Implementing educational policies in Tanzania

WDP-86 World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Series Imnplementing Educational Policies in Tanzania C. J. Galabawa .e i  Recent World Bank Discussion Papers No. 32 Tenancy in South Asia. Inderjit Singh No. 33 Land and Labor in South Asia. lnderjit Singh No. 35 Global Trends in Real Exchange Rates. Adrian Wood No. 36 Income Distribution and Economic Development in Malawi: Sonie Histarical Perspectives. Frederic L. Pryor No. 37 Income Distribution and Economic Development in Madagascar: Somne Historical Perspectives. Frederic L. Pryor No. 38 Quality Controls of Traded Commodities and Services in Developing Countries. Simon Rottenberg and Bruce Yandle No. 39 Livestock Production in North Africa and the Middle East: Problems and Perspectives. John C. Glenn [Also available in French (39F)] No. 40 Nongovernmental Organizations and Local Development. Michael M. Cernea [Also available in Spanish (40S)] No. 41 Patterns of Development: 1950 to 1983. 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Philip Musgrove (Continued on the inside back cover.)  Imnplementing Educational Policies in Tanzanla  World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Series Studies on Implementation of African Educational Policies No. 82 Why Educational Policies Can Fail: An Overview of Selected African Experiences No. 83 Comparative African Experiences in Implementing Educational Policies No. 84 Implementing Educational Policies in Ethiopia No. 85 Implementing Educational Policies in Kenya No. 86 Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania No. 87 Implementing Educational Policies in Lesotho No. 88 Implementing Educational Policies in Swaziland No. 89 Implementing Educational Policies in Uganda No. 90 Implementing Educational Policies in Zambia No. 91 Implementing Educational Policies in Zimbabwe The set of studies on implementation of African educational policies was edited by Mr. George Psacharopoulos. Mr. Psacharopoulos wishes to acknowledge the help of Professor G. Eshiwani, who beyond being the author of the case study on Kenya (see No. 85) has coordinated the production of the other case studies in the region.  S 6~ World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Series Implementing Educational Policles in Tanzania C. J. Galabawa The World Bank Washington, D.C.  Copyright C 1990 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printingJuly 1990 Discussion Papers present results of country analysis or research that is circulated to encourage discussion and conmment within the development conmnunity. To present these results with the least possible delay, the typescript of this paper has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. 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Galabawa is senior lecturer and head of the Department of Educational Planning and Administration at the University of Alberta in Canada. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Galabawa, C.J., 1950- Implementing educational policies in Tanzania / C. J. Galabawa. p. cm.-(Studies on implementation of African educational policies, ISSN 0259-21OX) (World Bank discussion papers; 86. Africa Technical Department series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-1583-8 1. Education and state-Tanzania. 2. Education-Tanzania- -History. I. Title. II. Series. III. Series: World Bank discussion papers; no. 86. IV. Series: World Bank discussion papers. Africa Technical Department series. LC95.T34G35 1990 379.678-dc2O 90-40916 CIP  FOREWORD The decades of the 1960s and 1970s witnessed dramatic quantitative growth in African education systems. Beyond expanding educational places, many African countries pronounced intentions to "reform" their educational systems, by adjusting the length of education cycles, altering the terms of access to educational opportunity, changing the curriculum content, or otherwise attempting to link the provision of education and training more closely to perceived requirements for national socio-economic development. Strong economic growth performances of most African economies encouraged optimistic perceptions of the ability of governments to fulfill educational aspirations which were set forth in educational policy pronouncements. Sadly, the adverse economic conditions of the 1980s, combined with population growth rates which are among the highest in the world meant that by the early 1980s, education enrollment growth stalled and the quality of education at all levels was widely regarded as having deteriorated. In recognition of the emerging crisis in African education, the World Bank undertook a major review to diagnose the problems of erosion of quality and stagnation of enrollments. Emerging from that work was a policy study, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment. Revitalization, and Expansion, which was issued in 1988. That study does not prescribe one set of education policies for all of Sub-Saharan Africa. Rather, it presents a framework within which countries may formulate strategies tailored to their own needs and circumstances. In fact, a central point which is stressed in the study is the need for each country to develop its own country-specific education strategy and policies, taking into account the country's unique circumstances, resource endowment and national cultural heritage. The crucial role of national strategies and policies cannot be over- emphasized. In recognition of the centrality of sound policies as a basis for progress, in 1987 the Bank's Education and Training Department (the relevant unit responsible for the policy, planning and research function at that time) commissioned a set of papers by African analysts on the comparative experiences of eight Anglophone Eastern and Southern African countries, each of which had developed and issued major education policy reforms or pronouncements. The papers give special attention to deficiencies in the design and/or implementation processes that account for the often-yawning gaps between policy intentions and outcomes. The lessons afforded by the eight African case studies, along with a broader- perspective assessment of educational policy implementation, are presented in the papers by George Psacharopoulos (the overall manager of the set of studies) and John Craig. The eight country case studies are presented in companion reports. By disseminating this set of studies on the implementation of African educational policies, it is hoped that the lessons of experience will be incorporated into the current efforts by African countries to design and implement national policies and programs to adjust, revitalize and selectively expand the education and training systems which prepare Africa's human resources, the true cornerstone of African development. Hans Wyss Director Technical Department Africa Region   ABSTRACT Of the three East African British colonies (Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania), Tanzania was the least well off at the time of independence in 1961. At that time, only 16,691 students were enrolled in secondary schools, and all general educational at higher levels was provided outside the country. Thus, the goals of post-independence educational policy were the distribution and equalization of educational opportunities and the expansion of the system at all levels, including the attainment of universal primary education. This report reviews the initial evolution and implementation of educational policies through government five-year development plans. From 1969-1978, the Education for Self-Reliance (ESR) program became the basis for all major educational policy changes. The final section of the report evaluates the implementation and success of educational polices and finds that the emphasis on achieving universal primary education has led to a system where there are secondary school places for only 4 percent of primary school graduates. The author reviews the financial and macroeconomic circumstances, educational theories and internal and external efficiency criteria that inform the debate about educational quality and ESR, which stressed that education should help to promote a socialist transformation of society, and which emphasized preparation for rural and community life over theoretical knowledge, particularly at the primary level. The report finds that some policy objectives were contradictory and that, in the short run, quantitative and efficiency objectives have been incompatible.   TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. EDUCATION AND THE ECONOMY ........................................... 1 2. HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS ............................................. 3 3. EXPANSION AND EXTENSION OF FORMAL SCHOOLING POLICIES ................5 4. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT POLICIES ............................7 5. POLITICAL AND QUALITATIVE CHANGE POLICIES .......................... 10 6. EVALUATION AND EFFECTIVENESS POLICIES .............................. 13 7. AN APPRAISAL OF THE POLICIES ....................................... 15 Expansion and Enrollment ........................................... 15 Quality of Education ............................................ 17 Education and Production .......................................... 18 Manpower and Self-sufficiency ...................................... 19 Financial Implications and Dependency .............................. 22 Employment and Rural Development ................................... 23 8. COST BENEFIT ISSUES ................................................ 25 9. CONCLUSION ................................................ 27 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................ 28   - 1 - 1. EDUCATION AND THE ECONOMY In economic terms, Tanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world. With a population of slightly more than 20 million, and a GNP at 1966 constant prices of around 10.5 million U.S. dollars in 1983, the per capita income is approximated as slightly lower than 300 U.S. dollars. In a country with so low an income per head, educational policies must be formulated with reference to their effect on the economy and the poor majority. However, since the capacity of the economy to provide resources for education is low, the educational policies must be judged not only according to their stated objectives, but also according to efficiency criteria. Table 1 Typology of Tanzania Educational Policies Characteristic Objectives/ Features Period Policy/Instrument(s) Remarks Expansion and ex- 1961-1969 1) Education Ordinance - Integration tension of formal of 1961 and schooling equalizational opportunities - Free entry over and above remission of fees - Uniform pri- mary curriculum - Expansion of enrollment especially at primary level Social and economic 1964-1970 1) First Five Year - Adult education development 1964-1969 and productivity 2) Second Five Year policy Plan 1969-1974 - Manpower develop- 3) Nyerere's Address ment and self- to Parliament, sufficiency by May 12, 1965 1980 4) Prime Minister's Directive on workers education (1973)  -2- Characteristic Objectives/ Features Period Policy/Instrument(s) Remarks Political and 1967- 1) Education for self- - Nationaliza- Qualitative reliance tion and con- change 2) Education Act of trol of educa- 1969 - Schooling and 3) Formation of Production Directorate of - Curriculum Curriculum and structuring Examination(s) (1967-1970s) 4) Institute of Education 5) Examinations Council (1975) Evaluate and 1970s 1) Musoma Resolutions - Universal efficiency (1974) Primary 2) Education Act (1978) Education 3) Presidential - Education Commission Report: and Produc 1984 tion - Technical education - Changes in Examination system - Evaluation of ESR Source: Author's research  2. HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS Of the three East African British colonies (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania), Tanzania was the least favored in terms of broad industrial and social development. This was due to several interrelated factors (Rweyemamu, 1970). Firstly, foreign investment tended to flow to Kenya rather than to Tanzania. The British settlers in Kenya were a well established pressure group in London, while Tanzania's settlers were of mixed nationalities, without a cohesive force. Moreover, during the inter-war period and even during the depression, Tanzania was merely a conquered territory with less value to Britain since its economy had been partly molded to suit the needs of the German market. After Hitler came to power and threatened to reconquer Germany's lost colonies, the uncertain status of Tanzania worsened. The British administration's pessimism about the risk of investment opportunities and the neighboring "periphery-center" pressures favoring Kenya through a common market arrangement gave full play; industries and other infrastructural developments tended to be established in Kenya. The above picture was also reflected in the education system. Colonial administrators blocked the expansion of secondary and higher education for Africans, despite the latter's growing demand for education 'equal' to that of Europeans and Asians (Mbilinyi, 1979). In fact, very few Africans went beyond two years of basic education (reading, arithmetic, vocational training, catechism). The major objectives of education provision were to adapt the African to the colonial system of exploitation and the developing of a favored group comprising children of chiefs and wealthy individuals who could later administer the Africans at the local levels (Lawuo, 1984). Colonial education was run on a racial basis. The European schools consumed the largest share of public funds (Meena, 1979). The African schools were allocated the smallest share of financial resources as compared to Europeans and Asians. The figures shown in Table 2 indicate that Europeans were favored in terms of enrollment, and unit costs. At independence in 1961, only 16,691 students were enrolled in secondary schools, as compared with 9,883 in 1957 and 1,529 in 1947 (Muze, 1976). Few  - 4 - courses were offered at high school levels. And for the forty years that the British had ruled Tanganyika, general education at higher levels was provided outside the country. The main institutions to which the few Tanganyikan Africans went were Makerere College in Uganda, the Royal Technical College in Nairobi, Kenya, and overseas British universities.  - 5 - 3. EXPANSION AND EXTENSION OF FORMAL SCHOOLING POLICIES The major policies adopted after independence had the following objectives: First, were the policies whose major objectives were to distribute and equalize educational opportunities. Second, were the policies whose main objectives were expansion of educational institutions at all levels (primary, secondary and university schooling). Table 2 Net Expenditure on Education in Tanganyika Territory in 1947 School Representation Per Student Race Population Enrollment in Percent Costs Africans 5,480,391 113,198 2.1