Afghanistan - Education Project

caX-6~ RESTRICTED FREEi COPY Report No. TO-436b This report was prepared for use within the Bank and its affiliated organizations. They do not accept responsibility for its accuracy or completeness. The report may not be published nor may it be quoted as representing their views. INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION APPRAISAL OF AN EDUCATION PROJECT IN AFGHANISTAN October 30, 1964 Department of Technical Operations  CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Official Basic Rate - Afs. 45 = $1. 00 Afs. 1 = $0. 022 Afs. 1 million = $22, 200 Afs. 1 billion = $22. 2 million SCHOOL YEAR 1962 Total Enrolment in all Schools 265, 000 % of Population Attending School 3-3. 5 % of GNP Devoted to Education 1 % of Public Sector Expenditures Devoted to Education 6 F3ISCAL YEAR Ma:rch 21 to March 20  APPRAISAL OF Alq EDUCATION ? EOJZCT IN AFGHkAISTAN1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. SUi'ARY (i) I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. SOCIAL MN\TD ECONOEC BACKG:ROUND The Society 2 The Econony 3 III. THE EDUJCATIONAL SYSTEA Background 4 The Structure of the Educational System 4 Organization and Administration 6 Educational Plans 6 Primary Education 8 Teacher Training 9 Secondary Education 10 Technical and Vocational Education 11 Agricultural Education 12 Higher Education 13 Adult Education and Training 1 School Construction 14 Financing 15 IV. THE PROJECT 19 Manpower Considerations 20 Location of the Schools 22 School Center at Kabul 23 School Center at Xwnduz 24 School Center at Herat 25 Design and Building Economy 26 Costs and Financing 27 V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOIMENDATIONiS 28 GLOSSARY 30  AIMUEXES A. Charts 1. Summary Flow Diagram - Educational System 2. Educational Pyramid 3. Organization of the Ministry of Education B. Tables Table 1 - Enrollment of Pupils in all Schools of Afghanistan - Years 1950/51 - 1961/62 Table 2 - Actual Expenditures on Education during tne First Five-Year Plan 1756-61 Table 3 - Actual and Projected Expenditures on. Education during the Second Five-Year Plan 1962-67 Table 4 - Financing of Plan Expenditures 1957/58 to 1963/64 Table 5(A) - Costs of' the Project (B) - Equipment, Specialists and Training  APPRAISAL OF AN EDUCATION PP.OJECT IY AFGHANISTAN SUNARY (i3 In March 1962 the Royal Government of Afghanistan requested an IDA credit for educational development. An IDA education mission visited Afghanistan during September-October 1962; it concluded that education was a field justifying high priority consideration for IDA financing but that further project preparation was necessary. After agreement was reached with the Government on the scope of such a project, a second mission visited Afghanistan in rlarch-April 1964 to prepare and aDpralse the project. (ii) Afghaniztan is faced with critical shortages in qualified man- powser needed for economic and social development. Progress in recent years shows the interest of the RGA in education and also indicates the growth capability of the educational system, but Afghanistan still lacks a strong educational system upon which to base an effective program for human resource development. Primary education enrolment is about one-tenth of the corresponding school age population and wastage is very high, especially in the rural schools. (iii) The screening of entrants to secondary education is not severe enough, but the consequent increase in middle school pupils is stil-L inade- quate to ensure a balanced expansion of the educational program inc-Luding adequate trainees for the teacher training programs. The question is crucial also for higher education, entrance requirements for which are insufficiently selective, and result in lowering academic starndards and depriving the labor market of essential middle-leve1 skills. Present indications are that the secondary schools will not produce enough quali- fied entrants for the UJniversity and the proposed Polytechnic Institute to achieve the objectives of the current plan. 0 (iv) Inadequacy, both quantitative and qualitative, of primary educa- tion is thus found to constitute a real bottleneck in the developmernt of education and the Government with assistance from UNESCO and UNICEF is establishing a teacher training acadeny in Kabul to ivc prc- and in- service training to instructors of teacher training schools as iwell as immediate teacher training. The Academy will help to raise the profes- sional standard of teachers throughout Afghanistan. A new teacher training school to be established in the northern province of Kunduz will supplement this effort. (r) From the standpoint of immediate manpower needs, the Afgham economy is marked by the absence of opportunities for apprenticeship train- ing in trades utilizing modern techno'ogical processes. The RGA, with aid from the German Government, has established three mechanical schools, wihich have given good results but are not adequate to meet the needs. Two more mechanical schools are to be established in the north (Nunduz) and wTest (Herat), and new facilities are to be built to house the Technical Teacher Training School o2 Iabul which trains teachers for the mechanical schools. (i)  (ii ) (vi) Agriculture is of basic importance in the Afghan economy and its modernization will require large numbers of trained technicians. The University of Kabul has an agriculture faculty and the 1.inistry of Education operates an agricultural school in Kabul and one in Baghlan, the latter as a section of a general secondary school. Additional facilities are urgently needed, and will involve new premises in Kunduz for the transfer of the Baghlan Agricultural School and the establishment of a new school in Herat. (vii) IDA financing is requested for the construction of the seven schools referred to above. Procurement of equipment and recruitment of expatriate staff, together with overseas training of counterpart Afghan personnel for certain of the schools are included in the cost of the project, to be shared by RGaA and IDA; the equipment and staffing needs of the other schools wTill be met from the multilateral and bilateral aid sources mentioned above. (viii) The proposed schools wiill meet critical needs in the educational system and in the preparation of qualified manpower. The proposed locations of the schools, thle curricula, the staffing arrangements and teaching methods envisaged offer reasonable assurance of achieving the objectives sought by the schools. (ix) The project will add to the responsibilities of the Education Idnistry services already strained by the expanding educational program. However, it is expected that the Idnistry will be able efficiently to implement the project with the help of a team of Unesco experts recently assigned to the 2-anistry, who cover all the educational fields involved in the project, and through provisions made in the project for strengthening the architectural and engineering services of the lYinistry of Education. The latter will help the Ministry to achieve economy, *while maintaining acceptable standards in the construction of the schools. (x) The project costs to be shnared by RGA and IDA are estimated at the equivalent of %$4.67 million. The proposed IDA credit oL $3.5 mi:Llion would cover 75% of this amount. In addition, staffing and equipment costs estimated at rouglily $2.7 million are to be met by WIESCO/UNICEF and the Government of Germany.  APPRAISAL OF AN EDUCATION PROJECT IN AFGHANISTAN I. INIRODUCTION 1. At the invitation of the Royal Government of Afghanistan (RGA), an IDA education mission visited Afghanistan during Harch-April 1961 to prepare and appraise an education project, upon which IDA and the RGA had * agreed in principle and which had also been the object of an IDA education mission in September-October 1962. 2. In agreement with Unesco and within the terms of the Bank/Unesco cooperative program, members of the Unesco Resident PiTission in Afghanistan joined the IDA mission and participated actively in every phase of project preparati on. 3. The report is based on a number of studies made of the Afghan educational system, including two that were produced by Unesco,,i/as well as on information provided by the Government, ar.d finall", upon the findings of the IDA project preparation and appraisal mission. 4. The present report analyzes the general situation and prospects of education ana traini.ng in Afghanistan within the fraa.ework of the coun- try's gene:-al cl ment. It cites major proble_s 4ai thne G4ve:z.,ent will have to tcl.; i4 the proposed project is tc succesd, an- czrclades that the project submitted by the RGA is suitable for TIA firi..tn inirg.. 5. The prcecot aiems to increase Afgh^anistanls cauacity for training teachers and teaclier eduLators, staff for mechanical schf.uols, industrial technicians a:id agricultur-ists. Under the proposed credilt, RGA and IDA would share the costs of bu-ldings, equipment anid personmel reqLfoired. for the folloi.winr schools- one academy for tralrdn.g teac.her e1I.lu ,:tors and one tech'nical teccher sosol a singl.e site in Kab33l; on agricul- tural school, an elect o-ohanical school ard a ttra.r t-ra.:ing school on a single site in Zunduv:; and an agricultural school anln'` an elecbro-,mechanical school on a single site in Herat (see map). The above costs are estimated to total the equivalent of $4.67 million, of wqhici the proposed IDA credit of $3.5 million would cover 75%. (The foreign exchange compolnent of' the project is estimated to amount to 47%.) In addition, equipmeent and personnel required by five of the above schools and of a total cost of approximately $2.7 million are to be provided by multilateral and bilateral aid programs. 1/ "A Survey of Education within the Framework of Social and Economic Development in Afghanistan," by G. F. Sleight, A. T. Peacock, T. Ramos Saco, L. Ravet, G. Trautmann, February 1962. "tong-Term Projections for Education in Afghanistan," Preliminary Draft--Unesco Regional Advisory Team for Educational Planning in. Asia, Bangkok, April 196h.  -2- II. SOCIATL AND ECONT4IC BACXMGROUND / The Society 6. Afghanistan as a nation was forged in the mid-eighteenth century from a variety of ethnic groups and feuding tribes. In 1931 it became a constitutional monarchy with extensive powers vested in the King. In 1963, the King named for the first time a commoner-a career civil servant-as Prime Minister, giving Afghanistan for the first time a government not headed by members of the royal family. This, with a revision of the con- stitution presently under consideration, may presage further strengthening of representative institutions. The new government appears to be giving greater impetus both to economic development and to social reform. 7. Afghanistan is a traditional Islamic society in which social and political change is beginning to accelerate. The power of the feudal land- lords and religious leaders was broken by the Kabul government during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The present regime is sup- ported by leaders of the Pushtun tribes, ranking army officers, principal government officials and provincial governors. A smiall "intellectual" group consisting of Afghans educated abroad over the last thirty years and graduates of Kabul University, has been one of the spearheads in the recent process of change. An indicator of the far-reaching changes taking place is the gradual emergence of women as a social force, although this process is still only in its early stages. 8. Nevertheless, Afghan society is still based for the most part on agricultural and pastoral traditions. Many parts of the country are transi- tional between nomadism or semi-nomadic agriculture and animal husbandry, and a settled agricultural way of life. Family tradition and cohesion are still at the core of Afghan life, while tribal and ethnic loyalties are weakening. Loyalty to the nation has developed more rapidly in the four decades since independence. 9. As is usual in a subsistence economy, the population corprises a large number and variety of self-contained small groups and semi- independent communities. Internal unity has been made difficult by the topography 2nd by the heterogeneous and partly nomadic population. The government is the one po-werful centralizing and organizing force. 10. Ethnically, Afghanistants population is very mixed and related to the peoples across its international borders. The Pushtuns are pre- dominant, representing perhaps over half of the total. The second 'Largest group is of Persian origin, perhaps one-third of the population. Other significant groups are the Tajiks, Uzbeks, Hazaras and Turkomans. Two major languages are spoken: Farsi (Persian) and Pushtu. v A corprehensive review of the countryts economy and of its deve:Lopment plans is found in the Bankts "Development Prospects of Afghanistan," AS-95a, February 18, 1963.  -3- The Economy 11. There is scant information on the Afghan economy. Statistical data are often unreliable. No population census has been conductecd. The official population figure is 13.2 million, including about 2 million nomads. The actual population is probably smaller; the Bank's economic mission assumed population approximating 8 million. 12. Afghanistan is a land-locked country covering 245,000 square miles, lying astride the Hindu-Kush range. This mountainous core isolates the rich northern provinces from the rest of the country. The flat portions of the northern districts bordering on the Amu Darya (Oxus) River are an imortant source of livestock and of grains for domestic consumption. The central portion of the country is dotted with fertile valleys. The southwestern part is arid desert. The climate is dry; annual precipitation may average 300 mm. Most of the large rivers originate in the Hindu-Kush range. The majority of the settled population lives in the irrigated valleys. 13. Perhaps 80% of the population depends on agriculture and live- stock. Farms are usually small and agricultural techniques primitive. Roughly two-thirds of the land is cultivated by its owners and the re- mainder by tenants. Absentee ownership is minor and large holdings are not as significant as in some other countries of the region. 14. Transportation is a major problem in this mountainous country. No railroad exists. Some 500 kms. of roads are paved and work is in pro- cess on about 2,000 kms. Air transportation is being developed, but the traditional caravan of the nomads still meets much of the transport needs. 15. The modern industrial sector employs relatively few people. Some 14,000 employees work in less than 50 industrial establishments employing twenty persons or more. The major industrial centers are: (a) Kabul/Parwan, (b) Pul-e-Khumri/Baghlan/Kunduz, and (c) Kandahar. The traditional handicrafts have not yet begun to evolve into small in- dustries. Mletal workers, carpenters, blacksmiths, carpetmakers, tanners, weavers and shoemakers practise only traditional skills. In Kabul alone, there exist at least two or three thousand establishments where a wide variety of consumer products is manufactured. Most, if not all, of these enterprises use no power and, while many of the workers exhibit very high skills, no modern techniques are employed. 16. Because of its limited resources, Afghanistan is heavily dependent upon external assistance in carrying out the ambitious develop- ment plans inaugurated in 1956. Imports increased two and one-half times-to a level of $116 million-between 1956/57 and 1962/63, coinciding with the implementation of the development program and increased external assistance. Exports, on the other hand, have remained stagnant during the same period, fluctuating between about US$50 and 60 million per year.  -4- 17. The scarcity of qualified manpower is probably one of the most serious obstacles to econoric development. This acute shortage affects five priority areas: (a) modernization of agricultural production; (b) processing and marketing of export commodities; (c) industrialization, both large industries and the transformation of handicrafts into modern small industries; (d) modernization of the government administration; (e) expansion and improvement of education. III. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM Background 18. In the Middle Ages, Afghanistan was an important center of learning. Cities like Balkh, Herat, Fara and Ghazni produced men of learning whose names are immortalized in Moslem history. Hui,ever, after the Mongol invasion these cities fell into ruin and from that period ornrard, education in Afghanistan declined, and almost disappeared except for what was taught in the mosques, where mullahs (religious teachers) offered little beyond reading and recitation of the Koran. 19. Modern education began in Afghanistan at about the beginning of this century. The first formal school, the Habibiya Lycee in Kabul, was established in 1904. English wes the foreigrn language taught in the Habibiya. Modern educational facilities continued to expand, and in 1921 the Istiklal Lyc6e was established with French as the foreign language. The establishment of the Najat Lyce'e followed in 1924, with German as the foreign language, and in 1926 the Ghazi Lyc6e was opened with mostly British and Indian nationals engaged as teachers. 20. These schools were the foundetion for further advances in recent years. In 1962 the country's educational system comnrised 1,500 primary schools, 114 secondary schools and one university with ten faculties. School enrolment increased from 1,350 in 1932 to 100,000 in 1950, and to 265,000 in 1962. The Structure of the Educational System 21. Below university, the educational system consists of three cycles: (i) primary school (Grades 1 to 6); (ii) middle school (7 to 9); and (iii) lycee (10 to 12). There are Dractically no infant schoo:Ls. Children are admitted to the first grade after reaching the age of 6.  -5- Complete primary schools with six grades are found only in towns and cities. Village or rural schools comprise only the lower three grades. Secondary education consists of both general and vocational or specialized education at the "middle" as well as the "Ilyc4e" level. (See suimmary flo-w-diagram on educational system, Chart 1, Annex). 22. School enrolment (see educational pyramid Chart 2 and Table 1, Annex) shows serious lack of balance in the educational structure. The educational pyramid starts from a relatively narrow base; enrolment in the first grade in 1962 represented less than 20% of the school entrance age group--the girls enrolled being only 7% of the total in their age group. Furthermore, enrolment in Grades 1 to 3 was two and one-half times higher than in the upper Grades 4 to 6. The difference is partly due to the expansion of education which shows up in larger new; classes being admitted every year, but even after eliminating this factor there remains a drop of 40% in enrolment in Grades 4-6 in comparison wJith Grades 1-3. A major explanation of this discrepancy is to be found in the rural schools which have only the first three grades. In 1962 about 30% of the students enrolled in the three lower primary grades attended village schools and very few of these could be expected to attend higher grades in urban pri- mary schools. In the same year, there was only one graduate from the sixth grade for every three pupils who enrolled in the first grade in 1957. 23. The small output of the primary schools is reflected in small enrolment in the middle schools. Both levels show excessive waste due, to a great extent, to teacher shortage and inadequate teacher training. Total enrolment in general middle schools in 1959 was 7,286, while graduates in 1960, 1961 and 1962 together numbered only 5,265--a wuastage of some 30% in the three years. 2h. Vocational or specialized educaltion is often given to studients with very limited general education. In 1962 one-fourth of the middile school students were enrolled in vocational schools. This enrolment (4,773 students) was two and one-half times greater than enrolment in vocational or specialised schools at the lycee level (1,977 students). 25. Enrolment in general lycees in 1962 was limited to 3,024 students, of whom about 650 graduated in that year. Practically all these graduates were admitted to the faculties of .abul University together with somne 150 graduates from specialized lycee-level schools (agriculture, teacher train- ing, Islamic studies, and the Institute of Technology). These exceedingly liberal admission standards applied by the University seriously limLt the supply of employable intermediate personnel and at the same time tend to lower the standard of academic teaching. Nevertheless, total enrolment in Kabul University in 1962 totaled only, 2,0Oh) or some 2 students per 1L0,000 people, or one-fifth of the comparable enrolment ratio in Iraq or Thailand.  6- 26. The educetional task is made much more difficult by the existence of twJo national languages. ELther Farsi or Pushtu is the language of instruc- tion in primary schools, depending upon the language spoken in the respective community. In the middle schools four weekly lessons are prescribed for the mother tongue and three for the second national language. Foreign languages are allotted six weekly lessons in the middle school, in addition to two les- sons in Arabic calligraphy. An additional linguistic problem is created by the variety of foreign languages used in the past for instruction in siecondary schools sponsored by different foreign national groups. Even instruction at the University is in some cases offered in the different foreign languages of the instructors. However, English is now becoming the predominant foreign language. The difficulty of teaching in various languages is increased by the shortage of qualified teachers and of teaching materials. Or2anization and Administration 27. The Ministry of Education is responsible for all primary, secondary and vocational education. In accordance with the general practice of central- ized authority in all public administration, educational policies and opera- tions are closely controlled by the Ministry of Education. The Minister is assisted by the central services in the Ministry Headquarters (see OrLaniza- tion of tlhe Ministry of Education, Chart 3, Annex) and also by the Education Offices in the provinces. The Education Directors heading these offices are the local representatives of the Ministry authorized to take local action in implementing the approved budget for education, directing lower administrative staff and disbursing grants. They also supervise and inspect schools, with help from school inspectors assigned to their offices. 28. The rapidly expanding educational program has placed demands on the Ministry services which often exceed their organizational strength and ex- perience. At the sane time the operational rules lack the flexibility that would encouragfe initiative among school administrators and teachers. The Ministry services are now assisted by UTnesco experts in the major educational sectors and constant efforts are made to improve orgenization and procedures. Educational Plans 29. Governm.ent policy has f'or the last several years centered on the execution of the First and Second Five-Yepr Development Plans. The First Plan was completed in September 1961 and the Second Plan was initiated in March 1962. (The intervening 6-month period was used to revise estimates relating to the Second Plar.). The MIinistry of Planning (established in 1956) is responsible for coordinating the plans of the Ministries and for preparing the national development plan. The MIinistry's functions include manpolwer development. The Ministry has obtained the services of ILO experts to advise on immediate problems and long-term measures but effective organization and procedures in this field still remain an objective.  -7- 30. The planning Bureau of the Iliinistry of Education was established in 1961. It has a Directorate of Educational Statistics and is also assisted by a planning unit in each of the three departments concerned with primary, secondary and vocational education. Following recomriendations by the Unesco Education !fission in 1962, a team of Unesco experts has been assigned to assist the Planning Bureau and the Ministry in formulating and implementing educational development plans in primary, secondary, teclnical and agricultural education including programs for training teachers. Unesco technical assistance in education planning included a'lso the "Regional Advisory Team for Education Planning in Asia" which visited Afghanistan in early 1964 to prepare "long-term projections for education in Afghanistan" (see footnote 1, page 1). 31. The progress under the First Plan showJs the interest of the RGA in promoting education and the growth capability of the educational system. During the Plan period (1956/57 - 1960/61) the follow7ing developments took place: (a) Educational expenditures per year increased almost three-fold, from Afs. 92.8 million to Afs. 275.7 million. (b) Enrolment in all schools ircreased from 142,000 to 236,000 or by 66%, with the folliowing increase for each level of schools: higher education 132%; general secondary education 115%; and primary education 6h%. 32. The Education iTnistry's Second Five-Year Plan projections, adopted prior to the beginning of the Plan in IMarch 1962, provided for the following: (a) Total expenditures were to increase from Afs. 283 million in 1962/63 to Afs. 1,159 million in 1966/67. (b) Capital expenditures for buildings and equipment wTere to increase at a higher rate than current expenditures. DurLng the First Five-Year Plan capital expenditures represented 30% of total expenditure on education; under the Second Plan this was to rise to 45%. (c) The proportion of total education expenditures allocated to each level of education was to remain roughly the same as in the First Plan. This amnounted to about 25 and 27% for general secondary and higher education respectively. The share of primary education was to fall slightly, from 23% lo 19%,. and of vocational and specialized education--including teacher training--to rise somewhat, from 261% to 29%. 33. The Second Plan projections set the following goals for enrolment: (a) Primary schools to reach 288,000 in 1966/67 (an annual increase of about 5% over the 1961 base).  -3- (b) General middle schools to reach 23,500 in 1966/67 (an annual increase of 13% over the 1961 base). (c) General Lyc6e to reach 8,500 in 1966/67 (an annual increase of 21% over the 1961 base). 341. The tempo of the educational effort has not kept pace with the rate of expansion envisaged; the Second Plan period is almost half com- pleted. and it seems clear that the best that can be hoped for is achievement of only one-half to two-thirds in the quantitative objectives of the Plan. To some extent, this reflects inconeistencles and unrealis- tic assumptions within the projections, the most important of which are described in the following paragraphs. For example, wJhile the proposal to expand primary education at an annual rate of 6% seems feasible, it is clearly unrealistic to aim at expanding secondary education over the same period at two or three times that rate. Moreover, the targets of the Second Plan for a 27% annual increase in teacher training school enrolment would alone have absorbed the entire output of the middle schools. The enrolment objecti-ve for higher education is also clearly impracticable because there 1vill simply not be enough qualified entrants, Nevertheless, the Second Plan projections represent in principle a desirable set of targets toward which the country should strive. Primary Education 35. The Afghanistan Constitution prescribes six years of compulsory primary education for all boys and girls beginning at the age of six or seven. In 1962 Afghanistan operated 542 primary schools comprising all six grades. In addition, there were in the same year 820 "village" schools of the three lowTer grades and one teacher, who is usually a mullah or a young elementary school graduate with no training in teaching. T1,nlolment in the primary and village schools in 1962 tota'Led 239,618. On the blasis of dif- ferent assumotions regarding size and composition of the p.r-ilation it is estimated that this enrolment represents from 8%,0 to 15% of t'e correspond- ing school-age population. The boys and girls who coirxpIClcd the sixth grade in 1962 numbered 11,867 and represented 5% of the total primary enrolment during the same year and about 3%0 of the school-leaving age population. 36. The absence of complete and adequately staffed primary schools in the Afghanistan villages limits the educational opportunities of rural youth and deprives the country of the benefit of including among its leaders gifted individuals lith agricultural and rural background. Enrolment in secondary schools is increasing more rapidly than primar-y enrolment and the percentage of primary school graduates admitted to seconda:y schools rose from 60% in 1958 to 80%' in 1962. Admissions in tlhe general education (academic stream, see paragraph 42 below) schools represented h8%o of the primary school graduates in 1958 and 62%o in 1962. This is not severe enough screening to assure that secondary education can fulfill its respon- sibility of preparing qualified manpowuer, including teachers for the improvement and expansion of education.  -9- Teacher Training 37. The first teacher training institution in Afgharistan (Darul- il'o'Allamein) was started in Kabul in 1912 wiith students who had no previous formal schooling. Admission was later restricted to students who had grad- uated from grade 6. A two-year course was offered to prospective primary teachers and a four-year program was added in 1938 for preparing teachers for the middle schools. Since 1956 teacher training has been given only at the T?lycde" level. At present there are four teacher training schools located in Kabul, Herat, Kandahar and Jalalabad. They all offer a three- year teacher training course, including pedagogic subjects and teaching practice at the "lycee" leve'l but some also have sections of general middle school attached to them. Enrolment in the -our teacher training schools in 1962 totaled 1,475. However, of this total on'y 575 were enrolled in the teacher training sections (tlhe rest being in the general middle school sec- tions) and output in the same year was 94 teachers. 33. The present teacher training facilities are not adequate to support the educational development plans of the Government. In fact, during the First Five-Year Plan the preparation of teachers did not keep pace with the expansion of primary schools and consequently the pupil:teacher ratio increased from 41l:1 in 1957 to 52:1 in 1961. A marked improvement in, arnd appropriate expansion of primary education are essential for strengthening the educational system, and depend primarily on having enough qualified teachers. 39. The Institute of Education of Kabul University has had a long- term concern with the advancement of teacher training. The Institute has been assisted by a team of from 30 to 50 experts provided and directed by the Teachers College of Columbia University under a contract with the U. S. Agency for International Development. On-the-job training has been provided to over 100 Afghan educators who have reinforced the teaching and administrative staff of the schools. On the other hand, the Faculty of Education (established in 1962) has assumed direct responsibility for residential education teaching in the University. The present policies make the lMinistry of Education responsible for the operation of the primary teacher training programs, while the Faculty will concentrate on preparing secondary school teachers. There is need for closer cooperation and coordi- nation between the Iainistry of Education and the Faculty in the teacher tra-ining programs and educational research. 4O. To he'lp meet the critical shortage of teachers the Government has inaugurated an "emergency teacher training program" to train primary teachers through accelerated prograns until thie shortages are corrected by an increased output of the regular, longer-term teacher training programs. This program recruits students who have completed the sixth grade and offers three years of general education followed by one year of professional training including practice teaching. The emergency program involves lowyering the level of preparation of the teachers and this is hardly compatible with improvcrment in the quality of education wihich is an important objecitive for education in Afghanistan.  41. The Government has also decided to establish (i) a "higher teacherst college" to train middle school teachers with assistance from UNESCO and the U.N. Special Fund; and (ii) a "Teacher Training Academy" to train tutors for primary teacher training schools by means of a one-year, post-secondary school course with assistance from UNESCO and UNICEF. 42. Plans to expand primary teacher training were reviewed by the! Government in collaboration with the Unesco Regional Advisory Team. It was concluded that the targets in the Second Plan, which provide for a 27% annual increase in teacher training school enrolment would result in these schools claiming all middle school graduates, and so was quite impracticable. How- ever, a 13% rate of annual expansion which would absorb about 50% of the out- put of the middle schools, should prove feasible. The pilot primary teacher training school established as part of the Kabul Teacher Training Academy pro- vides for a total enrolment of 360 trainees and the proposed Teacher Trainirg Center of Kunduz will have a capacity of 275 students. Enrolment in all the teacher training schools will total some 3,000 by 1968 when the new institu- tions will reach full enrolment. This will represent an increase of nearly 100% during a period of 6 years--an annual rate of about 13 rer cent. Secondary Education 43. Secondary education comprises twvo levels: the middle school and the lycde. Included in both levels are two types of schools, those of general education or the "academic stream,"1 and specialized vocational schools. The latter category comprises the mechanical, agricultural, arts and crafts, com- mercial, teacher training and theological schools. Information on types of schools and ennolment is summarized in the following table: Number of Secondary Schools and Enrolment by Types and Levels (1962) (Information supplied by the Iiinistry of Education) _ Ividdle G-rades 7-9 Lycee Grades 10-12 Total No. of No. of Enrol- Type of Schools Schools Boys Girls Total Schools Boys Girls Total ment Teacher Training (4) 900 - 900 (4) 575 - 57.5 1,475 Technical Schools 5 1,110 - 1,110 1 491 - 49:1 1,601 Arts and Crafts 2 331 - 331 - - - - 331 Agricultural - - - - 2 3h0 - 340 34h Cormercial (3) 552 181 733 (3) 99 9n 18' 922 Other Specializeda/(17) 1i,699 1,699 (17) 382 - 382 2,081 Total Vocational - 4.,592 181 4,773 - 1,887 90 1,977 6,750 General Education or Academic Stream 60 10,211 2868 ljP,79 23 2,297 727 3,02lh 16,103 All Schools - 1,803 30149 17,852 - h,184 817 5,001 22,853 Note: ( ) Total number of schools in both the middle and lycee levels. a/ Mainly Islamic Studies Schools.  -11- 44. The middle schools of general education do an important job by pro- viding general education to students who intend to follow higher studies in the lycee and to candidetes of vocational schools at the higher-secondary level. During the First Five-Year Plan the number of middle schools was doubled and enrolment increased by over 1h0% but even with this increase the number of students is still very small in relation to the needs of a balanced and expand- ing educational procram. 45. The lycees Droviding general education also showed considerable expansion during the First Five-Year Plan. Their number increased from 16 in 1956 to 22 in 1961; lyc6es for boys were increased from 14 to 16 and those for girls from 2 to 6. During the same period enrolment increased from l,O88 to 2,915 or by 168%. 46. Teachers for the lyc4es are prepared by the faculties of KabuL Uni- versity, namely, Letters, Sciences and Education. An estimated 600 students will graduate fromr these faculties during the Second Five-Year Plan. It is assumed that secondary schools will employ one half of this number, as in the past. There will thus be 300 teachers for some 5,000 new students and for re- placements among the 230 teachers serving at the beginning of the Second Plan. Evidently there will be enough teachers to sustain the Second Plan expansion of secondarly education, which provides for enrolment to increase from 3,500 in 1962 to 8,500 in 1967. However, this expansion may be hindered by a short sunply of qualifying students. Technical and Vocational Rducation 47. There are three mechanical schools in Afghanistan. The first was established in Kabual in 1337; the other two were started in 1957 in Kandahar and Khost. The mechanical schools admit boys who have completed primary school. Hitherto, they have offered a three-year program consisting mainly of practical trainirr in mechanics but providing also four hours per week con- tinuation courses in languages and arithmetic. The RGA has recently decided to extend the mnechanical school courses to four years. The Kabul schoo-L has grown continuously, reaching a total of 600 students in 1963 in ten specialized sections-basic tralninig, general mechanics, auto mechanics, electricity, radio, forging and welding, galvanizing, plumbing, foundry work and pattern making. Enrolment in 1963 reached over 150 students in Kandahar and 200 in Khost. Each of these newer schools includes three special sections, e.g., general mechanics. auto mechanics and electricity, and the Kandahar school recently added a wood- work section. The Government proposes to establish two new mechanical schools in Kunduz and `Ierat so as to serve the northern and western parts of the countr-yr. 48. An advanced course was started in 1957 at the Kabul 'TMechanical School for the dual purpose of preparing teachers for the mechanical schools and middle-level technicians for industry. The course lasts for three yeers (rrades 10 to 12) and its students are 7raduates of the mechanical or crafts schools. The program is still operated in the premises of the Kabul iechanical School, but it constitutes now a special institution, the "Technical Teachers Training School." Special equi-ument has been orocured and teaching staff has already been employed, and the Government plans to build new facilities to replace the present fully inadequate accommodation.  -12- 49. The mechanical school program has benefited from extensive assist- ance from Germany, providing for teachers, equimnent and overseas training of Afghan personnel, All the schools are fully supplied with equiweret ard are assisted by over 20 German teachers Over 60 graduates of the schools have received advanced training in West Germany and now constitute the majority of teachers in these schools. The new school for technical teachers together with continued overseas training is expected gradually to reduce the present depend- ence on foreign teachers and will make possible further expansion of technical education. 5o. The Arts and Crafts School of Kabul, established in 1929, was intended to train artisans and skilled workers at middle school level. In the first 20 years the school expanded to include many sections, but later the standard of work declined and the school program was limited to carpentry and tailoring. Since 1955 the Kministry of Education has improved the facilities and programs. There are now rour sections (carpentry, tailoring, masonry and weaving) with some 50 students in each. Included in the Arts and Crafts School is an Arts Section which admits students after completion of the ninth grade and offers 3-year instruction in ceramics, painting, decorative arts and calligraphy. A second arts and crafts school was established in the city of Fara in 1954. Until now this school has made very little progress; enrolment in 1962 was only 109 students and the quality of the instruction program is reported to be unsatis- factory. Recently the Ministry arranged for foreign (particularly German) experts to help improve these schools. Certainly the quality of instruction can be greatly improved, but the weakness of these schools may be partly due to the fact that--unlike the successful mechanical schools--they offer training in areas where numerous craftsmen practice and give apprenticeship training. 51. The Afghan Institute of Technolo_r was established in 1951 with technical assiance from the Government of the United States, Students are admitted after completion of Grade 9 for a 3-year course, The Institute's program Is now being revised to provide a fourth and eventually a fifth year. Instruction is given in four fields: electricity, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil aviation. Graduates are either employed as middle-level technicians in industry and public services or are admitted to the Faculty of Engineering of Kabul University. U.S. aid of approximately $4 million has been earmarked for the provision of new premises for the Institute. Agricultural Education 52. In 1925, the RGA established the Kabul Agricultural School, initially with foreign (French) teachers and agronomists. In recent years the school has received substantial assistance from the United States Government. Students are admitted to the three-year course upon completion of middle school. The school has made considerable progress and, for over thirty years, has been the only source of technical personnel for the country's agriculture. Graduates at first were almost exclusively employed in the Government services, but after the establishment in 1955 of the Agricultural Faculty in the University of Kabul a high proportion of the Agricultural School graduates have been admitted to the Faculty. 53. The Kabul Agricultural School and related services have made some contribution to agricultural improvement in the past, (better crop varieties and  -13- animal breeds, pest control techniques, etc.), but the limited number and inadequate technical preparation of the agriculturists limited their role mainly to administrative routine and action to cope with outbreaks of plant and animal diseases and similar emergencies. In the future, larger numbers of university- trained agriculturalists will enable the agricultural services to undertake an expanded technical program employing increasing numbers of intermediate-level agricultural technicians, 54. The Agricultural Faculty provided qualified full-time teachers for the school in Kabul instead of the Ministry officials who were used before as part-time teachers and the difficult-to-obtain foreign teachers. Five Agricul- tural Faculty graduates were employed as teachers in the Kabul Agricultural School early in 1964. However, these teachers have not had any special training in teaching agriculture and have very limited resources in teaching materials. These deficiencies must be corrected in order to ensure the success of agricul- tural schools in Afghanistan. 55. In 1961 an agricultural section was attached to a secondary school in Baghlan. The Baghlan school, like the Kabul school, offers a 3-year course at the lycee level. The RGA proposes to establish this school in new premises in Kunduz and to provide it with a good-sized modern farm to ensure farm practice for the students. The Government proposes also to establish a third agricultural school in Herat and to supply it with facilities for practical training. Higher Education 56. The University of Kabul is the only institution of higiher education in Afghanistan. The beginning of the University was a small School of Medicine started in 1932. Schools of Law, Political Science, and Science and Arts followed, and the University was formally established in 19h6. It presently includes eleven faculties: Medicine, Pharmacy, La-, Science, letters, Theology, Agriculture, Engineering, Economics, Education and Home Economics. Enrolment was 2,Ch3 in 1962. 57. The USSR has agreed to help establish a Polytechnic in Kabul. It will include five technological faculties, with enrolment of 1,500 expected by the end of the Second Five-Year Plan (1967). 58. Higher education made considerable progress in the past decade. The number of faculties doubled and enrolment increased over three times. Expendi- tures for higher education increased even more, with significant additions in buildings and other facilities for both the old and the new faculties. Benefits from the advance of higher education are already evident in the adequate supply of teachers for general secondary schools. However, the Second Plan cannot achieve its objective of 5,250 students enrolled in the University and Poly- technic by 1967 because there will not be enough qualified entrants. This will limit the immediate contribution of higher education to economic and social development, but past events prove that even a very gradual increase will enable the Faculties to produce enough teachers to expand secondary education. As said earlier, the critical shortage is now and will continue to be for some years, in primary education and in the supply of teachers at this level. 59. The University of Kabul should combine research iith graduate studies  -14- and also give extension courses or in-service training to teachers and other professionals. A beginning has been made by the insvitute of Education. Those who have studied the Afghan educational system report very low efficiency be- cause of inadequate teacher preparation, unsuitable teaching methods and lack of teaching media. The Faculty and the Institute of Education have an impor- tant task in studying and solving these problems. Similarly, the Agr:Lculture Faculty should lead in studying physical and socio-economic factors related to agriculture and in formulating improved agricultural practices for increas- ing productivity. The Faculty should use such experience in pre- and in-service training of agriculture teachers as well as extension agents. Adult Education and Training 60. Afghanistan, like all developing countries must expand adult educa- tion and training, particularly to help the large number of illiterate adults to adjust to, and to contribute to -the future of their society which will be- come more and more dependent on science and technology. The magnitude and persistence of the problem are demonstrated boy the fact that only about one- tenth of the primary school age population attends school and only about one- half of these are expected to complete the sixth grade. Since this conditicn cannot be changed both rapidly and adequately, 90% of the adult and working population in the next 10 or 15 years will be illiterate; the situation is worse among village population and women. 61. The Ministry of Education conducts literacy classes in the towns and also classes in Pushtu, mainly for civil servants. Present plans are for a considerable expansion of the former in both rural and urban areas. Such instruction is effective as long as the person's work demands that he read and write. This is not the case with villagers and unskilled or semi-skilled laborers; experience has shown that educational programs for such adults should be centered around practical instruction usefual in farming, home-making and other vocati-ons. Literacy classes may supplement vocational instruction, making it more effective and drawing on the interest of adults in instruction geared to practical problems. Extension education for farmers is a function of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Rural Development Departm.ent. The agricul- tural schools may contribute to agricultural extenslion by sponsoring in-service training for the agents and also directly through evening classes and short courses to teach improved farm and home practices to men and women frcm the neighboring villages. Hiechanical schools can also serve as centers of very useful and effective adult education in the towns where no programs of this kind are available to urban semi-skilled workers or artisans. School Construction 62. In 1962 Afghanistan had 820 rural, 542 primary, 60 middle, 24 lycees (which include vocational schools at the middle level) and 7 vocational schools, a total of 1,480. Detailed statistical information on school buildings exists only for 1960. In that year 31% of all primary, secondary and vocational schools were in rented premises, 16% in donated and 11% in government buildings built for other purposes and unsuitable for schools. Forty-two per cent of all schools were housed in government-built and -owned buildings; of these  -15- about 3/4 were built with baked brick and 1/4 with mud brick. lIany of the buildings built as schools were poorly designed. Maintenance and basic equip- ment were generally poor. In several schools, children were sitting oIn the floor and some classes were held in the open because of the shortage of class- rooms. These conditions are still largely unchanged. 63. Planning and design for new school buildings is usually inadequate. Cost estimates and practices in the control of expenditures are often based on obsolete and unrealistic unit prices. These prices should be kept under review so as to enable reliable cost estimates and unit data. There are no adequate building laws, regulations or codes for construction or specific standards for school planning. Recently designed and constructed school buildings vary con- siderably in general standards and in construction costs, the differences being mainly due to use of varying proportions of imported materials. A good deal of the bulky building materials (bricks, cement, lime, timber) is produced locally, though not always in satisfactory quality and sufficient quantities. Better use of locally produced materials and local skills and better pre-planning for re- ducing needs for imported materials could reduce costs substantially. Research on standardization of school buildings should also be initiated as soon as pos- sible. 64. In Kabul, a wood-working shop owned by the State oroduces 9O,, of the school furniture for the whole country. The design and auality of this produc- tion should be improved to make it of a standard educationally and functionally acceptable. 65. Some local building contractors could attain acceptable performance standards for school construction, provided the Ministry of Education supplies effectivre school planning and construction supervision. At present, several Government agencies, including the lMinistry of Education, the MIinistry of Public J;Torks and the R3ural Development Department, deal with school planning and construction- suDervision. In all instances, efficiency end output are unsatisfactory, the principal probler being the shortage of qualified and ex- perienced technical staff. Expansion and improvement in future school construc- tion programs will require that (i) such work be unified in the School Construc- tion Directorate of the Ministry of Education, and (ii) the Directorate be strengthened with qualified foreign and local personnel. 66. In addition, the Directorate of School Construction should develop (a) educational standards, (b) architectural and technical standards, (c) cost limits, (d) experimental construction, (e) projects for school buildings, (f) design of school furniture and equipment. Financ ,tn 3 67. Under Afghan budgetary procedures, expenditures on education include those within the budget of the Iinistry of Education and of Kabul University, whose capital budget the T'Iinistry rust approve, as well as of the Feculty of Medicine End related health institutions. The budget figures understate slightly the total Afghan expenditure on eduction. They exclude expenditures 3/ See Tables 2, 3, and 4, Annex.  -16- on education by the Rural Development Department, which, since its initia- tion in 1954 has establ4shed 175 village schools in different parts of the country; its total expenditures during the First Plan, however, amouLnted only to Afs. 47 million, only a portion of iwhich went for education. Also excluded are the relatively small education expenditures by the Agriculture Mlinistry, the Helmand Valley Authority and other agencies, even though the Ministry of Education actually carries out some of these activities. 68. Because of inadequate budgetary data and inconsistencies in statis- tics presented by the -4inistries of Education, Planning, and Finance, it is difficult to determine precisely the actual expenditures on education and to relate them to overall Plan expenditures. Nor is it possible to determine exactly the external assistance in given years. Nevertheless, relative orders of magnitude can be established. The First Five-Year Plan originally called for total expenditures of Afs. 14 billion; as a result mainly of higher costs and some expansion in the physical targets, actual expenditures amounted to about Afs. 16.6 billion. Expenditure on education amourLted to Afs. 800 million, roughly 5% of the total. 69. Projections of expenditures during the Second five-Year Plan period are even more imprecise. The Second Plan called for total expenditures of Afs. 44.5 billion, almost tlree times the level of the First Plan. According to the Education liiHnistry's projections, expenditures on education would rise to Afs. 3.9 billion--almost 9% of the total. These projections, howrever, were made early in the Second Plan period; since then tne overall Plan has been reduced in size--and is still being revised--while the Educaticon ivi.nistry still uses the original figuares. 70. The Second Plan projections are now--almost halfway through the Second Plan period--clearly impossible of achievement. The Educaticon Minis- try's projected expenditures of Afs. 3.9 billion would have been five times the level of the First Plan, and would have required that expenditures increase by an average of almost 40% over the previous yearts level in each year of the Plan. In fact, actual expenditures in the first year (1962/63) were approx- imately the same as in the last year of the First Plan, and provisional results appear to indicate that expenditures in 1963/64 have not risen more than perhaps 10-15$ above 1962/63. On the other hand, total Second Plan expenditures, in all sectors, irncreased from Afs. 5 billion in 1962/63 to Afs. 7 billion in 1963/64, well below the expenditure levels implied in the Plan.4/ 71. Afghanistan's ability to finance the Second Plan, and therefore the educational programn, is heavily dependent upon the receipt of foreign aid. Approximately 60% of the total First Plan expenditure was financed by foreign aid, which was provided increasingly in the form of grants rather than loains. External assistance disbursed from March 1956 to September 1962 amounted to about $300 million, of ldhich U.S. aid accounted for roughly half, mostly as grants, including $32 million for wlheat imports. U.S.S.R. assistance amounted to roughly $137 millicn, mostly project loans but also some commod- ity aid, including $10.5 million of wheat grants. Germany provided $8 million, and Czechoslovakia $5 million. 4/ These actual expenditures are somewhat inflated as compared w.ith the original Second Plan expenditure target because they reflect the accounting of expenditures of foreign aid `in 1963,/6h at the ne- (higher) offi cial exchange rate.  -17- 72. The Second Plan also assumed a large proportion of foreign aid, expected to come principally from the U.S. and U.S.S.R. though Germany is increasing its share considerably. The total provision of Afs. 44.5 billion originally envisaged for the Second Plan included $647 million in foreign exchange. / It was hoped that Afghanistan would be able to provide 4$30-40 million from its own resources, leaving some $607-617 million to be obtained from abroad--more than twice the aid provided for in the First Plan. 73. Foreign credits and grants already committed to financing the Second Plan amount to almost p500 million, including commodity aid. This is understood to include all aid which is expected to be obtained frorm the Soviet Union dixing the Second Plan, while only part of that expected from other sources has been negotiated at this stage. The following table shows the distribution of the aid negotiated as of the beginning of this year. Foreign Assistance Available for the Second Plan a/ (In millions of U.S. dollars) U.S.S.R. U.S.A. Germany Other Total l/' Credits 283.6i/ 5.0 50.0 6.3 3h4.9 Grants 89,99.1 55o0 o.6 - 145.5 Total 373.5 60.0 50.6 6.3 490.4 Source: Ministry of Planning i Including commodity aid. i,/ Including $36.o million credit available from First Plan. i Pivailable from First Plan. _ y Excluding U.N. Technical Assistance. 74. The Afghan authorities hope for substantial additional aid from the U.S. for the Second 2'lan. This is still being negotiated. Optimi- stically, U.S. assistance might reach $150 million, including commodity aid. If it does, Afghanistan might get comnitments fron all sources for most of the roughly $600 million envisaged for the Second Plan. Disburse- srents are another matter, however. The rate of disbursement on new project aid is unlikely to reach more than 60%o or 70%, If the expected foreign assistance should in fact materialize, serious shortages of complementary lccal currency would develop unless a significant portion of / The latter was converted in the Second Plan documents at an exchange rate of Afs. 32.35 = 61.00, as compared with the present official rate of Afs. 45.  -18- the assistance is commodity aid or budget support.-/ The re-opening last year of the Pakistan border has eased fears in this regard. Perhaps 34O to 50 million of U.S. assistance for the Second Plan might, again on optimistic assumptions, be comnodity aid, half of which might be for wheat, and the U.S. had indicated that it would import wheat only through Karachi. Imports even of this quantity of wheat would, however, have to be handled carefully to avoid depressing local prices. 75. The Education Tiinistry's projections imply more aid than is likely to be received for the field of education. The amount of foreign aid already promised is, however, substantial. The U.S. had,before the begin- ning of the Second Plan, committed more than $16.7 million for education; roughly half of this appears to have been disbursed during the First Plan. U.S. assistance can be expected to rise further during the Second Plan, and will include an estimated $4 million for an Afghan Institute of Technology. Assistance from the U.S.S.R. in the field of education was negligible during the First Plan but will include during the Second Plan Afs. 200 million (about $4 million at the current official rate of exchange) for a Polytechnic Institute. German assistance will similarly increase during the Second Plan. 76. According to the Planning lIinistryts figures on the First Plan, approximately 62% of total expenditure represented capital and the remainder recurrent expenditures; the Second Plan assumes that development outlay will rise to 72%. For education, according to the Education 1Ministry's figures, capital expenditure was only 27% of the total during the First Plan, reflect-7/ ing the greater expenditure on personnel services and other recurrent costs;- 6/ The execution of the development programs of the last years has strained the Govcrnmentts resources. In the early years of the First Plan, when absorption of foreign aid was relatively small, Government current revenues together with counterpart funds generated by foreign commodity aid provided sufficient domestic funds to match the volume of foreign aid effectively applied to the economy. The national domestic government budget (i.e., the domestic revenue comoared with non-aid-financed expendi- tures) even achieved a surplus. Beginning in 1959/60, however, when the pace of aid quickened, the call on domestic funds grew in proportion and the Government began to have recourse to deficit financing. Credit expan- sion quickly became excessive in subsequent years. The Government has in the last two years urdertaken a series of measures-exchange reform, budget and credit policy revision-to facilitate the financing of development without causing excessive pressure upon the economy. Not yet undertaken is an extensive reform of the tax system, which appears to offer scope for increased tax revenues. 7/ The classification of expenditures as between developmertal and ordinary is not clear in the Government's budgetary procedures, and is not uniform among different government agencies. Fxpenditures for the maintenance of a completed development project may be classified as either development or current, depending on the administrative practice of the government de- partment concerned, or the availability of funds for maintenance under the ordinary budget. The :9ducation P1inistry's classificetion of expenditures into current and capital differs substantially from that employed in the Planning HMinistry's accounting of Plan expenditures.  -196. it is expected to rise to 45% under the Second Plan, reflecting the emiphasis on construction of new physical facilities. The past relationship between current and capital expenditures cannot be relied upon to test the va:Lidity of these projections, because the structure of education in Afghanistan is changing so rapidly. It does not appear, however, that the Ministry's pro- jection takes account of certain factors which will affect recurrent costs. The Ministry plans to move to.ward the goal of lowering the pupil:teacher ratio. Also, the Government has announced a pay raise for all government officials, including teachers, by an average of 90% over a two-year period begirming March 1964. Education, including supplies and books, continues to be free at all levels, and boarding at secondary level is free to pupils from rural areas where there are no secondary schools. If the Ministry's plans are to result in the desired improvement in quality, as opposed to quantity, of education, the proportion of current to capital expenditlires will probably have to be higher than the MIinistry envisages. 77. Conservatively estimating GINP at Afs. 30 billion in 1960/61, re- current expenditures on education amounted in that year to less than 1L% of GNP. This compares with an estimated average for the OECD European countries of about 2.6% in 1958, with that of the U.S.S.R. of about 3.7%, of the U.S.A. of about 4%, and of Tunisia (1961) of about 5%. More to the point, total expenditures on education amounted to about 9% of the domestic budget 8/ in 1960/61. They would rise, under the Ministry's projections, to roughLy 17% of estimated revenues in 1966/67. 78. In Pfghanistan's circumstances this would not be an unreasonable increase. Afghanistan has not been devoting enough of its resources to the urgent needs of education. The effort projected for the current five-year period is in the right direction. The Government appears willing to devote greater resources to education; Education Ministry budgetary requests appear relatively favored; the need to expand education as a prereouisite to economic growth appears generally recognized. The obstacles to achieving the projected rate of expenditure efficiently are to be found in the personnel, physical, and organizational factors which, more than finance, limit the expans:ion of the educational system. IV. THE PROJECT 79. The project includes the design and construction of the fol:Lowing schools: (1) Academy for tiaining teache:' educators in Kabul. (2) Teacher training school in Kunduz. (3) Technical teachers training school in Kabul. (4) Electro-mechanical school in Kunduz. 8/ I.e., total expenditures from domestic sources (including proceeds of commodity aid, but excluding development expenditures directly finianced by foreign governments.)  -20- (5) Electro-nechanical scheol in Herat. (6) Agricultural school in Kunduz. (7) Agricultural school in Herat. It also includes foreign agriculturalists for a total of l8 man-years who are needed to assist the two new agricultural schools for an initial period of three 'rear_9,together with overseas training of' 12 Afghan counterpart personnel. Other schools in the project either require no foreign personnel (Teacher Training School at Kunduz) or their requirements are being met by multi- lateral or bi-lateral aid programs. Furthermore, two school building advisers to the Ministry of Education are required to assist in the construction phase of the project. The project includes, in addition, furniture for school buildings and boarding facilities; teaching aids; laboratory equipmentl; power plants; and transport vehicles for all the schools except the Academy: tractors, farm implements, other equipment and livestock for the Agricultural Schools of Kunduz and Hierat. Multi-lateral or bi-lateral financial assistance is providing the equipment needed for the other project items. The costs of these project items are shown in Table 5, Annex. 80. The local communities can provide only a small portion of the qualified intake of students in each school center. Boarding facilitLes in the three centers have been determined on the basis of the minimum needed to accommodate students coming from outside the conmunity. In the case of the agricultural schools, the proportion of students coming from rural areas is higher and also the nature of the farm work et the school makes it desir- able in Afghanistan that all students be boarders. In the Academy in Kabul, none of the instructor trainees-who will be given in-service training-will be boarders. No boarding, facilities are provided for girl students, who are prevented by local customs from living away from the family. No staff housing is included in the project, apart from housing for a farm manager at each of the agricultural schools. 81. The curricula proposed for the various schools are in line iwith their purposes and with current Afghan requirements, while at the same time offering a favorable opportunity for the improvements and changes of emphasis aimed at by the Government over the long term. Co-education is envisaged in two of the schools included in the project (Kabul Acaderyfor Trainign Teacher Educators and T.unduz Primary Teacher Training School). Manpower Considerations 82. In the light of the historical and cultural background of Afghanistan, it is hardly surprising that the country lacks the skille!d manpower necessary for a modern industrial society. The Bank Economic Mission of 1961 concluded that economic development will be slow because of the scarcity of educated, technical, managerial and administrative personnel, and recommended highest priority for education-particularly teacher train- ing, agricultural schools for training extension workers, and higher tech- nical education. Nlo detailed studies are available on manpower conditions  -21- and requirements in Afghanistan, but the analysis in the preceding chapters confirmed the findings of the Bank Mission and pointed to the proposeci pro- ject items as necessary to relieve critical personnel shortages. 83. The Academy for teacher training instructors in Kabul will increase by about 15% the capacity of primary teacher training institutions foreseen for the end of the Second Plan. More important, it will train instruc:tors needed to expand and imorove primary teacher training throughout the country. 84. Training primary school teachers is of strategic importance. Expan- sion of primary education in the past five to six years took place mainly in the rural schools (with only three grades) which are of practically no signi- ficance, either for the educational system or for the pupils, most of whom do not go on to higher grades, and thus forget how to read and write. Expansion of secondary and higher education is indispensable for preparing qualified manpower for public service as well as for the private sector, but no such expansion is possible without more, and particularly better, primary schools. The proposed total enrolment of 2,900 students of primary teacher training institutions would give an annual output of approximately 900 teachers. The joint study by the RGA and the Unesco Regional Plarning Team estimates annual requirements for replacements (3% annually) and expansion (7% annually) at 800 teachers for the period 1965-1970 and at 1,400 for 1970-1975. The! esti- mmates are based on the present student/teacher ratio of about 50:1. The proposed Teacher Training Center in Kunduz will contribute to the balanced educational development in the north of the country. 85. The Technical Teacher Training School in Kabul will nroduce some 80 graduates every year. It is expected that 50%p of these graduates will be employed as teachers of mechanical schools and the rest by industry and the public services. Enrolment in the existing and proposed mechanical schools will require some 200 teachers as additions to, and replacements of, the pre- sent 100 Afghan and foreign teachers. Since there will always be competing demands from industry, there may be need for a higher rate of replacement for these teachers than in other schools. Teachers of the mechanical schools will also eventually supply the teaching staff of the Technical Teacher Training School after receiving supplementary training. 86. The Mechanical Schools have already trained a substantial number of skilled workers. The introduction of modern industries, electric power, motor transportation and aviation created demands for technicians and skilled workers wvho could not have been produced by the apprenticeship training whereby the developed countries prepare such personnel. Even if the industries and other employers were willing to organize on-the-job training programs, their success would be hindered by the limited education of the trainees. Practically all graduates of the mechanical schools have found employment in posts utilizing their new skills and the demand for skilled workers will in- crease as the country moves from traditional ways into an industrial economy. The proposed two mechanical schools in Kunduz and Herat and the existing three will have some 425 annual graduates from the four-year course. Of these,  -22- 125 will be admitted to the technical teacher school and the remaining 300 are expected to be employed mainly in industry and to a minor extent in public services. All ev_dence suggests that the market can easily absorb this numboer of skilled workers, who will make a significant contribuLtion to economic progress. 87. !Then the two new agricultural schools at Kunduz and Herat are fully established, the annual intake of all three schools (including the one in Kabul) will total some 300 graduates of middle schools. The RGA recognizes that greater expansion of secondary agricultural education would take too many middle school graduates and might produce more technicians of this level than the agricultural services can usefully employ. The author- ities also realize that, for the foreseeable future, secondary agricultural schools are not expected to train farmers and that technical education of the farm population will be of the informal, extension type carried on within the rura'l communities. Thlerefore, the original targets of the Second Five- Year Plan have been reduced. Ilhen fully developed, the three agricultural schools vill produce some 230 graduates every year. About 60 of these will be admitted to the a-ricultural faculty and the remaining 170 will be employed as interinediate-level agricultural technicians, probably over 100 of them in the Extension Ser-vice of the linistry of Agriculture. At the same timne, some 25 graduates of the Faculty of Agriculture will be available every year for employment by the Extension Service. The ratio of one university- trained technician to four intermediate-level extension agriculturists snould ensure a well-balanced service. However, its effectiveness will depend on efforts by all the agencies concerned to build a modern, dynamic extension program. Location of the Schools 83. The schools wrill be grouped by sites, as follows: (1) The academy for training teacher educators and the technical teacher training school on a single site in Xabul. (2) An agricultural school, an electro-mechanical school and a teacher training school on a single site in Kunduz. (3) An agricultural school and a mechanical school on a single site in Herat. Instructions to architects to be appointed for the project, together with topographical survieys of the sites, have been prepared. These are set forth in "Project Item Submissions" dated October 1964, which have been agreed upon by the RGA and the Association. 89. The Ministry of 'Education proposes that the selected schools should be centered at Kabul, Herat and Xunduz, to benefit from the local ccncentra- tions of transport, services and amenities; and, further, that schools should be grouped on a commion site in each of these areas to economize by srharing the same facilities wherever possible. This proposal has obvious advantages,  -23,- viz., it achieves substantial economies by reducing the requirements for assembly halls, dining rooms and kitchens, and by centralizing the medical, water, electrical and laundry services. 90. The proposed locations for the various schools in the project are well adapted to manpower needs and other requirements. Tmenever possible, training programs must be distributed among the provinces to ensure that trainees will be willing to serve in each province. In the case of agricul- tural technmicians (especially of sub-professional level) training is more effective when given in the environment where the technician is expected to work. The location of the mechanical and agricultural schools in Kunduz and Herat meets this condition for regional distribution and is also justified by anticipated manpower requiremer-ts of the two provinces. Both KMnduz and Herat are important agricultural centers, and besides urgent present needs for technicians at various levels, have considerable potential for industrial development. The Academy for teacher training instructors and the Technical Teachers School reauire educational resources (teachers, libraries, etc.) which are not found in the provinces. The proposal, therefore, to establish these institutions in Kabul is fully justified. 91. All the sites chosen are suitable for the purposes of the project. The Ministry of Education hopes to obtain an additional 50 acres of fa;rm land near the Harirud River for the use of the Agricultural School in Herat, to augment the roughly Lo acres available for farm use on the School Center site. The l.inistry should also seek to obtain authorization to eliminate the road which at present cuts the proposed site at Kabul in half. School Center at Kebul 92. The ;\cademy for training teacher educators and the Technical Teachers Treining School will be built on a common site at Darul Aman, west of Kabul, about 8 kilometers from the center of the city. This site is owned by the State. It consists of about 78,000 m2 of flat land with direct access to roads leading to the avenue connecting Darul Aman with the city and is very suitable for the purpose. 93. The Acedermy, which is to trairn staff for primary teachers' train- ing schools and at the same time to train primary teachers, will have 62 instructor trainees and 360 student trainees for teaching in primary schools; of the latter, boarding facilities are provided for 180. It is assumed that the other 180 day students will include girls. Student trainees will have a three-year training period. The Acaderrj may eventually undertake in-service traininDa of teachers and teacher trainees as a permanent function. The school will include nine classrooms, auditorium, laboratory, two workshops, t;wo home science rooms, library, and administration rooms. 94. The Technical Teacher Training School -will give a three-year course to train technical teachers for the mechanical and craft schools, and middle- level technicians for industry. The school Till include four specialized sections: metalwork, electrical work, building construction, general (for  -2h4- arts and crafts). The school will also provide in-service training courses for technical teachers and technicians. There will be a total of 300 students plus an indeterminate number of adult trainees each year. 95. The school premises will include five classrooms, a drawing office, two science laboratories, four demonstration rooms (one for each specialized section), machine shop, electric installation shop, two woodwork shops, masonts workshops, textile laboratory, library, and administration rooms. 96. The two schools will have the following common facilities: recreation and sports grounds, medical unit, assembly hall, dormitories for 420 boarders, dining room for 305 male students and staff, kitchen (w1hich will also serve an adjoining dining room for 90 female students), laundry, and a water supply system. @ 97. The cost of the Kabul School Center, including site and architects' fees and expenses, is estimated at the equivalent of U.S. &`870,000. School Center at Kunduz 98. The Primary Teacher Training School, and the Mechanical, ancd Agricultural Schools will be built on a common site south of Kunduz, one mile from the city center. The site is about 300)000 m2 of flat land, with direct access to the road from Kunduz to Baghlan. It is very good irrigated farm land suitable for the purpose, which the Government will acquire from private owners. About 87,000 m2 will be the site for the school buildings, sport and recreation grounds, and clrculation area; the remaining land will be used for the school farm. 99. The Teacher Training School is to prepare teachers for primary schools and to provide an educa-tional center for in-service training for teachers within the area. The students will total 275, of whom 240 will be boarders. Female students may be admitted as day students although no more than 15 to 20 Der year are anticipated. The students will have a three-year training period. The school wdill include seven classrooms, auditorium, laboratory, two workshops for arts and crafts, home science room, library and administration rooms. 100. The Agricultural School will give technical education in agriculture to p-repare students to enter the Faculty of Agriculture of Kabul University or to be employed as middle-level agricultural technicians in the extension ser- vice, farmers' cooperatives or other agricultural services and organizations. It will have 250 students-all boarders. The school will include a farm for agricultural practice. Experimental farming will be observed at the existing Kunduz Experimental Station. The school will include five classrooms, two laboratories, four demonstration classrooms, farm shop, library, administra. tion rooms and farm buildings, including dairy farm, sheep and poultry house, and machinery shed.  -25- 101. The Electro-Mechanical School will provide pre-service training of skilled workers in various trades to work mainly in factories and workshops. The training will include three major fields: electricity, auto mechanics and general mechanics. The school will also provide ad hoc in-service train- ing courses for adults. It will include 350 students, 300 of whom wrill be boarders. The school will include four classrooms, auditorium, library, administration rooms, two general workshops, machine shop, agricultural repair shop, welding and forging shop, auto-mechanical shop, auto-electric shop, and an electrical shop. 102. These schools will have the following common facilities: two assembly halls, audio-visual center, medical center, dormitories for 790 boarders, dining room and kitchen for 480 (students and staff, on a double- shift basis) and laundry. They will also have communal sports and recreation grouncds and their oin electricity and water supply systems. 103. The cost of the Kunduz Center, including site and architects' fees and expenses, is estimated at USV1,3?2>C)O0. School Center at Herat 104. The mechanical and agricultural schools will be built on a common site about two miles north of Herat. The site covers about 295%000 m2 and slopes gently toward the city in cultivated terraces. It is very good irrigated farm land suitable for the purpose, which the Government will acquire from a private owner. About 60,000 m of the land will be used for school buildings, sport and recreation grounds, and circulation area. The remaining land will be used for the Agricultural School's practical farm training to- gether with an additional 50 acres of land near the Harirud River where minimum farm facilities will be built. The latter land belongs to the State. 105. The Agricultural School will give technical education in agriculture. It will have 250 students-all boarders. The school premises will include five classrooms, two laboratories, four demonstration classrooms, farm shop, library, administration rooms,and facilities for farm machinery, dairy, sheep, and poultry. 106. The Yiechanical School will prepare skilled workers for various trades and provide in-service traininr courses for adults. It will have 350 students, of whom 240 will be boarders. The school will have four classrooms, auditorium, library, administration rooms, two general workshops, machine shop, agricultural repair shop, welding and forging shop, auto-mechanical shop, auto-electrical shop and a general electrical shop. 107. These schools will have the following common facilities: assembly hall, audio-visual center, medical center, dormitories for 490 boarders, dining roon and kitchen for 330 (students and staff, on a double-shift basis) and a laundry. They will also share the sports and recreation grounds and their own independent electricity and water supply systems. The cost of the Herat Center, including site and architects' fees and expenses, is estimated at US$ ,OLl2,C.  - 26 - Design and Building Economy 108. As noted earlier (see section on school construction, Chapter ITT) there are no firms of architects in Afghanistan of the qualifications required to undertake the design and supervision of the proposed schools. It will be necessary, therefore, to employ a foreign firm of architects to undertake these tasks. It is hoped that Afghan architects and engineers will be trained 'on the job' for subsequent employment by the Ministry of Education. 109. The firm chosen should work in close cooperation with the Iinistry of Education and should be charged with: (a) The professional duties and services required for the Sketch Scheme, Final Design, Contract Preparation, Tender, Contract Mobilization, Construction and Completion Stages of the project; the specific nature of these duties and services to be agreed between RGA and IDA. (b) Preparing regular progress reoorts whose form and content will be agreed between RGA and IDA. 110. In addition, an architect specialist in school building and an educator experienced in school equipment should be attached to the Ministry of Education to assist in the administration of the oroject. In the final stage of his assignment, the architect will help to initiate a department for research and development of school construction in the Ministry of Education which can be expected to absorb the Afghan architects and engineers,mentioned earlier, after their training. 111. The Project aims at achieving the maximum saving through: (1) Defining minimum economic standards for teaching * snaces (net areas). (2) Reducing ancillary accommodation to a mlnimum and thereby achieving economy in the total areas (gross areas). (3) Providing specifications for an austere standard which reduces imnorted materials to a minimum. (4) Making full use of communal facilities. 112. The cost estimates, which have been derived from an analysis of actual construction costs in the different locations, are reasonable (see notes on Table 5,Annex). They do not allow for a high standard of finish but they  -27- permit the minimum acceptable educational and functional standards. These estimates would be given to the architects as the maximum allowable costs to guide their design and, at the same time, to impress upon them that they must meet the minimum standards specified through accurate cost control at each stage. 113. The general level of maintenance of school buildings in Afghan- istan is very lo-wT. This is partly due to the poor standard of finishes employed and partly to the absence oL regular maintenance procedures-- furthermore, the I!.nistry of Education has not, up to now, made budget provisions for school maintenance. 114. The proposed project specifications include finishes w.hich reduce the need for repairs and facilitate cleaning, thus keeping maintenance costs to a ninimum. The 'inistry of Education, howiever, should make adequate budget provision for regular maintenance and establish procedures to see that it is properly used. Costs and FinancinZ 115. The proposed IDA credit of $3.5 million represents approxiiimately 75% of the project costs. The RGA iwill be the borrower. The folloil.ng table indicates the distribution of total project costs between major cate- gories, i.e., construction, sites, architects and engineering services, equipment, and personnel. Project Costs (us $ ) Expenditure Expenditure in Foreign in Local Item Ex,change Currency Total Construction 1,060,000 1,766,000 2,826,000 Sites - 194,000 19h4,oo Architects' Services 200,000 83,000 283,00C Equipment 310,000 36,000 346,000 Personnel 370,000 130,000 5Q,OO,C 1,940,000 2,209,000 4,149,000 Contingencies 2L' 0,000 278,0oo 518,000 Total: 2,180,000 2,hL87,000 h.667,000 Approximately 4io% of the cost of construction in the project and 901% of the cost