Barbados - Human Resources Project

Document of The World Bank FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Report No. 11319-BAR STAFF APPRAISAL REPORT BARBADOS HUMAN RESOURCES PROJECT JUNE 4, 1993 Country Department III Human Resources Operations Division Latin America and the Caribbean Region This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.  BARBADOS HUMAN RESOURCES PROJECT CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Currency Unit = Barbados Dollar (BDSS) US$1.00 = BDSS2.00 (Appraisal Rate) FISCAL YEAR April 1 - March 31 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AVA - Audio Visual Aids BCC - Barbados Community College BLC - Barbados Language Centre BDSS - Barbados Dollar BIMAP - Barbados Institute of Management and Productivity BSSC - Barbados Secondary School Certificate BSSEE - Barbados Secondary School Entrance Examination BYTS - Barbados Youth Training Service CARICOM - Caribbean Community CXC - Caribbean Examination Council EFL - English as a Foreign Language EPIU - Education Project Implementation Unit ETF - Employment and Training Fund ETTC - Erdiston Teacher Training Colege GOB - Government of Barbados ICB - International Competitive Bidding IDB - Inter-American Development Bank IMF - International Monetary Fund LCB - Local Competitive Bidding MOE - Ministry of Education MOLCAE - Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment MRSU - Manpower Research and Statistics Unit NACE - National Advisory Commission on Education NEB - National Employment Bureau NTB - National Training Board PEP - Public Expenditure Program PPF - Project Preparation Facility SAL - Structural Adjustment Loan SJPP - Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic SOE - Statement of Expenses S/T - StudentlTeacher TA - Technical Assistance TVET - Technical and Vocational Education and Training UWI - University of the West Indies  FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY BARBADOS HUMAN RESOURCES PROJECT Table of Contents Page No. LOAN AND PROJECT SUMMARY ................................. iv I. MACRO AND SECTORAL BACKGROUND ..................... 1 Economic Overview ...................................... 1 Education and Training Sector Overview ......................... 2 II. EDUCATION, TRAdING, AND EMPLOYMENT ................. 3 Key Sector Issues ........................................ 3 Primary and Secondary Education ............................ 3 Technical and Vocational Education and Training .................. 4 Costs and Financing .................................... 6 Employment and Labor Market ............................. 8 Government Strategy ...................................... 9 Bank's Role ........................................... 10 Il. THE PROJECT ........................................ 12 Project Origin .......................................... 12 Project Objectives and Content ................................ 12 General Education Support ................................. 15 Staff Training ...................................... 15 Textbooks/Reference Materials ............................ 16 Learning Resources ................................... 16 School Infrastructure .................................. 17 Institutional Strengthening ............................... 17 Policy Development ................................... 17 Technical and Vocational Education and Training Development ... ...... 18 TVET Instruction .................................... 18 Learning Resources ................................... 18 Curriculum and Program Development ....................... 19 Selective TVET Training Programs ......................... 19 Institutional Reinforcement .............................. 20 Labor Market Support .................................... 20 Employment Services .................................. 20 Labor Market Information System Development ................. 21 Project Administration . ........................... 21 This report is based on findings of an appraisal mission which visited Barbados in June/July 1992. The mission comprised Ms. Miriam Schneidman (Mission Leader), Mr. Bob Freeman (Consultant, Technical Educator), Ms. Bettina Moll-Druecker (Consultant, Educator), and Ms. Irene Xenakis (Consultant, Architect/Implementation Specialist). A post-appraisal mission took place in February 1993 and was comprised of Ms. Miriam Schneidman (Mission Leader), Mr. Bob Freeman (Consultant, Technical Educator), Mr. Michael Gomez (Consultant, Economist), and Ms. Maria-Victoria Lister (Operations Assistant). The peer reviewers for this project were Messrs. Arvil Van Adams (PHREE), Robert McGough (ASTPH), and Dave Fretwell (EMTPH). Jacques van der Gaag and Yoshiaki Abe are respectively the managing Division Chief and Department Director. This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.  - ii - Page No. IV. PROJECT COSTS, FINANCING, AND IMPLEMENTATION. 21 Project Costs ........................................... 21 Project Financing ........................................ 26 Project Procurement, Disbursements, Accounts, Auditing .... ........... 26 Project Management and Implementation .......................... 28 Monitoring, Review and Evaluation ............................. 29 Environmental Impact ..................................... 29 V. BENEFITS AND RISKS ................................... 30 Benefits ............................................ 30 Risks ............................................ 30 VI. AGREEMENTS REACHED AND RECOMMENDATION .... ......... 31 ANNEXES I. Project Cost Tables II. Project Implementation Plan III. Disbursement Schedule IV. Monitoring and Evaluation Indicators V. Civil Works Component VI. Procurement Thresholds and Prior Review Requirements VII. Increasing the Use of Learning Resources Throughout the Educational System VIII. Multi-certification Level TVET Teacher Training Program IX. TVET Policy Coordinating Council/Employment and Training Fund X. Selected Documents Available in Project File XI. Supervision Schedule XII. Structure of the Formal System of Education TABLES 1. Economic Activity Status of Working-Age Population 2. Distribution of Labor Force, by Educational Level 3. Distribution of Labor Force, by Occupational Category 4. Registrations and Placements at the National Employment Bureau, 1989-91 5. Education Recurrent Expenditures, 1991-92 6. Education Expenditures, Total Number of Students, and Unit Costs, 1986-87 to 1991-92 7. Primary and Secondary School Enrollments and Student/Teacher Ratios, 1979-2000 MAP IBRD Number 24710  - 111 - BARBADOS HUMAN RESOURCES PROJECT BASIC DATA Land Area: 430 sq. km. Population: Total Population (1990) 257,000 Density 598 per sq. km. Average Annual Growth (1987-91) 0.4% Literacy 99.3% Academic Year: September to August Enrollment (1992-93) Total Primary Enrollment: 27,858 Of which Male: 14,169 Female: 13,689 As percentage of age group (5-1 1): 98.0 Total Number of Teachers: 1,430 Total Secondary Enrollment: 21,196 Of which Male: 11,272 Female: 9,924 As Percentage of age group (12-16): 95.0 Total Number of Teachers: 1,202 GNP Per Capita (1990) US$6,540 Government Recurrent Expenditures on Education (1990/91): As Percentage of Government Expenditures: 20.0 As Percentage of GDP: 6.0   - Iv - BARBADOS HUMAN RESOURCES PROJECT LOAN AND PROJECT SUtMMARY Borrower: Barbados Beneficiaries: Ministry of Education Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment Ministry of Housing, Lands, Community Development and Culture Ministry of Civil Service Loan Amount: US$7.8 million equivalent Tenrs: 15 years including a five-year grace period, at the standard IBRD interest rate. Project Objectives and Content: The principal objective of the proposed IBRD project would be to strengthen the country's human capital base by expanding the availability of trained manpower. The specific objectives would be: (i) to strengthen the quality and efficiency of basic education, with a view to raising student achievement; (ii) to improve the effectiveness, efficiency and responsiveness of technical and vocational education and training (TVET); and (iii) to reinforce employment services and labor market information. To these ends, the project would include four components. The General Education Support Component (31 percent of total project costs) aims to reinforce the basic education foundation by improving the quality of services and raising internal efficiency. This objective is supported by both this project and a parallel IDB-funded operation. The upgrading of general education would be accomplished through the provision of: staff training; textbooks/reference materials and learning resources; infrastructure upgrading; and reinforcement of MOE institutional and policy development capabilities. Staff training aims to improve the quality of teaching, encourage use of information technology, and strengthen school management. The project would support the expansion of innovative and cost effective instructional strategies such as multi-grade teaching and school-based training. Assistance would also be provided to design, implement, and evaluate the Government's education reform and cost recovery programs. The TVET Development Component (60 percent of total project costs) aims to increase the effectiveness of TVET programs through the provision of key inputs to the learning process (i.e., instructor training, learning materials, curriculum/program improvements and institutional reinforcement) and to raise efficiency through increased sharing of facilities, expanded use of program review/evaluation procedures, and introduction of user fees in post-secondary education. Responsiveness would be improved through the introduction of flexible curricula, enhanced capabilities to evaluate performance and to design/implement new programs, provision of incentives to post-secondary institutions to enter into training contracts with industry, and increased accountability of institutions. A new multi-certification level teacher training  - v - program would be designed and implemented, curriculum development specialists would be trained, and materials, resources and fellowships would be provided, as well as support for selective TVET training programs for unemployed youths and civil servants, and for the establishment of a pilot industry service unit at the Barbados Community College. To reinforce institutional capabilities, support would be provided for the establishment of a TVET Policy Coordinating Council, which would, inter alia, elaborate policies and plans; establish performance targets; design an articulation manual; and advice on resource allocation. This component would also support the establishment of an Employment and Training Fund, under the auspices of the TVET Council, which would finance sub-projects supporting skills upgrading of unemployed workers and expanding in-company training. The Labor Market Support Component (3 percent of total project costs) would provide assistance for computerizing the employment information and placement system and strengthening educational and occupational counselling at the National Employment Bureau, and for increasing the capacity of the Manpower Research and Statistics Unit to analyze and disseminate labor market information. The Project Admninistration Component (6 percent of total project costs) would provide support for strengthening the Education Project Implementation Unit through consultant recruitment, purchase of equipment, and provision of training. Benefits: The principal benefits of the project are the quality, efficiency and equity gains. Reform of the national examinations and certification system would broaden educational opportunities and the design/introduction of cost and financing strategies would allow the Ministry of Education to cope with the challenge of increasing quality in light of growing fiscal pressures. The establishment of a Policy Coordinating Council would enhance policy, planning, and coordinating capabilities in the TVET sub-sector while the creation of an Employment and Training Fund would allow the Government to address the retraining needs of the labor force. Strengthened employment services would contribute to accelerating labor absorption and lowering unemployment benefits. Risks: The project faces the following risks: (i) uncertainty over the medium-term macroeconomic environment, which may adversely affect the availability of counterpart funding and the returns on education and training; (ii) the potential difficulties the Government may face in addressing politically and socially unpopular sector reforms, which may adversely affect various stakeholders; and (iii) the complex and broad scope of the operation. These risks will be mitigated by phasing the project over a 7-year period, seeking assurances on the timeliness of counterpart funding, supporting workshops aimed at generating a broad based consensus for policy reforms, and establishing an appropriate implementation framework.  - 1 - I. MACRO AND SECTORAL BACKGROUND Economic Overview 1.1 Since independence in 1966 Barbados has experienced stable social and political development and sound economic management. With output growing at 3.2 percent and population increasing at 0.5 percent per year, the standard of living has risen steadily during this period and is today among the highest in the Caribbean and Latin America, as reflected in a per capita GNP of US$6,540 and a life expectancy at birth of about 75 years (1990). Illiteracy is virtually nonexistent in this population of 257,000 and the educational level of the labor force is high, with over 70 percent having at least a secondary education level, and about 50 percent employed in white collar work. 1.2 Since the early 1980s, however, Barbados' external competitiveness has gradually weakened. Increases in domestic cost factors, stemming from expansionary demand management policies and inflexible wages, have contributed to a significant exchange rate appreciation. Moreover, distortions in trade and tax policies have promoted the development of an inefficient import-substituting manufacturing sector. As a result, investment in both the public and private sectors has declined, while the high cost of output in the main foreign exchange generating activities (sugar, tourism, and manufacturing exports) has led to declining market shares. By the early 1990s, the country experienced serious internal and external imbalances as the economy fell into a deepening recession, which was exacerbated by weakening economic activity among Barbados' major trading partners and by a sharp drop in tourism. The fiscal deficit and Central Bank lending to the public sector reached unsustainable levels and foreign exchange reserves plummeted to a historical low (i.e. less than 2 weeks at the end of 1990). Real GDP declined by 4 percent annually during the past three years, and the unemployment rate climbed to somewhat less than 25 percent. 1.3 To address these economic difficulties and promote financial stability, the Government of Barbados (GOB) embarked on a 16-month IMF-supported stabilization program in February 1992. The strategy was to adopt tight fiscal, monetary and incomes policies while maintaining the exchange rate parity. More specifically, the program aims to: (i) eliminate the overall fiscal deficit in FY92/93 through revenue generating and expenditure reduction measures (including an 8 percent cut in public sector wages and the release of 3800 workers); (ii) introduce a restrained monetary policy, replacing instruments of direct control with a more market-oriented approach; (iii) adopt an incomes policy, which involves a 2- year public sector wage freeze and recommended wage guidelines for the private sector; and (iv) undertake structural reforms in the tax system, the Tourism Board, the Barbados National Bank, and the sugar industry, as well as the divestment of three public enterprises. Most of the stabilization objectives have been achieved, with significant progress in restoring internal and external balances. Nevertheless, there have been delays in launching some structural reforms, and increased uncertainties over the Government's incomes policies, which could affect the viability of the stabilization program. 1.4 To accelerate economic and social development in Barbados it will be essential to also address the underlying structural deficiencies. Discussions have been underway with the GOB on the details of a possible IBRD/IDB funded structural adjustment loan (SAL), which would aim to restore competitiveness, correct internal and external imbalances, liberalize the trade regime, reform the productive sectors, introduce a transparent incentive system for private investment, remove impediments to labor mobility, and rationalize public sector expenditures, while maintaining adequate levels of social sector spending.  Education and Training Sector Overview 1.5 Barbados has attained universal coverage in primary and secondary education, which has been facilitated by a strong Government commitment to education, a free education policy, and demographic changes leading to a reduction in the school-age population. Use of automatic promotion procedures in basic education' has virtually eliminated repetition. In 1992/93, some 28,000 students were enrolled in primary schools, approximately 21,000 attended secondary schools and about 6,650 were enrolled in post- secondary institutions, representing net enrollment rates of 98, 95, and 20 percent at the primary, secondary, and post-secondary levels, which are comparable to rates in the most developed countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. The allocation of enrollments in post-secondary institutions in 1992/93 was as follows: University of West Indies (UWI): 2,408; Barbados Community College (BCC): 2,352; Erdiston College: 168; and Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic (SJPP): 1,723. 1.6 Formal technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is provided at two institutions under the Ministry of Education (MOE). BCC provides post-secondary technician-level education and training in such areas as commerce, health sciences, hospitality studies, and foreign languages. The Barbados Language Center at BCC provides foreign language training, mainly to the tourism and business sectors, and an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) program to regional participants. SJPP offers vocational and craft level trades programs to lower and upper secondary school graduates in such disciplines as automechanics, electronics, and plumbing. At the secondary level, courses are provided in home economics, business education, industrial arts, and arts & crafts. 1.7 Non-formal technical/vocational training is provided by a number of other ministries and by the private sector. For youths who have limited access to formal education, the National Training Board (NTB, Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment) provides short-term basic vocational skills training, reaching some 500 students annually, and administers an apprenticeship training scheme, in collaboration with the private sector, for another 150 apprentices annually, while the Barbados Youth Training Service (Ministry of Housing, Lands, Community Development and Culture) recruits and trains about 100 unemployed youths annually in vocational trades, arts and crafts, and farming. The Training Administration Division of the Civil Service Ministry enrolls approximately 425 civil servants in about 30 management and administration courses annually. Private training is rather limited, focusing mainly on the service sectors, with a small number of private agencies providing courses for adults. The Academy of Commerce and Technical Studies, Barbados Workers' Union Labour College and Barbados Institute of Management and Productivity (BIMAP) provide courses in a wide range of subjects such as bookkeeping, word processing, computer programming, occupational health and safety, and customer relations. Other training programs are carried out by trade, employer and professional associations. For example, the Barbados Employers Confederation has a program of short training courses and seminars in business and management; the Barbados Hotel Association provides courses covering the range from management to skills upgrading for its members. Some of the larger corporations carry out their own in-service training but the majority of firms rely on the public institutions for trained manpower since they lack the economies of scale and in-house capabilities. 1.8 Teacher training is provided at Erdiston Teacher Training College, which caters to primary and secondary school instructors; at the BCC, which collaborates in training industrial arts teachers; and at 1Basic education is used interchangeably for primary and secondary education.  - 3 - the UWI, which provides graduate level courses for school managers and certifies university graduates to become secondary school teachers. The MOE also sponsors courses and workshops for teachers. In contrast to basic education, training programs for technical and vocational education teachers are limited in number and scope. Erdiston College, in collaboration with the BCC and the SJPP, provides a secondary school teacher certification program, which graduates some 16 industrial arts teachers every two years; and the NTB offers a 1-week course for its own demonstrators. No other courses are available for BCC and SJPP technical educators. II. EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT Key Sector Issues 2.1 Primrary and Secondary Education In spite of the impressive coverage achievements of the post-independence era, the education and training system still suffers from problems of quality and efficiency. This section deals with qualitative deficiencies and disparities while the costs and financing section below addresses the efficiency issues. Key factors contributing to poor quality include: weaknesses in instruction, lack of textbooks and instructional materials/technologies, inadequacies in infrastructure, institutional weaknesses and deficiencies in the examinations and certification system. Primary and secondary school staff are not sufficiently trained to diagnose and address learning deficiencies and to effectively promote innovative instructional strategies (i.e., multi-grade teaching, school-based training). This situation is exacerbated by the absence of textbooks (particularly in primary education) and of innovative instructional materials and technologies, which prevent teachers from using creative teaching and learning strategies. There is a shortage of school-based library resources, with most primary schools relying on the services of two mobile library vans operated by the National Library and on assistance from the Audio Visual Aids (AVA) Department at the MOE. The services of the National Library are hindered by inadequate accommodations, limited materials and resources, and lack of computerization. There is a need to establish school-based libraries, which have been shown to play an important contributing role in raising student achievement and enhancing the returns on other investments, such as teacher training2. While considerable progress has been made in infrastructure upgrading during the last decade some children still attend school in facilities of substandard quality. The quality of instruction is particularly poor in small, poorly staffed and dilapidated rural primary schools, and in 'composite' schools (facilities used mainly by primary school students, but which also accommodate low scoring secondary students). With respect to institutional capabilities, a number of key areas (i.e., education planning, financial management, testing and measurement) remain weak due in part to shortages of trained staff at the MOE. The absence of a strong MOE planning unit has resulted in a failure to predict the decline in school enrollments during the last decade, which resulted in the overtraining of teachers. 2.2 There is a growing recognition among education authorities in Barbados that the current examinations system has adverse effects on the curriculum and instruction, and ultimately on the quality of education, and on learning achievement. The education and training system relies on two examinations, (which determine future educational options of students) rather than a series of continuous assessment diagnostic tests. The Barbados Secondary School Entrance Examination (BSSEE or ' 11 plus 2See Fuler, Raising School Oualitv in Developing Countries: What Investments Boost Learnini?, World Bank, PHREE, 1985; and Mahar, M.E., The Teaching-Learning Role of Media Centers/Libraries World Bank, 1982.  - 4 - exam'), and the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) school graduation examination open up opportunities for the 'high fliers' and close doors for most other students. The BSSEE is still used mainly as a selection mechanism for allocating secondary school places, even though capacity is now considered adequate. At the primary level, the exam tends to restrict the curriculum in the upper classes to subjects tested on the exam, and to lead to a disproportionate attention devoted to students likely to do well, to the detriment of the less able students. At the secondary level, the BSSEE has a demotivating effect on schools receiving a high proportion of students with low marks, reinforces the public perception of a pecking order of schools, and results in a substantial amount of remediation, particularly since only 50 percent of the children perform well on the exam. Moreover, the selection at the age of eleven does not take into account that children develop at different rates nor make any provision for the 'late bloomers'. A related concern is the mechanism for transfer to secondary schools, that is based on student scores and preference, and results in heavy commuting, which is reflected in high transportation subsidies. Additional issues include the relatively low achievement rates and the limited certification of secondary school graduates. It is estimated that more than half of secondary students fail the CXC secondary school graduation exam. During 1984-89, academic achievement levels deteriorated, with the success rate on the CXC English exam dropping from 62 to 40 percent, while that for mathematics declined from 52 to 42 percent. The Barbados Secondary School Certificate (BSSC), which is used as an alternative to the CXC, has declined in use and is generally regarded as outdated and inappropriate.3 The education system produces a small, highly educated elite, while many young people leave school with no recognized qualifications and poor functional skills for coping with the labor market, which contributes to the disproportionately high percentage of unemployed youth4. 2.3 Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVEI) The issues facing post-secondary TVET programs are similar to those at the primary and secondary levels but even more acute since there tends to be a strong focus on academic training. The salient issues can be summarized as follows. First, the generally poor quali4y of most TVET programs, which is related to weaknesses in TVET instruction; lack of access to instructional materials; and curriculum deficiencies. Weaknesses in TVET instruction are attributable to the absence of teacher training programs beyond the basic level, with the exception of those for secondary school teachers, and to the lack of an appraisal/feedback system. An additional issue affecting the quality of instruction is the lack of pay equity, which hinders the recruitment of the most qualified individuals. A study was recently carried out with Project Preparation Facility (PPF) funding to review the qualifications and requirements of tutors, instructors, and demonstrators, with a view to ensuring equity within and across institutions, especially as it pertains to recognition of relevant industry and business experience. The study has documented a series of anomalies which need to be rectified in order to ensure pay equity.' The consultant report has been reviewed by both the Ministries of Education and Civil Service, and an agreement has been reached on the need to implement the majority of the recommendations. Technical/vocational programs are also poorly endowed with up-to-date instructional materials and technologies and library resources. Libraries at the post-secondary institutions, such as the BCC, suffer from chronic shortages of reference materials and resources on technical and 3William B. Dockrell, Report on Educational Testing and Measurement, May 1988. 40ut of a total of some 24,000 unemployed during the last quarter of 1991, about 10,000 were under the age of 25. Barbados Statistical Service, 'Monthly Digest of Statistics", No. 34, December 1991. 5Review and Assessment of Salaries and Conditions of Service of Technical/Vocational Teachers, December 1992.  vocational education which are essential for teacher training, while the SJPP suffers from a scarcity of audio-visual equipment and instructional supplies which hinders teacher training. Vocational teacher education reform around the world has recognized the importance of expanding both the teachers' technical knowledge base and their pedagogic skills.6 Curriculum deficiencies stem from the absence of staff training, inappropriate accreditation standards, and lack of rigorous program review procedures. Only a limited number of TVET educators are trained in specialized areas such as curriculum development, which implies that a number of TVET programs are not designed to reflect local needs (e.g. some SJPP programs use the London-based City and Guilds to certify graduates). Program advisory committees are not used systematically, resulting in the provision of courses which do not always respond to private sector needs. As Barbados begins to move through a period of economic restructuring TVET post-secondary institutions will have to react expediently, by better catering to the needs of the private sector, underscoring the importance of effective use of program advisory committees. 2.4 Second, weaknesses in targeted training programs for which demand is increasing. It is expected that many traditional jobs will be replaced with new types of work during the economic restructuring, which implies that special training initiatives will be needed to help target groups (e.g., youths, civil servants). For exanple, the Barbados Youth Training Service (BYTS) is a relatively young program which suffers from underfunding, and is therefore able to accommodate only a small fraction of the applications received. Likewise, the Training Administration Division of the Civil Service Ministry will increasingly need to provide skills upgrading courses to civil servants to deal with changing needs. The Training Administration Division has experienced a growing demand for its services, which are being delivered in an effective and cost efficient manner. To permit the organization to increase its capacity an expansion of physical accommodations will be required. Economic restructuring will also imply that post-secondary institutions will need to respond expeditiously to private sector needs. The Barbados Community College has already taken a lead in organizing courses (i.e., computer sciences, food safety, English as a Foreign Language) on a cost recovery basis. In order to assist the BCC to provide such services more systematically and on a broader scale, there is a need to strengthen these services and to establish an industry services unit, which would facilitate the contracting of courses for the private sector. 2.5 Third, inadequate institutional capabUilies in the areas of planning and coordinating of TVET programs. The National Training Board, a tripartite statutory body, has the legislative mandate which provides for high-level strategic planning and coordination of TVET7, but its activities have been focused on the provision of basic skills training programs. The absence of a strong institutional framework has led to lack of a national training plan, some duplication in courses and programs at post-secondary institutions; and little follow-up of graduates to determine their subsequent employment experience or to evaluate the course content in relation to job needs. Weak managerial and administrative capabilities at some post-secondary institutions (i.e., SJPP) is another factor hindering the effectiveness of TVET 6This phenomenon of 'dual information explosion' has been recognized by Shulman, the Carnegie Forum, and the Holmes Group as an important emphasis for vocational teacher education reform in North America; see Shulman, L.S. (1987), Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform, Harvard Educational Review, 57 (1); Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy (1986), A nation prepared: Teachers for the 21st century, New York: Carnegie Corporation; and Holmes Group, Inc. (1984), Tomorrow's Teachers: A report of the Holmes Group, East Lansing, MI: Author. 7The Occupational Training Act of 1979, which establishod the NTB, stipulated that the organization would 'take such measures as it considers necessary to ensure an adequate supply of trained manpower in occupations in all branches of economic activity in Barbados'.  programs. The management of post-secondary institutions need to be provided with more autonomy and responsibility in the use of their resources and made more accountable in attaining performance and outcome targets. Finally, no efforts have been undertaken to rectify the generally poor public image of technical/vocational careers, which represents a constraint to attracting competent candidates. As in many other countries, most parents would prefer their children to enter white-collar professions or jobs which require university training. A promotional campaign is needed to inform the public and educational authorities about the importance and economic benefits of technical/vocational careers and to encourage parents and students to seriously consider the TVET option at the post-secondary level. Cognizant of these deficiencies, the Government has recently agreed to limit the activities of the NTB to basic skills training and to establish a high-level Policy Coordinating Council, under the Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment, to oversee the planning and coordination of TVET programs. Effective coordination will be essential during this period of fiscal austerity, to ensure that scarce resources are used in a cost effective manner and that priority programs are sustained while low priority activities are discontinued. The Government has also decided to set up an Employment and Training Fund (ETF) under the Council, to support skills upgrading of the labor force, and to foster a larger private sector role in the provision and financing of training. 2.6 Costs and Financing Historically a substantial share of national resources has been devoted to education and training, particularly as education is free at all levels. During the past decade public expenditures on education and training (MOE only) averaged about 20 percent of the Government's recurrent budget, or roughly 6 percent of GDP, placing Barbados towards the upper end of the spectrum in terms of educational outlays in the Caribbean, and in the developing world. Since the recent economic downturn, however, the MOE recurrent budget dipped to about 16 percent of the total Government recurrent budget (1991-92), which resulted in reductions in primary and secondary education teachers, the school lunch program, student transportation, and University transfers. Of particular concern are the meager resource allocations for supplies/instructional materials and maintenance of school buildings8. Authorities recognize that it will be increasingly difficult to sustain the past level of financial commitment, which emphasizes the need to strengthen financial planning, improve the efficiency of resource utilization and expand cost recovery. During the last decade weaknesses in educational and financial planning have resulted in an excess recruitment of teachers without consideration for cost containment. In addition to reinforcing educational planning, there is a need to prepare a five-year education public expenditure program, which is consistent with the Government's education strategy and budgetary constraints and includes clear targets on internal efficiency indicators and cost recovery. 2.7 Standard indicators of internal efficiency (i.e., student/teacher ratios) suggest that there is considerable scope for improving resource utilization. Student/teacher (S/T) ratios have been historically low in Barbados in comparison to international standards, though average for the Caribbean.9 At the 8A recent MOE inventory of the physical condition of all primary schools revealed that about 40 percent of the facilities need major repairs and/or replacement. 9the Study on 'Access, Quality and Efficiency in Caribbean Education" (World Bank, April 27, 1992) indicated that S/T ratios at the primary level stand at 29:1 and 30:1 in lower middle-income and higher middle-inoome countries, respectively; at the secondary level, the median ratio for a group of middle-income African countries was 30:1, in contrast to a ratio of 17:1 for the Commonwealth Caribbean countries.  primary level, the problem is compounded by the existence of a large number of small schools, while in secondary education the key issue is the wide range of subject options provided, particularly in the technical/vocational programs. The recent British Council report "Efficiency and Effectiveness in Technical and Vocational Education" estimated that vocational courses in secondary schools are at least 20 percent more expensive to provide than academic courses due to the low class sizes and excessively high unit costs.'