amount necessary to meet increased fees. (In principle, students should be permitted to borrow not just for the increment, but for total costs if necessary). While economic considerations suggest the loan scheme should be run from private funding, in practice government guarantees will probably be necessary. 26. These moves imply major reforms in educational finance. But if per pupil expenditure is to rise, these difficult reforms are preferable to greater reliance on general tax revenues so long as there is a major dis- parity between the economic and social demand for schooling. I/ Equity 27. The remaining questions of access to education and training are mainly locational issues. At elementary level the problems are minor, but most secondary schools are still located in urban areas, so that the more urbanized regions have participation rates twice as high as predominantly rural areas. This situation becomes extreme at tertiary level, with half of all students located in and around Manila. In the case of non-formal schooling, the greater part of resources are directed at rural dwellers; but non-agricultural vocational training is given almost exclusively in urban areas. 28. The other major issue of equity relates back to quality and fund- ing questions. Secondary and tertiary students who do not have access to public facilities are confronted by private ones of widely varying quality, and only those who can afford high fees have assurances of reasonable qual- ity. Similarly, science and technology programs at tertiary level are for the most part restricted to schools which charge high fees (and can support 1/ The other broad package of options is severe indeed: a freeze on public sector enrollments, while expenditures continue to rise; simultaneous elimination of the certification process by the schools, (to discourage student "investment" in poor quality private institu- tions--though leaving people free to "consume" schooling there if they wish); and the removal of all fees, or else the introduction of a publicly financed loan/scholarship scheme for deserving students, to satisfy equity considerations. - 10 - such programs). Thus parental income, rather than ability, is the major determinant of study field. It has already been argued above that the resolution of such problems should place less emphasis upon simple extension of the public system, and more upon rationalizing the structure of user fees. This will require a concomitant reduction in quality differences between the public and private sectors, which in turn implies greater public supervision and control of both sectors. Such extensions as are made in the public system should occur almost exclusively in the disadvantaged, more rural regions. Internal Efficiency 29. Evidence of widespread inefficiency is overwhelming. At elementary level dropouts still run more than 10% annually and the enrollment ratio is significantly inflated by repeaters, in spite of the gradual spread of auto- matic promotion; together these factors imply that more than 10 years of instruction are required per elementary graduate. At secondary level dropouts rise to 12% annually, which means that only about half of beginning students actually complete the four years. Wastage rates are slightly higher at ter- tiary level, (and in addition the existence of more than 650 institutions-- with a median enrollment of less than 1,000-suggests an inefficient scale of operation at many institutions). In the vocational-technical subsector, wastage is extremely high in the formal system (50-80%), but falls to about a third in the NMYC courses. Overall, about two-fifths of total educational expenditure goes for students who will repeat, dropout before completion, or both. Most of this waste is attributable to dropouts, and surveys show that most of these dropouts occur for financial reasons. Hence the interconnection of quality-finance-equity-efficiency emerges again. Comprehensive Secondary Schools 30. The introduction of comprehensive schooling is considerably behind schedule since most secondary schools have neither vocational facilities nor specialist teachers. DEC calculations suggest that the workshops required by the reform will cost US$600 million, which is far more than the budget will bear in the short term. Moreover, provision of the specialized work- shops and teachers necessary to offer the full range of choices (implied by the new curricula) appear uneconomic in all but a few large schools. In addition, the curricular reforms have brought questionably heavy emphasis on in-school skill creation. Since it is clear that implementation of the reforms as they stand is not possible on schedule, and perhaps not even desirable, some reconsideration of the secondary program will be necessary to both scale down inputs-and shift expectations on the nature of outputs. - 11 - Industrial and Agricultural Skill Formation 31. Vocational-technical training expenditures are questionably balanced at present. There are nearly 150,000 full-time trainees in the formal system, (only about a tenth of whom both graduate and find employment in their field of training), while NMYC offers short, employment-oriented training to approxi- mately 30,000 annually, (where about a third graduate and find appropriate employment), and the apprenticeship program turns out 3,000 annually. Thus only around 30,000 of nearly 200,000 are completing their courses and finding employment as skilled workers in the fields for which they were trained. This is not appreciably worse than the situation in most countries, but it makes clear the wastefulness of attempting to teach specific skills, (as opposed to basic scientific knowledge), in schools rather than on-the-job. Insofar as specific skills continue to be taught in schools, much tighter liaison with industry is required--preferably in the form of direct contributions from enterprises to ensure their continuing interest. 32. In the case of technicians, preoccupation with an apparently low ratio of technicians to technologists (1.8:1 in the Philippines recently) has induced a rapid expansion of facilities. Post-secondary enrollments in trade-technical courses (other than teacher training) are in the process of being raised by 40%--2,800 places--in spite of the fact that economic returns to this level of schooling are already lower than those to degree studies, (or to secondary level for that matter). Since technologist output is expanding less rapidly, the implication is that returns--both social and private--on investment in technician training will decline still further unless (a) the composition of output is very carefully attuned to specific needs, rather than international comparisons, or else (b) the inflation of educational require- ments is replaced by deflation, so that technician-level jobs (in other countries) are not reserved for degree holders in the Philippines. 33. Turning to the rural areas, there is apparent underinvestment in non-agricultural vocational training, both economic and quasi-civic. The first is critical to sustained rural development, and the second to meaning- ful decentralization of planning and resource allocation. While basic edu- cation is essentially universal, even in rural areas, the modest vocational and other training offered by secondary schools will not be available to the majority of smallholders for some years to come, and the training activities of DLGCD are limited in scope. A wider-spread, non-formal, preferably recur- rent system of schooling should be made available, Whether through expanded versions of Farmer Training Centers or DLGCD activities, rural academies, or whatever, programs are needed for skills such as carpentry, mechanical repairs, electrical work, and the like. Beyond this, there is need for expanded training in simple public administration and other skills required by government decentralization, e.g., rudimentary civil engineering, public sanitation, bookkeeping for cooperatives and local government, etc. These should become an integral part of non-formal training at village level. - 12 - Vocational Teaching 34. The main instructors for agricultural and industrial skill forma- tion, apart from informal learning processes, are the field extension workers in agriculture and the secondary vocational teachers in the case of industry. There are recurring expressions of dissatisfaction with the actual vocational skills of these instructors. Yet government hiring policies almost insure over-educated, under-trained staff with little or no shop/field experience. Both the Department of Agriculture and Department of Education require four- year degrees for these positions, after which the graduates still lack needed training at skilled worker or (at most) technician level. The result is both wasted educational resources and unqualified instructors. So long as the formal schooling requirement is retained, the qualification process for these instructors will necessitate additional pre-service or in-service training. The alternative would be a reexamination of necessary qualifications, and consequent hiring policies, in pursuit of higher quality and lower cost instructors. Brain Drain 35. This phenomenon, which refers essentially to the expatriation of highly educated/skilled personnel, is increasingly mixed in with shorter-term movements of (sometimes surplus) workers. There is thus considerable ambi- valence in Philippine views. During the period 1965-70 (the latest for which data are available) the immigration of Philippine "professional, technical and kindred workers" into the United States rose from less than one percent of total inflow to a full fifth, and two-fifths of the Asian subtotal. In abso- lute numbers this flow reached 9,000 by 1970; nearly one-third of them were medical personnel, and another third were engineers and technologists. This represented a loss equivalent to half of all the corresponding graduates from Philippine institutions in the same year--and there was also substantial mi- gration to Canada and the U.K. 36. While the costs to development of such flows are evident, the magni- tude of graduate (and other) unemployment has caused government to establish the Overseas Employment Development Board to both systematize and promote the export of Philippine skills. The positive side is seen in remittances of $200 million last year, mostly from the U.S. and U.K., making these remittances the sixth largest source of foreign exchange. But preliminary studies of OEDB operations indicate that most participants are employed skilled and professional workers, rather than the unemployed. And studies elsewhere show that remit- tances are higher from low-skill, temporary migrants rather than from the more highly trained and paid professionals who tend to become expatriates. Further, these studies cast considerable doubt on the social returns to these exports, i.e., what is economically rewarding for the individual is not so for the economy as a whole in most cases. Finally, when this migration occurs on any scale, it delays the structural readjustment of the international economy in terms of moving labor intensive industries from developed to the develop- ing countries, i.e, moving jobs to people rather than people to jobs. All of this suggests the need for a carefully discriminating approach to promot- ing skill exports. - 13 - Mass Media 37. Media coverage, as in many developing countries, is more limited than usually thought. Despite very high literacy levels, the 60 Philippine newspapers and periodicals reach only about a quarter of the adult population. The circulation of other, educational material is but a fraction of this. In the case of telecommunications, Metropolitan Manila has 47 radio and five television stations, while many rural areas have no radio coverage at all, much less television. The isolated valleys and coasts of the 7,100 Philippine islands are barely touched by the educational mass media noted earlier. Given the potential for reaching the 5 million out of school youth, as well as wide- spread quality improvements in both formal and non-formal education in rural areas, this represents a substantial gap in communication technology at present. Bilingual Language Policy 33. The language policy introduced in 1974 aims at promotion of a unifying national language (Pilipino) while maintaining the widespread use of English as a second language. Implementation of the policy (see para. 3) will, however, pose difficulties for a minority of the population (15-20%) in certain sections of the country, particularly Southern Mindanao. In these sections, where little Pilipino is spoken, it will be necessary-to accompany introduction of the bilingual policy with intensive language training in Pilipino, and possibly to lengthen the introductory period beyond the planned eight years. III. THE ROLE OF IBRD Previous and Planned Projects 1/ 39. The first Bank loan for education in the Philippines was extended in October 1964 (Loan 393-PH). The US$6 million helped finance the five year development program of the University of the Philippines College of Agricul- ture. The loan covered half the cost of contracting and equipping 16 build- ings, and of renovating three others. Staff development, improvement of curricula and research activities were also financed by the loan. A project unit was established at Bank request, and a special covenant was included in the loan calling for an effective reorganization of the government's 1/ A number of other donors are active in the field of education/training. Among the more important in recent years are UN assistance to science and statistics teaching (UNDP-US$369,000), science equipment (UNDP-US$278,000), science education (UNICEF-US$1.1 million), Institute of Environmental Plan- ning (UN-US$427,000), National Computer Institute (UN-US$208,000), Seafdec (FAO-US$800,000), science equipment development (UNESCO-US$193,000), manpower development training program of NMYC (ILO-US$2.5 million), population plan- ning (UNFPA-US$3 million), assistance to the Institutes of Technology at Mindanao and Cagayan Valley (WFP-US$800,000). Bilaterally, there is the USAID program for the Bayanikan Barrio Schools (US$1.2 million), Belgian assistance to food science and nutrition (US$1.2 million), the Australian Fellowship program (US$600,000), and German assistance to a variety of fields, e.g., natural sciences, fisheries, medicine, vocational training, etc. - 14 - agricultural services. Implementation was 2 1/2 years slower than antici- pated due to delayed provision of counterpart funds, import restrictions preceding the 1970 peso devaluation, and delayed Bank agreement to changing its disbursement percentage after devaluation. The actual cost of the proj- ect was 12 percent higher than the estimated cost, including contingencies; the main factors responsible were inefficient procurement, high outlays on sites, and underestimates of inflation. But the objectives of the project were largely fulfilled. Quality and content of graduate programs have improved, and UPCA is being used as a model to upgrade strategically located agricultural universities in other parts of the country. (However, the content of bachelor programs remains biased toward theory since practical courses are still optional). Enrollment targets of 2,000 undergraduate and 500 graduate students have been achieved. 40. The second Bank investment in the education sector took the form of a US$12.7 million IDA credit extended in January 1973, (Credit 349-PH). This helped finance development of technical and vocational education, curriculum development, and teacher training. Total project costs were estimated at US$17.7 million and--as a condition for the Credit--government agreed to establish a Special Fund to be replenished monthly at levels equiv- alent to required disbursements. The Credit helped finance a new curriculum coordinating unit, two new and two existing science teaching centers, equip- ment for 13 existing agricultural high schools, two new technical institutes and expansion of another, a new and an existing radio station attached to agricultural colleges, ten new regional manpower training centers, 62 man- years of specialist services and 30 man-years of overseas fellowships. Con- struction has been about a year behind schedule due to delays in the finali- zation of building designs and recruitment of consultants. Procurement of equipment is in phase with construction; all but the technical assistance component is expected to be completed during 1977. Project costs are running about one-third above appraisal estimates. 41. The third education project in the Philippines was a "third-window" loan for US$25 million extended in April 1976, (Loan 1224T-PH). The main purpose of the project was to strengthen the government's capacity for con- tinuous curricula development and textbook production. The project provides technical assistance, equipment and facilities to (a) strengthen the manage- ment functions of the existing Textbook Board; (b) strengthen five centers to develop curricula, write, test and revise texts in the five principal subject areas; (c) establish 14 staff development centers and 34 develop- ment high schools for purposes of testing books and training teachers in their use; and (d) establish a textbook distribution system consisting of one national and 107 provincial and sub-provincial warehouses. In terms of textbook supply, the project will finance the development of 75 new textbook titles and the manufacure and distribution of 27 million textbooks. The project also included financing to develop a management information system in the Department of Education, and to conduct a pre-investment study on the use of educational mass media. - 15 - 42. The Bank approved in March 1977 a fourth education loan of US$25 mil- lion, in a project costing US$45 million, (Loan 1374-PH). The main objective of the project is to increase the supply of well-qualified agricultural man- power, and in the process achieve a better balance in agricultural education among disciplines, regions, and between formal and non-formal education. It will assist (a) staff development at the U.P. College of Forestry, Department of Animal Science and College of Veterinary Medicine; (b) establishment of a strong regional college of agriculture in the Visayas; (c) creation of a national system of in-service training for agricultural extension and other rural development staff;; and (d) experimentation with various means of delivery of farmer training. The project includes provision of construction, furniture, equipment and technical assistance for the University of the Philippines, one regional agricultural college, one national and five regional Rural Development Training Centers, and 6 Farmer Training Centers. It will also provide techni- cal assistance to upgrade staff of the University of the Philippines at Los Banos, the Visayas State College of Agriculture, and strengthen the management capacity of the Rural Development Division of EDPITAF. Future Lending and Sector Work 43. The principal role for Bank lending-to Philippines education/ training is less to supply expansion funding than to support projects which will promote local action to resolve problems, (and to fill gaps within the system). Much of the lending program in the past has been less ambitious. The main concentration of Bank support for the Philippines' education sector has been in essentially traditional fields, viz., agriculture, and secondarily, vocational-technical training for industry; the program as a whole has been highly focused in its vocational orientation, (controversies in the area notwithstanding). Until the third education project there was little support for quality improvement outside the fields mentioned--despite the evident dimensions of the problem. (Loan 1224T-PH supports quality improvement, in the form of curricular and textbook development). Equity has been a minor consideration in geographic terms and still less in socioeconomic ones, and the limited attention to internal efficiency questions is an even greater lacuna. Thus, the proposals which follow reflect some degree of reorientation for the lending program, particularly after 1977. The heaviest concentration, both lending and sector work, relates to questions of quality (followed by equity and efficiency); but virtually all of the proposals are interrelated. In economic sector terms, the main focus is upon rural development. - 16 - Prospective Lending Areas 44. Non-farm vocational training in rural areas. This proposal would complement those above (and the proposed fourth education sector loan) by assisting a relatively neglected area of rural development. It would provide plant (where needed) and equipment for shop training, and would also assist the expansion of LGCD training in local government/small enterprise public and business administration. (See Appendix I, paras. 8-10 and text para. 33. Preparatory work is discussed below under sector studies.) 45. Secondary and tertiary student loans/scholarships. The increased fees (expenditures) necessary to raise quality must be accompanied by reason- ably equal access to funding if equity is to be improved and wastage lowered. This proposal would support these major, intertwined objectives with funds to permit public guarantees of a privately financed loan scheme for able, needy secondary and tertiary students. Any surpluses generated would feed into the scholarship program. Given the poor repayment records elsewhere and predominance of the local currency component, the proposal is complex and difficult. But it lies at the heart of needed reforms. (See Appendix I, para. 12 and text paras. 23-26. Related sector work is discussed below.)- 46. Teacher upgrading. This multi-faceted proposal is aimed at several concrete problems. First, an in-service training program for general teachers, which is needed to promote both higher quality and improved efficiency. This would make use of an expanded system of Regional Staff Development Centers (from 1224T-PH), broadening their functions beyond science teaching and text- book use (to vocational counselling, inter alia). The second component would provide inservice (and pre-service) training to instructors in agricultural and industrial vocational training, the field extension agents and secondary vocational teachers, respectively. In both cases the support would expand previous Bank undertakings: the Rural Development Training Centers would provide preservice training for extension agents, and the RMTC's would offer (limited) in-service and pre-service training to secondary teachers. This component is also expected to offer an extended period of on-the-job training for these teachers. (See paras. 29, 30 and 34). 47. Mass Media. The government is considering extensive use of satel- lite communication and other mass media in formal and non-formal education. A pre-investment study financed by 1224T-PH, and undertaken by the DEC, identified eight project areas in communication technology: (1) quality improvement in teacher education, (2) multi-media support for rural develop- ment, (3) broadcasting and audio-visual development in elementary education, (4) educational innovations for high school age youth, (5) in-school-off-school approaches, (6) adult education, (7) support for cottage, small and medium- scale industry, and (8) establishment of an educational communication service. Several of these could be grouped to form one or more Bank project proposals aimed at widespread quality upgrading and improved coverage, particularly in rural areas. The DEC has already decided in principle to commence work on the first two items. (See Appendix I, paras. 2 and 11, and text para. 37 for detail). - 17 - 48.. Comprehensive secondary vocational facilities. This proposal would complement the vocational teacher training one above, and promote speedier implementation of the comprehensive curriculum at secondary level by provid- ing shops/classrooms and equipment. The brevity of the secondary cycle necessitates that its quality must be as high as possible, and this would be a direct contribution. However, the continuing questions of course con- tent must first be resolved. (This is discussed under sector work below). Curricular revisions now- underway by DEC are expected to be complete by June 1978. (See Appendix I, para. 3, and text, paras. 30 and 31.) 49. Textbooks-seccnd stage.. This constitutes the follow-up to 1224T-PH. A number of texts will have been developed, but not yet printed at the end of the current project, (e.g. English language, social studies) and their reproduction would be the central component of the second project, along with development of textbooks in the practical arts. The need for additional assistance to institution building would also be considered. (See Appendix I, paras. 6, 8 and text para. 23). 50. Agricultural manpower-second stage. This will follow-up the pro- posed fourth education loan. The 6 Farmer Training Centers are in the nature of a pilot project and, if successful, will form an important supplement -to the more traditional (extension) types of non-formal training in the country- side. Government hopes eventually to establish these Centers in all provinces. (See Appendix I, paras. 8, 10, and text para. 34). 51. Fisheries and Marine Training. In order to upgrade and expand fisheries education, research, and extension, government has requested that high priority be given to support for (1) relocation of the U.P. College of Fisheries from Diliman to Iloilo in the Visayas, and (2) the establishment of 12 fisheries high schools in different parts of the country. AID is consid- ering assistance for staff upgrading (US$6.5 million) and equipment (US$3.5 million) in connection with the former, while Bank support is requested for relocating the college and establishing the high schools. A feasibility study by government for the project has recently been completed. This is expected to provide considerably more detail on manpower requirements in the sector (see Appendix 1, para. 9). Depending on the results of other studies, the project may also comprise support for training marine deck and engineering officers at the Philippine Merchant Marine Academy. 52. Public Secondary and/or Tertiary Level Expansion. This proposal would support greater equity by evening out the geographic distribution of public secondary facilities, i.e., by providing more schools in rural areas. - 18 - The number of facilities would be very limited, and support would also be given to enhance mapping capabilities within the system. Tertiary level expansion too would be in support of greater (geographic) equity, but would take the specific form of supporting regional "centers of excellence." Assistance would be given to both facilities and staff development in the areas of science and technology. Specific institutions would be selected at a later date. This proposal might be made contingent upon school finance reforms. (See Appendix I, paras. 3, 5, and text para. 27. Sector work is discussed below.) Sector Work/Studies 53. This section sets out study proposals which are complementary-- and in some cases necessary preliminaries--to lending in the project areas indicated above. In all cases they are aimed at resolving critical problems within the education/training system. Much of the substantive work will be undertaken by local institutions, particularly EDPITAF. The latter's steadily growing competence already permits it to substitute for Bank/ Unesco staff resources in many cases. 54. Non-Farm Skills in Rural Development. Support for development of smallholder agriculture has been a central theme of recent and proposed education sector loans, the last being specifically intended to round out a multipronged Government program which will (eventually) reach down to the individual farm level. These efforts do not, however, appear to have given real attention to non-farm activities, either economic or quasi-civic. A study should review the need for such programs as part of the non-formal training system at the village level. (Consideration will be given to vocational skills such as carpentry, mechanical repairs, simple electrical work, etc. The second, smaller scale, set of activities will comprise such skills as book- keeping for cooperatives, rudimentary civil engineering, public sanitation, etc.). The report will estimate rough orders of magnitude for needed train- ing, and offer a preliminary judgment on whether these can be met through existing institutions/facilities, such as those of DLGCD, a broadened system of rural development academies, or whatever. (Approximately 2-3 man-months). 55. Secondary and Tertiary Quality Control. The quality of education varies widely at both levels. At secondary this is due in part to the uneven support for the public system by local governments, and in part to inadequate controls over the half of total enrollments attending private, profit-making institutions; at tertiary level more than nine-tenths of all enrollments are attending insufficiently supervised, fee-supported private schools. Recent corrective measures include reorganization of DEC's super- vision of private schooling and establishment of a Bureau of Higher Educa- tion, and development of a National College Entrance Examination. However, little has been done to reduce variations in locally supported public high schools, or to ensure quality in the private sector through systematic certi- fication. A study should examine means of increasing further the supervisory - 19 - role of either public or semi-public bodies. The review should consider a mandatory system of regular inspections for both secondary and tertiary schools, with regulation of teacher qualifications, curricula, fees, etc., at secondary level, and minimum standards for accreditation by faculty or by institution for universities. The report would review existing criteria for certification/accreditation, and design a system of data collection to permit continuous monitoring. (Approximately 4-5 man-months.) 56. Secondary and Tertiary Finance. The quality-finance-equity- efficiency nexus in the Philippines runs throughout the above discussion. A study should estimate the recurrent cost implications of improved quality at. secondary and tertia:cy levels, and examine sources of finance for both levels--with maximum reliance upon user fees. (Nonetheless, consideration would be given to supplementary central government finance for public second- ary schools in poorer districts, and to subsidized science and technology facilities to encourage quality upgrading in the absence of full-cost fees). The report should consider the implications of equalizing (increased) fees between public and private secondary schools, estimate the potential need for a scholarship fund at secondary level, and outline a (virtually full-cost) student loan scheme--and its prospective funding--at tertiary level to finance, in. equitable fashion, the increases in user fees there. (Approximately 4 man-months.) 57. Secondary Vocational Teachers. The introduction of comprehensive secondary schools is proceeding at a slow rate, mainly due to inadequate supplies of qualified vocational-technical teachers (and shop facilities). A program is needed which will both upgrade the qualifications of present teachers and increase the flow of new ones. In both cases, the critical component is on-the-job experience in appropriate industries. A study should examine the supply-demand situation for vocational-technical secondary teachers, including reference to the implications of current curricula. It should then design a program, including scheduling, of internship training-- disaggregated by industry/skill groupings--to insure the full qualification of both existing stocks and prospective flows. The recommendations should further specify any attendant facilities required for this training program, and cost all elements of the program. (Approximately 4-6 man-months.) 58. Comprehensive Secondary Curricula. The curricular reforms at secondary level, which are already undergoing serious delays, have some questionable premises with regard to vocational course content. Speci- fically, the traditional-industrial arts proposals might profitably be replaced by a course,in general technology emphasizing conceptual under- standing, basic manipulative skills, etc. A study should review the (largely economic) needs intended to be met by secondary vocational training, and the cost-effectiveness (in terms of facilities and staff) of alternative approaches to creating the requisite skills and attitudes. Specific attention should be given to the staff and facilities implications of possible curricula. (Approximately 4-6 man-months.) - 20 - 59. Accelerated Vocational Training. Financial support was provided under Credit 349-PH (1973) for a series of Regional Manpower Training Centers (RMTCs) to promote "accelerated" production of (generally) semi-skilled workers. The supply-demand balance for skilled and semi-skilled workers re- mains extremely controversial, in addition to which little analytical work has been done on the relative cost-effectiveness of producing such skills in schools as against on the job. (This latter question affects the need for additional training facilities much more heavily than does the rate of growth in demand for given skills). In order to improve the basis for evaluating vocational-technical schooling requirements, rationalize the use of existing facilities, and protect the integrity of Bank funds already committed, a study should examine the economics of in-plant and in-school training for (a) semi-skilled, (b) skilled, and (c) technician level workers in the Philip- pine context. As the review could not be comprehensive, special attention would be given to the modules now taught at the RMTCs, and to those skills required by industries with high growth expectations under the FYDP, e.g., metals and other non-traditional manufactured exports. Consideration should also be given to means for linking in-school training to local industries by means of financial contributions as these would promote continuing feedback on industrial requirements. (Approximately 4-6 man-months.) 60. Internal Efficiency. Wastage is a massive problem for the education and training system, with an estimated two-fifths of total expenditure going for students who repeat one or more times, or who dropout before completing the cycle, or do both. While the main variables which affect dropout rates are thought to be economic, (and are considered elsewhere), relatively little is known about the way in-school factors interact with dropout (and repeater) rates. A study should examine how these rates are affected by the qualifica- tions and motivation of teachers, curricula, the availability of teaching aids, individualized instruction, vocational counselling (and better market information), etc. The effect of automatic promotion on retention rates should also be examined. (Approximately 3 man-months.) Phasing of Activities 61. Pre-investment studies are well advanced for proposed projects in the areas of (1) mass media and (2) fisheries. Components of one or both of these could lead to (appraisal and) lending in FY78. 62. Also in FY78, sector work will begin in several key areas. The most important of these is non-farm vocational training in the countryside, followed by work on secondary comprehensive curricula and (vocational) teacher preparation. Depending upon the results of the work, they could lead to project appraisal in FY79. 63. The repeater loans anticipated for the Philippines education sector in the next few years--textbooks, and agricultural manpower--are expected to be appraised in FY79. - 21 - 64. Insofar as time permits during FY78-79, sector work will also go forward in important areas less certain to lead directly to Bank lending. These are accelerated vocational training, quality control, finance and internal efficiency. There will also be careful monitoring of how the latter interact with equity questions, and the implications for (Bank supported) expansion of public secondary and tertiary enrollments. 65. In terms of resource availabilities, these proposals put severe pressure on both sector work time and upon funds for lending. In the case of lending, the CPP anticipates no new projects in education during FY78 and FY79, and proposes $50 million during FY80 for "mass media" and "textbooks II". Even if part of these funds are spread backward in time, it is clear--even without costing--that the project proposals above would not fit readily into this expenditure frame. APPENDIX I Page 1 1/ Coverage- and Content of the System 1. Pre-school enrollments have been rising at about 10% annually over the past decade, but still account for only 3% of six-year olds; 90% of these enrollments are in private schools. At the elementary education level the enrollment ratio continues to be over 100% due to repeaters, along with underage and overage students. (Some 40% of entering students are overage, and repetition is common in the later elementary grades; estimates of the enrollment ratio vary, but the most recent by the DEC is 107%). The public sector share of enrollments is rather stable at 95%. The curriculum is heavily weighted toward language arts; this accounts for half of the study time in the first two grades, and a third in the remaining four. Pupil- teacher ratios are between 29-34:1 in the public schools, and about 30:1 in private ones. Some 98% of public school teachers are fully certificated, and 78% of these hold four-year bachelor degrees in education; teacher turn- over in the public schools is only 5% annually. The pupil-classroom ratio is about 40:1, and facilities are generally adequate in quality. However, the book-to-pupil ratio approaches 1:10, and more than four-fifths of the books are older than five years. Repetition is common in the later grades, and dropouts are still over 10% annually, though automatic promotion (intro- duced in 1972) is spreading gradually. About four-fifths of completing students have been continuing at secondary level. 2. Outside the formal schooling system, the principal government agencies involved are running 82 separate programs for out-of-school youth. The DEC offered various forms of basic education to 1.1 million in 1974-75; the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources gave training to a quarter of a million (apart from regular agricultural extension activities), and the Department of Agrarian Reform also reached just over a quarter of a million with basic education activities. Radio broadcasting is employed on a wide scale; apart from its use by the DEC for about 50,000 pupils in 1974, there are about 2,000 organized listening groups following non-formal education; the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources broadcasts 6-7,000 programs annually. 3. Secondary school attendance has climbed sharply in recent years (more than 10% annually), and the enrollment ratio for the 13-16 age group reached 62% in 1976. Public schools more than doubled enrollments during 1970-75, raising their share to 45% of total enrollments. In both public and private schools enrollments are evenly split between males and females. 1/ Many of the data used here are extremely weak. Authoritative estimates of something as basic as enrollment ratios, for example, range from 104% to 121% at the elementary level, 46% to 62% at secondary, and 17% to 21% at tertiary. Growth estimates for recent years are unstable, and population estimates by age cohort move equally disconcertingly. Educational expenditure estimates as a share of GNP range from less than 3% to nearly 4%, the difference is about $150 million annually, which is equal to half the DEC budget. APPENDIX I Page 2 Enrollment ratios are only half as high in, say, Western Mindanao as in Southern Tagalog, but reflect urban-rural differences more than regional ones per se. More than 90% of enrollments are in general secondary schools, and about 6% in vocational-technical ones. These curricula are to be merged into a single program of study by 1976/77; there is to be a common four-year program with an elective course in either academic or vocational studies, and a compulsory four-year program in practical arts or vocational subjects; the latter will have survey courses in at least three areas in the first two years, and concentration on a single area during the last two years. (Implementation is proceeding slowly in the absence of sufficient vocational facilities and specialist teachers.) Pupil-teacher ratios are 38:1 in public schools and 34:1 in private ones; about 95% of all teachers are college graduates in education, and two-thirds of all these are women; turnover is negligible. Facilities vary much more than at the elementary level; the book-pupil ratio is only slightly better (1:9), and the majority of books are again over five years old. Wastage is high, with dropouts approximating 12% annually. About three-quarters of those who finally graduate have been continuing their education. The national college entrance examination was given to high school seniors for the first time in 1974; three-quarters of the graduates were permitted to enter bachelor's programs, and the remainder to enter non-degree courses. 4. Non-formal training at this level is moderate, though growing. The Department of Labor programs reached approximately 24,000 in 1975, while the Department of Local Government and Community Development (DLGCD) and Department of Social Welfare, together, gave middle level training to about a third as many. There are no data concerning other on-the-job training, and mass media inputs are imprecisely known. 5. Tertiary level enrollments have also been increasing rapidly--6.7% per annum during 1967-74, (though this is only about half the rate of increase between 1960-67), and graduate enrollments appear to have tripled to around 40,000 during the 1970's. The participation rate for all higher education is now an extraordinarily high 21% of the age cohort, (but this owes something to the abbreviated secondary cycle). Public-private shares have been stable during the past decade, with enrollments in private schools continuing to account for a full nine-tenths of the total. Nonetheless, the public sector alone now has 45 universities and colleges, and 86 technical institutes. Enrollment ratios are well-balanced by sex, (56% female), but in spite of the large number of institutions (659), metropolitan Manila has approximately one-half of all higher education students. (There are no data on the geographic origins of these students.) Almost half of these students are following business administration and commerce courses, 19% are liberal arts and science students, teacher education accounts for 14%, engineering and technology 12%, and 13% are in miscellaneous other courses. The first category has nearly doubled its share in the past decade, the second rose from 12% to 19%, teacher training's share dropped by more than one-half, and the others have been fairly stable. Pupil-teacher ratios (in the late 1960's) were 31:1 in public normal APPENDIX I Page 3 colleges and 16:1 in vocational ones, 14:1 in state colleges and universities, and 33:1 in private schools as a whole. Teaching loads are heavy, averaging around 20 instruction hours weekly. The majority of all teaching staff (63%) hold only bachelor's degrees, 24% have master's degrees, and just: over one in ten has a Ph.D. or other advanced degree. In the best institutions half of the staff hold post-graduate degrees, (though still only about a fifth have advanced degrees), while disadvantaged colleges often have no teaching staff with post-graduate training. A few institutions, particularly in Manila, have good facilities with adequate equipment and books; but the more typical situa- tion is one of paucity, especially as concerns equipment and books. The average cost per student: in private colleges and universities is only half the cost at institutions belonging to the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU), and one-fourth of average costs at the University of the Philippines and a few elite private colleges. The latter have competitive admissions standards and charge fees high enough to finance quality schooling, but the vast majority of private institutions are profit- making enterprises open to any student able to pay a relatively low fee. Only 28 of nearly 600 such schools are accredited by the PAASCU. Wastage typically runs to about one-half of entering students at tertiary level institutions. 6. Vocational-technical enrollments are a distinguishable sub-group at both secondary and tertiary levels (see Annex 8). Some four-fifths of the 88,000 in trade programs are studying at secondary level and--despite the curricular reforms of 1973--their numbers have continued to rise rapidly (11% annually during 1971-75). Pupil-teacher ratios are low (23:1), and teachers are formally qualified; but workshop instructors lack practical experience, and the schools are poorly equipped and housed in old, insuf- ficiently maintained premises. Graduates are expected to become semi- skilled workers, but wastage is high (50-80%), and 40% of those actually graduating go on to higher education; only about a third find employment in the field of their training, and another tenth in different fields. At post-secondary level there are some 8,000 following two-year programs for skilled workers, 500 in three-year programs for technicians, and 3,000 in four-year teacher training programs in trade-technical areas, (in addition to the university enrollments in technology noted earlier). 7. Outside the formal system, there are post-secondary "special opportunity courses" which have 8,000 engaged in 4-24 month training, aimed mainly at upgrading skilled workers. Other non-formal training for industry is offered principally through the National Manpower and Youth Council (NMYC) of the Department: of Labor, and through recognized apprenticeship programs. The former, using existing vocational schools and state colleges for the most part, has been providing 1-3 month courses for about 30,000 trainees annually. About two-thirds of these actually complete the courses, 99% of them at the semi-skilled level. Recognized apprenticeship programs have been graduating about 3,000 annually in recent years; there are no data on other training in private industry, but it is believed substantial as firms are permitted to deduct half the cost of such training from taxable income. APPENDIX I Page 4 8. Specialized training in agriculture is offered in the formal system at all post-elementary levels. Secondary vocational enrolls about 45,000 students in programs with little practical training and limited special facilities; the curriculum is heavily academic, and most graduates pursue further studies. At post-secondary level there are 63 schools giving tech- nician level diploma courses in agriculture, 18 in forestry and another in animal husbandry-altogether enrolling 4,000 students in 1974. Most of these share staff and facilities with the colleges or high schools where they are located. Staff and equipment are deficient, internal efficiency and output low, and the few graduates who do not treat the schools as an alternate entry point to degree programs have poorly defined employment opportunities (see para. 48). Degree-level agricultural and related students increased eightfold in the last decade,.to 31,000 in 1974, (although output less than tripled in the same period). There are now 49 colleges giving degree courses in general agriculture, 18 in forestry, 21 in animal sciences and 4 in veterinary medicine. Student-staff ratios are fairly high (25:1), and less than half of the faculty hold graduate degrees. Repetition rates run to 15-25%, and dropouts from 20-50%, depending upon the institution. 9. In the related field of fisheries there were (in 1975) a total of 70 institutions enrolling some 24,000 students. More than 80% of these are in secondary vocational schools, about 4,600 are diploma students and 1,600 are degree students. Enrollments have been rising rapidly at all three levels in recent years (26% annually). Staff at secondary level lack prac- tical experience, and at post-secondary level only about 15% of them have advanced degrees. Curricula are both out of date and deficient in practical training. Cumulative wastage is high--about 75% at secondary level, and closer to 90% for post-secondary students. Few of those who actually graduate aspire to remain in the fisheries field, except as teachers. 10. Non-formal agricultural and related training is largely in the form of extension, though more recently the Bulacan Farmers Training Center has demonstrated its effectiveness in providing short courses on modern rice technology. Extension workers have high formal qualifications (B.S. in agri- culture), but extension services are fragmented among many agencies, with little coordination. There are apparently 25,000 field extension workers, about 1 to every 400 hectares of cultivated land, or 1 to every 45 farm families. While these ratios are better than in most developing countries, the traditional (itinerant) approach to extension means that training contacts are limited, especially for smallholders. 11. Educationar mass media, in whatever field, mainly take the form of radio broadcasting. The Bureau of Broadcasts (Department of Public Information) operates 9 radio transmitters and produces television programs for a Manila channel. In addition, the National Media Production Center produces audio-visual materials for broadcast over the Voice of the Philip- pines and 11 associated commercial stations. The (former) Educational Media Division of the DEC had been producing 18 school radio program series weekly, APPENDIX I Page 5 but this responsibility has not yet been reassigned. The DLGCD has also been producing radio programs, as has the University of the Philippines. All in all, formal educational broadcasting is undertaken by one television and 23 radio stations, (and includes university-level courses for 2,000 stu- dents), non-formal educational broadcasts are made by more than 200 stations, and it is estimated that about 20% of all broadcast time is alloted to broadly educational subjects. Nonetheless, geographic coverage is limited in rural areas, and government has begun preparatory studies to enable the use of educational radio and television broadcasts on a nationwide scale. 12. Total expenditure, public and private, on all (formal) education and training amounted to 3.2% of GNP in 1975; about two-thirds of this was public expenditure. While nominal public outlays on education have more than doubled in the last decade, (see Annex 4), real expenditure is no higher than it was 10 years ago. Partly in consequence of a 460% rise in the total government budget and partly because of restrictions on teacher salaries, education's share of public recurrent expenditure has been halved to 15%; real outlay per pupil is not more than two-thirds what it was a decade ago. Over 90% of public operating expenditures go for personnel costs. In terms of shares by level, elementary education--though dropping steadily--still accounts for two-thirds of recurrent expenditure, secondary 8% and tertiary 16%. In the private sector these-shares are approximately 17%, 7%, and three-quarters, respectively, i.e., the reverse of public expenditure pat- terns. Primary level schooling is financed almost exclusively by the national government, (though the small private sector charges tuition averaging more than P 400 annually); about half of public secondary costs are covered by local government, and the other half by fees, while fees finance virtually all of private secondary schooling; tertiary level fees in public institutions cover only about a tenth of costs (and the national government provides the remainder), but fees cover nearly all costs for the nine-tenths of tertiary students who attend private institutions. Until recently these institutions were exempted from real estate taxes, and paid a preferential rate of only 10% on profits. However, they must now pay a 30% tax on their non-educational income, and fees are increasingly regulated by the government. APPENDIX II Goals and Objectives 1. The present national development goals of the Philippines are set out in Presidential Decree No. 6-A of 1972, the "Educational Development Decree." These are: (a) an accelerating rate of economic and social progress; (b) maximum participation in the benefits of growth; and (c) strengthened national consciousness and the promotion of desirable cultural values. 2. The education and training system should therefore: (a) provide for a general education that will assist each individual, in the peculiar ecology of his own society, to: (i) attain his potential as a human being; (ii) enhance the range and quality of individual and group participation in the basic functions of society; and (iii) acquire the essential educational foundation for his development into a productive and versatile citizen; (b) train the nation's manpower in the middle-level skills required for national development; (c) develop the high-level professions that will provide leadership for the nation, advance knowledge through research, and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of human life; and (d) respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system of educational planning and evaluation. These are extensively -elaborated for each level of education by various decrees, orders, reports, plans, etc. A partial survey in 1974 listed 243 educational "goals, aims and objectives." The content was roughly categor- ized as follows: one-quarter related to economic development generally, another quarter to human resource development, just under a quarter to social development, and most of the remainder to political stability. However, these goals and objectives have seldom been quantified, and there is no official set of integrated targets for education/training enrollments and outputs. PHILIPPINES BASIC DATA Population (millions) Urban Rural Total 12.8 31.2 44.0 (mid 1976) Annual increase 1970-73: 3.0% Urban rate of increase: Gross National Product in 1974a/ Annual Rate of Growth Millions of Percentage (In percent at constant prices) US Dollars Composition 1960-65 1965-70 1971 1972 1973 1974 GNP at mnrkp nriceA 150 10 5. 5 65 4.3 10.0 5.8 Gross domestic investment 3,630 24.9 12.6 1.6 5.9 -3.5 9.4 23.4 Gross national saving 3,420 23.5 15.0 3.6 13.2 -8.2 49.1 -11.6 Current account balance -210 -1.5 - - - - - - Exports of goods and nonfactor services 3,357 23.1 11.0 4.5 5.0 1.5 18.7 -24.1 Imports of goods and nonfactor services 3,782 27.2 7.3 7.2 5.4 2.7 13.1 20.4 Output, Labor Force and Productivity in 1974 b/ Value Added Labor Force- Millions of Percentage Millions Percentage Value Added Per Worker US Dollars Composition of Workers Composition US Dollars Percent Agriculture 4,187 36.0 7.6 53.9 551 67.0 Industry 3,850 33.2 2.4 17.0 1,604 194.9 Services 3,581 30.8 4.1 29.1 942 114.5 Total/Average 11,618 100.0 14.1 100.0 823 100.0 Note: All conversions to dollars in this table are at the average exchange rate prevailing during the period covered. a/ At current factor cost. b/ Total labor force; unemployed are allocated to sector of their normal occupation. ANNEX 2 PHLIPPINES TOTAL EXPEIDITURE ON EDUCATION BY SOURCE 1973-1975 Recurrent and Caoital Million current pesos 1973 1974 1975 Actual Appropriation Appropriation 1. Natioal Governmentl/ - Elementary Education 1182 1225 1300 * Secondary Education 94 127 163 - Righer Education Department of Education and Culture 14 15 31 State Universities and Colleges 1 199 284 - Other Educational Institclons 5 9 11 - Education Administration 2/ Office of the Secretary Including SESF 11 110 128 Regional Offices - 8 9 - Infrastructure Program 82 49 88 Sub Total 1548 1742 2014 2. Local Governments - Provinces 28 50 46 - Cities 64 127 134 - Municipalities 50 44 Sub Total 142 221 L80 3' 3. Special Education fund (SE) - Provincial School Boards 9 10 14 - City School Boards 41 49 47 Of Which Manila (15) (18) (12) - Municipal School Boards 31 43 44 Sub Tocal 81 102 105 4. Total Public Exoendicures on Education (1+2+3) 1771 2065 2299 5. Private Exoenditures on Education 482 607 696 6. Total Expenditures on Education (4+5) 2253 2672 2995 7. Expenditures on Education as a Prooortion of CNP 3.6 3.2 2.8 Notes: 1/ Kinistry of Education plus expenditures on colleges and universities. .L Special Education Stabilization Fund, that is, the National Government share of the Special Education Fund (SEF). 3/ The Special Education Fund is financed by an additional 1% tax on real property, the basix tax of which is already 1%. Tax collection rests on local governments (cities and.municipalities). The proceeds of the tax are then shared between the various School Boards according to the following formula: - at the cities level, 60% go to the City School Board and 401 to the SESF (National Government) - at the municipal level, 50% go to the Municipal School Boards, 30% to the SESF and 20% are transferred to the provincial School Boards. 4/ Estimates based on the number of students enrolled in private schools multiplied by average tuition fees. 2/Assumes a 17% growth rate over the preceding year (127. inflation and 5% real growth). December, 1975 PHILIPPINES PUBLIC EXPENDITURE FOR EDUCATION BY GOVERNMENT LEVEL 1967-1975 (Obligations) Millions of current pesos Fiscal Years 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975* 1. National Government Expenditures - Total 2531 2943 3611 4054 4429 5588 8189 13541 17296 Recurrent 2210 2474 3056 3328 3758 4837 5901 7915 11620 Capital 321 469 555 726 671 571 2288 5626 5676 - Education 828 941 1080 1162 1271 1440 1638 2019 2620 Recurrent 770 819 939 1066 1205 1360 1451 1855 2272 Capital: DEC 31 43 50 66 39 44 105 115 260 Infrastructure Program 27 79 91 30 27 36 82 49 88 - Education as % of Total 32.7 32.0 29.9 28.7 28.7 25.8 20.0 14.9 15.1 2. Local Government Expenditures - Total 698 756 817 933 1081 1263 1361 1665 1813 Recurrent 570 652 701 808 937 1098 1216 1471 1532 Capital 128 104 116 125 144 165 145 194 281 - Education** - - - 118 125 151 142 a.a. U.a. Recurrent - - - 59 60 70 80 n.a. n.a. Capital - - - 59 65 81 62 n.a. n.a. - Education as % of rotal 12.6 11.6 12.0 10.4 n.a. na.. Source: Budget Commission Report of the Commission on Audit on Local Governments (FY 72 and 73) Department of Finance Estimates (FY 74 and 75) * Department of Finance estimates ** Mission estimates based on official stariatice of local expenditures on education and social welfare. December, 1975 ANNEX 4 PUBLIC EDUCATION OPERATING EXPENDITURES, 1965-1974 Index of Expenditures Total Public at constant prices outlay School (1965 = 100) ExDenditures as Fiscal (In millions Enrollments Total a, Outlay Percentage of Year of pesos) In thousands Outlay Per Punil Budget 19'65/66 656 5,972 100 100 29 1966/67 709 6,396 102 95 28 1967/68 762 6,652 104 94 26 1968/69 878 6,902 114 99 24 1969/70 993 7,421 122 98 24 1970/71 1,108 7,627 118 93 25 1971/72 1,255 8,044 117 87 22 1972/73 1,321 8,449 113 80 17 1973/74 1,496 n.a. 112 75 b 17 1974/75 1,642 n.a. 92 59 b/ 15 a/ Nominal expenditure reduced from current prices to constant orices by GNP deflator. A price index for the goods and services purchased by the educa- tion system would be ideal for this ourpose but of course does not exist. The price of the major item, namely teachers' services, has risen less rapidly than prices in general because teachers' salaries have decreased in real terms. The extent to which real provision of education has been eroded by inflation, therefore, is exaggerated somewhat by the above figures. b/ Assumes enrollment growth at rate observed in previous years. Source: NEDA, Statistical Yearbook 1975, pp 460-468; DEC, Annual Report 1973-7L, p.17. ANNEX 5 UNIT Crs IN PUBLIC INSTITUrIONS FY 1973 (in pesos) I. Ministry of Education Annual Unit Costi/ Elementary Public Education 155 Secondary Publi: Education 358 HiSher Public Eucation 367 Vocational Public Education 407 Agricultural High Schools 735 II. Universities, Colleges and Other Institutions Annual Unit Cost Number Nme of Number Institutions of Direct Overhead Total in Survey Students Teaching Cost Cost Cost Universities University of the Philippines 1 23,000 1,187 393 1,580 Mindanao State University 1 7,373 767 372 1,139 Central Luzon State University 1 1,966 816 323 1,139 University of Eastern Philippines 1 3,033 376 197 573 Central Mindanao University 1 2,157 608 280 888 University of Northern Philippines 1 1,630 368 365 733 Bicol University 1 10,913 400 90 490 Colleges/ Teacher Training Colleges 4 10,618 465 186 651 Agrioultur.l Colleges 5 5,429 474 270 743 Institutes; of Technology 8 18,487 295 118 413 Colleges of Arts and Trade 2 3.654 868 340 1,207 Other Institutions Philippine Merchant Marine Academy 1 311 2,130 1,214 3,344 Philippine Science High School 1 473 3,035 1,257 4,292 Source: Compiled by the Unesco Mission from Budget for the Piscal Year 1974. ,/ Expenditure on central administrition not included. 2/ Weighted averages. ANNEX 6 SCHOOL-AGE POPULATION AND ENROLLMENT, ACTUAL AND PROJECTED, 1965-85 (In thousands) Actual Projected Category 1965 1970 1974 1980 1985 Population by educational level and age group Elementary (7-12) 5,557 6,364 6,795 7,576 8,275 Secondary (13-16) 2,945 3,661 4,113 4,584 5,023 Higher (17-20) 2,412 3,075 n.a. 4,103 4,466 Enrollment, actual and projected Elementary 5,816 6,969 7,257 DEC high projection 10,099 11,252 DEC low projection 8,375 9,013 Mission projection 7,576 8,275 Private enrollments (4%) (5%) (5%) (5%) (6%) Secondary 1,169 1,715 2,169 DEC high projection 3,117 4,050 DEC low projection 2,705 3,246 Mission projection Private enrollments (38%) (40%) (56%) (50%) (45%) Higher 509 638 n.a. DEC high projection 1,238 1,626 DEC low projection 1,137 1,364 Mission projection 861 938 Private enrollments (88%) (89%) (89%) (90%) (90%) Ratio of enrollment actual and projected to relevant age group (in percent) Elementary 105 110 107 DEC high projection 133 129 DEC low projection 110 109 Mission projection 100 100 Secondary 39 47 53 DEC high projection 68 81 DEC low projection 59 65 Mission projection Higher 21 21 n.a. DEC high projection 30 36 DEC low projection 28 31 Mission projection 21 21 Note: Population figures refer-to calendar years. Enrollment figures refer to school year beginning in that calendar year; for example, enrollment figures for school year June 1970 - March 1971 are shown under 1970. Source: IBRD PHILIPPINES ENROLLMENT IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES 1967-1980 (000' s) University Level School Secondary Level University (excluding University Higher Total Year (Vocational) Teacher Training (Teacher Training) Technical Tertiary Public Public Private Public Private Prublic 'Private Public Private Actual 1967-68 83 23 274 22 191 13 66 58 531 1968-69 87 21 331 30 166 8 68 59 565 1969-70 88 20 345 23 167 14 68 57 560 1970-71 94 25 390 24 108 141 70 63 568 1971-72 101 29 427 16 84 23 83 68 594 Projected 197-73 108 31 507 18 98 25 87 74 692 1973-74 118 34 550 20 106 27 94 81 750 1974-75 130 35 581 21 113 29 100 85 794 1975-76 143 38 616 22 119 30 105 90 840 1976-77 157 41 650 23 126 32 112 96 888 1977-78 173 43 689 24 133 34 118 101 940 1978-79 190 45 730 26 Il1 36 125 10? 996 1979-80 210 49 772 27 150 38 133 114 1,055 1980-81 51 819 29 159 40 140 120 1,118 Source: Division of Educational Planning, Department of Education and Culture December, 1975 ANNEX 8 ENROLLMENT IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS SY 1974-1975 No. of Total Program/Curriculum Schools Enrollment % Trade: Teacher Education 2,914 1.80 Technical 7,127 4.39 Secondary (Vocational) 67,154 41.38 Secondary (General) 1,546 0.95 Special/Opportunity 8,388 5.17 Elementary 511 0.31 Sub-total 111 87,640 54.00 Agriculture: Teacher Education 1,357 0.84 Technological 4,668 2.88 Technician 1,478 0.91 Technical 555 0.34 Forest Rangers 152 0.09 Farm Mechanics 24 0.02 Secondary (Vocational) 44,896 27.66 Special/Opportunity 359 0.22 107 53,489 32.96 Fishery: Teacher Education 452 0.28 Technical 2,876 1.77 Secondary (Vocational) 17,824 10.98 Special/Opportunity 15 0.01 62 21,167 13.04 Totals 280 1621296 100.00 Source: EDPITAF, The Philippines, Education Handbook, 1976-77, p.24. ANNEX 9 Adult Literacy Estimates vary between 75-90% Apparent Student Flows, 1965/66 - 1975/76 Grade 1. 100 6 58 Grade 7 41 10 28 Gradell 17 1l 11 Pupil/Teacher Ratios, 1970-71 Public Private Elementary 31:1 30:1 Secondary 38:1 34:1 Higher 19:1 33:1 Qualified Teachers (Public), 1973/74 Elementary 98% Secondary 94% EMPLOYED PERSONS BY OCCUPATION AND HIGHEST GRADE COMPLETED October 1967 Major OccupatIonal Group Highest Grade Profes- Proprie- Clerioal, Farners, Workers Craftemen. Manual Completed ional, tore, Cleic Salewmn Farm in Mines, Factory Worker s r Worker occupations lonal Managers, afc and labourers, Quarries Operators and I ot Total Technioal Administra- a Related Fishermen and and Workers Related in not a tore and a Workers and Related Related in Related lAbourere Workers Transport Reported Workers Officials Worker Workers Occupations Occupations no. I. Educational Level 1965 (in percentage of oooupational group) Elementary 62.3 3.0 51.8 11.5 57.9 71.2 77.8 59.0 60.8 64.9 58.0 67.0 Grade 1 3.1 - 1.9 0.3 2.3 4.3 8.3 1.6 2.4 1.7 1.6 - Grade 2 6.0 0.1 4.0 0.1 3.7 7.5 2.8 5.9 5.8 5.6 3.4 - Grade 3 8.5 - 5.3 0.8 9.7 10.3 11.1 6.3 7.9 8.0 5.0 9.4 Grade 4 14.7 0.1 13.0 1.5 9.8 18.5 16.7 11.6 10.3 12.7 9.4 20.8 Grade 5 9.5 0.4 6.8 1.8 9.8 10.5 33.3 10.2 10.8 9.3 10.2 19.8 Grade 6 or 7 20.5 2.3 21.0 6.9 22.5 20.1 5.6 23.4 23.5 27.7 28.4 17.0 High School 14.8 5.8 25.1 33.3 22.9 8.1 19.4 24.2 28.7 21.2 34.6 20.8 1st Year 3.2 1.4 5.7 2.4 4.6 2.3 - 4.6 6.2 4.4 5.4 6.6 2nd Year 3.1 0.4 3.8 2.6 5.3 2.0 11.1 5.4 6.3 3.8 9.0 3.8 3rd Year 2.0 0.5 3.3 2.5 2.9 1.4 - 3.2 2.6 2.7 4.1 2.8 4th Year 6.5 3.5 12.2 25.8 10.2 2.3 8.3 11.0 13.5 10.4 16.1 7.5 College 8.2 91.0 14.7 54.7 9.2 0.9 2.8 4.1 3.4 5.8 4.1 6.6 let Year 0.8 1.0 1.1 6.9 2.0 0.2 2.8 1.0 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.9 2nd Year 1.7 8.0 2.1 13.4 2.7 0.3 - 1.6 1.1 2.5 1.6 1.9 3rd Year 0.7 3.0 1.8 6.6 1.0 0.1 - 0.6 1.1 0.8 0.1 0.9 4th Year 4.1 64.7 7.5 24.6 2.9 0.2 - 0.8 - 1.2 1.3 2.8 5th Year 0.8 14.3 2.2 3.2 0.6 - - 0.2 - 0.3 0.3 - No Grade Completed 14.7 0.2 8.4 0.5 10.0 19.8 - 12.6 7.1 8.1 3.2 5.7 II. Total (in thousands) Total, 1965 10,101 375 432 352 657 5,677 14 1,270 151 840 272 42 Total, 1970 11,772 668 140 383 799 6.253 34 1,701 264 894 513 125 Sources a Bureau of Cenous and Statistics, Survey of Housoholdo, Bulletin No. 19; 1970 Censue of Population and Housing. o SUMMARY OF PLACEMENT OF PUBLIC VOCATIONA/rECIINICAL EDUCATION GRADUATES 1970/71 Employed In Studying In Training Programme No. of and Graduates Occupations Occupations Allied Other Unemployed Unaccounted Total during for which for which Cjirriculum Level the Year Trained Not Trained Schools Schoola No. No. % No. No. No. % No. 1 1 I. AGRICULTURE 5,286 1,155 40.6 426 11!9 511 14 .3 681 1 91 2U 8.8 194 5 Secondary 4,948 1,289 39.1 408 12.4 492 14.9 6h 20.6 283 8.6 147 4.5 3,2971/ Technical 190 95 65.1 9 6.2 16 11.0 5 3.4 15 10.3 6 4.1 146/ Teacher Education 148 71 49.7 9 6.3 3 2.1 - - 19 13.3 41 28.7 My5 II. FISHERY 1,659 175 14.8 131 11.1 129 11.0 28.5 2.6 25.2 110 %gj 1,176 Secondary 1,579 155 13.6 127 11.1 126 11.1 327 28.7 295 25.9 110 9.7 1,140 Technical 80 20 55.6 4 11.1 3 8.3 8 22.2 1 2.8 - - 36 III. TMADE-TOCHNICAL 10438 . 421 1 1 4 16.9 1,403 2 DI 12.3 467 72 - Secondary 7,069 929 23.0 311 7.7 813 20.1 1,200 29.7 523 13.0 263 6.5 4,039 Special 1,694 376 46.5 62 7.7 52 6.4 68 8.4 110 13.6 140 17.3 808 Technical 1,059 289 41.2 30 4.3 134 19.1 127 18.1 71 10.1 51 7.3 7028/ Teacher Education 616 330 82.3 18 4.5 5 1.3 8 2.0 27 6.7 13 3.2 4012/ Grand Total 17,383 3,554 33.2 978 9.1 1,644 15.4 2,421 22.6 1,344 12.5 771 7.2 10,71207 Source: Bureau of Vocational Education. 1/ Percentage of graduates reported: 66.6 6/ Percentage of graduates reportedt 57.1 2/ i " " 76.8 7/ "f " " 47.7 /" 96.6 8/ " 66.3 / " " " 72.2 / " 65.1 / " "I " 45.0 10/ " 61.6 PHILIPPINES EDUCATiGNAL PYRAM-vim" 197-1 ENROLLMENT IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS PERCENT OF AGE LEVEL GRADES TOTAL GROUP IN SCHOOL GRADUATE 15+ 16,200 21,600 37.800 3 14 52,800 69,800 TERTIARY 13 57.900 70,500 688.100 21 12 78,200 97,300 11 99.800 124.000 I I L~ H I SECONDARY 10 156,000 163.400 9 191.200 202,315 17330 4 .1,723,300 46 8 232.300 227,100 7 289.800 272.400 ELEMENTARY I I 6 399,600 408,400 I , I 6 461,000 454.500 4 534.500 514,700 6.764.500 104 3 604,700 566,100 2 665,900 620,300 1 799,600 735.100 MALE FEMALE I I I l l I I I .1 I i l l 1 1 1 11I 1000 500 0 '1500 1000 ( Mn Thousands I Enrollment includes overaged pupil% World Bank-15403 PHILIPPINES STRUCTURE OF THE FORMAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION AGE 571 8 9 110 11 121 13 14 115 16 17 18 19 201 21 22 23 24 25 Gt I I I Ist 2nd 3rd 4th Ith GRD Year iYear Year Year YearI Yeara Year a Year a Year PRE- LEVEL ELEMENTARY ELEMENTARY SECONDARY TERTIARY GRADUATE PRIMARY INTER- MEOIATPE AGRICULTURE COMMERCE GENERAL Fnx.. HIGH SCHOOLS TEAC*HEA EDUCATION NA TURE I I IEI OF HIGH SCHOOLS LIBERAL ARTS PROGRAM H VCTOL VOCATIONAL ENGINEERING INSTITUTIONS LAW Piot Bafrrlo D.)evelopment A B. PROGRAM LAW PROPER Schools MEDICINE Schools,of Arts .r & T rades, ACCH I I & ~AND Agricultural High AGRfC 'RQGRAM! Schools . :;. ;-: 1 ECt-NICIAN Fisheries High TRAINING World Dank-6438(3R) PHILIPPINES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE ORGANIZATION CHART AS OF JULY 1975 SECRETARY SODPTAF Illi ,,,tl. NATIONAL BOAR UNDESECit0 ARY OF EDUCATION LOANOF TEOARDOOF CHAATERED RellOFESSIONAL OFUND AU HOTY BOARD "HIGHE 1UCATION E COLt EGES AND 80AHOS I INF(litMATION - PLANNING FINANCIAL AMINtSiATIV PUILATION sEitVICE SkIMVCE SICAVICE NATIONAL NATIONAL NA IONAL INS11 ITENIUE O UItEAU OF BIUHCAU OF SUREAU OF MufSEum LIBRARY HISFMICAL O FNAlINAL ANTS ETTERS ELEMENTARY SECONDARY HIGHER INSTIluff LANUAGE EDUCATION EDUCAMON EDUCATION RE-IONAL DIREC101 Of EDUCATION11 ASSISTANT RE(oNAL DIRECOCii ADMINISTRATIVE FINANCE AND ELEMINARY SECNDARY E WIASION SUDGET DIVSION LDI)LAIION EDUCATION DCT1 OlViStON DIVISION OtViSION PROVINCIALICITY SCIiOOL DIVISIONS 1/ The ae o be T, Cgsons. SOURCE. Deatmn ol Educedon and Csuwe. Wold Bank-545IfI