Women and the subsistence sector : economic participation and household decision-making in Nepal

s ~iws The e ~ a s ~ t i s l a n iasld s+?cesssd i n .- L..,s autkol~and paper are t ! l ~ s eOF L ~ B do sot r s c ~ s s d r i 2 yreflect those o f :he V o r l d Ban;: S r w p . She paper is a # ! r a f t f o e dLscsssPoz; pisase do nix c t = e wittouc cha trrrthors' p e r r ~ i s u l o n . A revlsed version i s cociag out as a Yorld 33& S t a f f goskins Paper. A p r i l 1332  T h i s paper a t t e m p t s f i r s t t a a n a l y z e h w v a r i o u s s o c i o - c u l t r a l , economic and demographic f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e e x t e n t and s t r u c t u r e of f e a a l a economic p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e l a r g e l y s u b s i s t e n c e economy of r u r a l S e p a l . I t t h e n i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e r e l a t i o a s h l p between t h e s e v a r i a b l e s and t h e e x t e n t of vomens' i n p u t i n t o t h e household d e c i s i o n - a t i n g p r o c e s s . Among t h e s p e c i f i c hypothesea examined is t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of female d e c i s i o n - d i n g pover i n t h e hcusehold is p o s i t i v e l y a f f e c t e d by women's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e market economy and n e g a t i v e l y a f f e c t e d by t h e i r confinement t o s u b e i s - I ' t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n and domestic vork. The paper a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t women's decision- making i n p u t f s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e . income s t a t u s of t h e household. - , . ?,- n ,..,e:s vc f;.e 2 2 tf-.2ii3L;gi~31 3 G G C X ( l r 3 $ ~ ~ : 5 & t8h e ~ 3 ~ p l c ' h i i l ~ a Q~ )b US ~ Li- L t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e approaches t o data c o l l e c t i o n which v e r e combined i n t h e s t u d y . The survey i n s t r u ~ a t s used t o c o l l e c t tfm a l l o c a t i o n , d e c i s i o n making and o t h e r quantitative d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d a l o n g w i t h a condensed v e r s i o n of t h e F i e l d guide t o t h e c o l l e c t i o c of i n d e p t h a n t h r o p o l o ~ i c a la t e r i a l on uoaen and households.  'ihe s p e c i f i c c o n c a r a of c5is dLscusslon is t s L 3 v e s c i ~ a t a :he r?La:toashlp 3ecveen :fa a x : a l t and s:ra;cura 2f uosea's econoli; parti:!- pacton and t h e i r r a l a t i v e input t n t o household econooic d e c l s t o n s . I/ - Xou- e v e r , t h i s i n ~ e s t l $ a t l o n i a c a r r i a d o u t l a the c o n t e x t of t h e 3roader i s s u e o f *mmen4a S t a t u s . You $0 H =asura tho r e l a t i v e O~SCQS af v m e n 10 a ~ i v e n - c ~ 3 a u n l c yand hw is it adlacrid by v a r i o u s economic, e d u c a t i o n a l , denoqraphlc acu jnehs-cuEcural varlabl%s? % r e o v e r , i f such r e L a t i o n s h l ? s a n be estab- - l t s h e d , what i e p l i c a t i o n s -- both la t a m s of a q u l t p and zrowttr - might thcy ha*ra f o r t h e €ormulacion of davelopaent p o l i c y ? Using s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s from a c o o p r e h e n s l w a i c r o - l e v e l d a t a s e t c o l l a c c e d t n savan v i l l a g e s t u d i e s on the s t a t u s of women i n Sepal, an a n a l y t i c a l frameuork is p r e s e a t e d . 2/- The aajor q u a n t i t a t i v c i n d i c a t o r o ~ f female s t a t u s used i s t h e r e l a t i v e i n p u t i n t o t h r e e a r e a s of household declsion-makinq: Pars namg%aant, d o a e s t t c expenditure and, f i n a l l y , d i s p o s a l o f household r e s o u r c e s which is considered t o be t h e a o s t powerful fndica- I tor. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e level of women's p o L i t i c a 1 awareness and p a r t i c i p a t i o n and t h e l e v e l of e d u c a t i o n achieved are also considered a s i n d i c a t o r s of , I - l/ The a u t h o r s would uZ;~ t o e x p r e s s t h e i r thanks t o t h e f o r d Foundation and IMfCZP f o r wkfng t h G endeavor p o s s i b l e . Thanks a r e a l s o due t o Susan Cochrane, Rashid Farugee, and Susan S t o u t f o r t h e i r v a l u a b l e h e l p w i t h t h e s t a t i s t i c a l analysis.* 2e ove a s p e c i a l thanks t o o u r programmers Woody fin and Xao Sin, t o e e Yord P r o c e s s i n g Unit and t o o u r e x c e l l e n t secretary Nellie A r t i s . - 2/ .Although t h e data vere c o l l e c t e d f o r e i g h t v i l l a g e s , t h e t h e a l l o c a t i o n d a t a v e r e l o s t i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . The a n a l y s i s t h e r e f o r e i s based on d a t a f o r seven v t l l a g e s . female s t a t u s . L/ ?%e f r a e w o r k e n c o w a s s e s several secs of r a r i a b l e s vhLch Jete tho.lo,'rt t o a f f e c t rsczen's s t a t 3 9 3f:her d i r e c t l y or tjar3ugb t n t e n a d i a - t l ~ n d n d an ae:253c s zaCa ! ~3 3UJgesC h w these se:s xi:? be re?.3ted. 5everal s o c l o - c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s are used a s p r o x i e s f o r tbe !?do % f o r cultural s r o u ? s covered by t h e s t u d y -- t h e group belong!nz to the Mndu Pado-Aryan c u l c u r a l t r a d i t i o n and che t i b e t o - 9 u n a n aroup f o l l o u ? n q 3uddhls t o r ladlgenous rellglons. Other s e t s of v a r i a b l e s such as Irousehold dconoalc r e a t u a , v a r f o u s - I n d i v i d u a l l e v e l c h a r a c c + r i s t i c s an4 che s t r u c t u r e ~f f e a a l e ecanoai: p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e also Incorporatatl i a t o t h e b r m e r o r k as f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n s oozen's s t a t u s . 'Sfchin t h e g e n e r a l f r a a e u o r k p r e s e n t e d i t vould be p o s s i b l e t o f n v e s t f g a t e nuprerous o t h e r a s p e c t s a € t h e q u e s t i o n of women's status - to look a t t h e r e l a t l o n s h f p s between t h e i a d f c a t o r s and b e t r e e n each of t h e d i f f e r e n t oarfables. A thorough exploration of t h e s e r e l a t f o n s h l ~ sis, hovever, beyond t h e scope of t h e p r e s e a t d t s c u s s f o n . Instead, our objective is t o Focu? on one f n d f c a t o r : household d e c f s i o n - a a k i n g . Qe w i l l look a t t h e conditions a s s o c i a t e d v i t h hfgh female d e c i s l o n ~ k i n ~ analyze t h e and r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f t h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e l e v e l of women's decf sion-maki ng i n p u t ,la t h e household. . W a g t h e specf f i c h y p o t h e s i s ko !x C t e s t e d i n t h e c o u r s e of t h i s a n a l y s i s is t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h olE * - female d e c f s f o n l a a k l n g power i n thfr household is p o s i t i y $ l y c o r r e l a t e d .with L E ! @ - 1/ It * a u l d have been u s e f u l t o have p e a s u r e s of vamen's h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n - s t a t u s and t h e e x t e n t of t h e i r c o n e r o l o v e r t h e i r own r e p r o d u c t i v e behav- f o r and t h e ovclership of p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y . Although an a t t e m p t uas jade t o c o l l e c t d a t a on t h e l a t t e r a s p e c t ( s e e Annex 111, tfme and r e s o u r c e l i d t a t i o n s prevented us from a t t e m p t i n g t o g a t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e I n f o r m - t i o n on h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n s t a t u s and c o n t r o l of r e p r o d u c t i - ~ e5 e h a v i o r l  t h e e x t e n t of women's p a r t i c i p a t i o n f a t h e market e c o n o w and h o w p r o d u c t i o n o f c r a f t s f o r s a t e and n e 3 a t i v e l g c ~ r r e l a c e d-4th t!te?r i n p u t i n t o s u h r i s t a n c s : uort a g r L c u t t u r a l ? r a d u c t ! o ~ and 1ta3esti . 3 e 3ata: ? a r m e t e r s and S t l o d s of C o l l e c t i o n The daca used i n ehls anal7sl.s vtro generated i a a Cia19 study con- . Rucced under c!ia S t a t u s 9f Yonen ? r o jccz La Se?al. L/ The x o j e c t had rvc, d i s t i n c t parts. In t h e f i r s t phase, a t e v i a u of t h e e ~ i s t i n g7 a c t o - d a t a s e t s , micro- level s n t h r o p o l o ~cia l s t u d i e s and t h e l e g a l and 1n s t i t u t i o n a l fra3eulork - was c o o p l a t e l . ?/ The scope of the subsequent f l e l d s t u d i e s vas d e t e n i n e d i n t h e l i g h t of t h e def i c f e a c i e s d i s c o v e r e d f a t h e e x i s t i n g d a t a s e t s and, t h e r g e n e r a l l a c k of i n f o w t i o n on roama and m r a l households. e The n a j o r f i n d i n g s of t h e f i r s t phase shoved t h a t c u r r e n t eaployment and economic a c t i v i t y r a t e s v e r e extremely h a d e q u a t e t o c x a s u r e women's contribution t o the rural economy, chat t h e demographic d a t a s e t s , e p e c i f i c n l l y on marrfage and d t v o r c e , r e f l r c t e d t h e p e r c e p t i o a o f t h e predoai nant ?iiadu c o m u n i t y r a t h e r than t h c r e a l i t y , and t h a t t h e r e was a l a r g e gap b e t v e e n t h e n a t i o n a l l e g a l f r a a e v o r k and actual l e g a l p r a c t f c e s l a r u r a l a r e a s . Consequently, t h e primary o b j e c t i v e pf t h e second phase w a s t o c r e a t e an adequate d a t a base f o r a s o r e r e a l i s t i c w a l u a t i o a of -anen's economic ilnd s o c i a l r o l e s ic Sepal. This involved s t u d y i n g v a r i o u s d i s c a s i o n s of r u r a l - - 'J L -1/ s T h i s p r o j e c t was c a r r i e d - o u t by t h e C e n t r e f o r Econordc Development ancl e ! - A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (CEDA) a t Nepal's Tribhuoaa U n i v e r s i t y under a g r a n t from USAID. - 2/ See t h e list of p u b l i c a t i o n s on S t a t u s of Women i n Nepal a t t a c h e d t o t h e references.  household behavior, . X s a 3y-,.oduct, ~ a l a r g e data sac =&astpneracsd, j i Z $ L n a s ~ s ? t s h e z 3 t v ep i : ~ u r e o f c3e s u 3 s i s c s n c e s e c c a t r a i c h i s g e ~ e r a l l y54:s red in only a s a t o o l 29r s:udping 2oeen's r o l e and s z a r u s 5uc a l s o as 3 see? :ooarJs 3 sots r e a l i s t i c a s s e s s a e n c o i t h e raLe of the s u b s i s c s n c e sector i n deva!- countries tn g e n e r a l . o~tng I a r ' o r a u i d ~ l n go u t S P ~ C W C : ~~ p tiidftcfd fr3b= :;\C 59sL5 :keorecf;sl . u t i i c ~ r ; ?c ~ n s c f - x t hi17132 .I ~Lzglee ~ p l a r t ion. c ?oL:ouing quinn ( 1 9 7 i ) ye f z L t coa;luni:y or c r o s s cuh:urallg - uould n o t o a l y be a Sroris over-sL~pLiMcacLon of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p Set0aeen s e x e s , b u t would amounc co an unwarranted r e d u c c i o n i s c approach co t h e s t a d p of h u w n s o c i e t y . t h e f a c t t h a t sone degree of feeaale s u b o r d i n a t l o n / a a l e dominance is a p p a r e n t i n a l n o s t aLL c u l t u r e s (Ortner 197L; Rosaldo 1915; R e i t e r 1975; Kessler 1975) as v e l l a s Ln !;+pal, d i d not a l l o w us t o assume t h a t e i t h e r t h e conftgura:ion o r the causal nexus of s e x u a l i n e q u a l i t y would e v e r y h e r e be t h e same. Therefore, d e s p i r e t h e t i c l e of o u r p r o j e c t , w e f e l t t h a t i t v a s a i s l e a d i n g t o speak of eh@ , s t a t u s of v o w n -- even r i ~ h i n a s i n g l e group. 'lie expected t h a t i f we looked L . c a r e f u l l y enough, o u r s t u d i e s of t h e v a r i o u s comuuni:ies i n S e p a l would a l l d e a l of a n b i y i t y i n the r e l a t i o n s between t h e sexes. reveal a ~ o o d Specifi- c a l l y , *ve expccced t h a t women's s t a t u s vis- a- vis men ( t n a g i v e n community) 8 - vouid vary v i c h women's 3any r o l e s and t h e c o a t e x t s w i t h i n which t h e s e r o l e s a r e enacted. Since s t a t u s is a f u n c t i o n of t h e power, a u t h o r i t y and p r e s t i s e a t t a c h e d t o a g i v e n r o l e by s o c i e t y and s i n c e everyone, m l e and f e n a l e , must e n a c t a number of d i f f e r e n t r o l e s i n t h e c o u r s e of a Lifetime ( o r indeed in a  s i n g l e day o r even s i a u l t a n e o u s l y a t a gtven i n s t a n t ) , ve would expect t h + ststus of any one i n d i - ~ t d u a l - at any c j t e g ~ r ylL?e sale o r f a a l a -- : 3 5s a coa?Iex c o n f i q u r a t i o n a c C ~ i c 3feoq chass nany r o l 2 s and the var?ous ? o v e r s , I f s i t a t i o n s and t h e ?erceL.red -ralues j s s l q n a d t:, thm. R e 3u?ti-di3snsLonal n a t u r e of the concept of s t a t u s , t h e r e f o r e , caLled f o r a x l t i - d l a e n s l o n a l approach t o the s t u d y o f *dozen 13 r u r a l ~ o u s e h o l d ~ .3 b s l e d re v a r i o u s t n n o v a t f o m i n our r e s a a r c h destg3. . The f Lrst s d s n i f i c a n t d e p a r t u r e from convent t o n a l approacses eras to coaoane quancdtaclve survey 3ethods ~ L c ht h e c o l l e c r l o n of i n -d e p t h a n t h r o - pological mteria',. 3Ls * ~ i l n s :ha: t h e q u a n t i c a t i ~ e~ t ? a 5 1 e s' b c ~ e scatis- t i c a l l y examined i n t h i s paper r e p r e s e n t o n l y a s m a l l p a r t of t h e d a t a a v a i l - a b l e € t o n the S t a t u s of '&acn study. .hd while t h e s e d a t a a r e u s e f u l and, l n f a c t , e s s e n t i a l f o r aaalyz?ng t h e p a r t i c u l a r s e t of r e l a t i o n s h i p s ue a r e primarily concerned w i t h here, they do not i n t h e a s e l v e s provide a a e a n l 3 g l u l c o n t e x t i n which t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s l n broader t e r n s . They a r e , i n s h o r t , inadequate t o c a p t u r e t h e c o ~ p l e x i c yof I r u r a l women's l i v e s and t h e f u l l range of c u l t u r a l and economic Forces which combine t o d e t e r s i n e t h e i r s t a t u s i n a given community and t o l a f l u e n c e the! way they i n t e r a c t t h e development process. There has been a growing . I 1 awareness -1 t h a t t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e approach on its o m cannot provide t h e kibd - - of i n f o r m a t i o n needed t o ansver m n y of t h e most fundamental q u e s t i o n s 'i i 11 - See Campbell, Stone and S h r e s t h a , The Use and W s u s e of S o c i a l Science Research i n Nepal, 1480, Gorkha Sansthan. Also, Xichard Anksr, " Research oa 'Aoraen's Roles and Demographic Change: Survey Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s f o r house- h o l d s , **Dmen, raen and communities with background explanation. 1980, ILO; and " Rural Women's ? a r t i c i p a t i o n La Development," E v a l u a t i o n Study Yo. 3 , 1980, ITNDP, Sew Pork. c u r r e n t l y posed by development - not only those i a v o l v i n ~uoaen o e r se but a hole h o s t of o t h e r r e l a t a d i s s u e s concerning :he needs and choice^ of house- holds. 3 e Isteninants 34 fer:PI Ley an4 t s c h n a l x y ~ d a o ion, : t s a l:t?a3!cs 35 r u r a l Labor -cCets, p a t t e r n s QC Plausebold s a v i w p ~ n d invesc:ear, &ucs:lon and h e a l t h c a r e b e h a l t o r and t h e Lntra household d l s t r i 5 u : l o n of food ac'd o t h e r resources; i n s h o r t , a l l t 5 e 3 i c r o - i s s u e s of household behavior can only 5e adequatdlg analyzed u s i n g a co~Sinnt!on o f ?a-depth n n t h r o p o l o q i c s l a a t e r i a l and q u a n t l c a t i v e survey d a t a . Far the Xeoal Stlat.j'ji -F '-'-22~3?ti:.: sidJies, 4 f f o r t vas c o n ~ c l o ue~ a d e t o place equal cophasis on t3e c o t l e c c i s n af 50th r r a e s of d s t l . :I f i e l d ~ e t h o d o l o q pwas developed combtning che e x t e n s i v e use of v a r i o u s types of surveys and q u e s t i o n n a r i e s v t c h La-depth a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l approaches such a s p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n , open ended 'key-infomant i n t e r v i e v s and, m e t i m p o r t a n t l y , extended r e s i d e n c e La t h e c o m u n l t p under study. Each of t h e e i g h t p s i a a t y n s c a r c h e s s l i v e d f o r a a i n b u n s f a f x months v i t h a family i n t h e c o r n u n i t y and s e v e r a l had t h e benef it of o o r e than Wo g e a r s residence. t o g u i d e them i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n aud i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of In-depth u a t e s i d on v i l l a g e v o w n and provfde some degree of u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e t y p e of - q u a l i t a t i v e m t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d , t h e r e s e a r c h e r s J o i n t l y developed a P i e l d . I Yaflual ( S t a t u s of ::omen Team: 1979). The s a n u a l is organized i n t o s e c t i o n s - c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e n a j o r a s p e c t s o r 'dinensions' - of -women's s t a t u s which t h e team uanted t o i n v e s t i g a t e : t h e eco*mic, familial, p o l i t i c a l , educational, l e g a l and f i n a l l y t h e i d e o l o g i c a l o r T e l f g i o u s dimension. Path s e c t i o n Jr c o n t a i n s a s e r i e s of l e a d i n g q u e s t i o n 8 t o open t h e r e s e a c h e r t o i o p o r t a n t i s s u e s and l i n e s of enquiry as w e l l as s u n g e s t f o n s on hov t o approach c e r t a i n s e n s i t i v e topics. Also included f o r o p t i o n a l use a t e s c h e d u l e s t o guide t h e  r e s e a r c h e r i n c o l l e c t i n g i n f o m a t i o n f r o a key f n f o m n t s on such t o p i c s as c h i l d b i r t h p r a c t i c e s and a t t i t u d e s : w a r d s B e r t f l i t y , le3al s x t u s , kinsM? :tns. t 5 e percalved s e x u a l l i - ! ~ ? o n aP l a b o r , m:e $??ale v.we r a t z s sce. I: 'das expected (and e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d ) cbae: s o r e s e a r c h e r v o u l i be a b l e t o f o l l w up a l l t h e l i 3 e s of fnquicy suqftested i n tLe r ~ a n u a land t h a t each vould . d e v o t e more a t t e n t i o n ta t 5 o s e a r t a s which p a r t i c u l a r l p f n t e r e s t e d E!lat . r e s e a r c h e r o r vhtch a a e r s e d as c e n t r a l t o u n d a r s t a n d l n p t h e r c a t u s s f uomen Ln . t h e p a r t L c u l a t c o m u n l t p where he o r she worked. -..-- -,,e E ; adatid; is excreoeiv heLpibL yhen che r e s e a r c h team 1 s L n t a r - d i s c i p l i n a r g and Lacludes s o l e casearcherlp v i r h a Sackpround i n ant?rro- p o l o g f c a l f i e l d t e c h n i q u e s and o t h e r s u i t h o u t . L/ A condensed v e r s i o n of t h e s n u a l is presented i n Xnnax 11. Although i t LB of n e c e s s i t y somewhat c u l - t u r e - s p e c i f i c t o S e p a l , auch of what t h e s a n u a l c o n t a f m c o u l d be u s e f u l i n d e v e l o p i n g s i o i l a t g u i d e l i n e s f o r f n t e r - d i s c i g l i a a r y teams i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s s e e k i n g i a - d e p t h a m t e r i a l on women and households. fn a d d i t i o n t o t h e a t t e n t i o n given t o c o l l e c t i n g in- depth m t e r i a l , the o v e r a l l e n p h a s i s on t h e importance of c u l t u t a l v a r i a b l e s is a l s o e v i d e n t i n t h e sample d e s i g n which c o v e r s e i g h t d i f f e r e a t comeunities purposive1:y s e l e c t e d t o encompass as much a s p o s s i b l e of Sepal's v f d e e t h n i c and gee- I t graphic variation. The country's I tvo major c u l t u r a l groupings - the Indo- Aryan and t h e Tibeto- Buman - and its p r i a c l p a l geographic d i v i s i o n s be tween t h e T e r a i , ?Kddle Bills and & u n t a i n s are a l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e E c u r r e n t s a w l e ( s e e Xap). 8 I - 1/ It should n o t however be c o n s i d e r e d a s u b s t i t u t e f o r a t l e a s t some t r a i n i n g i n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l approaches t o d a t a c o l l e c t i o n . For t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a l l team members p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a weekly seminar which t a n f o r two months o h i l e t h e survey i n s t r u m e n t s were being designed and pretested.  On t h e q u a o t i c a c i v e side, a s e r i e s of s u r v e y i n s t t r m e n t s c o n c a i 5 i n g casca ceabership, If:crary s t a t u s fadBj' s e r u c z u r a e t c . , 24 'nocss5old iaeo-as, production and s a l e s , 3) household a s s e t s , A ) c r e d i t use, 5 ) eup!oyaent, 6) econotzlc exchanges a t s r r i a g e , 7 ) a d u c a c l o n a l a c h i s v e a e a t and a e c i e u d e s , I . 7 ) defidar scareosypzs and tola a s d a l s , 9 ) uo=en"s p o l i t i c a l consciousness and ;scnunicy p a r t d c i p a c i o n , 10) household d e c l s f on-aaklog gaccerns , 11) t i=ie ~lliocaciora. 'LC should k noted tkar. a ; ~ ~ ~ = l 35 b d rthese vari.zblrs iacluding chose on a t clcudes, gender s t e r s c r.;spes and rala sodells and auch or' t h e daao- a r a p h i c i n f o m a t i o n of marriage c h o i c e , type of marriage, proximdey of meal home, e t c . were designed t o c a p t u r e s o c i o - c u l t u t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Thus a s p a r t o f o u r a t t e m p t a t a v h o l i s t i c approach w e t r i e d v h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e co gen- e r a t e quantitative measures of s o c i o - c u l c u r a l v a r i a b l e s co conplemenc o u ~ rin- depth material. Sot a l l o f o u r a t t e m p t s t o q u a n t i f y s o c i o - c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s were s u c c e s s f u l , bur s e v e r a l proved t o be s u r p r i s i n g l y r e l i a b l e and i n f o r z u - t i v e and t h u s p e r d t t e d che incroduccion o f tlrede f a c c a r s i n t o o u r q u a n t i t a - t i v e analysis, X more d e t a i l e d l i s t i n g o f t h e v a r i a b l e s a l o n g ~ 1 : h sample survey f o r m and s o w d i s c u s s i o n of t h e advancages and disadvantages of t h e . c methodalogy used and particular s u r v e y inscrumeacs developed a r e p r e s e n t e d i n - - - Annex XI. Our m j o r c o n c e r n h e r e i s co set o u t t h e parameters of t h e titile 'z allocation and che decision- king d a t a on which t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s is - - focused. r i! I Generacing time u s e d a t a involved two s t e p s . The f i e l d o b s e r v e r s recorded t h e activities f o r a l l members of a predetermined s a ~ p l e of hous;e- h o l d s a c a g i v e n mown: d u r i n g randomly chosen hours ( t h e nethod and s u r v e y f o r s usad a r e d e s c r 1 k . j i a C e x f l I n Annex 12)- The 61s:rLbuti011 of :iae check. 'Ilra tnajor ctw use c a c e g ~ r i s s were a n i a a l husbandry, a g r i c u l t u r e , huncing and % a s h e r l a g , food p h o c e s s l 5 ~ ,s a u f s c c u r i w g and ds@escic vork. V~QQ earnin3 a c r i i v i c l a s ;omc!ruted 3 separncd camgory 4s d i d ~ ~ p l s y ? a n t ouzalda c'ne v i l l a g e and tlse s?eac o u c s l d e t h e v i l l a g e f o r socLsl o r aduc;!t:onal pur- ;.,3~9. , --c - 9 >,~tt:i d:x TMUCLZYC XCTIY~KLU m e - u d h g educac:un,, sP;kness and crsacsenc, and a l s o on s o c i a l a c t i u I 4 i e s and P e l s u r e uos ~ t c o r d r dunder separace cacesor?cs. ZLtAin t h e rpajor c a t e g o r i e s , s u b - c a t e g o r l u s were s p e c l - Zied i n d e t a i l ( s e e . h r t x 11 f o r cocpaetd list). This 2as n e c e s s a r y I n o r d e r t o a i n i a t z e t h e l n f l w n e e of s u b j e c t i v e elements I n t h e d e f i n l c i o n of work and norpd~orkon t h e p a r t o f t h e o b s e r v e r and co a l l o w subsequent regrouping of major c a t e g o r i e s a t th a n a l y t i c a l scage. The second and perhaps more unednvenc i o n a l a s p e c t of che quanc I t a c i - ~ e eaethodology was t h e Eoraat of t h e I n s t m d e n c s u s e d Tor ; o l l e c t l n g d a t a on . d e c i s i ~ n ~ k l n g(See Annex 11.) Becausie responses t o g e n e r a l i z e d q u e s r i o n s such a s "uho makes t h e d e c i s i o n a b o u t buying cloching?", cend t o r e f l e c t r 1 c u l t u r a l no- r a t h e r t h a n a c t u a l behaviqr, t h e s e tries of q u e s t i o n s u e r e I n s t e a d respondents v e r e asked f o r e a c h c a t e g o r y of d e c i s i o n , what avoided, - - p a r t i c u l a r t r a r n a c t i o n s o r purchases had 'taken p l a c e L In t h e p a s t two weeks, -nth o r y e a r B e p e n d i n g on how ilnportanc and f r e q u e n t che type of t r a n s a c - B ! tion). X t e r f l c o r d i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t e m decided (i.e. t h e sale of a hen, t h e t a k i n g o f Rs 500 loan o r t h e purchase of a new cooking p o t ) , t h e respondent was asked about uho had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n che v a r i o u s s t a g e s of :fie  decision- making p r o c e r s . Bhus far each d e c i s i o n m d e , i a f o r a a t i a n v a s collected on uho 'had intztated bs o r auqqasbad che 14ea, uho had Seen s m s u l c e d , uho ha4 iina!Ly - erac.~cad t h e dec!s!on !.~nd !? :+a ar3;?sr .!ecl?a.! t h e mount of lone:? ca spend f o r the 2ur:hase or t o accept for t h e sale) and who, LP anyone, had subsequently Q l s a g t a d with t h e d e c i s i o n ~ m l e . 3 e survey covers a b u t for:y d i f f e r o a t c a t a g o r l a s o f household econoaic d c c l a i o n s eacoapasaLn~a broad range - fraa vhec food j r a i a t o cook on a p a r t i c g l n r day ta ~ . h p ? ~ * qr - 73: :I;B F , r ~ i i : i lild. TQC I ~ ~ O ~ P Y C L C R;)USDOSC4, L ha~vever, cha answers r e r e r e ~ r o u p e di n t o t h r e e m j o r c a t e g o r i e s . The f i r s t Is P a n- nsoagcaant and ancludes quescLons an Labor a l l o c a z l o n , crop c h o l e e , f s s t l l i z c r use e t c . The second c a t e g o r y Is d o a e s t l c expenditure which covers d e c i s l o n e on t h e purchase of m a l l food ltaam and household n e c e s s i r i e s , c l o t h l n q and household d u r a b l o s , e d u c a t i o n and h e a l t h c a r e e x p e n d i t u r e , e x p e n d i t u r e on smll g i f t s and l o a n s , religious and s o c i a l e b l i g a t i o n s and t r a v e l , as v e l l a s Infotcsatlon on who keeps t h e household money end who g e n e r a l l y does t h e shoppizg. The fl-1 c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s a a j o r c a p i t a l t r a n s a c t i o n s and d i s p o s a l of household productdon. These are decisfotw a b o u t :5z s a l e o r purchase of land o r l a r g e anfmals, about t h e m r k e t t n g of family a g r i c u l t u r a l endl c r a f t r t produccior?, about s t a r t i n g up o r expaading a b u s i a e s s , t a k i n g o r g i v i n g c r e d i t , etc. - - Although of c o u r s e f e v e r of t h e s e kinds of aajor d e c i s i o n s a r e n s a d e , thep. a r e among the a o s t t o p o r t a n t , a d- ! consider p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s - c a t e g o r y of d e c i s i o n s t o be a better m?asure%f a c t u a l e f f e c t i v e paver f n t h e w ! P . Paoily than e i t h e r € a m jaaegement o r domesti; d e c i s i o n s . S -re i. The t h e a l l o c a t i o n d a t a used f n t h e m j o r p a r t oE t h e c u r r e n t a a a l y s l s c o v e r s 167 households f r o a seven v i l l a g e s . Twenty-ftour houaeholds w r e randomly s e l e c t e d frcm each v i l l a g e except one v h e t e t h e  - numbr was 23. 1/ The t o t a l nrr~bero f cCrJe use o b s e w s r i o n s ( L e e . !ndi-ziduals ohsec*~edx 21135ee 3f t'ses o5setved) $3 loca :%a3 ~ i z a t y' b o u ~ a n d . Pns 7 o p ~ - tarioa covatled Jg :he :tze use 33331s l s 578 fezialas 334 $53 asles. The o t h e r data p a t : a h t o a saapla o f 179 households o r a t z t s l popu- l a t i a n of 906 farales acd Q55 %lag. n f s a a a p l e o v e r l a ~ p a dt h e s i z e use s a a p l a and included an a d d i t t o n a l 11 houses tandoaly s e l e c t e d La each of the seven v i l l a s e s p l u s an a d d i t t o n a l 35 houeeholda La an e i g h t h vCl!aqc. The 9,368 were hot t h o s e 167 households which a r e fncludcd i n t h e c u t t e n t a n a l y s t s fnvolvlag t3+ c f a e m a data. The h s i d e - O u t s i d e Dichotoay: A D e s c r i p t i v e Yodel From t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e t u r a l s u b s i s t e a c e household, t h e market s e c t o r is r e a l l y n o t t h e n o s t f a p o r t a n t a s p e c t of t h e econoay. Only 30.6 p e r c e n t of t h e a n n u a l incow! of households Ln t h e p r e s e n t sample is g e n e r a t e d t5rough m r k e t i n t e r v e n t i o n - 12 p e r c e n t throush t h e s a l e of home-produced goods, 5.9 p e r c e n t through t r a d i a g p r o f i t and 11.7 p e r c e n t through uage income ( s e e Table 3 Annex I). These a r e t r u l y s u b s i s t e n c e households, consuminq more @ t h a n 86 p e r c e n t of what they produce and f o r them t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r , u h i c h g e n e r a t e s 69.4 p e r c e n t o f t h e f a m i l y income, is primary. - Hence,- i n t r y i n g t o understand t h e f t b e h a d o r ' - -a e s p e c i a l l y as r e g a r d s t h e ecortodric p a r t i c i p a t i o n of w k e n i n r e l a t i a n t o t h e r e l a t i v e mle and female i u p z t fn 8 Y - it I household d e c i s i o n k a k i n q is l o g i c a l t o b e g i n with t h i s s e c t o r . - 1/ Out of t h e i n i t i a l scmple af 168 households one household had t o be dropped because o f s i g r a t i o n .  X r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of t h e simple d e s c r i p t i v e 'model' of t h e v i l l a g e econoay presented iq an e a r l i e r a n a l y s i s (.\charpa and 3ennett 19R1), Ls .'e-reloped h e r + , a ~ o d e lu\!cS u c a r t s fro3 :he ?ersotc:ir:e qf t?ra mrrl lo'dse- h o l d and c r i e s through t h e use of tlae a l l o c a t i o n daca, t o provide a o o r e p r e c i s e , empirically- based a e a n s of a n a l y z i r q t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r and i t s i n t e r a c t ion vi t h t h e m r k e t s e c t o r i n t r a d i r i o n a l and d c v c l o p i a g scon- ootes. L/ I n t h i s v i e v , t h e v i l l a g e econoay is conceived a s operaolnq i n t h r e e or actually faur cr)neerrt~!c c:h~r?s s r .;c-:?rs - . - 2a;., ~i *:rich o f f e r s a s e t or' p o s s i b l e r t r a t e q i e s f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e family's licring standard or 'welfare' by cSc ?reduction of income, 3 e r f 3 m a n c c of s c r - t i c e s o r q e n e r a t i a n of l e i s u r e f o r each i n d i v i d u a l =ember. These f o u r s p h e r e s begin v i t h 1 ) t h e household's d o w s t i c w r k and then 2) its a g r i c u l t u r a l production a c t i v i t i e s and aove outvard t o 3) work i n the v i l l a g e l a b o r market and l o c a l bazaar and f i n a l l y , through s h o r t t e n u f ~ r a t i o n , t o 4) etaplopnent Ln t h e v t d e r economy beyond t h e v i l l a q e . l A l l ~ r a households must combLne v a r i o u s s t r a c e q i e s from a l l f o u r s p h e r e s i n t h e a t t e n p t t o emximite t h e i r u e l f a r e . 3ut t h e r e a r e varied patterns i n the ageisex d i ~ i s i o nof l a b o r within t h e household betareen t h e s e spheres. One p a t t e r n of t h e d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i n v o l v e s 'keepiag women L t and c h i l d r e n s o r e dt less e x c l u s i v e l y v i t h i a t h e Laner sphere; o t h e r p a t t e r n s permit women and c h i l d r e n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e second, t h i r d and even f o u r t h spheres t o vatpi- d e g r e e s , though g e n e r a l l y rrea have l i t t l e t o do with - 1/ While f o l l o v i n g t h e new household e c o n o a i c s i n v i e v i n g t h e household am t h e c e n t e r of economic a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s of Sepal, t h i s approach d i f f e r s i n c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t h e a n a l y s i s of a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s r a t h e r t h a n t h e maximization of t h e household u t i l i t y functfon. T h i s s h i f t of emphasis is p a r t i a l l y due t o t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of aeasurement involved b u t a l s o because of c e r t a h fundamental d o u b t s about t h e adequacy of t h e concept of u t i l i t y a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r a l l a s p e c t s of household behaviar. (See k h a r y a , 1982).  a c t i . r t t i e s i n t h e f i r s t s p h e r e uhfch no s l a t t e r what t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n Ln t h e distribution of l a b o r , see3 to be ? e f t t o maen. p It cke c e n t e r of t\is 204e? then, ~ n a l y c i e ~ l lseparlsed 993 :he o t h e r "econo3lc" o r !3cose-ear3!aq s e c t o r s bur su?porclng a91 of :he3 31th i s : s d r v f c e s , is the 3ouseholQ u!fntenance Sabesa. Sphere T enco3passea t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d as 'doaest fc' suck as cooking, laundry, c l a a n i n a and c h i l d c a r e . Although chrse s e r v i c e s a r e s e e n a s necessary f o r f a a i l v survival. and earlld t f i e a s e t i c a l l v 3e ?f.:nv a* *=c?.?a-! t-, vzlm:- :5:-,.~;:; :l;c use of imputed wage r a t e s i n coa3inacLo-i v i t h ti- allocatfon data, t h i s has qoc k e n done ta :be preseat arwlgsls. L/ n e %useho!d Ysisrtennnce Sphere h a s not been c o n s i d e r e d p a r t of t h e s u b s i s t e a c e s e c t o r j u s t a s i t has n o t Seen c o n s i d e r e d p a r t of t h e c a r k e t s e c t o r f a conventfonal economic a n a l y s e s , though i t f s c e r t a i n l y e q u a l l y c r u c i a l t o t h e e x i s t e a c e of both. - 21 The s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r o r Sphere f f of t h e r u r a l economy is t h e h Family Pam Z n t e r p r i s e . T h i s is e s s e n t i a l l y t h e household a s s u a i t of i e p r o d u c t t o n and i s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t a n t e r i o r t o t h e z a r k e t econoay. Although Z p h y s i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y continuous v i t h t h e !iousehold Yaint-.lance Sphere,, i i Sphere If is c o n c e p t u a l l y s e p a r a t e in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e e c t f v i t i e s it t . I I - have been made by v a r i o u s a u t h o r s 1/ - A t t e m p t s t o v a l u e d o w s t l c a c t i v i t i e s '(for examples oa developing c o u n t r i e s s e e Quizoa 1979, Kusinic and Da~va~nzo '$1980, and ?fuellet 1991). W e did not a t t e m p t t o v a l u e domestic s e r v i c e s g a r t i a l l y because of t h e d i f f i c u l t y l a e s t a b l i s h i n g a r e a l i s t i c vage r a r e 'for such s e r v i c e s i n r u r a l S e p a l where t h e r e is o r d i n a r i l y no aarlcet €0, q h m . Another r e a s o n is t h a t t h e v a l u e of aany of t h e s e s e r v i c e s such a s mother's c a r e f o r h e r cwn c h i l d o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a seal a c c o r d i n g t o s t r i c t r u l e s of c a s t e p u r i t y by someone vho is v i t a l l y concerned v i t h t h e Earnily's r i t u a l s t a t u s , cannot, fu any c a s e , be a d e q u a t e l y captured by p u r e l y economic measures. - 2/ Domestic a c t i v i t i e s were included f a t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r o r t h e Earn Family E n t e r p r i s e i n t h e e a r l i e r a n a l y s i s (Bennett and Acharya 1951).  encompasses, a l l produce o r p r o c e s s eoods ( a s d i s t i n c t f t a a services). ?bd t!tese ~ o o d seven chouqh :hey are a r l m t i l p h s t L . r e d :'3r ~qrkeet so?? can, ?L:h 3 f?Crl:t h i ~ h:!egrce 9: ?ccp~taca? be, 3sr:qzed an tc-nm!: VI:X+ 1P $ 3 ~ 3 a3 household production are coOLecced iz cnouqh d e t a l l . In 04 tlae use c a t e g o r i e s , Sphere IT i 3 c l ~ d e sa s r l c u l t u r ~ lrand n n l a a l husbandry a c c l e i c i e a 'r)lleh a w l i f y 3s P a h r f o r c e p a r r l c l p n c l s n under c o n v e n t i o n a l d e d i n l t i o m as -dell ao a g r o w o f a c t i v i t i e s c l n s s i h l e d i n our e a r l i e r a n a l y s i s a s 'wbststence eca??oaic' [ A c h a r y ~ n n r ! :eznec,z, 33'5:;. - l a t t e r include f s ~ dprocessing. f u e l and water c o l l e c t Ion, construct!on or rspalr of me's own &ailinq and z5c ;ac+eting of v i l d food. n e s c a r s aXI a c t l v i t L e s which tn so= s e n s e produce o r process goods and which Ln P n d u s c r i a l i z e d count rles. count as l a b o r f o r c e p a r t LcLpat Lon because they a r e p e r f o m 4 co-rcfally. It t h e r e f o r e s e e a s a r b i t r a c y and soaevhat e t h n o c e n t r i c t o exclude t h m from t h e c a t e p o r p of economfc a c t i v i t les s i a p ~ l y because i n e r a d i t t o n a l s u b s is tence e c o n m i e s they a r e o e r f o n e d by family members vichout pay. They have t h e r e f o r e been included as economic a c t t v t t i e s in Sphere TI r a t h e r t h a n a s d o a e s t l c activities in 3ousehold Xaintenance I Sphere ' . e Sphere 'Iff i n t h i s a n a l y s i s is t h e &a1 ? h r k e t Zconomy which i n c l u d e s work p e r f o r a d i n t h e v i l l a g e o r near* b a z a a r s f o r vages o r p r o f i t - In e i t h e r cash o r k i n d as w e l l work performed a t home i f t h e goods prod~uced * L a r e p r i m a t f l y f o r ' s a l e o r exchauge i n t h e market. The t h e allocation c a t @ - * * g o r f e s covered by Sphere 'I11 a r e 'aanufacturiag" and " o u t s i d e income-earni:.rg" which i n c l u d e s wage l a b o r , s a l a r i e d work and work i n S u s i n e s s o r t r a d e e n t e r - prises within the village.  SpAsre I7 r e f z t s tr, s h o r t %eraX i : : ~ i i ~ n f o r fz~:3:ment in the u i & p n a r k s t ecanoay Se:rond che -zilba;s. ~~ %e d L s t i , ? i g ~ i s h ifcaruce ber.uer?? Sphcri? I I I and S p h e t g EV of :3e r9r3: e c m s z y is a o t r h c:qe 3 f ~zrlvL::j i n r 9 i n z e i 5uc - t h e l o c u s of t h e a c t i v i t y . .Any e a p l o p e n t o r s o c k l n c l u d l n g ? o r r e r i n g , dray s e r v i c e , ~ r a d ao r agricultural l a b o r c h a t r e q u i r e d a household s e n b e r t o s?end che n i g h t o u t s i d e t h e v i l l o s e vas c o n s i d e r e d as ; ~ r c i ; f ~ a r e i o n i n Sphere I V . . In p e 2 s e n t f n 3 such a ' ~ o d e l , ' chare a r e of c o u r s e , d ~ u a b e rof s x p l a n a c f o n s v h i c h s v m u l d be m d e sbouc r h y a c e r c a f n a c t i v i c y o r j e t of d c c i v i t i ~ e sv a r i n c l u d e d f a one s p h s r e and nok. anocher. For example, i: 1s p o s s i b l e t o argue chat "home a a n u f a c t u r i n g " should be placed i n Sphere I:I s f n c e t h e unf t of produceion f o r h a n d i c r a f t goods 1s g e n e r a l l y t h e house- hold. Ho.rever, i f we l o o k a t t h e o t i e n t a t ion of Some n a n u f a c r u r i ng, we f f nd t P a t 42 p e r c e n t o f w h a t is produced i s s o l d . A g r i c u l t u r a l production on t h e o t h e r hand, In t h e sample cotamnf e i e s , was p r i m a r i l y f o r home consuapt fon w i t h o n l y 10 percent o f *what is produced r e a c h i n g t h e market s o f t w a s fncluded i n Sphere II. A t t h e same t h e , even i n terms o f cSe unit of production, t h e F a n Family E n t e r p r i s e is not t o t a l l y independent o f che market economy s f n c e most households do employ a t l e a s t some wage l a b o r e r s t o supplement t h g f a m i l y a l a b o r f o r c e d u r i n g t h e peak season. - D e f i x i t l o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s s u c h as t h e s e and t h e e a r l i e r problems -r - encountered i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g "domestic" from " s u b s i s t e h c e economic" a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e d e l i n e a t i o n o f Sphere I1 o n l y highli* t h e f l u i d boundaries w - C of t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r and u n d e r l i n e t h e f a c t that t h e s e boundaries can be d e f i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y depending on which c r i t e r i o n one v i s h e s t o focus on. The p h y s i c a l l o c u s o f t h e vork, t h e s o c i a l u n i t f n which i t t a k e s p l a c e , t h e type o f o u t p u t (i.e., product o r s e r v i c e - though even t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b l u r s Lf one c o n s i d e r s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between r a w food and a cooked oeal o r a d i r t y s h i r t and a clean o n e ) , t h e d e s t i n a t i o n o f t h e o u t p u t (i.e., consua.2- Pot h o ~ e tion o r sale i n t h e m r k e t ) : these a r e a l l dizensionrr ~ L m g W?ILE!I scr-ivities have been c l a s s i S f e d 3s b r l o n < L n s Co t 5 e Coaessbc, sc5s!stence a r mrket s e c t o r i n t h e m d e l p r e s e n t e d here. dlsenstons or aspects -Lqd :hers are ~ t h e r of t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s a s w e l l , such as t h e sosrcrship of t h e s c a n s a € p r o d u c t i o n and t h e d e g r e e to which what t s produced c a n Ss % $ e n t i f l e d as the work of a p a r t i c u l a r Lndivl4ual. n e s e a s D e c t s rill be c o n s l d r r c d s u b s e q u e n t l y vhen we seek to understand bow p a r c i c i p a t f o n La d i f f e r e n t t y 3 e s of a a r k c t and non- market s c t l v i t i e s a f f e c t s women's d e c l s i o n - m k i n g Power i n t h e hone. p o i n t t o be made h e r e is t h a t t\e r e c t o r s sf :he m r a l econony L n t a r p e n e t t a t c and t h a t i n f a c t , when e x a a l n d c a r e f u l l y , ~ o s uork t a c t i v i t i e s appear t o Salong someuhere on a c o n t i n u u a which m v e s from d o m e s t i c throueh s u b s i s t e n c e t o t h e market r a t h e r t h a n t o d i s c r e e t 'sectors'. Knowing then t h a t o u r d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e Q u r 'spheres' of t h e r u r a l economg are a t b e s t p r o v t s t o n a l , us r e t u r n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n of our o o d e l . -- For o u r a n a l y s i s , t h e =st s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e of t h e s e s p h e r e s is t h a t *amen p a r t i c f p a t e t o very d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s i n e a c h o f then. n e ti* allocation d a t a r e v e a l t h e u n s u r p r i z i n g f a c t t h a t f o r t h e a g g r e g a t e sample, wcmen were r e s p o n s i b l e tor 86 p e r c e n t of t h e a d u l t tttae devoted t o t h e %usehold ?tatnee- nance or Sphere I ( s e e F i g u r e 2). I n Sphere IT, t h e Pamfly Fam E n t e r p r i s e , - - women's t i e input ws 57 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l a - still substantially greater '4 . L t h a n t h a t of mu. - For t h e market s e c t o r , however, t h e s i t u a t i o n changes and - - women's i n p u t d r o p s t o 38 p e r c c n t l l i a Sphere I11 and 25 p e r c e n t i n Sphere f0. *I C 'fiat t h i s s h o w us is a p a t t e r n f a d l i a r i n m a y p a r t s o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g * o r l d , whereby m n l e a v e t h e major p a r t of b o t h t h e d o m e s t i c work and t h e s u b s i s t e n c e farming t o women and t r y t o f i n d so- way e i t h e r w i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e o r beyond t o earn c a s h t o supplement t h e family income. The s i t u a t i o n  i n S e p a l is not as e x t r e a e a s i n s o a e A f r i c a n and ?fiddle Z a s t e r n c o u n t r i e s v h e r e e n have m r t o r l a s s , abandoned f a m i n q and 2Lzrated t3 ur5an t a n t a r s to find u a ~ eaeployrrenc. !!en s : l l ~ o c l e r ~ ~ u : $3 e percent ~f t9e : h a inpu:: i n t o t h e Fanily Fam E n t e r p r i s e a d on t h e average adul: w n 1n our sample spend 1.53 hours a day i n a n i a a l husbandry a c t i v f t i c s and 2.73 hours a day i n farn productfon - makinq a t o t a l of 4.16 hours o t a l l t t l s o v e r halt t h e i r However, i n &?a1 a r e j l c h more l i k e l y :!tan maen to coabfne t h e f r vork on t b a f a l i l y hara e n t a r p r l s e vfeh w ~ r ' c f ~tn 5 e m r k e t cconorny -- a l t h e r within t h e vf l l a q e on a d a i l y basts o r k y o n d s h e v i l l a g e on a seasonal o r Lonncem b a s i s . They can do t h i s c o t o n l y because t h e i r a 6 c f a l f z a t f o n , g r e a t e r m o b i l i t y and g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o e d u c a t f o n and c a p i t a l , e q u i p t h e a b e t t e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e a d conpete i n t h e market economy, but because female l a b o r is a v a i l a b l e w l t h i a t h e family t o a e s u r e t h a t whatever land ,and l i v e s t o c k r e s o u r c e s t h e household h a s a r e f u l l y u t i l i z e d t o provide as much o f a s u b s i s t e n c e base as p o s s i 5 l e . T h i s pattern can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a n eConomic m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e i n s i d e / o u t s i d e o r p r i v a t e / p u b l i c d i c h o t o v between t h e s o c i a l l y accorded domains of t h e s e x e s which hps been invoked by a number, of a n t h r o p o l o g i s t n (Rosaldo 1974, 1980; Sandey 1974; O r t n e r 1974) t o h e l p e x p l a i n t h e c r o s s - - cultural p h e ~ n o n o f uown's l o v e r s t a t u s wfs-A-vis men. s The argument A 'Z - t h a t uomen's ' f n v o l v ~ n twith c h i l d r e a r i n g and domestic vork h a s l e d t o t h e i r .. e x c l u s i o n f r q ) t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e of p o l i t i c s and coauerce and hence, from E I p o s i t i o n s of power and a u t h o r i t y i n s o c i e t p a t l a r g e . The d a t a a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d on women's r e l a t i v e i n p u t t o t h e Housc!hold Yaintenaace Sphere shov t h a t v m e n i n Xepal, l i k e most women, a r e f a r more invoJ.ved w l t h domestic vork than men. The average a d u l t woman i n t h e sample i n 3osc c o a a u n i t i e s . F e s a l e i n p u t i n d o g e s t i c a c t f v i t l e s ranged from 91 per- c e n t of t h e t o t 3 1 3c!alt t k e devoted t o t % f s activi:? in the c o n s e r v a t ? - ~ e 'ifndu Yait+tli c o a a u n l t y t o RQ parcent aeonz tbe T!bttan-$pea'cin~ 3uddbii1t peoples of B a r a g a o n j i l l a g e 13 the Sigh m u a t a t a s . And v i t h t)le e x c e p t i o n of - t h e h r a q a o n l e coxmunit? and t h e Y a i t h i l t c o m u n i t y , 1/ I n a l l o t h e r qroups femle i n p u t i n t o s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r a l ?rsduc:isn (Sphere 11) vas c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r than t h a t of aan's with t h e ' t l u h c s t i n t h e %qer connunity where wmen's e o n t r i b u t o n t o Sphere 11 was 59 percent of t h e t o t a l . . = .WU~YCT, despite roaea's u n r f o n l y hLgh involvement ri th t h e " i n s t d e n , t h e r e a r e s t g n f f i c a n t f n t e r - c o m u n l t y v n r t a t ions 13 t h e degree to v h i c h women p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e 'outside' o r n a r k e t s p h e r e of the economy. In f a c t a n examination of t h e c o n p a r a t f v e d a t a i n Pfgure 3 r e v e a l s two f a i r l y d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n s (see a l s o Table 4 , Annex I). One p a t t e r n d i s p l a y e d by t h e M a i t h i l l , P a r b a t i y a and t o a l e s s e r degree, t h e &war, i n d i c a t e s t h e presence of a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g i a s i d e / o u t s i d e dichotomy with vomen fn t h e s e communi- t i e s much l e s s fnvolved t h a a ma t n a c t f v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e market econ- omy. The second p a t t e r n is t h a t found s o n g t h e i h r a n a o n l e , Lohorung R a i , Khan Xagar and t o a l e s s e r degree among t h e T a n g , v h e r e t h e dichotomy h . I - 1/ There a r e two major r e a s o n s f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y l o v e r female i n p u t i n t h e Baragaonle community. F i r s t is t h e heawy dependency on o u t s i p e vage l a b o r tap r a t h e r t h a a f a m i l y l a b o r f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p t ~ d u c t i o ns i n c e population is s p a r s e , t h e growing season s h o r t and cash is a v a i l a b l e frcm t h e community's t r a d t a g ventures. Second is t h e f a c t t h a t Baragton is t h e o a l y corudknie vhere raca a r e almost e x c l u s i v e l y r e s p o n s i b l e fur f u e l c o l l e c t i b s i n c e t h e r e arc no f o r e s t s ia t h i g high mouatain &ion and p a r t i e s &st ga l o n g d i s t a n c e s and spend t h e a i g h t o u t i n t h e f o r e s t s . The X a i t h i l i community is similar ia many r e s p e c t s t o farming communities i n North I n d i a and a n g l a d e s h vhere t h e r e is a l s o a n i d e a l female s e c l u - s i o n and sane degree of s o c i a l s t i p a a t t a c h e d t o vomen's vorking o u t s i d e even i a t h e family f i e l d s . Yo0 to. KEY: COG - 40 - 40 - FEHALE TIHE wpur I 0, betveen t h e e c o n o d c (azd s o c i a l ) doanlns of c l e s e x e s is r e l a t i v e l y sea,k and dL.rision of LaSor Setadeen ctle sexes c o i n c i d e s with a3 isportant c u l c c r s l - g r o u p s uhc a r e p a r t of eke Yinau, Indo-Aryan t r a d i t i o n on :he division bec~%en one ;?and and Ti'3eto-3urzxin j r o u p r vho p r a c e i c e e f r h e r l u d d h i s o o r s u t o c h - tk-.snaus r e l i g i o n s on ;he o c h r . 31 dLB of the no;~-:dLndu T i b e t o - 3 u r ~ o n sraups -- 5uc e s p e c i a l l y amng t h e 3acsgaoPa, 3af and %gar -- t h e inside/out- s i d e dtchocooy aggeats t o k Fairly ~ e a k . In addision t o t h e i r ~ o r Li n the subsEstence s e c t o r , %wrenI n t h e s e groups a r e c o n t h i b u c i n g Setxeen 68 t o LO p e r c e n t of t h e c i a e s p e n c i n Sphere P I P , t h e Local :larket Economy and between 46 to 34 percent of che ti= s p e a t i n Sphere I Y o r Eaployaent O u t s i d e t h e V i l l a g e ( s e e F i g u r e 3). The t h r e e p r o j e c t r e s e a r c h e r s uho worked among t h e Uf, .%gar and Baragaonle, e a c h mention i n t h e i r c a s e s t u d i e s t h e emphasis p l a c e d on f e m l e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . I n a l l t h r e e g r o u p s , voaen brew h e r and l i q u o r which t h e y sell e i t h e r i n t h e v i l l a g e o r a t l o c a l f a i r s i n a d d i c i o n t o m r k e t i n g home produce and manufactured goods. S c h u l e r (1981) r e p o r t s t h a t Baragaonle women form p a r t n e r s h i p s w i t h f r i e n d s o r sisters t o s e c u r e enough c a p i t a l t o buy s u p p l i e s f o r t h e temporary "inns" t h e y run d u r i n g t h e ann.ral . I summer f e s t i v a l h i g h In t h e mountains a t t h e shtrine of Huktinath. They s e t up t e n t s from which t h e y s e l l b e e r and food, u s u a l l y m n a g i n g t o make s e v e r a l hundred rupees p r o f i t i n just a few days. Likewise, d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r s e a s o n - amny Baragaonle women set up t r a i l s i d e h o t e l s o r open s m a l l s h o p + i n H f l l . - 1 The s u b j e c t of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n Is n o t t h e a b s o l u t e amount of t i n e s p e n t d a i l y by vomren on t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s b u t t h e f a t i o of s a l e / f e m a l e i n p u t i n these a c t i v i t i e s . b t a a r s ac Peaer alctcudcs zkere chey supporc t h e s e l v e s and ckeLr c h i l d r e n by i r 2 - ~ ' , a g3nd seELLt,q Seer .sr .:3rs%t?%;ool. 5 0 ~ 2a a r ? 3ata+%onld zrZn~al?t.sc3us ;.o=ren zho a r e a i r k + r unaarrl*< sr -s?ro ;3n :e3:'+2 :kdit .z?i?Jra3 u i z 3 r ~ ! - l r . l ~ : ~ ~ even go i n the ersa?any gf nschzr ~LLPagera sap v%?.racz r a d t n g z r i p s -.3 India selling s x e a t e r s an3 ocher soolen Isem purchased fro3 Xortlr Bndlan aikls. 3ahdwn ~ r i c e sc h a t Lohotarng ,a% uonen =hl, a r s renowned f o r tlatt - hach bazaars i n the aced from v h k h "'.roe solen Ln Pan*% - 5rlag LII an annual PRCOW of 1* - . ~ h -c ?f . . ,. 'C--'-- , ,., '.. * - -"y ~ d r a $urrtb .= 1 4 i ' :"h ~ ~zd ~ nsel: snl:r : ~ ~ ~ . am c l g a r e t c c s and f i b e r o r c ~ n e - y s r k -- e i e b e r produced a t hose o r purchased a l o n g t h e way f o r resale I n ~Ihea a r k e t (1981:50). XLehough Lohor~znganen a l s o a t t e n d these weekly markets, their v i s i t d are ' " p r i ~ l a r i l yha: s o c i a l reasons" aad, except f o r t h e sale o f l a r g e aaijlrls, L t is the Yomen ~ h handle o a l l the ~a r k e t c ranssctions. :folnsc (1961) d e s c r i b e s cba t h r i v i n g b u s i n e s s conducted by some of t h e womn i n t h e Hagat c o a n i e y s h e s t u d i e d -- p a r t i c u l a r l y yout~gu m a r r i e d women, pwidous and divorced uozen. These vomen a l s o brew b e e r and l i q u o r f o r s a l e i n the village as veil as a t l o c a l f a i r s . Although p r i c e s a r e h i g h e r a t f a i r s and t h e b e e r is 3ate;ed down, "women can s t i l l s e l l as much l i q u o r as t h e y can c a r r y since t h e number of rounds of l i q u o r a teenage boy o r man can - buy f o r h i s . g e e r s d e t e r n i n e s h i s prestige." (1981: 107). She w r i t e r ; t h a t ... e n a b l e s young g i r l s t o e s t a b l i s h :heir L P* entreprenet+ship econolnic B ! independence- to so- degree b e f o r e marriage and a l l o v s them some elloice a f t e r marriage ( i n c h a t i t p r o v i d e s ) an i m p o r t a h t neans of s u p p o r t For a woman who chooses t o d i v o r c e o r separate from h e r husband" (1981: 111).  In a l l t h r e e coamuntties, a woman's n a t a l f a a i l p Is expected co supply h e r w i t h soao P a l t t a l % r a t 3 or c a p i t a ? so she m a ' h ~ i nheriae:;~. A1:houqh I c t s c a n s i d e t e d uCrtuous a'!?= a dauxhter eo cP.ira avcr 393e of 'aer - earnings t o t3e Caaily, i c Is expected t 5 a t rsuch oh 2 h a t she e a r n s v l l l go cowards purchase of h e r o m c l o t h e s and JewelPery dad o t h e r p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y t h a t she can taka uLth h e r i n raarriaga. . U l t h r e e groupa a t t a c h p r e a t f g e t o befag a good buslnase t r o s n . S c h u l a r even n o t e s c h a t youaq uoaon wit% tepu- p>t+rqe Cnr .*..-., .* ..;;a&?. ~ ~ = r - l -T q .. ?itu*lii uiilb "be aur3 JOUg11C rlltfdr 48 brides (1981). I n reqard t o wasen'% s t a t u s one of t h e most I a p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s v h i c h ! the t l b a t o - 3 u m n groups have La c o m n is t h e i r ralntl-JQPack of I d e 0 1 o g i c ~ l eonearn o v e r the s t r i c t c o n t r o l o f famala saxlllrl p u r i t y . Of c o u r s e I n a l l r r t h e s e groups high - * l u e 1s placod on s t a b l e r a l a c i o n s h i p e and m r l t a l L 1 c h a s t 1ty; n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e accepted marriage p a t t e r n s a r e f a i r l y f l e x i b l e and t h e r e a r e feu social r e s t r i c t i o n s placed on female asobillty. Since t h e r e l a Less emphasis on t h e l a p o r t a n c e of a v f r g f a SrLde sasoug t h e Tlbeto-Buraan g r o u p s , t h e age of marriage tends t o be l a t e r and m r r i a g e between a d u l t s is t h e norn- I n t h e !?agar c o m n i t y none of t h e ever- married vomen had been married before age 14 while amongst t h e b r a g a o n l e and R a L only 3 aad 6 I t p e r c e n t ~ e s p e c t i r r e l yhad been m r r f e d b e f o r e age 14. In t h e T a r b a t i y a , Ncvar - and Y a i t h i l i c o m n i t i e s , oa t h e o t h e r hand, t h e percentage of women married - b e f o r e age 14 vas 24, 29 a d 80 p e r c e n t r e d e c t i v e l y (Acharya and Bennett - 1981)- % m e n i n t h e Tibeto- Suman communitzes a l s o have more s a y i n t h e i r r c h o i c e of u r r r i a g e p a r t n e r s and f a c e no los; oh r i t u a l s t a t u s i f t h e y d e c i d e t o d i v o r c e an3 remarry. Women Ln t h e s e c o p n u n i t i e s a r e a l s o m r e c o m f o r t a b l e t a l k t a g openly v i t h men whether f a m i l y members o r s t a n q e r s 2nd much l e s s v a l u e ls placed o a "shyness" as a female v i r t u e . o f course, v a r i e s g r o a t l y depadkng upon c5e degree t o vhleh f a w n s seccle- wncs t n a &hatena r e a a r e incerspcrsed v l c h %rahaan, Chscrl, !:avar and ucher aors Htsdubred TLS%to-Bumn t r i b a l groups Hike the Curung. hlr.hough <he aLlocation p a h t e r n s , t h e L s w l v e s e n t of ramen kn ehe a s r k e t economy is not 3s ? r a n o u n ~ ? d fn t h i s e-nity as LC I s 33mg :be oc5er T i b e t o - 3 u m a grou?s dP3cussed above, .4sPa che b r a g a o n l e , .bL and Yagar c o m u n i c i e s , :he m i n t e n a n c e of strict c o n t r o l o v e r female s e x u a l p u r i t y is not a c e n t r a l theme i n Tactang s o c i e t y a d hence t h e m o b i l i t y and s o c i a l concacts of u n n a r r i e d n the X a i t h i l i and T a r b a t i y s g l r l s a r e not c l o s e l y r e s t r i c t e d ss t h e y a r e : c o m u n i c Les. However, la cont r a s c t o t h e o t h e r n o n d l c h o t o m u s groups s t u d i e d , t h e T-ng do not a p p a r to have a t r a d i t i o n of female cntrcepreneur- ship, R e r e s e a r c h e s .iho vorked aaong che Hawng r e p o r t s t;bt the yonen La h e r v l l l a g e do a o c brew beer or l i q u o r f o r s a l e a t l o c a l f a i r s l i k e t h e Rat, . I .%gar and a a r a g a o n l e u o w n , a l c h k g h they do a c t e d t h e f a i r s f r e e l y . She s p e c u l a t e s t h a t t h e reason x o x n from h e r v i l l a g e o n l y brew f o r o c c a s i o n a l -- home consumption r a t h e r t h a n For sale may be t h e l a c k o f s u r p l u s grsqin i n t h i s L - coastunity u h e r e t h e p e r household income vas che lowest of a l l t h e e l l a g e s * s t ~ d i e d( I n d i s a 8 h r e s the, p e r s a n a l cotrmunlcat i o a ) , The s u c c e s s of *e I A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p e n c Bank's Small Farmer c r e d i t groups composed p r i m a r i l y of f e m l e Tataang weavers i n Rasuwa d i s t r i c t s u g g e s t s t b c Tahanang c o n m u d t i e s i n o t h e r a r e a s may a l r e a d y have t r a d i t i o n s of female e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p -- o r at l e a s t be r e c e p t i v e co t h e i d e a . !foreover, Tamng vonen a r e f a i r l y a c t i v e fa  the l a b o r m r k e c . The o n l y cac-uni:y v k s r e :he ? r o p o r t f o n of i e a a l a -14 T w n g v o m n vas 3s percent <Ac:urya and aennett 19811. .bong che d i c h o c o w u s c w n u n i c i a o , a d i f f e r e n t c u l c u r a l p a t t e r n prevails. The asst extrezze amns chest e o m u n i c i c s drs t h e . U a i t h i l i and che ??cbac:::a -- Su:n o f Indo-A:ynn racial stock and otrRodox 3indu ta1:gloas Seltats. The . % f c h i l i vL!Lage scudfad is s i z f l a r co 2indu v i l l a g e s La ::ortkurn Endda r i c h a f u l l m n g e of c a s t e s f t o a Srahaans t o u n t e u c h a b l e C!unar 5 uhf le t h e P a r 5 a c i y a viL1age is conposed or' h i g h c a s c e 3 i l l 3 r a . m n s s~eepers and C h e e r i s ( s i s f l a r co R a j p u t s ) and a g r o u p of u a t o u c b b l e S a r k i c o b b l e r s . of c a s t e p u r i t y and -n both c o m a u n i e l e s , t h e r e f s c o n c e r n w i t h t h e s a i n e e ~ n c e che p u r i c y of u o w n . fhe o n l y r e s p e c t a b l e e c o n o e i c r o l e open t o vomeln i n I c h e s e cuo c o a a u n i c i e s is as unpaid f a m i l y r o r k e r ~v i t h i n t h e domescic o r s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r s i n Sphere I o r 11 of t h e economy. In f a c t , t h e i n s i d e l o u t s i d e dichotoay reaches i c s ztaxiaal expression i n t h e Y a i ~ h i l i w i l d a g e u i t h t h e c u l t u r a l i d e a l of p u r d a h v n i c h restricts women -- e s p e c i a l l y i n the a a r l y years of marriage - t o the courtyards of c h e l r husband's homes and r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e y c o v e r t h e i r f a c e s when t h e y v e n t u r e o u t . There is, a s mentioned earlier, no purdah p r a c t i c e d i n t h e h i l l s o f S e p a l among t h e Par- b a t i y a Rindus. -- a n d Y e t t h e sazae b e l i e f i n t h e need t o c o n t r o l t h e b e h a v i o r - protect t h e s e x u a l p u r i t y -- of in-tnarri* women is m a n i f e s t i n t h i s community . i n a number o f ways, e s p e c i a l l y among t h e h i g h castes. P a t t e r n s o f extrezne d e f e r e n c e t o a f f i n e s (which i n c l u d e washing t h e f e e t of t h e husband a n d mother- in- law and d r i n k i n g t h e water e a c h day) d e c r e e t h a t t h e young sjrife aus t be s i l e n t , s e l f - e f f a c i n g and o b e d i e n t i n t h e family. Above a l l s h e must be m d e s t and r e t i r i n g i n h e r interac:ion with t h e r e s t of t h e v t l l s q e - partlc- l~lar?:r vL:h Lts =ale ze35era. L/ ?or urmarried pubeateat ;lrlsi ?/ ~ n d ysune - -mrrfe.i voqen LR a i t h a r t 5 e V.air,AL?L ~r the ? ; l r 5 a t i y z o a ~ u n l ; l a s : a , an;21qa_Pil a n t r e p r e n e u r a l a c t i v i t y vhLch r e q u i r e d thea ho t r a v e l :o daLrs o u t s i d e t 5 e v i l l a q e accompanied o n l y by a feu p i r l f r i e n d s o r t o ensme i n converssc!ons and cwrnetary c r a n s a c t i s n s wizh u&jtnom =a rould k a l a o s t unthinkable. Such shanslass Sehavier would l o v e r not only tha t a o u t a t l o n of t h e g i r l but allso t h e p r e s t i g e and honor a i h e t fa-! 1 y . Although i t is p o s s i 5 l e t o s e e s o w ?laithLli yomen i n t h e l o c o 1 oeek1y nar'cecs ucndtng f a i l ? produce, c5ere a r e PJO Laportant dLffceences between t h i s phenomnon and - h a t o c c u r s amongst t h e Rat, 3aragaoale and t h e *gar. F i r s t l y , t h e ! h i c h i l i uoaen e n t r e p r e n e u r s a r e never from high s t g a t u s f a m i l i e s and most ~ a p o r t a n t l y , they are a l l o l d e r a a r r i e d women who have reached t h e s t a g e h e r e they no l o n g e r have t o observe strict purdah. I n the Tibeto- Buman groups i t is p a r t f c u l a r l y t h e younger u m a r r L e d women who become involved i n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a c t i v i t i e s . The one younger voman i n S i r s i a who does tun a s-11 shop is s o c i a l l y s t i e p a t i z e d by t h e r e s t of t h e v i l l a g e and p e r c e i v e d as a "loose' uouan. I n t h e h i l l Hindu community t h e r e Is not a s i n g l e high c k s t e P a r b a t f y a v o m n uho enbages i n any form of e n t r e p r e n e u r a l I n c o n t r a s t t o a l l t h e ocher g r m p s s t u d f e d , t h e atartfane p a t t e r n s - i n b a t h t h e s e d i c h o t m o u s c m m a i t i e s show s t r o n g p r e f e r e n c e f o r b r i d e s from out- s i d e the v i l l a g e (Acharya and %ennett, 1981). T h i s s e a n s t h a t f o r & n e v l y married uomaa a l l t h e r me m b ers of h e r husband a s v i l l a g e a r e s t r a n g e & i n any case and s h e has no ready-aade f r i e n d s and a l l i a n c e s with whom caisual c o n v e r s a t i o n , joking and exchange of confidences would be easy and accept- able. - 21 i n t h e X a i t h i l i comaunity t h e r e a r e f a f a c t feu g i r l s p a s t puberty who reamin unmarried.  - 27 - activity, a l t h o u g h tzo Lo2 caste c a l l o r wcxzen sake and s e l l a fi?v baby caps fevesr sici1.l~and :ou+st 17volvcc3eno In hoca m n u i a c c u r i n g . !:one of :hen knau how co k'eava c l o t h -- c h ~ u a huany e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n learnins -- end none of t h e lov caste 3 r k l roaen parr?c??aced v l t h t h e 3cn I n t h e lucrarlve clrsra ~ c c u g a t i o no f shse-eakilng. S l a t L a r l y , awns c5c hig'n caste uho aatn e cac~ii- P . ~ . - -22 *--X: % -:: ,f :I.=:r :.Pcu;+ ir'm f-:a= 59111 lor darry p r d u c c s , i~ war alvays t h e s e n and never t h e *-=err r h o were InvoPvcQ In t h e a a r k e c i n g a s p e c t . The a o s t ? r e s c i g i o u s vork f o r 50th Y a i c h i l i and TnrSatlya noaen t s domestic vork - cookia3, c l e a n i n g , food processing, c h i l d c a r e ecc. -- )that c a n be done i n c h e i r own c o q o u n d . Few f a a l l i e s i n e i t h e r cormunity can a f f o r d t h e l u x u r y of c o m p l e t e l y exempting their women € r o o o u t s i d z work. The ti* a l l o c a t i o n d a t a r e v e a l t h a c even i n che Y a i c h i l i community where female s e c l u s f o n I s t h e i d e a l , yoma d o work o u t s i d e t h e home I n t h e f i e l d s -- though as re have seen, less t h a n women i n any o c h e r cormunity s t u d i e d . .As f a r as p o s s i b l e , however, -men i n both c o ~ l h ~ u n i t i eteraain s -&thin t h e household as a n economfc u n i t by working o n l y i n chef r own f a n i l y ' s f i e l d s o r i n t h e Parblac iya 1 r t v i l l a g e , j o i n i n g exchange labor groups which i n v o l v e s no s o n e t a r y t r a n s a c - tion. It is c o n s i d e r e d demzaning i f a household sust a l l o v its women t o - - perform wage l a b o r f o r '-hers - and o n l y among che v e r y poor o r t h e low c a s t e s i n e i t h e r c o r n u n i t y do mmen vork f o r vages. r The Newar caPlPriLUty s t u d i e d is a l s o s t r o n g l y U n d u and a l t h o u g h chey s p e a k a Tibeto- Buman r a t h e r t h a n a n Indo-Aryan language, t h e b a s i c o u t l i n e s of t h e i r socia; s t r u c t u r e and f a m i l y o r g a n i z a t i o n r e v e a l t h e i r c l o s e a f f i n i t y with t h e I n d o - w a n c u l t u r a l rradition. Like t h e P a r b a t i y a and H a i t h i l i  Hindus the Sevars a l s o place rarmfdssabla s a p h a s i s on chs i d e a l of f e a a l s jeasanc c o ~ ~ u n i t :9tudic.d r -- i ? p e ? ~ s J0 t3 haR=e~ ~ V B : Q ? C <3 :kt) r l r u a i t e a - 5 ~5 of s o f t e n i n g t h e b e h a v i o r a l Laplieacdons ?i the t d e a l , i L' as uaPl as a hl.gh degree 09 coleraoce f o r d e v i a t i o n from Le. $dPc r e s e a r c h e r who worked aaong the S e ~ a r sr e p o t s s chat d i v o r c e and r s m r r i a $ e are commonplace and Qs nee ar'fac: ~ s e r t n " sa o c i n l o r r i t u a l r c a c u s . Ea :“lee, 31 parcent of t h e ever- aarried Fet-aP@7 y r : P t = fzz ;f :;& :;~-uE U ; Q ~ ~ Z ; ~ IsL tsC~~d l e d?tad been n a r r i a d aore chdn once (?cadhan 1931). .U;rPough s sozeuhnt Pass 3ronouneed La the Seuar ctte dichotoay L csmmnicy, che ciepe alPocacion d a m shov c'smt Seuar wonen a r e , l i k e t h e Y a i c h i l i and Parbaciya, s t i l l p r i m a r i l y conf lned t o t h e " inside" i n domestic and s u b s i s t e n c e production. They brew lLquor but almost e ~ c l u s i v e l yfor hone cossumpt ion r a t h e r t h a n f o r s a l e . Yoreover, although Y e w a t uomen d~ paztlcL- p a t e i n csmgercial veaving a c t i v i t i e s , Pradhan r e p o r t s t h a t they do so oa1.y a s vage l a b o r e r s paid on a p e r meter b a s i s r a t h e r than a s e n t r e p r e n e u r s uho handle t h e w r k e t i n g process and keep t h e p r o f f c s . It is important t o note i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e i n s i d e / o u t s i d e d i c h r t o s y , I t h a t t h e r e doe; not appear t o be any r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e - dichotcmy i n a g i v e n c o ~ n i t y and t h a t community's - r e l a t i v e involvement w i t h t h e u a r k e t economy. In o t h e r words, t h e r e is no ' & r r e l a t i o n e i t h e r p o s i t i v e - o r n e g a t i v e betveen t h e d e g r e e of o v e r a l l market & n e t r a t i o n and t h e e x t e n t of * 8 w I - 11' See, f o r ceremony - example, Allen's (1976) a n a l y s i s of the l h i o r "mock marriage" f o r prepubescent g i r l s which is used a s t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e practice of eridow remarriage while maintaining the i d e o l o g i c a l emphasis on absolute and e t e r n a l m a r i t a l c h a s t i t y f o r women. ocber extrece dte5otoaous co-unicy -- the Y a i s h l l i - i s only 13.2 p r r e n t (see fable 3, @+nnex I ) . . a n y the non-dichotoaaur coeoluni:ids, uhcre uomen's relatlva prcicipacion ?A che m r h t ;reer;or f-a A f ~ h , eha sale range is evi- dcn~ -- f r 3 0 i P Teetenc 3aoag rhe 3ara;aonLa to o n i y 17.6 p d r c o n s z a r k e r r s l a c l o n to the f o u r sphere a o d a l is :he h y p t h e s i s :ha:nooen I n co-munitiss z h i c h encourage t h e i r e c o n o a i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e v l d e r s p h e r e s of socllety *dl1tend t o have h i g h e r s e a t u s vls-a-vls min t h a n women i n groups v h e r e t h e i r e c o n o d c iaguc is l a r g e l y confined t o non-rket production r i c h i a t h e household u n i t . To break t h e i s s u e down and r e p h r a s e ir, i n =re epersrLocal c e c a one n i g h t a s k f i r s t : Is vomen's observed high i n p u t i n t o d m e s t i c and s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n r e f l e c t e d i n a coatniensurately high i n p u t i n t o household d e c i s i o n s a b u t t h e Janageeaent of t h e p r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s and t h e d i s p o s a l oh what is produced? O r is t h e degree of woreea's i n p u t lntol t h e * decision- king p r o c e s s more dependent on o t h e r f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g s p e c i f i - - c a l l y , the l e v e l of *women's p a n i c i p a t i o n i n t h e " outside" o r s a s k e t economy? - According t o a d e t a i l e d examination of t h e v i l l a g e averages f o r tise a l l o c a t i o n and decision-raa'kiag p a t t e r n s (Acharya 6 3ennet t , 1981), t h e a n s G r - = t o t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n a t l e a s t i n term of t h e mnagement of t h e p r o d u c t i o n g * p r o c e s s , appears t o be a q u a l f f f e d yes. Table 5a ( a n e x I) p r e s e n t s t h e a g g r e g a t e d a t a on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of d e c i s i o n - n a k i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y between t h e s e x e s f o r c e r t a i n impor:ant s t e p s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l production p r o c e s s i which s h w t h a t ?lepalese woeen a r e not j u s t s i l e n t workers r h o t a l e d i r e c t i o n s B from *n. On the c o n t r a r y , their = n a p e r i a l a1 r o l e in a t f i ~ u l : ~ ~ r >roz!~~ctLon 1. p. aopesrs t o 5e cozme>surats ' a t t i :he leva1 . ' t h e i r labor 1 3 7 ~ : t1t3 rjp'ilere 11, t. ! t h e T a d l p Fam S n c + r ? r i s c . me suxzatf ia3le stvia;: v i l l a g e 5y v i l l a q e i%' S r e s k d o ~ m sf o r the t h r e e m j o r c a c a q o r i e s of decisions shows, however, t h a t $ ) t h e r e Ls c o n s i d e r a b l o - s a r l a c i o n Setveea c o ~ u n i t i a e(see Table Sb, , h n e x I. 5 I Tze hlqhe3cc f e m l a i n p u t in Zara .Jnnasement was found anong the tolroruna Xal. '6 vaaen who mda 72.7 perscnr: of t h e s e d e c i s i o n s w e h e l r w n . ?he lowest 1.evel 'r of female Lnput uaz 17.1 percent In the "aithCLi c o a a u n f t y - the only group - qccnv t h e v i l l a q e s studied >here voaen a c z u a l l y had Loss say t a f a n mnage- sent decisions than men. I n :his o a t m a l t y t h e e f f e c t s qf both a r e l a t i v e l y l o v female i n p u t l n a g r i c u t t u r a l L1bor a d a s t r o n a i n s i d e / o u t s l d e dichotomy a r e corabified. I n t h e o t h e r h i g h l y dichatoaaua c o m u n i t i e s , however ( t h e P a r b a t i y a and t h e Xevar), male and female i n p u t La f a n aranagernent C s roughly I e q u a l s u g g e s t i n g t h a t women's high l e v e l of p a r t i c i p a t i o n Ln subsistence i t - p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e s e c o m n i t i e a b s p o s i t i v e l y Lnflueaced t h e i r l e v e l of i n p u t * i n f a n 3anagewnt decisioas. t o o b i n g a t t h e non-dichotosous c o m u n i t i e s , w e f i n d s u b s t a n t i a l f e n a l e pre-eminence i n fasia management i n a l l t h e s e c o m n i t i e s except among t h e 0aragaoale where i t is about e q u a l d e s p h t e the! . P f a c t t h a t women's l a b o r i n p u t i n Sphere 11 w ' as lower t h a n sen's i n t h i s community ( s e e Table 4 , Annex 1). Turning from d e c i s i o n s about t h e management of t h e a s r i c u l t u r a l pro- w d u c t f o n process t o d e c s i o n s about t h e d i s p o s a l s f wmt is produced and t h e Danagement of household a s s e t s , w e f i n d t h a t i n t h e s e l a t t e r types of deci- s i o n s urnen's l a b o r i n p u t i n t o s u b s i s t e n c e production no l o n g e r seems t o have a consistently positive e f f e c t across c o m n i t i e s . I n s t e a d what appears t o be o o r e f a p o r t a n t is t h e d e g r e e t o whic?~wasea i n a g i v e n c o m u a i t y p a r t i t i ; ~ a t e in the m r k e t cconoap. a g g t e q a t e l e v e l t h o u j h by a soaeuhat s m a l l e r o q r ~ i nthan l o r f a n znnage-• aent. qowever, i n d e c i s i o n s about the d i s p o s a l oP household production and z a j o r c a p i t a l t r a n s a c t i o n s which 3r-e by f a r tha most f a p o r t a n t i n c e r s of r e a l p e r i n t h e household, men assme the lead. j\nd uhcn we t u r n a g a i n t o e x a n l n a t f o n st t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l d a t a i n f a b l e 5b, v e f i n d a c o n s i s t e n t p ~ c t a r nwhich s u g g e s t s t h a t *+omen's i n p u t i n t o a a j o r d e c i s i o n s a b u t t h e d i s - posal of household producclon l a a s l v e n c o r n u n l t y is ? o s l t i v e l y r e l a c e d t o t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e i n s i d e / o u t s l d e dLchotoay i n chat coamunlty. n u s w n e n Ln those v i l l a g e s where t h e i r work is l a r g e l y coalLned t o domestic and s u b s i s - t e n c e a q r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n c l u d i n g t h e ! & i t h l l i , P a r b a t f y a and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t t h e Yewars, had m c h l e s s decisionim;lking r e s p o n s i b i l f t y t h a n women i n coermunfties l i k e t h e h i , Baragaonle, Yagar and Taoang vhere vom~en p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y i n t h e amrket economy. Xoreover, t h e s u p p o s i t ion t h a t i n communities where -men were m r e c l o s e l y canf ined t o t h e " i n s i d e , - t h e y wouid a t l e a s t have more c o n t r o l o v e r d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h e domestic domain, d i d n o t hold true. In dichotomous co~lrrmni t i e s men dominated t h e decision-making t p r o c e s s not o n l y as r e g a r d s o a j o r r ~ p i t a lt r a n s a c t i o n s and t h e d i s p o s a l of L - hous_ehold p r o d u c t i o n b u t even f o r minor household e x p e n d i t u r e s . Among tho ~ a r g t i ~ Nevar a , and ?!!ithill c o m m n i t i e s men make d e c i s i o n s on t h e i r o m - abou; e I d n o r domestic t r a n s a c t i o n s i n almost t v l c e t h e number of c a s e s a s rlromn . do. Even t h e a m b e r of j o i n t d e c i s i o n s Ln t h i s a r e a i s very lov ranging from 12.1 p e r c e n t i n t h e ! f a i t h i l l comEwnitp t o o n l y 2 .8 percent among t h e Parbatiya. c a t e g o r y of r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n . L r lore posi:ivel:r c o r r a l a t a d nit:? tfre e x t e n t of women's p a r t l c i p a e i o n in t 5 e 3 r k e t economy and ho=e production of crafts f o r sale than w i t 5 vasen'a Laput Lac3 subslsttnca a % r t c u l t u t a l production o r t h e s t r u c t u r e of fanale economic oartic!nac<nn 1-4 P . - ~ z l : in;;tl: ::IL~ l!ecLs!on?akinq process. 3 e r e a r e , b u e v e h , a nm5er OF ~ t h e rf a c t o r s d~t!?$q a t t h e household and individual l e v e l s such as t h e zcononlc s t a t u s of t 5 a household, t h e Lndividual women's age, t h e a v a i l a b f l l t y of family neabers t o %e!p with c h i l d c a r e , e t c . , whlch a l s o a f f e c t t h e s t r u c t u r e of f e z n l e e c o n o s f c p a r t i c i p a t i o n and d e c i s i o n - e a a k i q i n t h e household. %cause the t n t e r a c t i o n o r c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s aaong t h e s e f a c t o r s a t e exttcmely conplex, t h e Craae- work of t h e a n a l y s i s =st be r e f lned and extended to t a k e t h i s complexf t y i n t o account. m e current attempt to analyze the available d a t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y is one s t e p i n t h i s direction. The a n a l y t i c a l Framevork being presented h e r e is s t i l l v e r p simple and s e t i n a s h o r t t e r a p e r s p e c t i v e . It assumes one way b u s a l l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e dependedt And independent v a r i a b l e s and no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n amotq t h e independent v a r i a b l e s . We a r e aware - t h a t t h i s is only a t e n t a t i v e appra*tioa - of t h e r e a l i t y . S e v e r t h e l e s s , we t h i n k t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s can be of u e fn indicating t h e s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n 9 of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s betveen t h e v a d o u s socio-economic and demographic fac- t o r s , t h e s t r u c t u r e of Eeoale p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e economy and t h e d e c i s i o n - making p r o c e s s i n t h e household.  The Craoeuork s e t o u t below r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t c a p t t o c o n c e ? t w U i z a t h e -Jay v a r i o u s f a c t o r s c0?5ize t 3 a f f e c t w3ene5 sSa:us d i r e c c l p ant? i-141- z a c r l y throuqh t h z i r edf3c: an cbe s t r ? l c t u r e and e x t e r \ t a? f a ~ a l dec~ma:ai; ?articipation. (See P t g u r t 5 . ) 3 e major i ~ d t c a r o rof s t a t u s Saiarr analyzed h e r e is uoaen's d e c i s i o n - a a k i n q i a p u t int:, t h r e e d i f f a r e n t carteqorlus of decision--king. Bowever, a a o t h e r s t a t u s i a d i f s c o r f o r which data a r e a v a i l - a b l e , i.e. t?te e x t e n t of uomen'r p l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , can also 3e e x s a i n ~ d w i t h i n t h i s framework. I/ - ..,&r;pe;Z;c --%., >rypochcsas 'being zesced in Cha c u r r e n t s t 3 t i 5 t i c a 1 analysis are a s f ~ l l a w s : 1. Two major c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s a r e r e p r a s e a t e d i n t h e Xepal sample, namely t h e Iado-Aryan/flindu and t h e Tfbeto-BunnaajBddhfst-Anfmfst. Each t r a d i t i o n provldes a d i s t i n c t fve s o c i a l f rmework f o r .amen's economic p a r t i c i p a t i o n a d r o l e i n t h e household decision- - king p r o c e s s , t h e T i b e t o - h n a a a l l t u r a l p a t t e r n b e i nq aors conducive t o h i g h e r r e l a t i v e feamle p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e market economy and h i g h e r Feaale * :put fa d e c i s i o n i l a k i n g . 2. The household's p r o p e r t y and ecoaomfc s t a t u s a t e i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d v i t h maea's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n both t h e s u b s i s t e n c e and market s ~ e c t o r s , I and v i t h female i n p u t i n t o household decision- making. 3. Vomen's t o t a l v o r k burden is m l y s l i g h t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e econcsmic - s t a t u s o f t h e household. S p e c f f i c a l l y , houaeho'6-I economic s t a t u s - I/ Although d a t a on a t h i r d s t a t u s i n d i c a t o r , t h a t i s i n d i v i d u a l educatLona1 l e v e l , are a v a i l a b l e s o few women i n t h e sample were educated t h a t t e s t s u s i n g t h i s v a r i a b l e v e r e not p o s s i b l e . ?loreover, e d u c a t i o n , even sore t h a n t h e o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s , c a n be s e e n as a f f e c t i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e of female p a r t i c i p a t i o n and a number of o t h e r f a c t o r s s e t o u t h e r e as independent v a r i a b l e s . i n f l u e n c e s o n l y the conmsl:ioa of t h e w c k o r t 5 e s e c t o r s i n v5lcb L t occurs 3u: a o t the t3t31 t f = e devoted t a ' a r k . 'Ia=enas Lndepen4e2t vase ,>c o a h r y Lncoza I has ; 1 aoa?:?re effsc: on t h e i r declslon-a'rriaq r o l e ia t h e housbhold. Uaabership i n an ilxtended laailly reduces 3 vozan's t o t a l work burden and h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d c c i s l s n - ? a a k i a ~g r o c e s r i n t h e hous~ehold. 3s t h e i r i n p u t i n t o d a c i s i o n - a a k i a g , t n c r a e s e s with the nurr5er s f ' 2 ~ s s;en"z~si.'2 :?.2 ; . t l l ~ ; i par d<d$i a&2r: it\ S ~ S = Eaaily. The presence of s a l e o r f-La cbdldreti of 10 t o '15 :tears of nqle i n t h e household reduces women's input i n$o d o a e s t ic work and re l e n s e s h e r f o r o t h e r k i n d s of w r k . T h i s r e l ~ t i o n s h i pis s t r o n g e r i n t h e c a s e of f e m l e c h i l d r e n t h a n i n t h e caqe of male c h i l d r e n . f i e presence of c h i l d r e n belov 9 has a n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e on uo:aenes p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t y &ad f n - v i l l o g e and out-vi:LLage m r k e t participation. .Qe on t h e whole, is a p s i t i v e f a c t o r i n d e t e r a i n i n g uonen's work burden and t h e l e v e l of t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s u b s i s t e n c e production and particularly i n i n - p i l l a g e and o u t - o f - o i l l a g e market a c t i v i - L ties. However, i t v t l l o p e r a t e p o s i t i v e l y o n l y up t o a c e r t a i n age level. %reover, age a f f e c t s t h e e x t e n t of female a a r k e t p a r t i c i p a - t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y i n t h e two major c u l t u r e groups s i n c e young unmar-' r l e d m a e n are encouraged t o be entrepoeneurs i n th'e T i b e t o - S u m n E c o a m n l t i e s while g e n e r a l l y o n l y o l d e r married wome'n may 10 s o Ln t h e Rindu groups.  10. Bart!cLpatlon aclt i v t : i e s i n dsseshtc and s u b s i s t e n c e a q r i ~ u l * ~ u ra has 1 -sf:i-;e e f f e c t on JrncPaza'r igqtdt In f a x mn3zmen: Ceci;?:ns. LI. ';==en's :<=e ;Te2c sn da5sqc!c 433 3u53?scence ? r 3 d m ~ c r i 33 n~ : ! - ? < : ? 3 3 does not Lncrsast t h e l c dl$13(d~-3akin~ I l p u t er-en 1.1 tL:e a r ? : ~of dozes: tc d e c i s i o n s . 12. 'hzen's i n p u t l l t o d e c l ~ i ~ a a&ut tl the d l J P O ~ Uof ~ house:bold p r c k c - c!on of housaho?J a s s e t s ?s a e q e t i v a l y a i ? e c c a d Sv 306 .%xi~qeaenc wasen's t e h t Lva eonf t n e q a n t t o dsms t fc and subslsccac% p r o d u c t ion a c t P v i t l e s and aosttteal~affected by their i ~ ? u a l v a ~ e n 7 *hr 1t iq-krtb The above hyrwtheses *were testeld by j e a n s of a s e r i e s DE rrr~ress:on equations. The f i r s t h y p o c h e s f s , however, needs s p e c i a l d i s c u s s L o n because o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y e n c o u n t e r e d when t r y i n g t o a n a l y z e statistically t h e e f f e c t of a n e s s e n t i a l l y n o n - q u a n t f t a t f v e v a r i a b l e s u c h as c u l t u r e . The s u e ~ e s t e d Logortance of e u l c u r e a s a d e i e l - ~ p i m n tof m e n ' s decision-arakinq p a t c e r n s vatr c o n h i m & *&en b.teabership I n t h e Tibcto-Burman group vea Lntroduca4 i n the r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n as a du-y variable. The Z* vas q u i t e high but a l r o s t a l l o f t h e v a r i a t i o n uas e x p l a i n e d by t h e c u l t u r e dummy and a o s t of t h e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s e x c e p t household i n c o w l e v e l b e c o w i n s i g n i f i c a n t . We suspected t h a t t h i s w a s bec*aube of t h e h i g h d e g r e e of o v e r l a p b e t v e e n t h e c u l t b r e dummy ax-d o c h e r social v a r i a b l e s s u c h as age a t n a r r i a g e , female i a a g e , p r o x i a i t y t o n a t k home, etc. T h e r e f o r e we decided t h a t f o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s w e would u s e '3L - t h e q v a r i a b l e s as i n d i c a t o r s o r p r o x i e s t o r e p r e s e n t t h e a j a r c u l t u r a l - gro~s. 'de d i d t h i s by examining t h e mean s c o r e s of t h e s e s e r i a b l e s a g a f n s t - ii p. t h e c u l t u r a l g r o u p s and s e l e c t i n g t h o s e v a r i a b l e s t o r which t h e means- differ- ': e n c e w a s s i q n i f i c a n t (see T a b l e 7, Annex I).  - 36 - One g r o u p of g r 9 x t e 9 , C.e.. a g e a t f i r s t m a r r i a g e , freedm o f choito of mrtiage p a r t n e r and I e a a l a %btl!:a, rt23te t a t 5 e t!i?%ree of m ~ h a s t s 3!jceJ on c o n t r o l of 42a31d P s e r ~ ~pub?^^. so 2c5ers ?uc?a 3s p r ~ u i ~ l c ? 31t.11 hone a r e indf:a:ors of t h e -3ogcee o f s u p p o r t a uomn can e x g a c t from ber W t + l kirl group a f t e r m a r r i a g e a n 1 t h e axtena. t o whtch voaen a u s t begin m a r r i e d l i f e ss an w c - . i d e r bn a d i s t a n t r L 1 l a a e . ? L a a l l y , cha dogroe co uhich *men '18 s xroup are vler;& p o a l c t v e ~ yor n e g a c l v a l y Ln a oLSren connunlcy also aunn- p o r t r a y the e f f e c t s of e n e x t r e a c l y c o a o l e x ohanamanon si1c)a 4s culture. UOC s u t a r l 3 l a g l y :he e x p l m a t a r : ? pdcr oh t5e w-u~tbonafor 3ari*rbaq f e m l e deci- -9 sion-aakln~ f n p u c d e c r e a s e s1anfdican:ly R ( f t m an a d j u s t e d ' o f .JO t o -2 3 s of batween 34 and 16) when t h e c a t e g o r i c a l c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e i n " r e p l a c e d " by one o r mra o f r h e a e p r o x i e s . Once the p r o c e d u r e o f u s i q s r l e c t e d s o c i o - c u l t u r a l i n t a r v a l var- l a b l e a t o c a p t u r e a t least o t t h a a f f e c t of t h e c a t e g o r i c a l c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e had beea developed, w e t u r n e d t o t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e ELrst s e t of regression equations. In .!-is s e t , t h e s t r u c t u r e of vooen's economfc p a r t i c i - p a t i o n a s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f ti= d e v o t e d t o f o u r major c a t e g o r i e s I I a t 'spheres' o f w r k were r e g r e a a ~ dw i t h a number of f a c t o r s including s e v e r a l 0 and c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s , household and i n d i o i d u a l i r l c ~ ~ c s t h e demographic - - v a r i a b l e s l i s t e d i n Figwce 4 . k u q ~ dPour I separate equations representing L Eemale p a t t i t i p a t - l o a i n f o u r s p h e r e ~ o fa c t i v i t i e s . The i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s C * m all t h e e q u a t i o n s i n t h i s s e e luete the same t o s t a r t w i t h . In l a t e r runs we dropped t h o s e v a r i a b l e s vhich were Pound n o t t o be s i g a f f i c a n t i n t h e e q u a t i o n .  In the second qet of equations three i n d f t a t o r s of wonen s t e t u s C f .e., the !jdivlduaP .amn's !sauz fn 1 ) P a n szaageaant d a c i s i a n s , 1 ) *!o?aa- tlresa IW)QB~*S :be i~nput i n t o d i f f e r e n t spheres 0 5 a c t i v i t i e s and a nunSer o i the or i ~ i n a lv a c l a b l c s ( a m , '~o=an's iadependenc f3coae. f a a i l y s t r u c t u r e , an4 c u l t u r a l h g e of :he fsjalo sex) vhich uora hypothesized t o hava a 'dieact e f f e c t on decislon-aakinq in a d d i t i o n t o t h c f r e f f e c t on the s t r u c t u r e of of the v a r i a b l e s ware l n s l g n i f lcant and dropped ou: of the equations. Tho variables, *&ich eser3ed s t g n d f t c a n t tn d i f f a e c a t cquat ions, a r e l f s ted below. A more d e t a i l e d list of the v a r i a b l e s and the process of t h e i r deriva- t ion a r e described i n Annex 1. L i s t of v a r i a b l e s * i n the r e g r e s s i o n s - b t t o of f-le XEEXYI) parttcipatton i n doaesttc d%cisions mw - x a t i o of female p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Pam a nanagement d e c i s i o n s K#XR - R a t i o of female p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n resource - allocation decisions t For explanation of t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n see Annex 1. W%Cn - Ratio o f f e a a l e i n p u t I n domestic a c t i v i t i e s OUTEX'LI - Ratio o f female inpuc ia-aut v i l l a g e ararket a c t i v l t l e s :\GE - Xqe Score ,\GETS%\ - .%a@at flsqt ~ a r - ? TB* HELI= - Rouseholds s c o r e l o r f e m i a Lmge D1SP.W - Dlscance t o the -man's natal h o w MBIL - Individual *man's m b i l l r y score WRO? - Household property NXDINC - Individual uoma's Yage and salary iacome T!CIG - Per male d g r a c i o n s c o r e for household UTBED - Atcltude f o r boy's e d u c l t ion IATGED - A t t i t u d e f o r girl's edseat i o n  The Reqression Q e s u l t s There .rere tvo hypotheses ilavolriaq 'amen's lsork butden o r t h e over- a 1 1 e x t e n t of t h e i r tlaa iapuc t o work v t t b o u t r e g a r d to t5e s e c t o r a l n a t u r e QE the m r k . Y g p t 9 e s t s d 3 s t s t e s t h a t moman's t o t a l w r k Surden does not vary q i g n l l t c a n t l y u t t h sba 3ousehold's cconoafc r t a t u s . The ? r a d u c t c o r r e l a - cksn e o e d r i c i e n t s reLatLng : o sonen's t o t a l -rock burden t o both household p r o p e r t y and household fncoae a r e not s f g n f f f c a n t even a t t h e 20 p e r c e n t laveP. R e h y p t h e s f s fs t h u s c o r r o b o r a t e d . r C a r r e P a t i o n Coef f i c f e n t P N Household I n c o m e / ~ o m n ' s T o t a l % r k Roura Household ?ropertp/Womnes T o t a l ' h r k Hours I n t h e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n r e l a t i n g women's work burden t o t h e various Factors s e t o u t fa t h e f t u e v o r k , t h e g2 . vs. found t o be v e r y low and n o s t o f t h e v a r i a t i o n w a s e x p l a i n e d by age. T h i s s u p p o r t s Hypothesis 89 and shovs t h a t -;en's t o t a l work burden i n c r e a s e s v i t h age. . U 1o t h e r 'i 6 f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g - t y p e of f a o i l y s t r u c t u r e dropped o u t of t h e e q u a t i o n . fTence * Hypothesis P5 whi* p o s i t e d t h a t membership i n a n extended family would be n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e e x t e n t of momen's work burden does n o t t e s t o u t . 2. Female Ynput i n t o Donestic A c t i v l t p ( S p h e t ~ I) 3epe3dea: w c l a 5 l e : ZbOY-ICTl -?* 3' 3.;: ' 3 - > 3.31 C legression Sesulcs Iadependent Variables 9 3 F Constant 0.517897 * x2 Zndicates t h e R2 o b t a i n e d from t h e r e g r e s s i o n s with t h e c u l t u r a l dumny v a r i a g l e . %is so:a:?on i 3 e a i a t a i n e d throughout t h i s s e c t i o n . ?he d i f f e r e n c e i n g2 b a t w e n two r e g r e s s i o n s , one with t h e c u l t u r a l dunmy and t h e o t h e r w i t h o u t , is 0.11). T h i s Wans t h a t about 10 percent nore v a r i a t i o n could be e x p l a i n e d by o t h e r c u l t u r a l f a c t u r s not included i n t h e c u r r e n t equation. I n t h e c u r r e n t e q u a t i o n only 31 p e r c e n t of the v a r i a t i o n in 4 . t vmen's time i n p u t i n t o d o m s t i c a c t i v i t i e s o r t h e Household Maintenance Sphere is explained by t h e f a c t o r s included - t h e above equation. The o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e e q u a t i o n a r e ' s h o s e f o r age, male s i g r a t i a l n and tvo of t h e c u l t u r a l i n d i c a t o r s , i.e. - d i s t a a c a t o t h e voaan's n a t a l home and eI t h e household's image of t h e female sex. Age is h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t and p o s i t i v e and e x p l a i n s a m J o r p o r t l o a OF t h e v a r f a t i o n i n women's input i n t o domestic a c t : v i t y . The o l d e r t h e voman, t h e more l i k e l y s h e i s t o be confined t o d m s t i c activities. We, however, s u s p e c t t h a t aqc a c t s d i E f e r e n t l y Eor t h e ts.0 n a j o r c u l t u r a l ~ r o u o s . I n t h e TL5eto-3urzaa <toup younqer Y a m 3 3re -:ore rcducinq t h e i r r e l a t i v e t i = fnpuc to d o m s t i s work. 3ue to c%a s ~ a l lsaoslc h u e v e r we cannot t e s t t h i s h y p o t k e s l s l o r two e u l t u r a l sroups separscely. d o a e s t i c work s u g g e s t f n q t h a t m a e n l e f t on the&: own f n the village ?educe t h e e l a b o r a t e n e s s of t h e i r cooking and housekeeping e i t h e r because the qen a r c n o t t h e r e t o d e s n d i t or, =ore probakt1::, because ihese m a c n % s t p u t =ore ti% i n t o s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e o r waqe work t o m i n t a l n themselves. Both of t h e c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s show i n f l u e n c e i n t h e expected d i r e c t i o n and l e n d i n d i r e c t s u p p o r t t o Wjpothesis 4 1 by showing t h a t p a t t e r n s s t a t i s t i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h U n d u c u l t u r e tend t o l e a d t o h i q h e r f e n a l e work i n p u t i n t o Sphere 1 o r d o o e s t f c n c t i v i t i e s . Yhus, t h e q r e a t e r t h e d i s t a n c e t o a wonan's n a t a l home, t h e =re t h e s h e spends i n d o n e s t i c work. & . I ve have s e e n , i t is t h e a i n d u groups chat p r e f e r v i l l a g e exoqany and tend co 3 a r r y a t a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e whble t h e Tibeto-Burman groups o f t e n p r e f e r t o a r t y endogamously w i t h i n t h e same v i l l a g e . * S i m i l a r l y , more p o s i t i v e i n a g e s of t h e female s e x a l s o a p p e a r t o reduce t h e e x t e n t of f e a a l e involvement i n domestic vork. The c o e f f i c i e n t f o r household income is s i g n i f i c a n t and p o s i t i w a s * - e x p e c t e d , i n d i c a t i n g r t h a t v e a l t h l e r households io tend t o keep women more h e a v l l y involved i n domestic a c t i v i t i e s . However, Hypothesis 17 which p o s i t e d a n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p becveen woman's i n p u t i n t o domestic work and t h e p r e s e n c e of c h i l d r e n between 9 and 14 t o a s s i s t then i n household c a s k s d i d not t e s t out -- though as ue -sill see below, teaale c!il14te% ba cha iQc a 15 33s 3toup do h a .: .. a posLci*:e a f t a c e on :>a rzoaons of clze :;or;sn can dax:oea <a 3. F e x l e Input dnco SubsL3tsnce .AcclvL:des a iI) ( S ~ h re AGE 0.008693 0.16975 10.8 XOBIL - -0*012661 -0.08045 3.3 I n t h e e q u a t i o n w i t h o u t the c u l t u r a l dwrmy o n l y 16 p e r c e n t of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n ?omen's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s u b s i a t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v L t l e s o r t h e Family F a n E n t e r p r i s e is e x p l a i n e d . Of -the c u l t u r a l i n d i c a t o r s , d i s t a n c e m t o n a t a l home, female m o b i l i t y and household image of t h e female s e x a r e significant. i n t h e c a s e of f e u a l e input I n t o domestic a c t i v i t y d e s c r i b e d above, d i s t a n c e t o u a t a l home a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s p o s i t i v e l y t o t h e amount of  t i x e Yonen put Pnto the F a l i l y F a n E n t e r p r i s e . T h i s s q a i n suDDorzs o u r hp?o- t:?ests :ha: vozea fr3r: the Iiiniu 3 ~ 9 u ? 3'a50 >re qeze.;aLP:~- 2 r r t e b Fa=- 3u-n qroups a l s o tend t o 'be more c o n f i n e d t o n o n a a r k e t su5sPscance produc- tion. In ocher words uozen fro3 the Sindu groups appear t a have n s i z n i f i - c a n t 1 7 higher t i n e i n p u t f n both Spbere I and Sphere T* u h i c h we have d e f i n e d C o n t r a r y to o u r a s s m p t i o n , however, *sen Ln households oi:h a - p o s t t l v e faape of t h e Ecm1e sex tend t a aue i n aohc t iae i n s u b s f s t e a c e actlvitbss. S i n c e p s i t f v e f a l e tzaqe is on tihe vhoPe associaeect ~ L t h t5e Tibeto- Buman s(roups *ehad expected t h e o p p s l t e a s v a s t h e c a s e v f t h d o w s t i c a c t i v i t i e s discussed e a r l i e r . There a r e two p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s For t h i s unexpected f i n d i n g . The f i r s t is t h e c r o s s c u t t i n g i n f l u e n c e of c a s t e i n t h e P a r b a t i y a and . % i t h i l i cotamunitias. I n b o t h t h e s e coauauni t i e s - but e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e B a r b a t i y a where roughly 25 p e r c e n t of t h e sample was low caste - the y t t e n of econoaic p a r t i c i p a t i o n of l o u c a s t e wonen is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f h i g h c a s t e woaen and i n f a c t , s i d l a r t o t h a t of t h e Tibeto-Burman grouF. mile high c a s t e women i n t h e Hindu c o m u n i t i e s a r e - indeed a l a o s t qompletelp c o n f i n e d to non-market s u b s i s t e n c t p r o d u c t i o n a s e x p e c t e d , low c a s t e -pen vho of t e n have li t t l e family l a n d t o farm i n any c a e , irust g i v e up t h e i r p r e s t i g e and go to work a s wage l a b o r e r s ( B e n n e t t '5 - lal). Yet both high and low c a s t e Rindus appear t o s h a r e t h e samc! o v e r a l l - C n e t i v e image of t h e fenrale sex. The second p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n is t h e f a c t t h a t , a s a e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , t h e o v e r a l l d e q r e e of market p e n e t r a t i o n v a r i e s a g r e a t d e a l between t h e communities but not i n any ?ray c o n s i s t e n t v f t h t h e FIindu/Tibeto-Burnan  d i s t i n c t i o n ( s e e TaSle 3 Annex I ) . ?+rice Ln the P s r b a t i y a co3nunity vher~e5 9 ? e r c e n t of the household frrcorls f3 ?,enerstad t b r a u g i c\c =z'tet Pectsr, t'ke higher - especially among the low castes - :$eh the a h s o l l ~ t et i l e i n p u t or' voaen i n t h e ?ai c o m n i t y f o r r x a a p l e , vhare .-mrket income accounts f o r o%ly 17 percent o f t h e t o t a l . T k i s =my be :he case e i a n though i n t e r m of rala- I -- - tCve claLe/Zscrale Lnaut l a t o n a r k s t actC?ric!es the hi wonen a r e , as ye "rave s e e n , f a r =re involved than t 5 e ?arba:iya. In $hart, i t uould aopear t h a t , Ln order co p o r t r a y t h e a c t u a l r e l a r d o n s h i p betyden c e r t a i n oE the c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s and :he s t r u c t u r e of f e a ? e a c o n o ~ l : p a r 2 l c i p a t i o n a d d i t t a m 1 .rats- f a b l e s m y need t o be considered. Turning t o household iacooe, 'a? CInd t h a t as hypothesfzed, highe~e family fncomc c o n t r i b u t e s n e g a t i v e l y t o vosan's t f a e Input i n t o subsistence prcduction. T h i s confirms Hypotheses 12 t h a t m d e n i n h i g h e r lacome groups have t o work less i n t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r . flerever, as we have s e e n i n t h e preceddny d i s c u s s i o n , It does not w a n t h a t they work l e s s on t h e uhole. The n e g a t i v e e f f e c t of household i a c o s e i n t h i s e q u a t i o n r e f l e c t s t v a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s which both c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t r e n d I n dfEfererit . ways. One f a c t o r o p e r a t i n g is t h e tendency of veialthfer Sindu household t o , k 0 keep t h e i r women c o n f i n e d t o Sphere I i n domestia a c t i v i t i e s vhich a r e coasid- - e r e d w r e p r e s t i ~ i o u si n t h i s group and f e l t t o tie more i n keeping w i t h t h e i d e a l of p r o t e c t i n g f-le g n b e r s of t h e household from c o n t a c t with "out:- siders.' On t h e o t h e r hand z i n t h e Tibeto-Bu-q groups where t h i s i d e a l is b not held, - women i a uealthier'Lhouseholds a c t u a l l y t e n d t o p a r t i c i p a t e a r e i n both i n - v i l l a g e and out- of- village e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a c t i v i t i e s and l e s s f n sub- sistence agricultural activities. For one t h i n g w e a l t h i e r women i n t h e s e groups have g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o t h e c a p i t a l needed f o r t h e i r e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v e 3 t u r c s and, i n a d d i t i o n , t h e i r households t ~ n dCo % i r e vaqe I a 5 o f s t 3 far mny of@ I!: a ~ r L c u l t a r a 1t a s k s . h o n q t h e demographic v a r i a b l e s , r-he p r e s e n c e of f e = l r c5ilbren betueen 10 and 14 y e a r s of ape was found a s p r e d i c t e d i n 3 g p o t h e s i s :87 t o i n c r e a s e uonen's l e v e l of i n p u t to Sphere 11. T h i s ue s u s p e c t is due t o the subseitucion affect. ::onen i n households r L t h ~ r o u n - u p famala c h i l d r e n can count on t h e i r h e l p ia d o a e s t i c a c t L v i t i e s , and t h u s )lave s o r e f r e e time t o uevoce co s u b s i s c e n c e agrLcuLtura1 work. Undersaandably, t h e ,xreater t h e a m b e r of c h i l d r e n under nI3e I n t h e household r 4 l a t L v e t o a d u l t € m a l e s , t h e l e s s t h e women have t o d e v o t e eo s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s . Also a s e x p e c t e d , male d g r a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e s positively t o wonen's vork I n Sphere 11 thus p a r t i a l l y confirming IIppathesis 46. 'In o t h e r v o t d s , t h e more time male household e m b e r s spend o u t of t h e p i l l a g e , t h e aore time f e n a l e householti members o u s t d e v o t e t o s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a c t b v l t i e s . 5. Female Input i a t o t h e Yarket S e c t o r ( S p h e r e s 111 and N) A. Depeadent Variable: MACTI Regression Results 5 B P Independent - Variables '2 L i nt ~ o ac a 0.045971 AGE%= 0.002004 A D L ~ -0.009187 CB9/FL -0.008781 YOB R 0.0064118 FIFLIHGE -0.001154 01STHH 4.006384 AGE 0.002412 E'LClOT14 -0.006629  3. 3e?ea2enc Oar f a b l e : QtTE.Y?LI 3aqrsssLon Independent 3esul t s 3 - 5 F 'lariables - Constant Q.qfli&;g TY?G o..~-!:IR 0.33335 53.1 YCL?% >(03I', rli.Qn2175 OeQ?37i3 a.rq-15a ,- , ; - 0 "a = . -. 4.5 .. CLTtQT14 -19.315532 +..?2-;2 5.0 DCSTKI -8.OL155J 4.13391 7.5 .icL s r i . 2 ~ .th)~sg 0.09559 3.9 61 I - There a r e two e q u a t f o a s on women's p a r r i < i p a t f m f a a a r k e t activities. The f i r s t one (A) r e l a t e s t o wmens p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n m r k e t a c t i v i t l e s w i t h f n t h e v i l l a g e (Sphere 111) and t h e second ( 3 ) t o women's eaployment beyond t h e v i l l a g e (Sphere TJ). While f o r domestic a c t i v i t y the i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e c u l t u r a l dumnp added 10 percenlt t o t h e e x p l a n a t o r y power of t h e e q u a t i o n , i t m k e s l i t t l e d i e Zerence here. The f a c t o r s i n t h e f i r s t e q u a t i o n e x p l a i n ) about 1 A p e r c e n t of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n women's p a r t i c i p a t 1 o n . i ~Sphere 111. Anong t h e c u l t u r a l v a r i a E l e s , ape a t f i r s t marriage, d i s t a n c e from n a k a l home and female m o b i l i t y ill c o n t r i b u t e a s expected towards womeaes p a r t i c i b a t i o n i n t h e l o c a l market economy. Bovever, once a g a i n t h e image of t h e f e d l e s e x a p p e a r s t o o p e r a t e i n an unexpected d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e household's image of t h e female sex, t h e lower t h e vomans' p a r t i c i p r t i o n i n i n - v i l l a g e market ? activities. Probably t h e s a m e ~ r o s s - c u t t i n g e f f e c t s o f c a s t e and degree of market p e n e t r a t i o n s u g g e s t e d t o e x p l a i n t h e behavior of t h i s v a r i a b l e i n the p r e v i o u s e q u a t i o n are a t work h e r e a s w e l l .  ?aonq t h e d e m - r r a p h i c f a c t o r s , t>e vo=az~'s age, the 3u=lhtr o f mala p a r t l c f p a t i o n i n Sphere 111. 3 s n w S e r oi chi?dr4n Seiov n l 5 e 13 t h e houss- hold a l s o d e c r e a s e s uoaen's pareicL?acLoo as expecred. Tire second q u a t i o n i : : t h i s s e c t i o n r e l a t e s t o -aaenOs p a c t i e i p a t i t m Ls auc-vllln3e as.?ngeat acr!-:tt?ar .r 5.2ero 1". 3 s 'i2 f o r :has eq~ia::an fs o n l y 6.17. 91 t h e f a c t o r s La t h e equasion a l e a l q r a t i o n I s the 3osc In t h e s e twa f a c t o r s because for t h e T i 5 e s i a n aaen%?as 3araqnonle eo~aunlty husbands and r l - l e s o f t e n nfqrrate t o g e t h e r d u r i n g t h e w i a t c r z a n t h s . Yoreovc~r, ?n a l l c o m n l : l e s e x t r e a e poverty laay f o r c e both allen and women t o l e a v e t h e v i l l a g e toqether t o seek mplopaent. Another demoftrahic v a r i a b l e vhich h a s a s i g n i f i c a n t but sonevhat p u z z l h g e f f e c t 1s t h e nutlber o f female c h i l d r e n i n t h e 10-I& age group which a p p e a r s t o c o n t r i b u t e n e f t a t i v e l y t o women's particci - p a t l o n in o u t - v i l l a g e e a p l o y a e n t . n e reason f o r t h i s however i s not c l e a r . Hurniaq t o t h e c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s ue f i n d t h a t f o u r of t h e s e have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on f e m l e employment o u t s i d e t h e v i l l a q e and a l l i n t h e expecced d i r e c t i o n . Higher age a t f i r s t marriage, g r e a t e r female m o b i l i t y and e * i n t h i s instance, p o s i t i v e f e m l e iaage - a l l characteristics associated with t h e Tibeto-Burman g r o u p s - increase vomen's p a r t i t i p a t i o n i n Sphere N. On t h e o t h e r hand, m a r r i a g e a t q r e s t e r d i s t a n c e from t h e wonan's n a t a l home; v h i c h t e n d s t o be t h e Rindu p r a c t i c e , d e c r e a s e s g o h e n ' s - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e b s a r k e t economy beyond t h e v i l l a g e . These f i n d i n g s t h e r g f o r e a l s o lend a t l e a s t i n d i r e c t s u p p o r t t o Hppothesis Bl.  Set 11: actors Ae'Eec:ir.q ?c.-~:e ilecLsion-?!!king Regress i ~ n 3esulcs 3 3 F Lndependenc 'Iardables - Conscanc 103957 a). YFL 1% m""'-".,.... r ,*..-: L. - Q.OL17~3 - - a . 8. --."- - s,-4. 0.25112 * ----- P . L O ') 31 11.1 Ll.i LC T O.QI72R7 3.15013 b .l) iGXIST?@A 0.006111 9.13127 3.1 "Urn1 0.506l:l 0.25693 s.0 SUBACT1 9.3ZO7SR 9,13329 2.5 HHIX -0.OOQM4 4.08187 1.1 Only about IS p e r c e n t of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n uomen's input i n t o donestfc d e c i s i o n s is e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s e q u a t i o n . 0f t h e c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s t h e Image of the f a l e s e x and age a t f i r s t ~ r r f a n e eraerqed a s s i q n i f i c a n t and p o s i t i v e . Aousehold Income s t a t u s does n o t seem t o play a s i g n i f i c a n t role. .Qe however, d o e s and as expected c o n t r i b u t e s psi.- [ t i w e l y t o women's inpuz i n t o domestic d e c i s i o n s . 7 i Uomen's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i a s u b s i g t e n c e production, l d c a l a a r k e t . E . a c t i v i t i e s and employmeat o u t s i d e t h e v i l l a g e a l l have a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on uomen's - domestic d e c i s i o n making r o l e . J ' a l l the variables, However, of - employment- outside t h e v i l l a g e was t h e -st - important t h u s s u p p o r t i n g t h e - k e a r l i e r co&luslon I t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n I n t h e 'outside' market economy improves . I 1 uomen's d e c i s i o n making pover i n t h e C a a e s t i c sphere. 2. F a n vanaqeaent 'Decisions - Regression Xesults 3 3 F Indepeadeat Va r i a b l a s Conscant SL'BXLCI 'JIh3ZSC AGE DOmm -*.- <.-- :PC L.L."XJ VlISC OUTS-.XP L I DISTFM AGEIST??? The household's income, its h a g b of t h e fenwle s e x , t h e i n d i v i d u a l woman's age, t h e d i s t a n c e t o h e r n a t a l hoke, h e r age a t f i r s t a a r r i a u e , h e r awn i n c o m and h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s u b e i b t e n c e , d o a e s t i c and o u t - v i 1 - r q e n a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s , t o g e t h e r account f o r 32 p e r c e n t of t h e v a r i a t i o n Ln C e m l e i n p u t i n t o Pam aanageaent d e c i s i o n s . . W n g t h e c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s only female taage emerged as s i q n l f i c a n t anr? p b s i t i v e . As expected h o s e h o l d inc- has a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on € a m ctauakement d e c i s i o n s . I n o t h e r uords, t h e w e a l t h i e r t h e household, t h e l e s s say,,vamen have i n farm mnagemqnt decisions. The e f f e c t of vown's i n d i v i d b l income however is p o s i t i v e and confirms Hypothesis t b . - - r ' - The Beta c r r t f f i c i e n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t among t h e f s c t o r - c o n s i d e r e d , t h e l e v e l of a wooan's part:ci&tion - i n subsibtence a c t i v i t i e s (i.e. t h e Family Farm E n t e r p r i s e ) seems t o k v e ) t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on h e r r o l e i n Sphere 11 o r farm management d e c i s i o n s . P a r t i c i p a t i o n , i n domestic a c t i v j . t l e s a l s o i n c r e a s e s -amen's i n p u t i n € a m sanaqement. These two f i n d i n g s t h u s c o n f i m Bppothests *I0 and support o u r e a r l l t h cosclusion based on t5e 7iLlaqe 3vsrascs char f o r ~ 5 t 3 * r e % aP dactrlon = k i n e - * a n a n ' s paqat is cor=alsura:e Dependent Vatlabla: ?!EaMa Constant a)OM CTL Orn28LI DfSm AGEIST% mBIL - - - The o w e t a l l coef f i c i e n t of d e t e m i n a t i o n and consequently t h e amount -9 of v a r i a t i o n e x p l a i n e d is l o v e r i n t h i s equatfoa. TSe adjusted 3 ' is only about'0.15. .bong t h e c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s t h e d i s t a n c e t o a woman's n a t a l home and age a t f i r s t marriage a r e s i g n i f i c a n t . These f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t'het bath c l o s e p r o x i d t y of t h e n a t a l k i n group and l a t e r age of marriage have p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s on t h e acmunt of f ~ f l u e n c e9 Y O E W I ~ is a b l e t o e%rt i n h e r , m r i t a l 'r - L home over hou family r e s o u r c e s are a l l o c a t e d . - - T?te e c o a d c s t a t u s of t h e household s e e a s t o S f e c t women's input w I I i n t o resource a l l o c a t i o n aad i n v e s t s e n t d e c i s i o n s o n l y i n d i r e c t l y by e ~ t c o u r a g i n go r d i s c o u r a g i n g t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n eznployment a c t i v i t i e s outside the vtllage.  .b h y ~ o t h e s l r e d , t h e ind!v?dual ~omn's p a r t l c i p a t i o ~is e a ~ l o y a e n t e triLl,aqe / S o h e r d 7:) :?as a sCgnLftc.sncBy positlive 3 2 f ~ c tqr\ ? e r o u r ~ l ~ ltha er :!aci~Pon-.lailng 3 ~ * ~ over P*iOUt:d al>c3t?an vh l l a part f c i ~ a r i o $3 i; ~ !o~csc a c t i v i t y (Sphere 1) has a stq?rfl"icar.tly nesati.:e effect. I n otfrer - m r d s , cos- f f n e 3 e o t t o t h e 'inside" d o a c a c i c spher? t'-:, ibeducs uomcn's a t a t u a , aessurad by her inpuc i n t o t h e m s c h o o t t a n t C f h ~ X - - t ? 36 d e c i s i 9 n s , =.r;~fllea c c e s s so cha 'outsideu ! a a r e ? s a ~ 1:. S?%i:ark?, woae9'r ? a r t icipn:lon i n Sphere r1. s u b s b a e a n c s sqrdeu9kura8 produccton f o r :he fanLly, has no s i g n l f l c a n t a f f e c t on the e x t e n t sf h e r d e c i s t o n -2fnq i n t h i s ares. Of t h e s i g a i l i c n n t post- t Lve f a c t o r s , T&cnan's part 1c:par ion i n a p P o p e n t outs i d e t h e v i l l a g e s e e m t o e x p l a i n t h e l a r g e s t p r o p o r t i o n of t h e v a r i a t i o n . On t h e n e g a t i v e sLde con- finement t o d o m e s t i c a c t i v i t y s e w t o be t h e aost important f a c t o r 1n roducinq w ~ a ' si n p u t t o r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n d e c i s l o n s e As e v i d e n t f r o n t h e 3 c o c b f i c i e n t , one s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n of a womnn's tima devoted t o t!owstic a c t i v i t y reduces Ler i n p u t i n r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t f o n decisions by *.-25 s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s . These f i n d i n q s s t r o n g l - j s u p p o r t !fypo- t h e s i s $12. ?t~seo:+4 d t\ocouqh d f s c u s r E m of :he% 63 an asrllar .'or8c. <\char:.ra .\n4 3 e n n e t t . L9R1). Here w i l l 4 i s c u s s only t h o s e whLch f o l l o v dlrect1.y fro- the f a c a ~ o t n qa a a l y s i a . ?hestl c o n c l u s i o n s she f a p o r t e n t Sot5 f o r f ncrearalgg t h e er'fec tiuaness o f d a v a l e p m n t proqrwm and a t t n l ainq the o b j e c t lvcs of 1. Voaen's %Is f a t h e Yilltase Economy and the DesLzn of 3uraL 9eveLament Froqraas. We Rave s e e n t h a t Sepal's m r a l economy is pradomfnantly s u h s f s t c n c e o r i e n t e d and t h a t women a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 57 p e r c e n t of t h e a d u l t t i s e i n p u t i n t o subsistence activities. It f s t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i a g t h a t vhea t o t a l household p r o d u c t i o n r a t h e r than J u s t o u t s i d e e a r n i n g s , is considered o u r f i n d i n g s show t h a t w e a n c o n t r i b u t e 50 p e r c e n t of t h e f a a i l y income rlhile nen and c h i l d r e n between t h e a g e s of LO and 14 c o n t r i b u t e 66 and 6 p e r c e n t respectively. - 1/ (See F i g u r e 5 ) . V i t h i n t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r f m l e l a b o r c o n s t f t u t e s 45 p e r c e n t of C t h e , t o t a l time i n p u t by a d u l t household members i n a g r i c u l t u r e , 46 p e r c e n t o f t h a t devoted t o animal husbandry and 53 p e r c e n t t o % a l l s c a l e manufactur- ing. Food p r o c e s s i n g is o v e r v h e l d n g l y d d n a t e d by women. Women's overall. i n p u t i n t o t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r is h i g h e r t h a n =en's, b o t h - i n t e r n s of t h e - 1/ 'Chis f i g u r e was d e r i v e d by a l l o c a t i n g t h e j o i n t production w i t h i n t h e household a c c o r d i n q t o t h e ti* i n p u t of d i f f e r e n t age/sex groups w i t h i n t h e household and adding t h f s t o i n d i v i d u a l l y i d e n t i f i a b l e income earned through wage, s a l a r y work and t r a d i n g v e n t u r e s .  nuaber of houts per day spent by the Zndlvidual vamn and i n t a n s of z;$e cocnunicdes (notably f3m =faceetaace, 78antac ion, weadina, seed s e l e c t ion, *dater c o l l e c c i o a , and food p r o c e s s t n ~ , )an4 o t h e r types by aan (includirrq plouqhlsq and house eonstruccion), there is conaldernbla v a r i a t i o n between and . vtc51n c o m u n i t l e s q t u d h d wtrh repard es s e w n 1 d i v i s i o n of labor f o r CuaP - a ~ ~ e p c t n ??r q anl-nt? . bn!shq,,njy-. * p,..&-+ ---~m --- ..- . - -h -* # - - - - -r L -4 - a + --?-;-, -. - 3 .-L - *-> - +-x ~ s ~ q s - *-=... -.*rj e:ieA L*i seed selection, t h e a p p l l c a t ~ o nof oraanlc mnuro and harvesting o p e r ~ t i o n s . .\J a Anre seen +saaem play an e q u a l l y kaporcanc t o l e i n dec tei.sns about the rmanaqeeent of the a q r i c u l t u r a l production process within the S subs l s t e n c e s e c t o r . Righer €mil y income s t a t u s does reduce the involupement of woeten i n f a m n o g e a e n t decisions. Nevertheless t h i s e f f e c t is very small and worsen LR K L l l coamuni:les a r e lnvolved heavily i n decisions on the choice of crops, arranging exchange, wage labor, and a l l o c a t i n g household laba~r. m e e x t e n t and depth of nonen's p a r t i c i p a t i o n In the r u r a l subsistence econoq? has s e v e r a l i ~ p l i c a t i o n sf o r t h e design of the r u r a l L development plans and program. - * Traininq extension and Punctional Xdult ~ u c a i i o h . The high degree of women's involvement i n family farm maaagement has g e a e r a l l y been ignored - - and no , s p e c i f i c e f f o r t s nade t o i n t e g r a t e . w ~ e ni n a g r i c u l t u r a l o r o t h e r r u r a l i - t r a i d n g programs. The problea of the i n d d e / o u t s i d e dichotomy which t o rn . * varying degrees i n d i f f e r e n t c o m u n i t i e s e t f e c t i v e l y c u t s women o f f frars p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e development process can only be overcome through srpecial e f f o r t s t o involve women In t r a i n i a g and extension i n a l l a q r i c u l t u r a l , animal husbandry, resource c o n s e m a t i o n and f o r e s t r y programs. This e n t a i l s s e v e r a l u n c o n v e n t ~ o n a lraovos such as E) looerlnq :he a l n i m l tdaitsrlonal r e q u i t a a e n t s f o r ssv=rai t y p e s QP :tsl>?nq 1x3 f3r cet:ah c:r?its a d e?re;easi2n * i ~ r k c ? . t qI) , * za'cin; a 3 3 e c P ~ Le::3re - t~ ??c?:i: 1.-1:'112 ?~ zdcrfe4 - ~ o r _ e ~ S ::I~I!F.T, I 3) 4evisLng s p e c i a l t r a l a i a g m t e r d a i v i c h t b ! s auA:pnce l n vPav, 4 ) canduczl2q 3 r i o g i a g e x t e n s i o n i n t o ~waan'a sohere ba t h e \ a m atad v i l l a q c Lj one isporeant step towards o v s r e o a l n z &a IaawCde/aut%4dr 4 l c b s t a q y . T e ~c5er - c a a o l s n e n t a r p approach Ilu to enlul~Lm:e?a w f t h :'.ls c k ? I? c -*-,-:.:r2 t -- --.--,. .- - d *<.".- w - s and l n t e r a c h w i t h the s t r u c t u r e s af q s v a r m e n t , the JurSLcLarj and deve1oor;cnt Izureoucrnclas. 'iQaan's nErrP: educaclon should 5e strang;::aened and fjcualad around the reading, w r i t i q and accounting s k i l l s which a r e r e q u i r e d co € i l l o u t loan s p p l i c a t i o n s , read e x t e a s f o n m a t e r i a l s and conduct saall s c a l e businesses. The most p r o d u c t i v e approach would be t o L n t e g r a t e l f t a r a c y and numeracy t r a i n i n g w i t h p r a c t l c a l on- the- job t r a l n i n g i n iacooe g e n e r a t i o n activities. The need t o use i n c o a e g e n e r a t i o n as e n e n t r y p o i n t c a n h a r d l y be overenphasfzed. For =st women, u n l a s s t h e i r t i a e s p e n t away f r o 3 housekold and a g r i c u l t u r a l c h o r e s can b r i n g i n some v i s i 5 l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e f a n i l y income, n e i t h e r t h e y nor t h e i r households w i l l f e e l t h a t t h e t h e is . I justified. The v a r i a t i o n i n s e a s o d l workloads mentioned e a r l i e r as w e l l as - t h e d a i l y s c h e d u l e o f e s s e n t i a l domestic t a s k s must be 'kept i n d u d i n t h e - - d e s i g n and timing of e x t e n s i o n c r a i d n g o r a d u l t e d u c a t i o n Eor women (er i aen f o r t h a t matter). 2. t Y a r k t t A c t i v i t i e s and Z s ~ l o y - , e % CeneratLoa pat:lclpac!o3 13 the "outsi:!e* , s su3scantial I r aar'cat ecnnozy ! :? ?r).:eh ~923 t h a t of mn. 'Jonen's c u r r e n t Lnput Inca Sphere 121, Local :-!!rket Zconoay 13 . 0.31 h o u r s v e r s u s 1 - 5 1 h o u r s f o r l e n and :maen's e a p l o p e n t o u t s i d e t h e . village L3 Sphere Fl is o n l y 9 p a r e e a t o f she t o t a l observed person days v s r s u s 12 P e r c e n t f o r am. ' J h ~ t h e r the concern I s co s e t a l e r a t e u r a v t h 9r t o . a c h f e v e e q u i t y v l c h i n t 3 e Sousehold, i t ts I z ~ p o r t a n t t o supporz t h e t r a d i t i o n of faeala e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p r h e r e i t e x i s t s and s a c o u r a g e Lts J e v e l o p a e n t i n :ha 5 i ~ h l pdl:hacomus coczzunLcics vhekc waen Save La t h e p a s t 3een d i s c o u r - aged Eroa market p a r t f c i p a t f o n . It is c l e a r t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o its inpor- t a n c e i n e n a b l i n g u s t o understand t h e dynamics of t h e r u r a l economy, t h e i o p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i n s i d e / o u t s i d e dichotomy a r e n o t l i a i t e d t o t h e economic dinension. I n o u r f i e l d s t u d i e s w e found t h a t women's g r e a t e r involvement u i t h Spheres 1 and 11 was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a tendency t o denend on men a s sediators - n o t o n l y wich t h e a a r k e t e c o n m y b u t w i t h a l l t h e complex s t r u c t u r e s of the modern world. For wonea, t h e l e g a l system, t h e l o c a l panchayat government, c r e d i t L n s t l t u t i o n s , h e a l t h s e r v i c e s and a g r i c u l t u r a l extension - a l l of t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y important b u r e a u c r a t i c s t t u c t u r e s oE developpent - a r e p a r t of t h e 'outside'. Hence f o r s a n y r u r a l uomen, these systems and s e r v i c e s a r e both s o c i a l l y and c o n c e p t u a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e . I n t h e f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s , we have s s e n t h a t women's involvement i n market a c t i v i t i e s g i v e s theza such g r e a t e r p a a t v i t h i n t h e household i n Items o f t h e i r i n p u t ia a l l a s p e c t s o f household d e c i s i o a m a k i n g . A t t h e same time, l i a i t i n q women's involvement t o t h e domestic and s u b s i s t e n c e s e c t o r s r e d u c e s t h e i r power vis- a- vis pen i n t h e household. T h i s may i n p a r t be due t o t h e f a c t t h a t u n l i k e faniLy s u b s i s t e n c e gheri? t 5 e ? r o d u c t i o a ?recess I t a f o i z t affor: and :%s ~ r o l u c t Cs aos? o r Z ~ s scs.runal, %nay 23:2e6 US :r?E:s ?rtliiucad 3 r e hiq3::: tm!!-~tdc~l!rc.l. 3 b r 3 1 : ~v33e.s :a - 9 ~ ' i d3 : C . I S Q ~ ~ ' > ~ J c o n t r i j u r i o n t o t 3 e ?tousahold Lacow and thus anhaace t h e pestepcLon of 'dosen 39 equal partaer3. There Ls however, a n o t h e r w s s i b l a a x p l a n a t lon Eos cha connect i o n t ant ion an3 S e t w e n woeen s zmrCet ~ a t[el e b l r !ncrensed dec totan--a'tiqq - -- power, an a x ~ l a n a t 1 s n~ 5 E c hh a s Laaortant Plaplfcatlsws 50th io t e r n s aF +nuitv and qrovth. Voeen c o n f i n e d t o s u h s i s t c n c r production for t h e family f a n , z n t z r ? r i s e are w r ' c f n q an ?reduction a s s e t s V?I?;?I, due :a t b e 2 r e v a l e n t p a t r i l i n e a l s y s t e m of land I n h e r i t a n c e , a r e predominantly owned and c o n t r o l l e d by s n . ?emale e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , however, 1s as we have seen, not dependent on land ownership. Bringtag wooen o u t Lato t h e market g i v e s t h m an o p p o r t u n i t y t o g e n e r a t e t h e i r o m p r o d u c t l s n a s s e t s , t h u s providing a means of reduct- t h e dependency on Yepal's f i n i t e land r e s o u r c e s and a t t h e same time a s a r e f e a s i b l e and c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e vay t o b r i n s about g r e a t e r e q u i t y i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of economic r e s o u r c e s betyeen nen and voaen than any a t t e m p t t o change t h e t r a d i t i o n a l land i n h e r i t a n c e s y s t e a i n t h e near f u t u r e . B r i n g i ~ r qwomen i n t o che market economy then, i s both a n e f f e c t i v e s t e p towards mre e f f i c i e n t u s e o f l o c a l r e s o u r c e s and a s c a n s of i s p r o v i n g vkn's s t a t u s and economic s e c u r i t y . Hovever, i n recommending employment '9 - & n e t a t i o n f o r meal women, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l i s s u e s t h a t need t o be taken - - i l t o account. . B F i r s t , we know from t h e time a l l o c a t i o n d a t a t h a t wooen's overall work burden i n a l l coamunities is v e r y high. In l i n e with t h i s , the - s e a s o n a l i t y f i g u r e s shov t h r t a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s l a c k p e r i o d s when s u r p l u s  - l a b o r 1s a v a i l a b l e , t h e r e Ls z e n e r a l l y nore s u r p l u s of a l e l a b o r ( a t l e a s t i n t h e sense ~f mrz L P ~ s I ~ ~tF5! e ) :ha3 of Se53Le l a b o r chmug\out t h e :.'ear. p r i m t i l y man% d.!d:e acd :op t ~ c o c et r = u o s f 3 r vbon rhe provisian af l ~ o r kis nore d i f f i c u l t . Ye3 and vonen i n t h e higher econoafc s t r a t a 'dill 3 e r f o r n only . c e r t a i n kinds of work and mst 3e s f h a r e d h i 5 b s t p a p e n t . ? e t o l a from c5e ?aver tncone group on :ha ocher haad, appear t o be 3ore nearly full;? eaployed, . alchouizh t h e r e to a n h e d f a c s need t o increase the ; r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e i r vork and e h e l r share of vhac is produced t n che coanuhity. I 'I3 rtgari :o t 5 e p n c r a e l a n or' f m n l e c b ~ l o g e n : , tvo r e l e v a n t 5 o l z t s emerge f r w t h e s e findlnqs. FLrstly, i n t a r a s of t i 2 spent i n hose ? I t i ~ a p t ~ d ~ ~ *maen nr e a l r e a d y over-eaployed and Pave l i t t l e o r no e x t r a time F available. Therefore employment p o l i c i e s should place e m h a s is on i n c r e a s i n g I t h e e f f i c i e n c y and economic p r o d u c t i v i t y of work t h e , r a t h e r than on f i l l i n g i n unemployed tiw with a d d i t i o n a l low productivlity domestic o r p u b l i c works activities. The second point is t h a t t h e priaacp of t h e a ~ r i c u l t u r a llabor I1 deman3s nust be recognized and enployaent schemes designed u i t h enough f l e x i b t l i t y t o allow f o r considerable seasonal f l u c t u a t i o n i n t h e l a b o r pool. Unless uomen's c u r r e n t vork burden is reduced th::;rgh increasing - @ . I t h e i r e f f i c i e n c y and p r o d u c t i v i t y , m e n w i l l have l i t t l e o r no time t o . - p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e extension, t r a i n i n g and income-generacing programs suggested above. On t h i s &is high p r i o r i t y should be given t o t h e - development, - * a d a p t a t i o n and- delivery of a p p r o p r i a t e technology. however, improved technologies v i l l o f t e n be necessary a s a b a s i s Prom which In addition t o expand t r a d i t i o n a l female domestic t a s k s such a s g r a i n processing, ofl.  i n t r o d u c i n g ne wonen d i r e c t l y fa i t s t e c h n o l o w should t r y t o i%vol8.~e t5e process of c s c i n o l o ~ f c ~ c5angc. l 3.2 r :ra P l r c s r *re eu:rsze!y :~c?r~o:zii I n new technoloqf ss, and i f :ha b s t o w e r of these t e c h n o l ~ q f s sr 2 q u i r e r :%at they be vomen-naged, the c a m u n i t i e s 'dill s c i l l a c c e p t t3e3. i'tth s o r e 3 o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s r e q u i r i n g c r e d i t , a loan g u a r a n t e e proqraa could h e s e t up t 3 S U P P ~ ~ woaenOs : involvaoenc. Such 3easures are c t t t i c s l t f t h e 11 t s p l a c e n e z c a t moan from thef r t r a d i t i o n a l s p h e r e s of ? r o d u c t i r e a c z i v i t y and a u c h o r i c y Ls n o t t o conctnue. 3. t a r o e t e d Iatzqr3eLon: To f u l l y m o b i l i z e women i n t h e developmeat p r o c e s s and provide them i n c r e a s i n g o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a d s e c u r e p r o d u c t i v e l t v e s , women should 5e s p e c i f i c a l l y t a r g e t e d w i t h i a each development s e c t o r . Concern w i t h e q u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n f o r t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e d s e c t o r s of s o c l e t y cannot s t o p s h o r t a t t h e household l e v e l . The c u r r e n t s t u d y of t h e household decfsfon-aaking p r o c e s s s h o w v e r y c l e a r l y t h a t , a t l e a s t In t h o s e c o m u n i t f e s w e have c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s h i g h l y d i c h o t o m u s , t h e r e a r e o f t e n m r k e d disparities between men's and women's c o n t r o l o v e r how coumon f a m i l y r e s o u r c e s a r e used. t I r T h i s d i s p a r i t y becomes even s h a v e r vhea a c c e s s t o o u t s i d e r e s o u r c e s pnd L - L o p p o r t u n i t i e s is c o n s i d e r e d . W i l e t h e r e is a n i m p o r t a n t need f o r s p e c i a l i z e d i women's - a g e n c i e s and programs, it is more i m p o r t a n t t h a t women be i n t e g r a t e d ' J i n t o a l l t h e r e g u l a r s e c t o r a l Frograms. - Given r h e funtiamental r e - o r i e n t a t i o n t h i s Y l l l r e q u i r e i n m n y s e c t o r s , i t is u n l i k e l y tha&,such integration w i l l k1 . 8 I o c c u r a t any meaningful l e v e l u n l e s s s p e c i f f c t a r g e t s f o r employment, I 1 e x t e n s i o n , d e l i v e r y of i n p u t s , r e c r u i t m e n t f o r t r a i n i n g and p u b l i c , participation a r e e x p l i c i t l y forsulated for a l l sectors. To quote one of o u r i i I  e a r l i e r g a p e r s (Acharga and Pradhan, 19791, 'the i o n l i c i t assumption t h a t t h e nev ( o a r t i c i p a t o r y ) s t r a t e g y of r u r a l 4e*re?o?eent w i l l automatlcal,L:~ ensxrs nay not n e c e s s a r i l y be true." (1379: 5)- .b ? a r t of t h e t a r g e t qroup a ~ p r o a c is e c t o r a l i a v e s e n e n t c a r s e t s - should s t a t e e x p l i c i t l y how mch employaent esch s e c t o r w i l l g e n e r a t e f o r =n and women. Such ta:%ets could >rav?de a brand f r a z e u o r k r l t 5 b n whic5 e3e d e c a l l e d enploywent p a t t e r n s implied by w r c b c u l a r dcvclooaent 3 r o j e c t s and grogram couiJ be a5sessrd arbd a:i iusced- 3ne YOU^^ n o t coroceni c i ~ n c e v e r y ar3qram and 9 r o f e c t should qenezate aa e q u a l ntm5er of :obs 5 3 s aen acd *donen, buc r a t h e r t h a t an o v e r a l l b a l a n c e a t t h e s e c t o r a l and n a t i o n a l l e v e l s should be sought. A t p r e s e n t women a r e involved i n a l l Che t r a d i t i o n a l s e c t o r s of t h e economy and care u u s t be taken t h a t ioproved t e c h n o l o g i e s and s t r u c t u r a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n do n o t d i s p l a c e t h a from t h e s e s e c t o r s . l3is a g a i n e n t a i l s t h e need t o d i r e c t b o t h t r a i n i n g and c r e d i t t o vonen t o e n a b l e them t o Become a o r e p r o d u c t i v e and keep pace v i t h t h e m d e r n i z a t i o n process. P r o v i d i n g c r e d i t t o wonen is more d i f f i c q l t t h a n i t loo'ks a t f i r s t hand. %men do n o t ovn p l e d g a b l e a s s e t s and t h i s o f t e n c u t s them o f f from institutional credit. P r o v i d i n g c r e d i t t o poor vomen i n e v i t a b l y i n v o l v e s L i n t e n s i v e s u p e r v i s i o n and p r o v i s i o n of o t h e r s u p p a r t i n q s e r v i c e s . S i n c e mst of t h e s e women a r e i l l i t e r a t e , t h e y a l s o need c a r e f u l t r a i n i n g i n a c c o u n t i n g and developing s k i l l s f o r c o n t a c t w i t h e s t a b 1 ~ ; h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s such as C c o m e r c i a 1 banks. 4- Long Run I m p l i c a t i o n s . E The p o l i c i e s r e c o m e n d e 0 above airned a t i n v o l v i n g women f n t h e development p r o c e s s and expanding t h e i r a c c e p t a b l e r o l e s beyond t h o s e of mother, housekeeper and s u b s Lstence a g r i c u l t u r a l u s r k e r can Se a x p e t t e d t o n p o r t a n t long ranqe s f E e t t s I n : e n s of reduced E s r t i l i c y ~3:~s and ! ~ a - ~i e changed s o c f 3 1 a t t i t u d e s t o q d l t 3 s c h i l d r e n ' s ed.~cs:lol?. 3 e 51311 s i x o f out s a n p l z p r e c l u d e s z e a n i n g f u l r e q r e s s i o n s r e l a t i l q qocen's current fertility e3 age an$ v a r i o u s o t h e r socio-econoalc f a t t a r s l n l l s e a c i np u s 3 e 3 ' ~ r o l e a o d a l s and t h e i r work p a t t e r a s . Rovevcr, t h e t a b l e shouing c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f l c l a n t s p r e s e n t a d Selow, does shwd n e g a t i v e r a l a c i a r \ s b i o s hecwen f e r : i ? i t p and feaale f n v o l v e a e n t i n Sphere I'J 3cc!o!tias. R e r e l a t i o n s h i ? v i c h age a t First strrid.;r, ~ ; \ o u g h hn i h e execteci alrec=isn is noc slandidcanc a c 5 parcenc level. I c o a p a r i s o n of t h e a a a n u b e r . 3€ c h i l d r e n Sotn n l l v e :a doadn age 15 and above Ln t h e non-dichotomous T i b e t o - a u r j a n and t h e d i c h o t a a o u s 3 i n d u g1:oup d o e s show t h a t women Ln these c o m n i t i e s which p t o v i d e some s o r t of a l t e r n a t i v e r o l e m d e l and s o u r c e of economic s e c u r i t y tend t o have lower b i r t h ra:es. T h i s is so d e s p i t e t h e h i g h e r l i t e r a c y r a t e i n t h e d l c h o t o m r i s Hindu c o n n u n i t i e s and t h e g r e a t e r p r o x i d t y of t h e dichotomous c o ~ l c l u n i t i e si n t h e s a a p l a t o urban c e n t e r s .  Correlation Coefficients 3zlatinq Children 30m Xltve t o Yareled ::o-,err 9% Sphere I11 Yartec A c t i v i t y 4.0435 'iomn's ed::cnc!on -0.1930 9.031 237 aousehold educactonal otatus I/ - 43.3263 3.343 237 Age a t f i r s t sattiage -0.0896 - ! I A s d e f i n e d i n t h e l i s t of v a r i a b l e s i n Annex I. I n c o m u n i t i e s where f e v e r r e s t r i c t i o n s have been impose4 on women by t r a d i t i o n and c u l t u r e (J .e. a m n q t h e 3araqaonle, Xai, % g a r and Taraang) t h e r e is g r e a t e r v i l l i n g n e s s t o e d u c a t e g i r l s even though t h e nuaber of e d u c a t e d a d u l t -men is o f t e n v e r y l o v i n t h e s e c o u n u n i t f e s . The continued a s s o c i a t L o n of vomen v i t h t h e n a t a l household a f t e r marriage and t h e g r e a t e r p o s s i b i l i t y - o f s u p p o r t f r m d a u g h t e r s i n c l d age provides a n o t h e r i n c e n t i v e t o female e d u c a t i o n i n t h e T i b e to- Suntan non-dichotomous group. C o n t r a r y t o t h e IIindu v i e v , th&e is no F e e l i n g t h a t i t is shameful t o a c c e p t h e l p from a married .a daughter. - - 5 Hence, women i n t h e s e communities a r e looked upon a s a s s e t s r a t h e r * . t h a n l i a m l i t i e s t o t h e i r n a t a l households and t h i s appears t o be r e l a t e d t o . E t h e i r g r e a t e r access t o schooling.  !re generated s e data on atettde t~ bays' and g i r l s ' education. me man scores on a t t ttd2 tcl i 6 y s 0 dccacLon I3 th? t r o 33joh ~ r o u y asf r i rls' educst loo does. R.2 feorasoLoas r e l a c i z g t 5 e s e at: Lc-~dlaals t o r z s :a other varfables, hwdcver, sere unable to e x p l a i n 3ara than 6 parcenc of * >e vartacioa. Nevertheless, a l l the raqrassl?n c s e f f i c i e n t s ehow expected ..rL:tr t\e f a c t that =snflae=r+rpt t o t O Pe i a s i d e or 9r?va:t 2 0 r s ~ ~ -33behe t l ~ tmds t.r make women note conser*rae&an an. -Inforce, rha b e l i e f that only -,en need to he educated for concact u l t h the mestde.  - ~3 - Dependent BarlaSle - A t t i t u d e to bay so educatlan: LITBE3 Dependent Variable kt 1tude t~ G i r l s ' education Ccns t a a t  Re5+rs3ees ca c5e ?!a13 Text 2. , and Lynn k n n e c t . "TI?* 2ural g o e n of Sapa?: , A n ;\agreglate ,\nalysis and 5-ry o f 3b;ght .:!8,3qa Scandl as.- 1931. The Status o f ,*&man In Yepal YoI. 9, par! IH. CFD.4, F r i b h u b s n Vn?versFc:?, Xachmndu, 1991. 3. , and 31:s "radean. "3a-a-a10pac~s S r t n e c a y I3r 3 u r i l '$men". 11zer presence$ ac tbc Se.rslnar an Ecroccoic 3?e2en:s 9f 3;lnlroL Cevalapment f o r S e ~ a l ' s S i x t h ?Pan. CE3A, F r i 5 h u b a a Ynivers bty, Kachrssandu, J u l y 1979. 5. Campbell, J.C., S h r e s c h a I. and S t o n e t. The S s e and Yisuse of Socf;rl S c i e n c e Research Yethods i n Xerml. CNAS Trihhuban U n i v e r s i t y . ~ n c ! G n d u 1979. 6. "Eonen of B a n v : The S t a t u s of nomen i n Xeaal Y a r d a m C: The Lohonrcq %ti Vol. f I (Typed manuscript). ? h t h n d u , PSSQ. 7. Kessler, Evelyan S. %men: An Anthropoloqfcal Vier. !!ole. IBcLnhart and Wlnston, N e w York, 1975. 3. Kus~~ic , Y.V. and J. IkQanro. 'Iacocw I n e q u a l i t y and t h e D e f l n i t i o n of Income: The Case of .Yalaysia.' X-2485 CSXID. 1980. 9. X o l n a r , A. "The Khao !a g r a '?&men of Wlabang." The S t a t u s o f Yomen i n Hepal, Q o l . 11. CeDA, T r i b h u b a n U a i v e r s l t y , Kathaandu, 1981. * 10. ?fueller, Eva "The Value and A l l o c a t i o n of T i s e i n h r a l Botswana" i n I 'The Eousehoid Econosy of X u r d Botswana: An -African Case" by F !- Chernichovsky (Ed.) ( W e o g r a p h e d ) P o p u l a t i o n and FhuMn Resources. DED, - world ~ a 1981. ~ k .r ; i r 1 11. O r t n e r , S,B, 'Is Female t o Yale a s - N a t u r e is t o C*llture?" i n h s a l d o and - 1 I Lamphere (Eds.) Women C u l t u r e and S o c i e t y . S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , S t a n f o r d , C a l i E o r n i e , 1976. b . * i 12- Fradhon B. 'The &war ?&men 0,- Bulu." The S t a t u s of Yomen i n Nepal Val. XI. CEDA, Tribhuban U n i v e r s i t y . Kathmandu. 1951. 13. W l n n , Xasaomi. ' A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s of Voomen's S t a t u s " i n Annual Seviev of Anthropology V a l . 0 6 , 1977. 1 4 . Quizon-Kinq. Elizabeth. ' T b e Xllocacion and Home Producton in h r a l ? h t l i ? p i n e :%usekolds.' ?.e ?SPEfppLac ?conoabs 4 o u r m l Vol. .VIP :':a. 1 and 2 * t979. 16. Rssaldo. 9.2. ' G o e n Culcura and Soclecv: X 3 e o r e h i c o l *h*erviav" i n - !Cozen Culture and S o c l e : ~ 5y Xesaldo and Lanohere 4Eds.). VsLvarsLcg Press. ~ t a n c c r d . C a l f bornia, 1974. Scanfar? 1 9 . Sc'nuller. S. "The 'haen cf %caqaon,- T h e Status e l "omen Ln Sepal V o l . 11 l 3arc CE3.A. : P", hhS uan VnCvecsicp, K a t h a d u , t94?. 19. La'D?. 7 ~ ~ :jOfenOs 3 1 Part iti~aoionCa hvelomenc. Zvnluatfon Study So. 3. h e y Yo&, 8980.  * Acharya. Yeieana. ' S t a t i s t tea1 ?roCila of 3epalese goomen: A C r i ttcsl Q v i a v . " Sennett. L p n . Tradition an4 Ch~noe Ln the Leenl Ststas 06 Yeanlase 'Jamen., 1323. t Pradhan, 9 1 m . Easzltut lows Conccrninz '&=a%, t929. f! A c h a q a , Yeem and Lynn Bennett. The Rural 'Women of Nepali: Xn Xqqregate Analysis a d S u k ~ e ~ a qoff Efzht Village Seudfes. 1331, . Bennett, Lynn. 1980. Molnat, Augusta. Thz Khsmr %ear Women o f fhabanq, !981. Rajauria, Drone. The T h a n Uoaen of Sukravar, 1980. Schuler, S. The *&men of Baraaaon,' ,1981.  - tG, a T:3ero-3u.m~n %roe? = Sar~gacnLe (Ti?ec.tn s ? a - ~ k i ? g ) 556 ~ o h o t u o n g~i !; .;a :+a;~r1- ~ a - a n g m - i = iiindu o r s t congap Hindu-influenced groups PnrSat l y a - :-!!ithill 5C0 + !:euars FS a P a d a y St:ucrura ( 1 - O c d t e g o r i e a f v a r l a b l s I f o r aembersltip in an extended f a d l y , and 11 f o r 3 e a b e r s h f p i n n u e l c a r fsofly. S o ~ r c a : 3DS. .GE ?.ST% - .Qe o f 4sc Yarriage. Source: 3DS. HOSTL - Sunber of t r i p s Involving o v e r n i g h t s t a y s s u e by m a e n co urban o r r i t u a l s e a t e r s . S m S e r of trip Is used a s 3 score. Source: DDS. DISTW. -Distance to vo~sen's n a t a l hoae. T h i s is oeasured i n t e n s of h o u r s o r days walk and t h e ~ l u o b e r sa r e taken as s c o r e s . Source: DDS . !-MRFkY 0 t 3 o i c e of a r r i a g e p a r t n e r . 1-0 categorical variable. 1 f o r o r a c h o i c e n a r r i a g e s e i t h e r with o r without parent's consent and c a p t u r e v i t h consent. O f o r p a r e n t ' s c h o i c e o a r r i a g e v i t h o r without c o n s e n t and c a p t u r e w i t h o u t consent. Source: D3S. MHHZDSF = a l e kcusehold head's e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s . It is measured En terns o f J i a t e r v a l c a t e s o r i e s , naaely: (1) no s c h o o l i n g o r i l l i t e r a t e ; (2) prierary s c h o o l i n g o r l i t e r a t e ( c a p a b l e of r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g ) ; (3) secondary s c h o o l i n g o r a r s y e d u c a t i o n ; (4) h i g h e r education. These c a t e g o r i e s have been used as s c o r e s . Source: DDS. IEDST - Woman's own e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s . T h i s is measured i n terms of s i d l a r c a t e g o r i e s as f o r male household heads. Source: DDS. E M . ED1, ED2 = Household's e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s . T h i s is a dummy - v a r i a b l e w i t h t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , namely: no a d u l t s educated i n c h e - household ( E M ) a t l e a s t one male a d u l t educated ( E D l ) and a t l e a s g - one a l e and one female a d u l t educated (ED2). Source: DDS. - Xot a l l of t h e v a r i a b l e s heve been used i n t h e c c r r z n t a n a l y s i s .  .WE = Age group t o r h i c h tbc f o d i v i d a a 3 belongs co. =.is is once again an Lncerval variaSLc coa?rLsLcg 9 a g e graups a t 5 year i n c a c v a l s f 3r ? o p u l a c i o a oi 3 33d 35072, and 2 a$e 3 f 3 ~ 7 sCot ch?:Jren 5 o l ~ j. The group x z 5 e r s :have h e n ersed as scocao. Sourcd: 325. - -. C33! :i , = :;-5ar ,f c h i l t r c n j + l g r j c a feriala .idul:si I;! t 5 e household. (The n u l 5 e r s indi:ats c h i l d r e n ' s age considered. 1 5 l c 1s C391Ti i t would be c h i l d r e n below 9.) Source: DDS. .ULW S u b e r of aduPc wles i n the household. Source: 39s. - 1 YLC3F14 S m b e r o f =la children 5 co l i Bn t % e household. (36 n w j e r s % o d B e a ~children'% o azd. !i I c Cs 5 co 3 :ke? !t i s 5-3 s3c 3r0up. 1 . ilCST15 SugSer of female c h i l d r e n 5 t o 1 S i n t h e household. :5. SB!ILE'F' = 0 - : w c e g o r l Source: L L v L ~ As o n s s r n s c . c a l varisbPe f o r 3DS. Ides.cLfyia3 r h c t h r r wcrzan 86. DTLiV 0 - - 1 c a c e g o r f c a l v a r f a b l e f o r ideneffjring whether t h e wozan has Pfving d a u g h t e r s o r not. Source: DDS. 11. CMLIV Source DDS. - Dummy f o r Pivfng c h i l d r e n o r n u b e t of l f v f n g c h t l d r e n . 18. CaR\lIYI = Suaber of c h f l d r e a b r a a l i v e t o t h e voaan. Source: DDS . 19. CHJXIV2 = Yuaber of c h i l d r e n born a l i v e t o woaen vho have completed 50 y e a r s . 21. HHIXC = Household's t o t a l i n c o w . T h i s excludes v a l u e added from food p r o c e s s i n g used f o r home use o r s a l e and women's wage and s a l a r y , e income. It w a s f e l t t h a t i t would be a p p r o p r i a t e t o excludeLincome from e x c l u s i v e l y -amen's a c t i v i t i e s from household income i n o r d e r t o test Its e f f e c t on women's work pattern. Source: Production and Income F o r a s (70-74). . 22. AHPROP = Household p r o p e r t y . Source: Form 60. 23. UIhiINC = Women's s a l a r y and wage income. - Source: F o m 74. m 31. SUEWtXF = P r o p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l female frequency f n s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s ( a s d e f i n e d in t h e main t e x t - Sphere 11) t o t o t a l number of i n - v i l l a g e o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r a l l f e s a l e s i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r house- - holds. For example, suppose one household h a s two vomen each of whom  were o b s e r v t d 79 cizes i n t h e viPLas+. Cne of thea vas found i 2 sub- s:stence a c t i v t c ; ~13 c i a e s 3od o f t e n 25 cL=es. ?>en Sj'?>cT? :'or z i ~ a housenoid =.'auld >t: 2 3 T 25 :*a 79 - 32. ILiY.: -I = ?tjpor:ton > f t?.2 c ~ s ~ Ceza?t B C~ Lx-viil.~~~~ ~ : ~ - ; G Z D P in u r k s c a c c i v i t y (as d e i i n e d i~ t h e a 1 3 t e x t - Sphere IXE) ca :he c o t a i i n - v i l l a g e o b s e r v a t i o r s f o r a l l iecales of c3e p a r t i c u l a r house- - hold. 33. of t h e r o t a 1 f e n a l e f eequency I n docescie W?L.ICTP tr~portion a c k i - r i s i e s (as d e f i n e d In t h e =La c a x t - Sphere I )ca :he t o t a l i n - vf Elage o b s e r v a e ? o n s i 3 r 111 timaies i n the ? a r e ? c u l a r household. - 3. OUTE:PL = ?rspo:ebon of Cays s p e n t by a l l t h e f e z a l e s of the! house- h o l d i n market a c t i v i c y o u t s i d e t h e v i l l a g e (as d e f i n e d i n t b e a a i n text - S a h e r e 9V) co t o t a l f e n a l e d a y s o b s e r v e d (days x n u ~ b e rof - :cnaPes) f o r chac household. For e x a a p l e i n t k e e x a a p l e i n ~ : a r i a b l c 30 :he t%o maon of ::ye kouseho8ds had s p e n t 3 iays e a c h i n outsflie e a p l ~ y c x n tand obser-red Lor 78 d a y s e a c h t h e OWT3PL 8 .L 8 7 8+i18 35. SUBACT1 = P r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r e q u e n c y i n s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s t o cocal in- village observations f o r t h a t individual. 36. I = P r o p o r t i o n of i a d i v i d u a l f r e q u e n c y of market a c t i v i t i e s t o i o t a 1 number of i n - v i l l a g e o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r t h a t i n d i v i d u a l . 37. EX)MCTI - P r o p o r t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l f r e q u e n c y o f d s o e s t i c a e r i v i t i e s t o t h e t o t a l number of i n - v i l l a g e o b s e r v a t i o n s f ~ t5at r indivfdual. 38. OLTeXPLI = B r o p o r t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l f r e q u e n c y of employment a c t i v i - - ties o u i s i d e t h e v i l l a g e t o n u b e r of d a y s o b s e r v e d f o r c h a t i n d i v i t - - ual. IM. DECISIOB .WISC VARIABLES .L\D POLITICAL~CONSCIOUSZUTSS( I n d i c a t o r s of Status) 41. F E W = P r o p o r t i o n o f farm nanagement d e c i s i o n s i n which one o r a l l o f t h e r o s e n o f t h e household p a r t i c i p a t e d o r a a d e t h e d e c i x o n , t o '2 che c o c a l n m b e r o f d e c i s i o n s i n t h a t c a t e g o r y i n t h e p a r t i c u l . a r - - household. Source: S e e t h e l i s t a t t a c h e d i n t h e s e c t i o n on d e c i s i o n , making i n Appendix 111. * - . 8 42: F E W P r o p o r t i o n o f r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n and investment decisions i n which one o r a l l wmen of t h e household p a r t i c i p a t e d o r m d e t h e d e c i s i o n s , t o che c o r a l nunbet OF d e c i s t m s i n c h a t c a t e g o r y fin t h e p a r t i c u l a r household. S o u ~ c e : Same as f o r v a r i a b l e 41.  43. F51)YD a ?ropor:ian c ~ fd?=escLc e x p e n 2 i t u r s decLsio?c5 i 3 vhich one or 312 cozen of cke 5ouseRoEd ?arklcipacsd o r ~ a d e t h e declsLan ro r.?a cacal ;r.;~?rtr~f I.icLsho~.s %.a :!rat c a z e p r ? i n -.h3p,!~e.ssei..old. Source: Sa=e as E3r var:sb:$ GI. ' ' +-. . 3 . - -' = ? r 3 p u c c l o n o: zsc'l? -,a.w;e=e:ac l a c -a3 ular -.-sen p r t i c i 2 a t e d oh 3aCe :?.e C e c i s i ~ n: + ~ 2 s;n % 3 i 3 :5e pa::::- a the :seal nua5cr oi f a n s n a g a a e n c cscislsrar In e:ac household. Source: Saae as f o r ?drclca:as maen parhictpaced s r >ad2 :Ee 4eePsLan co cba cocs? nusber n s c3e lar:Lcm~Lar ;a?.;rg,at:s i:: r,?e 't4115eP:o1C. St~u::e: or' Q a e i ~ i ~ ?n Same as far s.-.artabla i 2 . $6. E = Proporeion o f doaescic expeadicure decisions, i;r w'ni~thc;7e p . l t t i c . ~ l a r-.mocn ?arcieilpaceG or m d e c5c decision eo h.5c 5oc.1l rauzber G i d e c i s t o n s ~3 eke p ~ r c i c u i a rcacegory 13 ehc ~ o u s o h o i d . source: SJEC ;LS far +$artable L3. $7. POLCOX 1 P o l i t i c a l conscisusness. This v a r i a b l e i e created by a s s i s n i n g s c o r e s co responses c s 15 knou/does nsc know type qutestions on p o l l c i c a P m t t e r s . Sub f e c t -:tar of the questions and s c o r i n g provedures are l f s e e d below. a Uoaxn's PoPi t f c a l Conseisusness and Camunity Part i c i ~ t ion % I I Scoriag Procedure - (?OLCON)* I For foPLo;ring quescbons s c o r e s of L and 0 ;save k e n a s s l s a e d f o r p o s i t i v e and negative o r no aas*wers. B. N a e of t h e Panchayac t o which t h e viLlage belongs. * . I 2. Pradhan Panch's nase 3. Uard Supbet - - 4. I f any Wosen Represencatwes i n Panchayac a t present li 5, I f t h e r e uas any Vomen P a c h a y a t Xember in the past !e 6. Local Yoman ever occupying d i s t r i c t - l e v e l o r higher p o l i t b c a l p o s i t i o n * ?faxi= p o s s i b l e s c o r e 18.  7. Sane of t h e C.D.3. of your D i s t r i c t 19. :4inlster Saae of t h e P r i ~ e 11. Xepal's Zoaen's Organizations 12. Vontn's Servlees Co-ordinatisn C o m l c t e e G:hr queseions vere scored I n the fsP10v:ng Zazner. 3 UillLngness t o r e p r e s e n t i n t h e l o c a l 2anchayat. 'feu So - 3 3 Do not kno.v/no nnsper I 14. Attends panchayat meetings. Regularly and occas l o n a l ly 2 Rarely once o r evice i n ny l i f e 1 Xeverlno answer 8 15. Has voted i n v i l l a g e e l e c t i o n . Regularly 2 Once o r twice 1 Xeve r Q V. Other Variables 51. IATBED = Indivi4ual's a t t i t u d e t o boys' education. Thfs v a r i a b l e $s c r e a t e d combining $aswers t o two a t t i t u d e q u e s t i o n s on education: namely whether boys should go t o school o r not ( s c o r e s I , Oj and up t o what l e v e l t h e y should s t u d y ( s c o r e s Q t o 5). T o t a l of t h e s c o r e s on t h e two answers a r e used a s s c o r e s of i n d i v i d u a l a t t i c u d e t o education. Source: Form 80. .? i 52. IATGED = Individual's a t t i t u d e t o g i r l s ' education,=created i n t h e - s p e manner a s v a r i a b l e 51 but by a s s i g n i n g s c o r e s E-nSWerS a t t i t u d e t o g i r l ' s eductation. to 53. WTBED = Household's a t t l t u d e t o boys' education. T o r a l of t h e male and female (one each) s c o r e s on a t t i t u d e t o boys' education. 54. HATGED = Household's a t t i t u d e t o g i r l s ' education. T o t a l of the male and f e w l e (one each) s c o r e s on a t t i t u d e t o g i r l ' s education. Is i: i~par:aa: ' 0 send b y s :o s c h o o l Es i: imporran: :o and g i r l s :o s c h o o l To uha: level? Less :hsn :hree ::sacs 1 3 :> 7 years - 1 8 :o 16 y e a r s 3 &re :ha 10 y e a r s 4 As m c h a s :he f a m i l y can a t l o r d 5 So answer 0 .%xtmm p o s s i b l e s c o r e 6. 57. Ht'tDlG = Household's female image. T h i s v a r i a b l e ts c r e a t e d tn zwo s t e p s . In :he f i r s : s t e p nega:fve o r posi:ive numbers a r e a s s l g n e d t o r e s p o n s e s :o q u e s t t o n s on whether q u a l i t i e s such ns :rustuor:hi n e s s , s e l f i s h n e s s , obedience c h a r a c z e r i z e s e h , v o z n o r bo:h s e x e s e q u a l l y . The resul'fng s c o r e is :hen ro:aled f o r e a c h responden:. There are =;ro s e t s of r e s p o n s e s one f r o b a pale and one from a female and hence Zuo s c o r e s f o r e a c h household. Household s c o r e s a r e c r e a z e d a d d i n g up bo:h s c o r e s ( s e e :he a:tached :able f o r d e t a i l e d s c o r i n g procedure). Cuestions on: Scores .%ssianed t o .hsvers 1. Truszuorrhiness (Q.1) 2. Concerned ajou: f a a i l p ( 9 . 3 ) 3. Obedience ( Q . 5 ) 5. Kindness (4.7) 5. Cooperazlon ( Q . 9 ) 6. Reltglon (Q. 10) !:ega: i v e Qual l - : ies 1. S e l f l s h n e s s (Q. 2) Only %a 1 2. Laziness ( 4 . 4 ) Only Women -2 3. S:ubbornness* (Q.6) 9ozh So answer -1 0 4. Quarrelsomeness (4.8) * Highest p o s s i b l e s c o r e 16.  'table 2: POBhnATXON BY AG3 Age ';:~up TsK~L -- ;e Fasls * Samole for current tL=a a1Boc~eLonstudy, L.c. 1 4 households I;? each of she seven v i l l a 3 e s tn =he currenc sanpla.  h ,4 M h h a U * e m CI- ah Rul ew- m u - - N m 974 000 0 9 qi???+: uI00000 El0 2 a 0 rl 0 o 5 o is? doo q 3 o ...... 1 ;=;s==r nuoooao 9 ?I" o o d Ssl -1 1' a 3 pql u moo 2 d A rl ?qqqazr 7 %- ' 0-ooooa u 0 El 0  T a b l e 4 (b): Pmew - S ~ ~ Tme VILLAGE O F P.A~TICIPATIOH ' L ~ L A OLTSIPE (Sphere I V ) (For Population oL 15 Years and Above) ( HR >ehSQ!l d a y s ) ?3:tlcu?~h 33: f o r Zzt~:a:zzznc Ca=tunLcies/ Tocclb Da>.s ?e:cent r 2 7 3 ~ 3 1 Tibeto-3umn Baraglon ?anpa Pha bang Katarche *Sot included i n che currenc analysis  I ?ale i ~ - 1 . loch Type of Decision il t ! 18.3 Arranges Exchange tabor 135.2 j 35.7 -10.8 100.0 Arranges Wage U b o r i I 4 2 . b ] 19.3 *i 5 . 7 12.6 100.0 Decides Others Wotk 0u:side 3oae / 56.2 i 43.8 j - I - 1 100.0 1 I Decide8 OM Work Ourside Uoae 1 7 3 - II - 100.0 .<IU B O R DECISICHS . / 66.2 j 39.4 I 8.6 1 5.8 What Crop to B h n t ? ) 18.0 1 30.2 112.8 / 39.0 100.0 Ovn or Isproved Seed? 1 20.7 f I 60.4 ! 10.9 1 8.0 100.0 ; Amount 6 ~ l i n dof Pcrrillzer h2.s j I 39.7 113.4 f 14.9 lOO.0 I ! AIL A G U C U L I D U L DECISIONS 20.0 100.0 i Source: Achup. a d Bennett, I h t R u r a l Wn - of Ierml, 1981  Extracts f r o s PEKD . W W t U : Guidelines for the Collection and A M l y a i s of Data on the Status of Women i n Rural Xepalese Coaunrnfties  A\%TX I 1 - Part 1 Quantitative Instruments Int~ G ~ tUi oCn .AS d e s c r i b e d i n the = i n t e x t , nine seas ~h inutruroents uere developed f o r quantitative data cs1lec:ish. .%lthough ue t r i e d t a keep t h e t o m s s i a p l e , and d i d s e r i a l pre-cescs, soae of o u r i n s c r w e n c s ?roved t o be wll designed while o t h e r s presented c e r t n l a ?robleas. The most s u c c e s s f u l ones v e r e those used f o r r e c a r d i n g c i n e use, household p r o p e r t y and s u b s i s - ccnce producclsn, decislon-cmking and d e ~ o g r a ? h l cvariables. The sees on c r e d i t , e c o n o d c t r a n s f e r s a t a a r r i a g e , and t e v e l o p a e n r p e r c e p t i o n s verd n o t 3s e f f e c t i v e as se had hoped. n o s e used f o r c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a on p o l i r l c a l p r t i c i p a r ion, a a l c / T e m l e s t e r e o t y p e s and a c t l t u d e s t o e d u c a t i o n were soaew'hat in-between. Xe will p r e s e n t h e r e examples of t h e f i r s t s e t of forms, i . e . chose PC f e l c verc successful. Since zhe t h i r d s e t were d e v i s e d La the con:exc of :he S e p a l c s e p o l i t f c a l structure and t h e c c l t u r e , r e v i l l d i s c u s s t h e n LR g e n e r a l and reproduce s e c t ions uhen necessary. TPae Gse X n m b e r o f a1:etildtives e-xisted f o r s e l e c t i n g a nechodo1og:y s'9r t h e e c o l l e c t i o n 02 z i ~ allocation data. The = i n c h o i c e y a s bezreen t h e r e c a l l nethod ( u k r e i n f o r a n t s a r e asked co t e l l t h e t f ? s e a r e h e t i n sequence hov -,u:h ti= t h e y spend i n 3ariou.s activities on rhe p r e i o u s day) a n d :he q b s e r t a t i o n - - a e i h d (rhere t h e r e s e a r c h e r a c t u a l l y r e c o r d s che a c t i v i t i e s GI each f a m i l y '5 rtecber as t h e y are o c c u r r i n g . I/ - The a d v a n t s ~ e sand disadvantages of each - 1/ X t h i r d a?proach used i n s e v e r a l 3es:srn countries is t o have t h e i n f o r - m a t s keep t h e i r ovc daily rice records. This aethodology however, h a s seen found :o %e f a p r a c t i c a l i n developing countries a n d t h e nigh1 race of illi terac:? aaong tbe r u r a l popuLac ion a a k e s t h i s s e l f r e c o r d i n g tecknigue I n f e a s i b l e for Sepal.  approach have &en thoroughly d i s c u s s e d i n r e c e n t B i c e r a t u r e ( 3 o u l i e r : 1937, UESCO: 1978, Asia Society: 1978, S i r d s a l l : i980). The r e c a l l l e t h o d a l l o w s a l a r g e r s a n p l e and t a k e s less r e s e a r c h t i a e p e r i n q u i r y but i s .gene- r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d l e s s a c c u r a c e t h a n d i r e c t o b s e r v a t ion. i n t h e end w e decided t o use d i r e c t observation -- n o t however, t h 2 tlze-consunlag t e c h n i q c e of r e c o r d i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s of a s i n g l e household i o r an e n t i r e day, but through randoa s p o t checks of s e v e r a l houeeholds s e v e r a l times a day. T h i s approach had e a r l i e r beea used by Zrasrpus i n Xexico (1955) and has been used by Xernet i n S r a e i l (1978). e adopted o u r nethodolagy from W a n unpublished paper by Johnson ( 1975). I / - Our c i n e a l l o a t ion d a t a was c o l l e c t e d o v e r a tize span between 6 months and a y e a r depending on t h e village 2/ w i t h e a c h household v i s i t e d e v e r y o t h e r day t h u s a l l o w i n g a c o t a l F 05 between 7 8 a a d 156 observat:ons p e r person (one of che e x a n p l e s of the i k random hour charts is a t t a c k d ) . I n o r d e r t o a s s u r e suf LLcLenc time f o r o t h e r t y p e s af d a t a c c l l e c c i o n i c ?as decided t h a t o n l y t 2 o h o u r s a day would be devoted KO t i n e u s e observatian. This alloved t h e researcher t o cover a s a n p l e of 25 households ( f o u r groups of s i x t o u s e h o l d s ) by v i s i t i n g t u o groups a day d u r i n g two d i f f e r e r , t r a n d c l l y chosen hours. The i n t e r v i e w e r w a s . I provided w i t h a pre-coded fmn (actached) c o n t a i n i n g a d e t a i l e d s e t of acti:zic:es l i s t e d v e t t i c a l l ? and space t o r e c o r d t h e naae and person n u b e r of -- each hcusehold xenber a c r o s s t h e cop before t h e i n t e r v i e w . iie.pas a l s o gi- en i - l/ The f i r d i n g s of t h i s s t u d y appeared La p u b l i s h e d f o r s i n 1975 a s "Tise . G l o c a t i o n in a ? l a c h i p e ~ aCocuuni:yl'. 1 : Ethnology I&: 301-10. - 2: S u d y e t a r y c o n s t r a i n t s i F n i t e d 4 oi t h e s t u d i e s t o a :%me span of 5 xont5.s. Hovrever, t h i s p e r i o d encoopassed t h e n a j o r busy s e a s o n s ( r i c e p l a n t i n g and h a r v e s t ) as y e l l as a ? o r t i o n of t h e s l a c k v i n t r r season. a l i s t of sample h o u s e h o l d s and a s c h e d u l e of r a a d o d y c h o s e n h o u r s w i t h i n xhich each household o r group 9E h o u s e h o l d s tPad t o be v i s i t e d f o r observs- tton. I n t h i s case t h e hours f o r 0 b ~ e t v a t i o nr e r e c h o s e n f r o 3 t h e 16--11our period boginning 4 a.m. and e n d i n g a t 8 p.m. During che v i s i t t h e i n c e r v i e v e r o b s e r v e d what e a c h houvehold a e a b e r -- no catter v h s t age o r sex -- uas d o i n g and recorded h i s o b s e r v a t i o n by marking t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g box on che a c t i v i r y lLst under t h a t p e r s o n ' s naae. He t h e n r e n t t o t h e n e x t household and d i d t h e saw. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of the between t h e v a r i o u s activities o v e r a s i x t e e n - hour day was d e r i v e d €:on che f r e q u e n c y x i t h which chose n c c f v i t i e s % e r e observed. For example, i f a p e r s o n was observed 73 t i a e s o u t of ~ h f c h20 t i n e s h e was found t o be engaged i n agricultural a c t i v i t y , r e v o u l d say t h a t on t h e a v e r a g e h e d e v o t e d a b o u t 26 p e r c e c t o f h l s tiee t o a g r i c u l t u r e . To d e r i v e t h e d a i l y h o u r s , i t v o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o multipLy i t t y -16, because o u r s a o p l e o b s e r v a t i o n h o u r s v e r e d e r i v e d from 15-hour days. The a c c i v f t y l i s t i n c l u d e s 97 a c t i v i t i e s . .As mentioned i n che -in c e x t , t h e y a r e diarided i n t o 12 m j o r c a t e g o r i e s . This P l s t u a s developed f o r t h e Yepalese d l l a g e s and t r i e s co c a p c u t e t b e m j o r cypes of a c t i v i t i e s t h a t take p l a c e t h e r e . 3ocR t h e = ) o r g r o u p i n g s and t h e list of a c t l v f t i e s =Light need .modificatii.ns f o r o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s and s t u d y o f ' o t b e r issues. The rnain p o i n t i s t h a t t h e l i s t o f a c t i v d t t e s s h o u l d be d e t a i l e d enough t o c a p t u r e a l l t h e work t h a t is b e i n g p e r f o m e d ~ i h t i n t h e household and t o make t h e 'data comparable t o s i s i l a r a c : f v i z i e s 2 s f o r a e d i n t h e o a r k e c ( s e e Acharya 1982). I n o d i f i e d v e r s i o n of t h i s f o r s sh&ld perha2s dro? t h e c a t e g o r y of p a r t i c t - . p t i o n i n l o c a l econoay and add one z o r a d i g i c t o t h e code s o a s t o i d e ~ t i f y t h e m r k ~ t / n o n - a a r k e t o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e a c t i v i t y . Tiits c o u l d easF1y be Cone 5y 3 c m n a n i ? u l a t i o n o f che c o d e s . For example, v e a r e using f i - ~ e di3it code  01030 f o r fodder c o l l e c t i o n . L'e could put e i x h e r 2 o r 1 i n t h e l a s t co?uzm depending uhscher t h e a c t i v i t y *Ass a a r k e t - o r i e o e a d o r not. I n thac c a s e , 01032 uouid be fodder collection e i t h e r done f o r exg3 Pabor o r f o r sale and 01031, che fodder c o l l e c t i o n f o r hoi% use. Zn f a c t , tba a o d i f i e d f o r a a t r o u l d . be more ~ p p r o p r i a t et o r c r e a t i n g :elatlvely bias- free conparative d a t a on market and non-rket actfvicfes. ?be nechod of using t h e l a s t d i g i r of t h e . code t o record soae aspect of t h e a c c i v i c y of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t t o the research - I has o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s . For cxazple i a one of the v i l l a g e s c u d i e s the l a s t d i g i t of che a g r i c u l t u r a l code sas used KO n o t e uhat the a t c i v i t y r e l a t e d t o allowing t h e r e l a t i v e asount of unpaid m l e and female family labor 4 l absorbed by v a r i o u s crops t o be analyzed. . b o t h e r application which a i g h t be 1 a s e l u l f o r r ' e r t i l i c y r e s e a r c h would be t o use t h e l a s t d i s i t t o record whether I a given a c t i v i t y vas perfomed in t h e presence oE a c h i l d o r not. One = f o r category of activities xhich needed s p e c i a l treatment r a s "Extended Absence from Vfliage". 11..Hepal, s h o r t t e r a sellsono1 s i g r a t i o n i s an important economic phenosaena t b t u e .ranted t o record. !4oreover, we ;rere p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e frequezcy ;rich which married vornen v i s i t t h e i r n a t a l homes f o r s o c i a l and r i t u a l gurposes 3s t h i s is an imporcaat support netyork f o r then. So, w e decided t o record :his i n f o m a t i o n but v i t h t h e * provision t b t such "Out of P i l l a g e " observations r c u l d not be used in t h e s a e say as "Is- Village" 05seivatio;rs were t o c a l c u l a t e d a i l y time use patterns i n c e n s of hours. This is obvious beca-use sach iacoraacion, reported t o u s by othez household members, was af a much 3 o r t g e n e r a l and l e s s t i n e s p e c i f i c n a t u r e than t h e s p o t check o b s e r ~ s e i o n sve yere a b l e t o rake of acctvftfes :he v i l l a g e . For example, i F soneone sas reporced t o be out of t h e v i i l a g e on a t r a d i n g e x p e d i t i o n , ve had RO .Jay of knowing v:lat the igdivi- d u a l was d o i n g a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r randomly s e l e c t e d h o u r , t h e r a y ue d i d f o r i n d i v i d u a l s uho were i n t h e v i l l a g e . Hence, t h e s e t u o t y p e s of i n f a r m t i o n have been c a r e f u l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n o u r t a b u l a t i o n s . Concurrent a c t i v i t i e s were a l s o recorded. This =ant thac, i f a a baby t i e d t o woman r a s observed f c r i n s t a n c e , winnowing g r a i n ~ 4 t h he: back, t h e r e s e a r c h e r would mark h t h a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e column beneath her name f o r t'nat day. But o u r d e f i n i t i o n of double a c t i v i t i e s was very s t r i c t . For example, i n c a s e s where c h i l d r e n v e r c simply p l a y i n g v i t h c h e i r youngerc s i b - l i n g s o r p r e s e n t i n t h e same c o u r t y a r d v i t h t h e a , u c d i d not c o u n t t h i s a s " c h i l d c a r e " a l t h o u g h t h e r e m y have been some elecient of s u p e r v i s i o n Involved. itather we counted o n l y f e e d i n g , c a r r y i n g o r direc: a t r c n d a n e e as " c h i l d care" . S i n c e o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e s p o t (aooent) o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e o c c u r r e n c e of double a c t i v i t y was l i x i t e d . While i n i o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s t h e r e is auch more p r o b a b i l i t y of e n c o u n t e r i n g double a c t i v i t y , very f e u a c t i v i t i e s c a n be concurrent s i t h d n z s p e c i f i c m a e a t . ?hus t h i s method s e e m t o be b e s t f o r P i n l m i z i n g t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f s i m l t a s e o u s a c t i v i t i e s , a l t h o u g h :he problem o f ea l u e t o e a c h of t h e siuultane6u.s a c t i v i t i e s s t i l l remains. assigning t i ~ v For t h i s s tudy =e counted t h e , a c t i v i t ies perf o r a e d c o n c u r r e n t l y b j a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l as s e p a r a t e a c t i - z i c i e s . T h i s s e t h o d h a s s e v e r a l advantages. It a v o i d s a he d e f e c t s of r e c a l l .a - mchod but a t t h o saae tice i t i s l e s s c i a e i n t e n s i v e tShan x h e r o b s e r v a t i o n raerhods. viewers. It -s i a p l e and r e q u i r e s comparatively l i t t l e t r a i n i n g f o r Xnter- The d a t a c o l l e c t e d by t h i s a e t h o d is n o r e u n i f o m . S i n c e on1.y chances of frequency o f a c t i v i r l e s a r e r e c o r d e d , t h e r e is o n l y d n i r ~ a l f n t e r v i e u e r b i a s 'wing r e f l e c t e d i n t S e d a t a . The s a ~ p l esize can ke expanded e a s i l y according t o needs of the particular survey. 5.e only inconvenience i n u s i h g t h i s method is t b t the observations should be spread over a long anough period so that a l l hours of the day and a l l seasons of the year ere coveted by observation. I t cannot be used in single-round surveys.  *List of A c t i v i t i e s -- Code A. A n i m a l Husbandry Herding 01010 Care a n d f e e d i n g of a n i a a l s w i t h i n c o ~ p o u n d (rredical treatWac, s h o e i n g , grooaing) Fodder c o l l e c t i o n Cast rat ion/Braeding 01040 Shearing 01050 ?liLking 01060 Butchering Ocher a. Agricul c u r e Land p r e p a r a t i o n (ploughing, use of h m , harrowing, b e a t i n g c l o d s , s l a s h and burn) 02010 T e r r a c e keep-up and r o u t i n e r e p a i r of i r r i g a c d o n c h a n n e l s 02020 Collecting and preparing organic f e r t i l i z e r 02030 C a r r y i n g and s p r e a d i n g organic- chemical f e r t i l i z e r 02040 r Weeding p l a n t i n g c p e r a t i o n s (seed bed p r e p a r a t i o n , sowing, transplant in^ 02050 Weeding I r r i g a t io_a I ~ a r v e s t i * (bundling, dryPng c r o p r e s i d u e , s t o r i n g r o r bagging g r a i n ) 020180 a r e s h i n s a n d cleaning g r a i n 02090 Horticulture  Kitchen Gardening 02110 Seed s e l e c t i o n and s t o r a g e 021 2Q C u a r d i n g / p r o t e c t i o a of c r o p s ( i n f i e l d and h a r v e s t e d ) 02130 Other 02140 C. Hunting and Gathering Hunttng w i l d a n t e a l s , b i r d s e t c . Fishing 03020 Gathering of s a t e r i a l s f a r c r a f t ~ r o d u c t i o n (hemp, n e t t l e s , basboo, l e a v e s etc.) G a t h e r i n g o f e d i b l e food (mushroom, f r u i t s , tobacco, a e t t l e s e t c . ) C o l l e c t i o n of medical h e r b s ( j u n i p e r , f a r i b u t i) Other Fetching o r p r e p a r i n g f u e l I / - Fetching water L/ T e x t i l e ( i n c l u d e s e n t i r e p r o c e s s f r o a c l e a n i n g wool, chrough s p i n n i n g , s e t c i n g u? loon, dying, weaving) 04011 Soge/basketry ( g r a s s zats, r o p e s , f i s h - z e t s , b a s k e t s etc.)04012 &king and r e p a i r of c o o l s and u t e n s i l s (plough, kodales ,,t e k i , p o t s e t c . ) 04013 Leather %ark 04014 Sewing ( i n o;m b o e ) Other - I/ These t-do activities r e r e o r i g i n a l l y placed i n t h e c a t e g o r y of k n ~ e s c i c acti-~itp b u t d u r i n g :he a n a l y s i s s t a g e t h e y 2ere R e c l a s s i f i e d a s I* Subsistence econosic ." G. Food e r o c e s s i a g XuskLng/drying g r a i n s , p o s t husking, r f n n n u i n g R o a s t i n s , g r i n d i n g , chiura-king, o i l pressing 03022 Liquor n a k i n g Q4023 Food p r e s e r v a t i o n ( d r y i n g of = e a t and v e g e t a b l e s , pickle caking) 06024 P r e p a r a t i o n of d a i r y p r o d u c t s (ahee, c u r d s , c h e e s e s t e . ) O&dL5 Ocher Ot026 H . P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Incdl Econoey Ggvernme nc S e r v i c e 10010 Yage l a b o r ( A g r i c u l t u r e , c o n s t r u e r f o n , animal husbandry, portering, f u e l gathering etc.) 10020 Trade ( S a l e of food g r a i n s , d a i r y products and o t h e r food s t u f f s , i n l i v e s t o c k o r ~ a n u f a e t u r e dgoods) 17iO30 H o t e l , tea- shop, b e e r house, s t o r e 1C040 Yzdical and r e l i g i o u s s a r v f c e ( f o r wagts) 10C60 - =ntertafn@e~( tfor zages) 10070 Other 3 u i l d i n g axi r e p a i r i n g house C o n s t r u c t l c n and r e p a i r of cospound o r f i e l d v a l l s , anlina', sheds and ~ u t - b u i l d f a g k'elldiggfnz Constructboa o f C h i k f , ~dL;s, g r f n d i s g stones e t c . J. Domestlc A c t i v i t i e s Cleaning d l s h e s acd pots Cleaning houae/mud plastering Washing c l o t h e s and Sedd ing Fetching watsr Shopping Other PI. REPRODUCTIVE ACTIVITIES K. Child Bearing and Child Care a i L d bf rth/recovery period Tending Feeding Oiling and r;rassnging Other L. Education Acadedc ( i n - v i l l a g e ) Son-fo-l (i t - v i l l a g e ) Other - - ?i. Ocher d c t l v i c i e s + 'i Grooning and personal 6vgisne f Earing 3. Social Activities/Obligation Ritual ( f o r s e l f or neighbor vithout pay) P o l i t i c a l Service (?ancbayac ecc .) Voluntary eo-ni ty service (School, eozmiccee, youth organizat ion, Zoeen's organizas lon e r e . ) 68030 Other 08040 Leisure Dribtking of alcoholic bererages 11650 Gaobling/card playing In-Village v i s i tin$ Inter- village v i s i t i n g 11080 Sleeping Other ar c-e c nr:+ E w c-5 c 12z -: E l ii ?-I c R +: c L!t-5 3 Ci-TIT W-l-Kl> E l S - 2 r L;L&t3 U Z - i t - . F I u n y Wold C U-: E I$,[-: C *r F: C El t - S C W 1 4 T r YL x-: 3 mi4 r KJ w 3 m1-m u fi: 3 m i d t my. r=mr ~l* s-t c n:+ c UC-: c IV t-: I w r-i c u s? t I 3 1 T mi- 3 U W * U X-7 3 Yr=l-:?? my. U r n Wl-0 C Ut-i C M G-T C IU 2-: 6 IV X1 C - - 6 me-L 3 mr-c T W 1 4 : W - t w2-:3 IYC-LV ~~pl.u.n  Denographic I n f o m a t i o n The demographic d a t a s h e e t (DDS) %as s e v e r a l unique f e a t u r e s , Besides c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r a t i o n on r e g u l a r deaographic v a r i a b l e s l i k e a g e , age - o f z a r r i a g z and f e r t i l i t y , ve t r i e d t o r e c o r d s e v e r a l o t h e r t y p e s of i n f o r - b m c i o n such a s f a a i l y s t r u c t u r e , r e l a t i o n t o household head, d i s t a n c e t o wocen's n a t a l h o s e s , w r r i a a e p a t t e r n s (vhecher v i v e s tend t o be from r e l a t e d f a a i l i e s o r n o t ) E o n of e a r r i a g e ( o m c h o i c e o r p a r e n t s ' c h o i c e ) and reasons f o r t e r m i n a t i o n of a a r r i a g e , t y p e s o f u u r r i a g e s ( v h e t h e r polygasous o r =onlo- gaoous), t y p e of marriage ceremony and vooen's mobility. In S e p a l , t h i s is t h e First s t u d y which t r i e d t o g e n e r a i r d a t a on t h e s e v a r i a b l e s on a l a r g e scale. E a r l i e r s t u d i e s on t h e s e d i = n s i o n s h v e generally k e n anthropoloai- c a l and mostly based on sarall c a s e s t u d i e s . The demographic i n F o r a a t i o n we ~ c o l l e c t e d has proved very u s e f u l i n c o r t e c t : ~ soDe of t h e previous mispercep- t i o n s about s o c i a l r e a l i t y i a S e p a l . For example, i n o u r e a r l i e r a n a l y s i s (Xcharys and Bennett 1981) i t came o u t c l e a r l y t h a t second m r r i a g e s a r e much s o r e c o m n i n a l l c o c m u a i t i e s t h a n had been a s s u ~ e d . Oaly t b e h i g h c a s t e Yindus had r e s t r i c t i o n s on r e n a r r i a g e s , 33e d a t a a l s o shoved & F a t only w e a l t h i e r f a n i l i e s tend t o be extended i n s t r u c t u r e . . t Our s a o p l e is n o t l a r g e enough t o hav,a e n a b l e d us t o do an i n t e n s f v e s t u d y of f c r t i l i r y p a t t e r n s . Ve were i n t e r e s t e d i n F e r t i l i t y and number of l i v i n g c h i l d r e n as a s o c i a l phenoaenon and t h e i o f o m c i o n c o l l e c t e d v a s . adequate f o r t h a t pur?ose. Eouever one s e r i o l l s d i E f i c i e a e y i s t h a t :he E deaographic d a t a f o r a used d i d n o t enabzs us t o i d e n t i f y t h e c h i l d r e n 5 g t n e i r p a r e n t s o r v i v e s by t h e i r husjands. X t h r e e d i g i t r e l a t i o n code c r a block recording s p s t e n ( i . e . r e c o r d t h e household ;i2ac? anC h i s v i f e , record h i s f i r s t son and h i s n u c l e a r u n i t , ,econd son and h i s n u c l e a r u n i t , ecc.) would have taken c a r e of t h i s d e f i c i e n c y . The f a c t t h a t t h e d e m g r a p h i c d a t a s h e e t f o r each household had a s e p a r a t e page on v h i c h t h e r e s e a r c h e r was t o record t h e f a a i l y k i n s h i p c h a r t x a s v e r y u s e f u l i n a number of ways. I t helped e x p l a i n how s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r - i s t i c s a f f e c t residence patterns. For example, e.e found t h a t i n one comaunity - even r h e n t h e f a d l y was n u c l e a r , t h e b r o t h e r s tended t o l i v e w i t h i n t h e same compounds. T h i s meant t h a t ironen had = r e h e l p w i t h c h i l d - c a r e but a t t h e s a z e tiae gave them l e s s s a y i n t h e household d e c i s i o n s . The k i n s h i p c h a r t can a l s o be used t o d e r i v e historical ififormation on approximate b i r t h and d e a t h r a t e s and is u s e f u l i n l o c a t i n g c l u s t e r s of p a t r i l i n e a l o r c c a t r i l i n e a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e and in'some groups d e t e c t i n g p a t t e r n s o f i z t e n a r r i a g e between households. 1. P?r, Sa. (1-2) r LC 2. arc Yo. (31 1'2rit. 1 3. s ?i (&b) - Y d t . U i t-F. O ?.AS. hk+%2. (i a 1 ):'*-to U u Z.r.s. IS? f i x z . ~ d aiuUm0 to 35 dt3 nmly selected ibl8e50u8. 5. ~~.ts+- (em) C ~ J Ou ~ C J W S : 1 To br c05e.l ?I..ar 1 = *a ir Yo. i a I?pm*, 5) r .Us. loUN?sg edal 22. a.( 2 o ) r 3s. f e wd .: r. d e 2. f d a 13. &a. (2Lt2) r C+. I3ll&ag e?dw d. age 2 ap ngr CL = c-1 = a -24 11 = a%? = Oi = 2529 S = 5C-% 03 = a = 2 4 59 - r+LL 08=3LX C9 = 35-33 13 ' - 55-59 d = SC-6.9 cs = 13-19 aa = a-c ~5 = 7 ~ ~ 7 9 16 n @ C? avo.- 2. [a): Csr I~~ d 1 r . L %rrsr Y a - l e d 2. P ~ b f Y'-03 (Is%.) 3. 3 r r s u z Z y Ya,*rO iM.1 A. .?zwer27 Y&+d (3A. 5. W e - 9 7 k-ed ;: h . cr mrs. - 6. id<=au.? &O rcr s i - e d r. = t ~ = 6 a d / s e * ~ ' - & L3 CQSfl a. BVOX&%;Y~X.C ~~,*EFL. 15. Lm ;If :>SJC: = -, a (2L): use ZohL=m4cg@ er . t  26. gst =t. 3 9 ~ ~ ~ 6 ~ ~ - : U+ -: e 100 2 sY C L7 . . . -..- 9 1'7. W t S e 3 '-3 5 m S e f:, i fa F a i a C . 5 ~ '&Y-y8r v z t e 3. iz SJ. Ts. '&tip r;=tsz* 7r- 2 y d :a. 3 3 . C-C s:%f~li_ll3: tz]: ;se :C?ISWZ :&a: i . 33 2. - 3 % : -i 3. 50-7 kL * L. LegSrr * -& : la 5. h r q e;f.~ca:is 53. 2%- =oQi-@u;p u~wj: Vsu . C & , x i ~ ede: . Yes I 2. So. X. '% 4 . hkr dZF3Liz *rfte ro. zC &fa ,+rez =kr ~ S a d qrfzal?anP L b r :or wwr S s r t y Last s h ; t ~ s aa:.@. 3:nca a r 11 ;nxzzotr ?I untr I:@= W irkc:wC. 2 . Bsrs hzur [32-)&3: 'drdre &, C w.ck ssbr ucrrod h @ x C s em p are* ktr n x maz3 { L o . r h e a 3. ,p;-s.a&st~ ff us:: .H, akO F -. ::G n;r sac'kc =ryr uus wrltd a n n ludg 22. !+35jr ?or T?L3usig cede O: :rf;s "&ar.abs by s r u p s m 5uri.q :=a ps: p a: co a y . &@c r r 3 c t mcuas1:etr9 z o 3 t b e.e lohutlr k a c i k g a ( : ~ , ~1.e-a 0. se =?-=a 3. 3 trfp mar dqc:l i . cce :rip i.L *A 10 trip 2.. : w : =; a 5. = ,1: %a 10 h r 9 H a. ~ririTs~dh= ,h . $ ; a : t?:.,corz:ioa o h t P -4 cd e f ca try ti-p aa pwsixr &- ? p r t p. &= y25'*I~qt UP e-n & .r&&'-fo", E l v&?+.cd , ,- sidr b rr r W.~T% ttOa ~ b l l s p t LC yam vyt- a a f ~ qu3nP0aad Y -wx - = & f a :=a =~rdsdcgp &a: Ef==r ) : ? If an rkb:ioa .rr,rr 0 , 25. ;iP,:r '-a w d , C b u=erslr L ~uas 7 . 2 ~ . ' w r i t * "me. 26- ~c-r-.z+ s 1 =&es =o ?-.zc:. :: - : ,C- ~u ~ a i l t x i r ~ t r n ~ d k hr 4 - r f w r z iI % & Q ~ , z c a q - r ~ f a t- :fpr $:% c rf.x a Y O nth: :kc2 TOM&~ 3 c r . 4 1:~ La)t 0. ar fL1y. A. b b - n : & y 1. Pels ,kt. 5. :m l s y s . 1 2 3 . - ; a Irda : : &a = &.t i u ~ 7. f ~ : w s l 2. 3 %m t3 Less :La3 2. 5 - 8 Cays 6 Lrs. 9. d~ &apt 31 rcro 27. . % a =F w s fP ztit?c:'d;. w. yes- (F-3dja h,-fte sgp-=Jda:e e ; i m = e =kt: 22 -As(: ~ i s f z -LEIL=~ uz w!. 5-0. Ecd =+ly=,c93~.$:- ! s $ j : "d:e cr t a 3 <&. r - qJra:wr ; u ;.ud:nm i-ceth: ; i e s y a ; t e r n =r=:I. iY. +- T : f G reEZ3- bcr= -te (04): 2A:e a td r.3 cZ c t i i t ~ 4 ' %= cE7e :o C d e &r ;.~ar=:ard. 33. % a2 f e - z JZJ d i r e ~ L ~ c L ) : w 1Z. 31. h -a XF id>^ : c - =a "& C "-r =L=ri~: TJLS~;S& it L= s:iz Z v i ~ r 3 . : zw ~ Y (L SSi61): r.,:e :E=& -2 ==a1 no rf ,"cazle -La 72-- rL= -a f-LC * r q c r - i s n e =bJ StLll a 32. . --a- -jt= rU e=z:s d :: f or r b .e; i.*2 . -- , 7 Foot 2z.Y ., -- .*-. = u , 7 f9-2J: ij - * 2. 3. ;crt b. :3E, : Z~:.I X1Ih-e SJ. (L-6): -+-*,=a as : z 1 e=;oa.a cc T.h.3. a I A. =cCs*re:: 32. (7-5;: -.k=* :.*.s. :. a :,-=,at= 4 A r - = 2 9-- : : i ..2-- A - ts : X .-.a ,3 ?&Z : ep-a= ccn R z a 1. 32 ;L'>Z :.: ---- s zzs!i ?ZJ?~ 35. ; , Y S d ' 33. k. 32 Vlf-~c ':?2:?.~ :a, : , . ; I :?r.r=:~;a: +=a= ' .2 =r+.:g6n .--..-x:'.ad : ;t t s:- .. .;-.+-.2 f;=;ss9w;L, -*be= =+?-:+ es::,y ll-'&=>-&.  0 33 rt*d i ~-aBi c**-qf ? r -riaal er.ucq 3 % sswr W mr r b ? - a y a ~ : r?X.agb ssca rar cat5 o f c4aae ::+;lrr ef a w - r ~4 s : a n r:e b e d r m : o u s Wsw:r. a - thmm~rr ir: dr- vLt eru- ' -I % , ?' + 2-& acrllls in :rrzr ;S -8, ["fdkr? j:marta. 2 , ;rofi:&r & Lef-t-ty. - SW &;Ll)r 2 CY ~ ; r n - , pages 2 33. &err 5.' :LULdma Z r a Lrt rr4e (52-531: r J w f~PP94 :do - 4 %k a s a b r o t &iqd.~ tp sai: ~ m d 5nc 1 s t .rrr9ugr. ',{ c=y p # n in ~ ~ h x :d = e :&el& d cMkdnaBsm p m asos I .% cob s an pg* 1 . tE - ~ * m d rm6a p & B d a%x& =a c 2;rz2) a1 a . CUM a2 = : " a ~.U,~&'UI -03 = :kte aaz i s - se:. && (5b55): rrftr z . oS y e a 3 t 53: fi.% M a e ktd. e"r- n *- Yc..,sl .( S R I I 5ro C a E i w a q - a~ . z- la ,t'r 2 c w : : c a eC ' .:' .T. I r e 2 c : C13 rat tzm%at+C c 1 CUZ:~ a*s-a. -2 r ? = x t r P c n 3 m "I e C3 t e a r - i a a 3y s d L ' 05 &epzeEt.-w qw2w 05 & s w s tp 1.Z C15 a l e .r'.p,f 2 % ~ C; fd (-'*-4..9 ..-- *y C 8 ccxr$rmr k f a t 2 X : y s =tad c - a LO y s : ~ f~1 e=cLe:a-r i c e ' 3 , ? xZ r z r U a I Cir;rrtu xt 2 :c tz - 85 : #. ,% ?c= cf t ' .x--?,sae r5al: ~ d r s ! e Tcr P s . a of ;;=CC-~ (531~ d e as Icr 3. I" ~-.-i-., (-1: c d e u Z 3 i 23. :cz:i:; C&-ajj: d e ss fer 3 . %- . r:: z9- .l--.c -a- -.- --A. - r as -4 (66651: &a as Tor LC.  Household Decision- %king There were a l t o g e t h e r 7 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s i n c h i s s e r i e s . Ye s r a repro- ducing s e c t i o n s on Labor a l l o c a t i o n , f a n ca.mgescnc o c c i s i o ~ s ,d o a e s t i c ~ x - p e n d i t u r e and r e s o u r c e allocations. Various q u e s t i o n s on chese f o r m were . regrouped i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s f o r a n a l y t i c a l purposes. These c s c z g o r i e s a r e - F a r s managenent d e c i s i o n s , d o w s t i c e x ? a a d i t u r e d e c i s i o n s and r e s o u r c e a l l o - and invescaenc d e c i s i o n s , caci~n (See che l i s c accacked f o r regrouping). Where a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e d e c i s i o n c a t e g o r i e s were once a g a i n eaccked v i c h broad titre use c a c e g o r i e s . Phis a l l w ~ e dus co do che c u r r e n c q u a n t i t a t i B ~a en a l y s i s of che s:ruccure of woaen's e c o n o d c participation and d e c i s i o n m k i n g i n t h e households. The major characteristics of che f o r a s y e r e d e s c r i b e d i a t h e main cexc, Two poincs however, r e f e r e n c e period and nu33er of t r a n s a c c i o n s , need s p e c i f i c zencion i n t h i s seccion. 9 i f f e r e n c r e f e r e n c e p e r i o d s : a v e been used f o r d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of transactions. Thus, u h i l e 'aonch' is taken a s r e f e r e n c e a e r i o d f o r 'food items,' and a 'pear' f o r s i c k n e s s o r t r e a t s e a c o r 'honsehold d u r a b l c s ' , c a p i t a l t r a n s a c c i o n s h v e been recorded f o r f i v e y e a r s p r e c e d i n g :he su-rvey year. T h i s Gas n e c e s s a r y co c a p t u r e t h e x a j o r transac:lons 3nder:aken !>y t h e h household, 3egarCing t h e a m b e r of crarisaccions f o r e a c h houschold, t h e f o r 3 is - - quire flexible. The nupber.95 d e c i s i o n s recorded i n e a c h c z t e g o r j coeic! range L from O Co 5 o r d depend1r.g how a n y t r a n s a c t i o n s had taken p l a c e and hou * = a n y an f n i o r a a n c c o u l d r e c d l . I t should a l s o 5e noted that these d e c i s i o n - k l n g f a n s vers designed c~ show r e l a t i v e c a I e / f e a l e :z?ur i n c o the d e c i s i o a - s a k i n g p r o c e s s and :hey do not p t c v i d e f n f > r = t i m on :3e c o n t e a r of t h e d e c i s l ~ c s . i3 other  words they t e l l us vhether o r not womn a r e involved i n d e c i s i o n s about h e a l t h expenditure, but not about vhat r o ~ o nr s e n decided, i .e. t o go t o a doctor vs. a l o c a l h e a l e r o r hor m c h zoney t o spend. However the foz=s do contain space f o r recording such i n f o r l ; l t i o n and s e v e r a l of t h researchers uere a b l e t o gachei- non- quantitative i n f o r n a t i o n on cbe content of decisions and i n soae instances isporcanc f a d l y disagreei=ents qere even revealed Ln che course of . . data c o l l e c t i o z . PI D o ~ e s c i cDecisions (Fore 52 Q.A l l ) (Fom 53 Q. 7 ) 111 .%lLocation of household resources and c a p i t a l t r a n s a c t i o n s 1. -Alioc,tion of househoid resources (Fora 56 Q.1,2,3,6) (Fom 55 not reproduced) 2. Capital transactions ( ~ o r a . 5 0 Q. 1-10) ( F o ~ 53 Q. I , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 9 ) [Fora 55 Q5,6,7,8)  Ha w r k d for a g e s s srqnne fmn pu=. h o * u e h ~ l d or gone h r ?s= oz~rk+&ring *the l e s t ~ m t ! ~ ? Tf yes. h%o? ~arraeFILS G h decided that they shm~lc!work? later f i l l ---son c&e (use Deci8i@3co$e belaw) Sane fmn EDS) 1 3ecsan csr?e I - .>ecisian &e 1 cad mlwn b 1 i I I i I (2L -27) 01 Swvse - 31) -. u - 2. L I I I I I f 1 !28 I (3 - 35) t 36 - 39) 1 9L other fertile 2 p3o t h e r 1r51e 1 1 - t) I I 1 I (LO - ~ 3 ) I (4-L - 47) 2 I I 1 ;co n o t Xrow 6. I I I 1 1 - 13nor a~plicabie 7. I I i (18 - 51) 8. I 1 I I - 1 (52 - 5 5 ) oLn cecision  i 2 I I - = 3 , 3 =y - r =b 8 sz 4 -)mu - c c T o = See - C  ; . L 0 r a: 5 n *. 2u r L ~~i 2%: 2a PI" - :z 2 f .8 3 = sf!? ' C a 3 Z'5 m f - 'e $ 1L .t- 2e g3.z sSS9 Household Troperhy. ?roOucticn a2d I n c s s e Foras l o r c o l ? t c c l o n sf fncs an ?acoaa and hauschoBQ 2 r o p e r t y v e r c s p e c i f i e d Ln d e t a i l , bu: Zepc q u i t e s i s p l e . 3es:des c o 8 l e c c l n ~daca on che cash incone f r o 3 varbo-us s o u r c e s , an e f f o r t yas m d e t o capcure t h e asJor p r o p o t e i ~ no f h o u s c h o l J s u b s i s t e n c e p r e d u c t i o n . D e t a i l e d product Lists cPasshflad by =:or produet groups, namely a g r i c u l t u r e , a n u f a z t u r i n g , h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g and Iced p r o c e s s i n g , xere used. In each cacegory probable household p r o d u c t s rerc Ilsced i n d a s s i l i n o r d e r t o f d c L l i c a c e t h e p r o c e s s o f r e rasgondencs and space was a l s o laf: co r e c o r d o t h e r ? r o d u c t s . r e c a l l f ~ th To t h e e x c e n t possPSla, t h e rise use a s t i v i c y code %as raatched w i t h t h e 2roducc code Pn t 5 e ? r & u c t l o n for=. this enabled 82s t o i d e n t i f y cbr p t o f u e c s g e n e r a t e d acd v a l z e added r i c h i n c5e hous+ho?ds 5y 3ozen on t h e i r o m and a h s o c s s t c d y che 1a.m~c o a c r l 3 c t i c n of usne3 t o household's joint peoducc3 such as a g r i c u l t u r a l c r a p s . 11 - 3y z c c h f n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n and t i n e u s e codes ue c o u l d , f o r example, a s s i g n t h e v a l u e added in t h e 2 r o t e s s of food p r o c e s s i n g io ~ m ~ Because e a oosc of :he : h e s p e a t fa food processitig a c t i v i t i e s vas c o n c r i 5 u t e d by uonen. 3 e farm f o r household ? r o ? e r t y t r i e d :o c a p t u r e b o t 5 cha q u a t i i l t y of the household property and t b e e x t e z c 9 5 uoaen's t o n t z o l Dver i t . This vas felt t o h e z e c e s a r p s i n c e S e w 1 is governed by Yiadu legal code i n xhich t h e a s a joint household e s t a t e iand and a i l l m ~ v a b l e? s o p e r t 7 tends co be *~isu_ed unite- the Legal c o n t r o l of c5e a l e household hesd. Hocever. tnfotnacion in II - See X c b r y a and Bennett f o r t h e 2e:aLLs cn a e a s u r c i e n t C of ,dozen's can:ri5ucLon LO h o t s e n o l d proiu::tor..  t h e second p a r c of t h e E o n , on t h e extent of uoaen's c o n t r o l o v e r cbe hooss- h o l d p r o p e r t y was q u i t e oconcy and ue were not a b l e t o i o e o r ? o r a t e i t I n o u r analysis. For kvmen t h e concept of t r y i n g t o a s c e r c a l a t h e degree of :heir r i g h c s of d i s p o s a l over household p r o p e r t y i = s e l f seeaed c o n f u s i n g and f o r so= perhaps even threatening a s i t we had asked chen = h e r h e r tlley a c t * ~ ~ a l l v fntended t o s e l l s o w of the family p r o p e r t y , Ye had t o da?end i n s t a n d on q u a l i t a t i v e i n f o r m t i o n i n a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e e x t e n t of vonen's c o n t r o l o v e r t h e household's j o i n t propercy. The additional page, a c t a c k e d co t h e household propercy f o r = hokevet, co e n a b l e the r e s e a r c h e r co m k e a rough skecch of t h e v a r i o u s p i e c e s of land t h e household orned * a s h e l ? f u l . I t allowed u s t o g e t [ a f u l l e r v i e v of t h e o f t e n f r a g a e n t e d Land h o l d l n g s v i t 5 o u t such d i f f i c u l t y . F P S i a i l a r l y , the for= on i n d i v i d u a l ? r o p e r t y ovnezsni? and i a d f v t d u a l P x or' o a l y I t n i c e d use. borrowings f o r p r i ~ r a c epurposes v e r e found t o ! This vas because people i n poor households have C i f f i c u l r y understanding t 3 e concepc aP ' p r i v a t e propercy' s e p a r a t e f r o n c h c of t h e household. song t h e p o o r e s t households it was obviorrs t o t h e n r:hi any p r o o e r t p o r iccene, i r r e s p e c t i - . - e to whoa i t belonged vould 30 for f e e d i n g o r c a r i n g f o r :he family members. D.e q u e s t i o n g a s m a n i n g f u l o n l y t o v e a l t h i e r v o s e n . I I c - 3/ T : d s i c a silouPd not 3e t-.clcacd L f o r :ie sakt af cozivmknce asa : ? b c t n e , it is recoraec here j c g c s o&ver a&ed Lc, o u r a z a l y s f s . a ?cr-3a?s, :hczz s'muid 5e a m: %- f o r a on asfet crasac:icns, i ie r :  n ?orr?nls ram I-DP?ems , jo*;-tv 1 OI ! -UP E :m A - I i 1 ! t 'to b * a i s s -.aces ' = =r aW..c.md Oha ' = * 2 2 1 i mw3 211Lj:z'?l/ i1. ia:w f I . .JllA~1-21y /rz-:+ j I 3 I 5 1 I ? 6 /m--y I 1 ? I I 1 I . i 1 u: 5aLrjy :ec;I.:,- s h e bd e . 3 . d ~,Yz=. 9s h fi %2 3 . : SI,S a* SSA-=~% ' i=ca=ce:7e? 5s czc-nrtc.?I:- > ea* e: t5e l a r l arkat (e.~. ?I r a=rreeirss k-a 7 2 >C ece, cno - & 3 a& a a 3 1 -16 a---aib- surki?g '2 c *2ct1;d11 h e s l l 9: 'At s3st& M =o~rr*adi z * ? a s h . :f ?.a a:ao ~ a - 3i:: *>a ?a: $ h d l z e ' s 5-z.. - GG Y s s y ? a ~ $ru %5e c a s t I,C x ' . . r 0 a i S qa a3 5: a 7 X :kc a s h naxtzs L?ru~:> ' 8 1: 9. . t ;t.crs!-as >rtrt: 1s i:s->rai~ts. Z x ' 2% %la7 es2 -as*is zq3r :z=sre: 35 =;sc - 2 ?23: & 8 - e x . 5cWiez.3:: cq; - s-23 $ ¶ 2 - : 5 &. - a 2 - 3: *2: : 2: a =>::7e b*3 :*z:k:z3-:= : ¶rJcz!!*: case3 . 5, -=o =s: k<a ' a - l c r :3:5: s*L4 fa =f & . : -& is :*set>:? A's ,==;d a. :=- !e II .-,*L A- ; := ::m7-&::it xsz. ?l ?fim:o :l s L.tl~?r 9-22 =+s:¶: : 3 '3. 5 =rz 597, %?e ::+a11 J~Y::! ; 'r c - : s 2% 5 s 2: 5 ; c 3 . Tf : :e 5s 2~=13-&:7 : : dz: : : 73s :J .-e ?Z? ::z-.-er-e< >; :? -33. ?oLi tical Xrareness an2 ?arc t c i p : Lon, Zdxcac %on 2nd CenCer S c e : e ~ s - ~ ? ~ The f o r 3 r e zsed to S c3: eaa : dsca oa ?oBi:fcxl ?ar:Lsi?arion Is fairly c o n v e n c l o n a l . i: contains queraisco oa ?asclsbpacLan 13 v i l l a g e < k c - cions, i2entifleatfon cti v i l l a g e Level poL:cLcfans and ? o 4 1 t i c a l h u n d a r i c s and sub'soundartes oi ::la B P P C C O ~ ~ E S S , ?33aes 01 tile Ciscrisc :s\lal insti-lurlans and p o l l c f e i a ~ sa x ? oce or ;yo qur'sziocs or, fi!snr?f9catlsn 3 f 2ersor.s S.? qatitnak i n s c i c u t 8 o o s such as the \%ngskip and cke p r i z e ~ f n i s c s c s h 8 p . ,I f e y questtogs Lure included an k~zen's organira=ianu and vosen ~silciclans. Y e , hovever, QLd ROE P n t e t ~ i e w=en OE these ques:L~ns, ~ 3 e r e f 0 r c the t e l a c f v e p l l : t c a l sonsciousoess sf yo. -docear could noc be evaluated. o9d =onen %e asked an equal m a b e r of =en and u o c e z ~ k e c k e r-~ar:aus positive both se:ccs. Qufcs sur?risiadLy = h i s daaa c o n f i n e d our ;erscption of che social r=aL:.sy :!rat uo=cra i7 ~o ' n o n - d i ~ h ~ r o a o ~s ' ii~i-1 sc ~ viewed :ace are 5rbde o r SrFlegrson, ho-.-ever, sere less 3 e l p f u : for luar.=i:?tive . ~ n a l y s i s . shouec :hat t h s nee? 'or gi.-:s' l a b o r is a d23r z o n s t r - i i n r r.o school art2zdcincc for zhe It?-I5 ase Zrou?,  Lnt errl ever l Vii2llape !o (L-6) %spzdsnt (To be aaked an separate uccassiu~s90 cne ~ ~ s d Yo o u , (7-8) d e b orze ahrlt f a d e i i3 sqle.) nea& of 35 kcuaekokh xo ,1"77 (Fl.0) lzteniestan afore *emieu a'mak Eaog~s;.j=iahZa Sheet (?om 40) tor Worzatim cm aunbor o f -ds and f d a C U L Z U ~ C U QT ~ Uphg Ssch-1 Z- *,US f-• -8 Fill in S l d s tefoo;r, i o r intamieu. 5 U s is a good c - to crcrss ckrck the accarnrc7 ob the p r data fraa t b Uemq~pkIc Data Sheet! i b w d amber oP Sopa a& C girls vho go t o s&wl in h o s s in d&t b u i c o k a * -- 1 . P a toM ra the mer children. Of t b s e eDd over. fa - rigtit? (EztarPfeuer adca . =bat ?cur has&& tbt boys mxi girls sfr bas axe zomcticru i a E M b t a later if n e c e s a a ~ ) . Can pau t e l l ae 1Dcv zaop o f tb b o p in ?cur hsehok! sre zcv goicg t o s&col ,-e@lhrQ ? ~ ~ * ~ ~I * * ~ ~ a : j ~ m a : * $? (ZrzerPiawer: Use aE3.ier ecde t a flu 2 &cx a t " sght.) 2 - No 1 3, Vkac & ' a a girl ? I s it LoFi;ent f a r a @,-h to ~ + b S M GT*~Fw~?E m\ -mWTqa13r - ? i W3i-l- d m m f d l ' 4 ? Intertievert idse a ~ s u e z . ccde to i D U ia Sax st r i g k t .) a s r p ~ m w . a r a ~ e Q * ?j I f9 ?~ b t e n i e u e r : .'5aed art aascns list.& $2 ~ g ? et e k u RAa& pa= rtsp~cect ',o pi& the tLze =st b p r t a n t mas-. Use ccde to recod ,-espaaes b k x e s 13 rf&t h F d m h a .  'cf Zf Cde: FiaasozsZ?? kae- boys S&OO', 1 - %cause they are needed Tor farrro* T6+mmm'FfQB 2 - % c a s e they b e o p e diacb2IetlC m * mT- Q T * ~ ~ ~ ? 3 - aecause they a m ~ l e e d e d to - h!?mers W c y as ~ a @ m#r*9*1'91mw~ 5 - the Because :hey might 1-k f o r wrk sc~evhereelse ard leave family - m*aVo739mm~ii72mi~ 6 - 5ecause they a r e c e d e d fcr buseuoxk Thm~T?+Vf U '7 - 3aceuse It costs too Ell& 8 - % c a s e it .won't hel? tb? t o 0b-x a U+ag later on. it i s nc - m e t i c a l use Taam?vfimk,rn=m*,rnrn h* 9 - Other (Spciey): kterviewer: txw'ier t o pestlcr? 2 i s a l e BpLTert o q~estia 3 is nq, ask q u e s l i a 5, Zf E-ZO 3 both 2 a ~ d s ~t ip cpestfcn 6 . i '3 . %  5. Well, ~ C US V t*=tft IS i-at r'e: ' ~ Y St o t o s&ol k t n d f o r gfrh. Vk3 3 - ~ k i e a 0, a i * ~ rl3* I Pn ? XatePiever: Z bs! cut reaawEste0 belcv d ask parr respanllnEt t o pick thath,-ee =st 2 p r t a r s S mu-. Use code t o zecord respaces fr! kxes,ia 1 5 sW cow. Coder %asma for kee-g girls aut of s a w 1 k i ' 1 - sre zaeded f o r f a m work Seaeuse &%hey Ffmsm I I m e d - Because they 2 to b o p at the school krill Sew with ; smdr*Tm3mijiilq* E 3 - Sectuse does mt t o s d them t o s c t w l it p y they a m a c e i g o* get cff s d lea7e tbe ftmily. ; o m a d La (20) i h rnlamwmmi- marf&m*, I1 4 r n s - Seeuse q it is Uficult t o rarxy &f girls uho b y e been t o achool i ~ ~ ~ m m mL7 (a, ~ 5 - t3ecause it does n a pay t o serd girls since they are nat 'Aely o join s e n i c e or take a stla,cied job. qm%ar;r*,fi;.rfarf%m* L7 (22) 6 - 3ecase they axre needed f o r b a w d m e5 9\31 m e 4 3 '7 - 3e-e it costs too nuch I i wq- 8 - Because their hiskin& ~i2.I C a k r c e m of C b m m B m 3 m m m m - 9 - Other ( s ~ & ? J : -- 6, 3ov zcch e&ca+.icn do you t w d a by. &cCd have 2 k-rnm~7**-? Interviewer: UJO w e r kfuer C* right . code t o f i l l i n 'bax at - 1 l e s s than 3 yeax- 2-3to'iye- 3-8tOlOpe~~ 4 - r > n , thn 10 yeem - 5 as mch s~ the fe can &ford C-lomwer A 7. What l SCW3 a g i ~? 1& education should a g i ~ 1 b e ? r merviewer. Use arrsver W a r ccde code t o fill. I n tux a t riet. - 1 lea8 t& 3 7ets-a 2-3t0'7~- - 3 8 t o 10 yeara - L mnw than 10 years - 5 as a c h as the family can affoni - 0 lo e m i r C' Tntervieven if responded felt that girls shatld have -- leas educetian than bcys ask question $. -- *- -- - - -- --__ __ ---- I _ _ -- - - - - -_.. 8. You say th,= @=ls should h a or need less eduetiai t h n boys. Why i s tht ? (5-e -K Intemiever: Tun t o c d e on mge 6. Kearl out mescas Usted ' end ask y m r zeajmndent t o 9 c k the t h e =st k p m a c t . Use code %o record respnses is jcxes b 15ght&imd c o r n , I  lnst~uctioas to IatePieuer: For em& of the follouicg ten q u & i ~Use the a w e r code provided t o fill. in the boxee i n t k e right band column. I t y a r msporrdents are d e p d i speakem and understmd 3epali easily, use exact tntnaht ions p m v i d d 1 below each questioll. For zmn Xepall speakex3 have ycrur bl-U@ " Meld a s i s t a c t translate t a b question for yar arrd bustr~ct his/ * her t o ask the quastion 13 the s u e VQ? w-g the uon& for 'eacn inte&eu. If sossi'de have the Field U&tccr@ the translaticn. 1, Lot me esk pou abcut the characterLstics of g-9 sea and uonezl. k, general, uho do yar ' h a i Gore t ~ ~ s t u o ~ h y s k ~ X W ' - [ \ m n or wanen ? /7 ( 3 4 ) 2, ' & o is aore selfish: sen or rmmn ? fl (351 m ;t ? r n l ~ ~ 8 W 1 . 1 1 * % F m # 5 ~ q - %3n- c r n ~ f . ? i q l - 3 3 3, brio 2s =re ccncemed acd cariag a k u t their f azUy/spse: 1 (36) r 1 L, k130 i s =re lazy: sen or 2-n ? 10. b%o is aore concerned a3d involved ia mUg3arr matters: oenorucam?  . 5 . \3ZY 11 . - Tart 2 Excerpts Pro3 CuLdsLines for che Collecrton and h a i y s i s of Data THE ECOSOHIC DLXEXSIOX 1. Traditional S e x u a l 3 i v i s i o n of Labor a. Describe T r a d i ~ i o n a lD l v i s i o n of l a b o r by sex and age by f i l l i n g ou: Key I n f o r m n : Schedule on page 110. Observe 3s m n y a s p o s s i b l e of vom-a's :asks and a c : i v i t i e s . Record where ? o s s j b ~ l z descrip:ions of :he me:hods and p r o c e s s e s women u s e i n r h c t r ac:ivl:ies. For s x a n p l e , collec: r e c i p e s f o r making chanp, d r y i n g meat o r v e g e t a b l e s , aaklng a c b r , e:c. Describe :he p r o c e s s and n a t e r i a l s used i n any h a n d i c r a f t ac:ivi:ies uonen p e r f o r s (Xbdulla!! + Zeidenstein 1976: 9). 2 e s c r i b e Rov gratgi and o:her food is s:ored and uha: p r o b l e m a r e encourritered. Descrlbe :be :ethnology o r equipment used t n woenen's ac:ivi:ies such as husicing rain, fe:chfr,g WaZed e:C. Author s u g g e s t s :ha: 1nfor~a:Iofl of i n z e n s i t y of uork can bes: be co1lec:ed through p a r t i c i p a n z 05ser.sa:ion. "k'i:h infor- na:lon on "L:ersi.:y from g a r t t c i p a n : oSserva:ton, one vauid be i n a posi:ion t o a s s l g n a oeigh: f o r r e l a t i v e in:ensity of each ac:ivi:yl' ( . l i r e r 1380: 9). 2 e a l i z i i i g as .\nXer does :ha: obser- va:ion rlll 30: be e f f e c t i v e i n a l l o w i n g us t o a e a s u r e :he re1a:lve ia:enst:y of e f f o r ! exer:ed by d i f f e r e n : indlvlduals engaged fa :be sazie ac:ivi:y and ' ha: :hese ~2.11 L5e a n eleaen: of subfec:i~t:y i n any such c b s e r v a z i o n u n l e s s :here is sooe ;~M:I rL of m a s u r l n g p h y s i c a l outpu:, you -2y n e v e r t h e l e s s wish : o 8 e?ralua:e ?he r+la:'.ve intensi:y of d i f f e r e n : ac:lv€:tes aa - ?  perfoxxed i n your v i l l a g e . One way of doing t h i s syster;a:ical?y would be :o u s e t h e a c t i v i t y List on "Key inforxiant Schedule 2" ( s e e a t t a c h e n t ) and r e c o r d b e s i d e each a c r i v i t y your judgzent a s t o whether :ha: ac:ivi:g is h i g h l y 'strenuous i n t e n s of e f f o r t r e q u i r e d and energy absorbed. S i n c e the ac:ivity l i s t on c h i s s c h e d u l e c o i n c i d e s w i t h :ha: used i n :he T i m A l l o c a t i o n Study (TXS), t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s m y hePp you l a t e r i n your a n a l y s i s of t h a t d a t a and p r o v i d e some basis f o r C e t e n i n i n g whether men o r vosen a r e devot i c g more :iae t o highly strenuous b. Perceived Value o r ?res:ige X::ached t o D i f f e r e n t Tasks Throush observa: i o n and Lncervievs w i t h Zen and yonen, f i n d o u t -ha: f o b s people don't l i k e t o do o r r e f u s e t o do aad xhy (e.g., w a t e r c a r r y i n g , g r i n d i n g , cookiny, c a r k y i a g a a n u r e , s o r k i n g f o r wages?). 'Uhich jobs do t h e y e n j o y o r Lake p r i d e is ( * . g o , child c a r e , h a n d i c r a f t s , p r e p a r a t i o n of c e r t a i n s p e c i a l f o o d s , r e l i g i o u s yorship?). Do Den and wosen tend :o a g r e e on t h e i r e s t i c a t i o n of :he v a l u e an& p r e s t i g e a t t a c h e d t o v a r i o u s t a s k s ? I f c. Reasons ,For E x i s t i n g Sexual D i v i s i o n of Labor I i. Yale and f e s a l e S t e r e o t y p e s . kihat a r e =he ? a r t i c u l a r char- o aen and v m e n o r c h i l d r e n x n i c h acteristics attributed : a r s c o n s i d e r e d t o j a k e tAem p a r E i c u l a r l y s u i t e d :o cettai:. w :as'- e.g., s:reng:h, . ; ~ danger, e n d u r a n c e , ~ u s c e p t i b i l i ~:o competence a: b a r g a i n i n g , art i c u i a t e c e s s , 3 5 i l i t y t o work on a Eean, ap:i:udz :or c e r t a i n k i n d s of ; k i l l s , innate l i e s ) . C o l l e c t a a t e t i a l f r o n 5o:h sexes abou: ezch  o t h e r (c.f. I d e o l o g i c a l Diaeasion). Do you e v e r see oae sex p e r f o r a i n g a c t i v i t i e s defined a s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e o t h e r (i.e., women ploughing i n a comcunlty where t h i s i s considered a a a l e t a s k ) . Cnder vhat c i r c u 3 s t a n c e s ? ;ihat: is v i l l a g e r e a c t i o n ? In t h e case of an a l l l l a l a o r a l l - . f e c a l e household, what t a s k s raguira members of the opposlte s e x t o be c a l l e d i n ? 'Jho i s c a l l e d ? RePatives, n e i g h b u r s , o r someone who does :he work f o r wages? 11. What o t h e r s o c l o - c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s ( b e s i d e s sexual s t e r e o t y p e s ) do you s e e preventing women f r o a p e r f o r d n g c e r t a i n t y p e s of t a s k s ? For e.xanple, voaien's freedom t o aove o u t s i d e t h e home; f-eedom t o migrate o u t s i d e t h e community i n search of vork o r f o r trade. Vhat i s :he s t r e n g t h of t h e i a s i d e / o u t s i d e ( o r domestic/?ublic) dichotomy and hou does i t a f f e c t t h e d i v i s i o n of labor? iii. '&at o t h e r types of c o n s t r a i n t s on cer:aia nen hnd women prevent t h e a from p e r f o m l o g c e r = a i n t a s k s ( ~ . g . , c o n f l i c t s c r e a t e d by c h i l d c a r e Cuties, school a t t e n d a n c e , extended absence from v i l l a g e due t o s a l a r i e d job o r need t o f i n d I I vage labor). bhat s t r a t e g i e s a t e used :o overcone t h e s e constraints (e.g., shared c b i l d c a r e r e s p o n s l 5 i l i t i e s , keeping c h i l d r e n out of school t o help hcze, e t c . ) . Socia 1 Wni: oL ?roduct ion 3t - ? I k%ich econoilic acti-ri:ies i n your coanuntty a r e p r i m r i l y : a. Itin-based; i n v o l v i n g Eke household alone or a n exzsnded kin-  . b Village- based; + . 3 . , neighbors o r clianr-pa:ron r c l a t i o n a (suc51 : J m r i system i n I n d i a ) a s t h e kamurre s y s t e a i n S e p a l o r :he a i n v o l v i n g e i t h e r l a b o r exchange o r ~ o s r l ypayment in kind 2i:h m f n i a a l c a s h exchange. c. i n t e r - v i l l a g e ; e . g., s r a d a n ( v o l u n t a r y l a h r f o r p u b l i c works), i n t s r - v i l l a g e h e r d i n g o r t r a d i n g i n v o l v i n g no c a s h p d y z e n t . d. Commercial; e-g., Local f a c t o r i e s , busiiness o r t r a d i n g v e n t u r e s i n which people a r e employed Lor uagee, l a r g e f a r a s vhich e n p l a ~ y p e o p l e f o r rages. 3. Systems of Labor Exchange a. -s y s t e a s I n your v i l l a g e . P a r s t - D e s c r i b e t h e e x i s t i n g par= k l i c h a c t i v i t i e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t throqgh ?armam How a r e p a r = groups s t r u c t u r e d ( e m s . , based on reslden:ial pro xi mi:^? kin- ship? caste? friendship? ocher s o r t s of o b l i g a t i o n s ? ) . Xov nany s e p a r a t e work groups e x i s t v i c h i n t h e v i l l a g e ? Does aem- bership s n i f t o r r e s i n s t a b l e ? Yhen do groups break u?? Yearly? Seasonally? A f t e r a q u a r t e l between c e r t a i s aembers of :he group? :&o o r g a n i z e s t h e group (@en o r omen)^ O r i s vork f o r d i f f e r e n t c r o p s and o p e r a t i o n s organized by d i f f e r e n : . t sexes? 'n'ino d e c i d e s o n nembership and r o t a t i o n s c h e d u i e e:c.? Is a "rotran day" c o n s i d e r e d e q u a l :o a II - - nan day" of l a 5 o r ? How are s l a c k e r s t i e a t * e.g., joking, s c o l d i n g , s h a a i x g ) ? Try t o get a P i s : o f :he G r i o u s ? a r m groups tha: have f u n c t i o z e d * d u r i n g v a r i o u s seas%ns ~f :he pas: f nunber of g e a r ; ~ e a b e r s h 2; d a y s ~ o r k e d . -&a i f n e a b e r s h i ? f n t d s year's grou?s .das d i f f e r e n t f r o n las: t ear's vhg? and if s ~ ,  b. Indigenous exchange ca:egories. & s c r i b e any exchanges s y s t e j s t h a t e x i s t i n y o u r v i l l a g e (such as exchange of r i t u a l s e r v i c e s f o r l a b o r o r g r a i n i n t h e Lanaaune syskeo, ~ t c . ) . Which a c t i v i - t i e s u s u a l l y u s e ::-Lis system? c. Paid Labor. LWch r o w n have :o work as wage l a b o r e r s f o r - o t h e r s ; u h l c h angage only i n p a r a p l u s l a b o r i n t h e i r own f i e l d ; which voaea h i r e o t h e r women 4s l a b o r e r s (Abdullah + Z e i d e n s e e i n 1976: lo)? Are :here aarkad s t a t u s d l s t i n c r f o n s between t h e s e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s ? Is ehere any s y s t e a of c o n t r a c t l a b o r i n Your v t l l a g e ? If so, d e s c r t b e how i t works and uho d. P o l i t i c a l , money-loan o r f r i e n d s h i p l a b o r o b l i g a t lons. Describe :he sys:en i f i t e x i s t s and which a e $ i v i t l e s i: fnvolves. 3. Female/Yale C o n t r o l h e r E c o n o d c Resources: "Llo c o n t r o l s t h e product of l a b o r and how is the product used i n forming s o c i a l rela:lonships?" ( S c h l e g a l 1977). 1. Traditional i n h e r i t a n c e p a t t e r n s and r i g h t s o v e r s e l f - e a r n e d and ances:ral ( ~ ~ : e r n a l / p a t e c i a l ) p r o p e r t y and o v e r n a r r i a ~ ep o r t i o n . X o ~ s n ' s renancy r i g h t s :c.f. Legal Dicenslon). i , I 2. Uomn's Su?port S e ~ v o r k s S u e l l e r has ?o'nted c u t :hat - t h e r e are :yo hs:c aveaues by xhich - people g a i n a c c e s s t~ :he n e c e s s i t i e s of li fe: .3'Xork' s . and 'Supper: - E I Sys:eas.' 'Su?pott Systezs,' she - r i t e s , e c o n o d c a s s i s t a n c e f r o s Zi:.shi:, * %ay be priva:e g r s u p s , f r f e n d f , o r o:"er such a s r;.,u:rpa: help ne:=orks. Support s p s t e x say 5e ? & l i c sxch +s s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , welfare, school lunches, f r e e z e d i c a l c a r e e t c . Supporcaay t a k e t h e f o r s o f t r a n s f e r s of soney, goods, labor (say, h e l p i n t h e f i e l d o r w i t h c h i l d c a r e ) , o r o t h e r s k r v i c e s , (1978: 3). She h o l d s t h a t w h i l e men s e c u r e most of t h e f i e c e s s i t i e s of L i f e from 'work,' - vomen have t r a d i t i o n a l l y depended nore on :he 'support system' because of t h e l r c h i l d - b e a r i n g and c h i l d - r e a r i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i : i e s , :heir g r e a t e r l o n g e v i t y , and because of s o c i a l r e s t r i c t t o m on l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t ion." H u e l l e r p r e s e n t s two hjrpsthesss a k u t hou modernization which ":ends t o weaken f a m i l i a l s u p p o r t sys:eas ,"I a f f e c t s wsmn i n developlng countries. She h e r s e l f b e l i e v e s tihar t h e deeer1ora:ion of : r a d i t i o n a l networks a f f e c t s c h i r d s o r l d wooen a d v e r s e l y because i n s o s t c a s e s no p u b l i c s u p p c r t s y s c e o s have ye: been developed t o t a k e t h e i r place. However, s h e a l s o p r e s e n t s :he opposing vieti :hat :his ver:r d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n fac:, " l i b e r a r e s " xonen from t r a d i t i o r a l f a m i l i a l c o n s t r a i n t s + i a d u c i n g :hem t o pursue n o r c v i g o r o u s l y ernployzent op?or:uni:les ahd a more e q u a l r o l e f a :!I@ f a d l y and coam;ni:y (1978: 4). Yout obn o b s e r v a t i o n s of -ah0 a c t u a l l y GCSS :he 'work' o challenge i n v i l l a g e S e p a l cay l e t d you : :fuelL+r's dichorony betzeen aa1e p r i a s r g dependence on 'sork' and feuale dependence on s u p p o r t sys:eas. i S e - ~ e r f h e l e s s ,i : zag be v e r y helpful. r o lock f o r Ehese suppor: n e t v o r s s and Ery :o d e s c r i * exchanges o r t r a n s f e r s irrvolved. r e m i t zone] > , Accqrding :u I l u e i l e r : : Caalkr z e z b e r s i e f t behind i n r u r a l a r e a s , o r the t h e s e c r a r s f . ? r s - m y o c c u r r e g u l a r l y , for e x a c p l e , vken n i s r a n t a . ' L =: ! m - - uh<?n c h i l d r e n k e l p to s u p p o r t a ~ i n g 2areu:s .Jr xhen a 3 a 2 I pro- ides r e g u l a r s a p p o r t f o r a widowed o r separacea s f s : e r .  Support oay a l s o k i r r e g ~ l a r , t a k i n g t h e t a r n of l a r p o r s m a l l g i f t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s p e c l a l occasions (weddings, b i r t i d a y s , h a r v e s t c i w ) , o r o c c u r i z g s p o r a d i c a l l y when :he donor has a surplus. I n o t h e r words, i n s p e a k i z g of 'support sys:ems,' ue a r e r e a l l y looking a t t h e economic s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s o c i a l Z o r ~ syou a r e . s t u d y i n g i n t h e ' f a e z i l i a l , ' 'co~13unl:y . ' c,c-5 * i d e o l o g i c a l * d i a e n s f o n o 3 p z r r t i c i p a t i o n i n Economic D e c i s i o n - w ~ l n g From c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e f a r households you know =ell,, r e c o r d :he type o f d e c i s i o n s r o w a a k e and t h e s t r 3 : e g i e s :hey use t o !nfluence :he deci~ions of otirers. Are vomen n o s z l y involved i z e c o n o d c d e c i s t o n s that a f f e c t themselves and t h e i r "own" aoney and r t i n e o r ones t h a t a f f e c t :he e n t i r e household o r c o r z u n i t y ? What i r o l e d o women p l a y i n d a y - t o d a y d e c i s i o n s about :he a l l o c a t i o n of household r e s o u r c e s and :he a s s i g n m a t of :asks? Does t h e i r c o n t r o l e x t e n d t o o c h e r -rows o r t o men a s w e l l ? Do women p a r : i c i ? a t e in long- range F i n a n c i a l d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g ~ g r i c u l r u r a li n p u t s , f a r a Eacage*nt, oarke:ing f a s i l g produce, e x t r a v i l l a g e d g r a r o r y l a b o r ? i. : I I Nor m c h f n f l u e c c e do t h e y have over f f n a n c i c g o r r e l i s l o u s r i t u a l s , m r r i a g e s , =eAica~and e d u c a t i o n a l expendi:ures? 30 women p&:ici- E - para i n d i v i d i n g asse:s k t r e e n sons? Ia d e c i d i n g anolln: s f daugh- k ter's m a r r i a g e p o r t i o n ? a ceu hcuse o r .buy a i n deciding t o S ~ i l d new b u f f a l o , e t c . ? - I n wha: a r e a s a r e s o w n prevented f r o a =king e c o n o d c d e c i s i o n s ? I E How do d i f f e r e n c e s in m l e and f e s a l e v a l u e s show up i n the a l l o c a - I :ion oE r t s o u r c e s ? ;hat d e c i s i o n s c r e a r e c9nfLir.t xi:h zenl %ha:  i n f o r m a t i o n is i g n o r e d by ( o r k e p t f r o a ) rocen:nen I n economic decisions? %ha: i n f o r r u t i o n i s shared (a.g., a r e a s of outuan decision-izakiag) 4. Kouen and Econoaic Independence Do boaen have any s o u r c e of ir..?cxre*. 2 .tnc e a r 3 i n g s f r o n t h e i r own enterprises? Cvn p r o p e r t y . w g e s ,r s a l a r y ? iihat s:raregiesi d o :hey . u s e t o e a r n o r s a v e money? C o l l e c t cases and d e s c r i p t i o n s of vonen- run encerprlses. iiw was i n i t i a l c a p i t a l o b t a i n e d ? liho else ?ar- t i c i p a t e s as p a r t n e r , employee o r c l i e n t ? Po what e x t e n t d o vomen t disp1a:t a " b u s i n e s s s e n s e " o f p r o f i t and l o s s ? Yhat d o women d o vi:h t i money :hey e a r n ? Spend? Save? C o n t r i b u t e t o household? Is t h e r e ? a n eleuenc of secrecy a&ut t h e i r earnings? If so. uhy? Are irornen i n v o l v e d Ln b o r r w i n g and l e n d i n g ooney? i f s o , f o r t h e household o r f o r t h e u e l v s s as L a d i v i d u a l s ? 'fiat a r e t h e borrowing and l e n d i n g networks? I f woaen a r e r e s t r i c t e d f r o n b o r r o w i n g / l e n d i n g what r e a s o n s are g i v e n f o r t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s ? R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Women t o E c o n o > f c DevePopzient, S e r v i c e s and F a c i l i E i e s : I 1. Access t o S e r v i c e s a. A3ricul:ural I s c r e d i t (Look f o r c r e d i : g i v e n d i r e c t l y t o r m e n and FFk - - a l s o c r e d i t g i v e n t o men t o b e g i n e n t e r p r i s e s :hat rill e a p l o y - 5: Traiirlng i n agricul:ural o r s m l l i n d u s t r y s k i l l deve1op:nenr. E e I II 1 Xhac cradi:fonaJ c e a n s a r e u s e d to i m p a r t s u c h s k i l l s i n h a n d i - I c r a f t s etc.? %hat g o - ~ e r z a e n t - r u n t r a i n i n g p r o g r a = s a r e a v a i l - a b l e t o vonen l o c a l l y , i n t k e c e n t e r ? 30 voice2 know atou: :3ese  opportunities? DQ t h e y van: t o p a r t i c i p a t e ? If n o t , why? So time? Programs not u s e f u l ctc.? (c.f. Coa~iuni:y/?olirical Dimension) . c. Contact w i t h ex:ension a g e n t s e . ~ . , JYA, Woaea Yorkers, e t c . dm Use and a t t i t u d e s towards improved i n p u t s (ems. s e e d s , fertilizers). L%o g e t improved i n p u t s and how? Special a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be focused on f e m l e - h e a d e d households. 2. C o n s t r a i n t s and O p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r Change a. Displacement of wown from t r a d i t i o n a l occupations. (e.g. l o c a l i n d u s t r y r e p l a c e d by governmen: e n t e r p r i s e s ; a v a i l a b i l i t y of new .goods). k%at a r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of a displacesen:? Visible o r predictable? For example, has t h e r e been a change from t r a d i t i o n a l handloom d r e s s t o Eactory-ade cloth? Do women have more f r e e t i = as a r e s u l t ? Do thley l o s e incow? b . Xeu o p p o r t u n i t i e s opened up f o r women :o e a r n income. (e.g. road c o n s t r u c t i o n uork, opening h o t e l s f o r t r e k k e r s , * 9 n etc.). Do t h e y e x i s t ? How many women who have t a k e n t h ~ e s e oppor:uai:ies - r e l a t e to-aen and g o w n who have n o t ? Are t h e r e aay n o t a b l e changes i n '8:atus (upward o r d ~ ! $ ? ) - e s and o b l i g a t i o n s towards v i l l a g e and changes o c c u r In ac:ivi faaily? - Y c. D p e of :ecRcology (traditional vs. nodern) used L?. ?roduc:ion d. Effects of new laws on vonen's a b i l i t y to own property and conduct Financial transaccions ( c . f . Legal Dimensions). e. Beconmended program areas. Ask women and aen from your v i l l a g e a b u t their p r i o r i t i e s and ideas for 7rograms that could iaprove their economic situation.  Cross Check &spordeats p e sure ask sore Een and ac=e ucnzec.) 11.. ~ g 9 d 57 s e x fs=. 32x32 *&-;k e e k serersl siff~r 26: az2 =Isr€n ;1k7 tihis is SO 7  - ?&do + = Activity ususlly ptrfo.7.3ed by t h i s csteqcrf cf ~ ~ ~ S O C S S = Actlv(,ty sene time perfcrdd !v thla c s t s e ~ r r sf terser3 O = h c % i % i t j rraffly of nover perfo~zedby : U s categoxy of Zrwoas I TAS Coder iistidty I ?hn 7- 3cy Girl ~eaaczel kariaticas 01010 lr Care esd fsadfng cf armk.ala iri CC=L@ II I I I ?cder C3Uectioa I I I I --. 4 010T;O &tcbHLZg I C l W I Czksr tssks s l e t e d t o erAzel f.uskcdq I --- -a Ncte: ~ o h recc,+ rcy s s a s s n d diffe=.ecces i n ir: *Seascc&l,V ~ - i a t f o r . sc division cf le'zcr, ( i . e . vhez an ars s r , e 6 ~ r i c q u h t e r ~:n:fis f'cr geescmP X i r o r ',n?dkg ventures uc=& z g pcrfo~sc e r t d n tesks tht ert o=.jins=.Jllp2 e r f o f A by =en). - * 0 For Soy SI?Cis1 record ege cf sta-irsg each ty-s 3f work. E I &ch ctcsivity a y have ae-rerd GFX%~CT.S o r s u ' ~ c a ~ e g o T l e s v:C?icS are ze,l'or-ed 'cg &ilferez= sexes. S p = e ?as Seen left is eaci: I v x for ycrs t o record t h e detailed breddo*-tl of s-cn ac',i.dty v h i c 5 Is a-,_cmcriste fsr your ~ i l i a g e . F o r axmp'rs ir. a ce*aLq :orsf -dliage $rls z ; terd ,c;~=er,s v z l e cziy b o p kerd k??ffGc.  ThS Code . ictivlty I ?. "? Y-I Sefisorial. 02010 -0 preparetien: Plalg~g 3sstiag zhe Clods m a . 1 * a m . . a 02020 Terrace upiceep -d repair of i z r i g s t i a c-aels I I I - Collecti~ d ?~pztioZI of orgcnic f a s i l i z e : Carryicg + spreadis.g 7- f ertiliaer: orge3lc Gbdcd - - 1 ? l ~ ~ ~ i Crerrfiocs: ~ e c hl i r . p ;n~raticn I I - sC.d3g I- I I I I T =sp'lo?ti3g 02C60 'deeding I I I I Irz5g~'vicn - - .* :&=cresCiogr c&VAng/%deErg r- . D r l i n g C x p 2esi&de I - S=orLng or bag@% I I -  I T A CoOe ,1 be:ivitjr . 1 : I ?OY jGid -' 02C90 Thresking/~le=L~gg m h I I 1 I 02100 Yc,-,icul=ure (?a&?g 13 VJn C O = C B ~ ~ ocskztrd) I I a. I i Seed Ssletl',icn & Stomge mlr2?&?s=ectia I I I I I t I - I 03010 ! i .* . if4 ~ ~ t 1 i I i I I I I I I I CeZkerics a t e z . d s I II ! I !2 ! ' rn I 03WO -1 12!tCd G=r t d 2 g w i l d eOiSle f1 .I I I I C o l l % c = i m cf = e 6 i c c l - - ?Lp_r?3s ' i L I , - * I . 03&0 h k e r ~ttir.E/~stheri2g b  I &y TA COde - n ~ t i ~ t y i I 2- I ~ i r l 's ~ ~ s c r r'crieticr.~ %OU a 312 Cl~th r&cg 3c~p/&skssxy/?/ats I I 1 I 2 rp&~p I a013 2 r ~ l +, u r o e s ia~i r I Y k I 1 OLOU ' 3 h s t h c r wszk . ' 1 4 d I I ! [ I w15 S*$ I i \ i I 04016 &her = f T Lresking acturkg i I I - I 02023. I 1 t t;i=ovlq 9 ' I i i E 1 I I I I 1 I i I I I iI I 1 j i I I i 1 I a l+-- I , - I ! - I UQ25 ? A t k g of 2ried focds + ~ickles - - I i 1' t I 1 i I l II - 6 .i - - i X F ~ ~ _ D ~ ~ cZ products ~f Ldc eEi v I OL026 I Cthcr focd m c e s s k g I b I i I --- THE FtUIILLAL DE4ESSIOS A. General S o c i a l Organization: 1. Kinship Groups Using key i n f o r m n t s , f i n d o u t >hat are t h e main ways i n which t h e people of t h e v i l l a g e you a r e s t u d y i n g d i v i d e t h e a s e l v e s (e.g. into d e s c e n t groups, l i n e a g e , c l a n s , r i t u a l grou?s, a r r i a g e rxchanse groups). W h a t a r e the r i t u a l nases of t h e s e groups? C o l l e c t any o r i g i n myths and s t o r i e s a b u t t h e s e groups. Are t h e r e any s p e c i a l c o n n e c t i o n s b e c ~ e e nclans (e.g. b r c t h e r c l a n s , c l a n s which have s p l i c off)? Are v i l l a g e s c l a n - o r i e n t e d o r l i n e a g e - o r i e n t e d ? How aany clans/lineages a r e there? Are t h e r e any s p e c i a l c o n n e c t i o n s between c e r t a i n lineages? Any l i n e a g e s o r c l a n s l o c a t e d i n s p e c i f i c r e s i - Cenca a r e a s ? Vsing key i n f o r ; r a n t s , c o l l e c t k i n : e m on s c h e d u l e Pl. Have i n f o r - mant e x p l a i n any s p e c i a l relationships/obligations t h a t e x i s t between c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s of k i n (e.g. reia:fonship betveen f a t h e r and son o r n o t h s r and son o r b r o t h e r s and sisters). Note behavior (such as g r e e t i n g s, g i f t exchanges, respect- avoidance, joking) v h i c h i s used t o expre5s s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s betyeen v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s of k i n . 1 a Does :his behavior change with t h e a g e of :he i n d i v i 2 u a l s involved? - - C o l l s c t genealogtes f o r f a d l i e - s - d i t h i a :he 35 household s a z p l e . Collec: natal c l a n nase ( o r g o t 2 a / t h a r ) n a w s and r a t a l v i l l a g e of - vocen as w e l l . - Find out h w fdt away each vonen's v i l l a g e is. r Collect from a z a n and u o m n i n each household ( c . f . Denogrzphic Data Shee:). Descrike d e s c e n t systezt. 2. :-!arriage Patterns Uhat a r e t h e b a s i c endogasous/exogaaous groups? (Ask key informants: U i t h what g r o u p s can you ekarry? Within what group i s raarriage f o r 5 i d d e n ? b%y? 3 e t s v e n whicb i n d i v i d u a l s ? Up t o how many g e n e r a t i o n s i s marriage f o r b i d d e a on ? a t s r n a l / m t s r n a l side? I f f o r b i d d e n type of a a r r i a g e o c c u r s c h a t a r e t h e p e n a l t i e s and consequences f o r tke coupla?). Are t h e r e any p r e f e r e n t i a l marriage p a t t e r n s ? If s o , which relatives preferred? Xhich groups? Which v i l l a g e s ? Is m r r i a g e c h o i c e up t o p a r e n t s o r up t o c a p l e ? I n a r r a n g e d marriage, how cnrch i r the g i r l ' s opinion consulted? Is t h e r e h y ~ e r g a m y(i.e. voan m r r i e s h i g h e r s t a t u s s a n ) o r hypogany (i.e. aan marries higher s:atus womn)? Is t h e r e polyandrylpolygamg? %ha: a r e :he attitudes cowards t h e s e ? (Ask a l e and female informants and a l s o l i s t e n and observe reacciozs). h i t types of a a r c i a g e s e x i s t (i.e., cerenonial o r i n f o r p a l , a r r a n g e d , love, c a p t u r e , elopeaen:, etc). Collec: local n a e s f o r types. .At:i:ude of v i l l a g e r s t o each t;vpe of a a r r i a g e . A t t i t u d e of f a t h e r , ~o:her, d a u g h t e r , groom t o t h e s e v a r i o u s t ~ ? e s of marriage. ( I n g e n e r a l , f o r a t t i t u d e q u e s t i o n s you s h o u l d ask b o t h 5 r t m l e and female i n f o r n a n t s d i r e c t l y a s v e l l a s observing 2neir r e a c t i o n s and r e c o r d i n g u n s o l i c i t e d c o m e n t s the:^ =ice <? conversa- - :ions w i t h o t h e r v i l l a g e r s ) . Consequences of u n f a v o r a b ~ f Cype of nardage? 9ov l o n g is i k e 2 r o c e s s of j e c o s i n g m r r i e d ? "&en - is a m B ! woca; c o n s i d e r e d t o be married? ;hen does a ncTan f i a a l r j l i v e with h e r hus'band? -U:er cer:lin riEuals? k - t e r 5 j . r t h of a c h i l d ?  mat are t h e q u a l i t i e s r s q u i r o d of a bride/groom? ghat charac- t e r i s t i c s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i q c d i s e n t s so a a r r i a g e ? k%at' is :he i d e a l / u s w l age a t marriage? (.Ask h3ale and felnale L n f o r a n n t s ) . (c. f . Demographic Cat a S h e e t .) Are t h e r e aay mne:ary exchanges, sift exckanges o r l a b o r exc'mnges b e f o r e , d u r i n g or after che ceremony? Sf so, uetveen whoa? (c.f. Vom 65: E x c h n g e s a: Ydrriage.) Hov do key i n i o r m n t s e x p l a i n t h e a e a n i n g of e a c b exchange? Ho;r. n I] and r h a t c a t e g o r y of k i n on e a c h s i d e a r e bnvolved i n such exchanges (i.e., brother, sister, mother's b r o t h e r , e t c . ) . Are any words spoken vhen t h e s e exchanges are .side? .Saoes f o r t h e s e excnanges. 1s t h e b r i d e c o n s i d e r e d as a gift? Wha: is t h e re1a:ive s t a t u s of :he bride's f a m i l y vs. :he gzoon's? Xino e x p r e s s e s respect!deference t o whom? HW? (1.e. what tika/c!ok, e t c . is exchanged?) d e s c r i b e v a r i o u s t y p e s of s e d d i n g s , r i t u a l s Have k e y i n r ' o ~ a t s and i E p o s s i b l e , o b s e r ~ eand r e c o r d t h e n y o u r s e l f . How do p a r e n t s e x p r e s s t h e i r view of a d a u g h t e r ' s m a r r i a g e ? Loss of a worker? Loss o f a d a u g h t e r ? Lass of p a r t of t h e w e : - ~ e s ? How d o p a r e n t s e x p r e s s t h e i r v i e u s of a son's m r r i a g e ? Gaining a Q worker? S p e c i a l h e l p f o r :he mother- in- lax? Someone :o c o n t i c u e t h o fanily line? I s b r i d e t r e a t e d as a n i n t r u d e r o r as t h e i r oun daughter? D o e s =rriage s e p a r a t e a uosan r : i u a l k - from her n a t a l * fanily? 8 kia: is d i v o r c e ? C;hoWinfluencesd e c i s i o n s t o d i v o r c e ? %at a r e t h e econoillc sac? s o c f a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s of d i v s r c e ? k a voman?  On J mn? Uhat c o a p e a s a e i o n s o u s t 5e p a i d f o r breaking a union a: d i f f e r e n t p o l o c t fa eh* m a r r i ~ g ep r o c e s s ? (c.f. Legal Dimension). k%at happens i f a v o a m :eaves t o l i v e with a n o t h e r rpan (any change t n r i t u a l o r social status?). &%atkappens I f both woman and a n e u t u a l l y decide co break t h e union? Ghat r e a s c n s do aen/uoaon g i v e f o r h a v i n g divorced o r s e p a r a t e d f r o a a former spouse? Uhat happens . i t a woaan s i e o l y goes t o h e r n a t a l h o m and r e f u s e s t o r e t u r n ? Can a m n simply sand h i s r i f e away I f h e r a n t s co end t h e union? Yho Inf l u e n c c s t h e s e d e c f u i o n s ? Z b t a r e ttre ? e n a l t f e s ? If t h e r e a r c c h f l d r e a what happens to t h e n (any d f f f c r e n c e i n custody of g i r l s and beys)? 'rihat happens to a a a r r i a g e when c h e r e a r e no c h i l d r e n ? Divorce? Polpgaay? (c f.. Ideologf w 1 DistensionjPert ili t y and Hothe-hood.) >%at r d i v o r c e (e.g. group is Involved L fami ly, l i n e a g e , c l a n , coz?r~unity)? Zrbt is t h e a t t i t u d e toward d i v o r c e , polygamy, p o l y a , ~ d r j ? If a & a n m a r r i e s a second r i f e , docs che f i r s t wfie have :o g i v e or s i g n h e r p e r z f s s i o n ? Eihat is t h e s o c i : l and econonic p o s i t i o n of t h e widow ( a t t a r i o u s ages, - 4 t h apd v i r h o u t c h i l d r e n ) ? Xho looks a f t e r t h e e t ts?dots? (c.f . Wocen's Supporr Setuorks iil Econoaic Diaension). Is l e v e r i t e (I.e., =rriage of b r o t h e r ' s r i C o u ) o r s o r o r a t e (i.e., m r r l a g e of deceased w i f e ' s s i s t e r ) f r e q u e n t l y ? r a c * t i c e d ? Khat is :I?- a t t i t u d e :ouard widcw r e o a r r l a g e ? L1.a~ s o c i a l % r r i t u a l repercussions! C o l l e c t a a r i t a l h i s t o r i e s of as aarjt .;onen as p o s s i b l e 50th stacla:ical as f a :he Deooqraphie Data S h e e t (paae ) narrative ~ n d is :hose c o l l e c t e d by Kurr-Jones i n Yf3ala:~anZomn (1977). 3. F a d l y S:ructure and Xesidence P a t t e r n s between From o b s e r v a t i o n s of S e n a m ~ i o r f a o l l y nrmberp, u h a t is t h e degree of h i e r a r c h y i n t h e f a d l y ? Khac a r e t h e pat:erns of d e f e r e n c e and' a u t h o r i t y ? You a r e t h e s e e x p r e s s e d ir. behavior? (both i n ritual s e t t i n g s and evaryday i n t e r a c t i o n ) . Is rank based m i n l y on seniority, sex, p e r s o n a l c t \ i z r a c t a r i s t i c s o r a coarblnation of these? &ik key inforesants whether n u c l e a r o r extended f a t n i l l e s a r e p r e f e r r e d aad why. k'hlch :om La a c t u a l l y more f r e q u e n t ? Vhat a r c the residence p a t t e r n aIZer s s r d a g e , i.e., 2a:rilocal (couple l i v e s v i t h hushnd's f a m i l y ) ; aart r i l o c a l (with u i f e ' s f a d ly ; n e o l o c a l (couple s e t s c p s e p a r a t e household), e t c . Khen do sons s p l f t from parents? hhich son u s u a l l y remains v i t h p a r e n t s ? h'ho i s c o n s i d e r e d t o i n f l u e n c e t5e s p l i t ? Ghat o t h e r causes a r e given/Go you observe? .%here is t h e new house b u i l t ? 3y W~CZI? IS s p l i t u s u a l l y p e a c e f u l o r preceded by a q u a r r e l ? 30 s o e s and p a r e n t s s t i l l e a t comaunally? Is a n y t h i n g k e p t i n coslrron? Does family s:ructure tend t o i s o l a t e wonen of the comuni:y , I f r o n each o t h e r o r does i: tend t o encourage t h e f o m a t i o n of f e s a l e - s o l i d a r i g y groups? t h e r e h i e r a r c h y among t h e women L? t h e IS family? -9 rDo w r r i e d w o e 2 vork e a s i l y t o g e t h e r ? w i t h t h e i r in- C laws? - 'inat a r e t h e u s u a l a t t i : u b e s e f a t h e r s -ic-lag? rowards aothers-in-!a~ aac Xow freqcen: l y C?O voxen v i s i t :heir n a t a l hone (a: d i f fereat l i f e scages)? Does frequency of visi:s &epend on distance f r ~ a natal h o w and/or stabi1i:y of z a r r i a g e ? On uha: ri:ual occasfons s k o u l d  - 16 - a d a u g h t e r r e t u r n t o h e r n a t a l hone? Yhat d o e s a % o w n t a k e t o h e r n a t a l hone? U b t g i f t s are r e t u r n e d ? Xho else d o e s s h e v i s i t i n h e r natal village? Any g i f t s ? Excbnge? How velcome is a v o m n i n h e r n a t a l home? For shor: v i s i t s ? For l o n g v i s i t s ? Peraanently i f marriage i s d i s s o l v e d ? (c.f. Economic D t m n s i o n k'omen'~ S u p p o r t Setworks). Hou o f t e n does t h e h u s h n d v i s i t h i s w i f e ' s n a t a l hone? Hov is he t r e a t e d ? What is a wooan's ritual status i n h e r n a t a l home (@.go, does s h e p a r t i c i p a t e In f u n e r a l , Z u l - d e v t a worship, e r e . Is she considered sacred?). Do women t e n d t o be more i n v o l v e d i n r i t u a l s , d i s p u t e s and f o d l y e v e n t s o f t h e i r n a t a l home o r husband's home? Does a woman t a k e h e r h u s b n d ' s a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s and l i n e a g e naue as h e r om? From y o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s , ;rhich r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e f a d l j f seem t e n s e and c o m p e t i t i v e ? Are t h e r e any r i t m l s , n y t h s o r s t o r i e s which e x p r e s s t h e s e t e n s i o n s ? Xote c a s e s and examples of s u c h relationsnips. S t r a t e a l e s f o r d i s p u t e s e t z l e m e n t w i t h i n :he fadly . Keep c a r e f u l r e c o r d s of d i s p u t e s , c o l l e c t i n g Lf p o s s i b l e , d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e ' s v e r s i o n s of t h e i r c a u s e s and ouCcones. (Try t o C record a t l e a s t ten d i f f e r e n t incidents o r histories). - h%ich r e l a t i o n s h i p s seem p a r t i c u l a r l y w a r s and suppor:ive .? within :he f a m i l y ? k e t h e r e any r i t u a l s , a t b s o r s t o r i e s ~ h f c hexpress II * 33d c e l e b r a t e :hese relationships (ego bhai-tika). S o t e c a s e s and . 8 examples of s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s . L Wiat a r e t h e f e e d i n g p a t t e r n s i n :he house? Vho d i s t r i t u : e s :he f o o d ? In ritual feas:~, AWJ f s food divided? a. Vomen's R o l e s / S t a t u s a t Various Life- Stages Describe wocen's I d e a l r o l e s ( a s * d e l l a s observed n o r a s and d e v i a t i o n s ) d u r l n g t h e l i f e s t a g e s l i s t e d below. k%ar a r e a wotan's responsibi!ities, r e l a t i o n s w i t h f a m i l y and o u t s i d e r s and e ~ e c t e d / p e n i t t e dbehaviour a t each s t a g e ? Are t h e r e aay s p e c i a l ceremonies o r e v e n t s t h a t mark t h e t r a n s i t i o n from one stage :o a n o t h e r ? 1. Before p u b e r t y (as unmarried d a u g h t e r s and s i s t e r s ) . (cafe Ldeologica 1 Dimensioa/Sociali rat ion). 2. Post-puber:y/pre-marriage (as u n a a r r i e d but s e x u a l l y developed d a u g h t e r s and sisters). Does : h i s s t a g e exist o r is pre- puberty a r r f a g e p r a c t i c e d ? If s o , does 3 g i r l s t a y i n h e r n a t a l horn u n t i l a f t e r puberty? What is t h e Lapoctance of ?re-marital c h a s t t t y (and s r i t a l fidelity)? Xhat c o n t r o l s a r e placed on Cewle s e x u a l i t y ( b e f o r e .--J af:er aarriage)? (c. fa fdaologdcal Dinension/Fert i l i t y and ?fotber3ood.) %hat is t h e s t a t u s of c h i l d r e n 5 0 r a "ou: of ;red- lock?" hihat a r e t h e p r e s s u r e s t o marry i f pregnant? Xhat is t h e a t t i t u d e tovard/f requency of t h e o p t i o n of abor:ion or m infanticide? W h a t nethods used? Sale knowleOge of :his opt i o n ? (c f. . I d e o l o g i c a l Dinension/ E e r t i l i ~ yand ?lotherhood .J - '2 bring e a r l y Years o f marriage % f o r e motherhood ( a s z a r r i e d d a u g h d t e r s and sis:ez3, ilev w i f e , daughter- in- law and s i s t e r - i n - l a w ) . m - f~ !' w .. (c f 'Yar rfage'?at:ernsl'/~r t i t u d e s towards i n c o n i n g b r i b e acd I "Family Structure and Xesidence T a t t r r n s , " v i s i z s :o 3a:al hone.) During d d d l e g e a r s of m r r i a g e ( a s v i f e , c o r h e r , daughter- iii- law, s i s t e r - i r t - l i u, x a r r i e d daughter and s i s : e r ) . :;hat 1s :he iaportance  of motherhood r o l e t o f e m l e s t a t u s ? Shat is t h e ? o s i z i o n of rhe c h i l d l e s s wife? f,c.f . I d e o l o g i c a l Di?ension/Fer:ili:y and >!otherhood 5. As s e n i o r vouan pas: c h i l d b e a r i n g y e a r s ( a s m:hsr-in-lau, widow o r p o s s i b l y t h e head of t h e household, a s "old womn" i n cormunity). Who is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o v i d i n g a voman's s e c u r i t y i n h e r o l d age? (c.f . Economic Dinension, Wocmen's Support Sc:uorkso) Do new o p t i o n s f o r t r a v e l , r e l i g i o u s a c t f v i c y o r c o m n i : y partfcfpa- c i o n open up t o women a t t h i s s t a g e ? Uhat a r e d e s i r e s and g o a l s of women a: d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s ? (Ask women . informants o f d f f f e r e n t ages. Ask o l d e r uoaen sthat they wan:ed when t h e y were young and v h a t t h e y v a l u e now.) What a r e wonen's o p t i o n s f o r a c h i e v i n g power and i n f l u e n c e i n t h e f a d l y a t d i f f e r e n t stages. What cover:/overt s t r a t e g i e s do u o w n u s e t o g a i n pover o r g e t what t h e y v a n t from d i f f e r e n t tlemkrs of t h e family? ( i .e. Sexuality? Scolding? Xefusing t o vork? Leaving f o r h e r n a t a l home? G e t r i n g s u p p o r t from women f r i e n d s , r e l a t i v e s , comun.!.ty?). How do t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s change a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s ? You do o t h e r * f aaFly/household e m b e r s win a woman's s u p p o r t i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i r goals? Hov does a v o m n g a i n t h e t r u s t and s u p p o r t of a n o t h e r ; r i f e , sis:er-in-law o r mother-in-law? Are t h e s e i m p o r t a n t :o h e r ? Record IncidenEs you have observed and h i s t o r i e s o l h e r s have :old you of B oomen who have e x e r c i s e d o v e r t authori:y o; cover: influence i n t h e f a a i l y and (c.f. C O I E Q U ~ ~ ~ ~ . P o l i t i c a f . Comuni:y Dinension.) What is  a uoman's i te~ role i n h o u s e h o l d / c ~ ~ a u ad cisions a t various l i f e stages? Vhen is h e r s p h e r e of i n f l u e n c e g r a a c e s t ? How much autonosy do wooen have a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s ? Xov nuch - d e v i a t i o n f r o u :he i d e a l p a t t e r n is t o l e r a t e d ? (n.3. One good way of g a i n i n g perspective on t h e v a r l o w stages of a woman's l i f t ? is t o i n t e r v i e w o l d e r wown and c o l l e c t t h e i r l i f e h i s t o r l e s . &k what f r i e n d s h i p s t h e y have f o r a e d , which k i n :ies u e r e i m p o r t a n t , which . have endured and which have broken and why. The 1Lfe h i s t o r y i s a l s o an e x c e i l e n t t o o l f o r g e t t i n g a t s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n s and v a l u e s which are important t o t h e i d e o l o g i c a l dimension. One suggested fraaework f o r c o n d u c t i n g such l i f e h i s t o r y i n t e r v i e w s is t h e s e r i e s of open- ended q u e s t i o n s developed by Dr. Robert Levy i n Appendix i of I r i s book T a h i t i a n s : M n d and 3xperience i n t h e S o c i e t y I s l a n d s (1973: C. Changing F a d l i a l Roles and t h e I a p a c t of Development on Woaen's 3 o l e s i n tne F a d l y 1. Auareness/in)act of new s a r r i a g e , d i v o r c e and i n n e r i t a n c e l a y s on f a a i l i y s t r u c t u r e and women's p o s i t i o n 13 t h e family. (c.f. Legal Dimension.) , t 2. A v a r e n e s s / i e p a c t of f a d l y p l a n n i n g and a b i l i t y t o c o n r r o l f a m i l y - - -;size and f e r t i l i r y . .* C u l t u r a l a t t . l t u d e ( s a l e / f e m a l e ) towards f a d l y -%lanning; i d e a l s i z e and s e x r a t i o . (c.f. Ideological 3iaension/fer- - l i c Y and Xotherkood.) &i - w . B 3. of male out x i g r a r i o n o r nev oppor:uni:ies Extent of and e f f e c ~ for off- farm e n p l o j ~ e n tf o r aen o r zooen's p o s i t i o n Ln :ne f a n i i y as f a r n Inst,ucticmsr Use this s c h d u l e t o bte-view a t l e a s t 10 wrren who bave U n n fron a g tha f e c s l e p o p l a t i o n of our 35 harsehold sacple. 'I:y t~ k t e r P i e v =ere ncthers f m n t h e s ~ p l ief ?ossiSle. Include several of each cf t h e folloving categories of u m n m n g t t c s e you i a t e m l e u r a. Wcxaem uSo have delivered within t h e l a s t year o r so. be W m n vlth re-school childrea over one year old. c. Wmn with a&ool age cbdldren. d. d Y a w n v i t h filly g ~ u n / m r ~ ecbdldren (oce vorien m y fit i n t o several categcries a t once i f she has ~ =ferent c h l l d of ages). Record t h e arsars on note c d s . Be sl~ret o n m b r each ansuer. d s o be sure t o record cenplete locatinq dat (i.e. village, househoid m b e r , Ferson m k e r , name on t h e f i r s t card. S~@i&rsllbseque~tcards ard keep the= 9 bad. together *Ash a c l i p o r r ~ b b e r RlraPnber t h a t tXs schedule is not h t e r d e d t o serve a s a substitgtq f o r t h e o p n ended question on f e r t i l i t y , child birth snd socilizgtion (included i z t h e FYeld Y ? a l . -' Pertaps when you find ~ r t i c u l a r l y res~;ocsi'~e info=ts you c d d s i t t e r ask then other releted questions a t t h e ',he of t h e I n t e z v i w o r r e t u n Leter f o r f u r t h e r conversaticns a - m t t h e t c p i c s included i n the Yaual. 1 ! . !ow years !mi you 'besn mrrled when you h d your f i r s t c-hild ? rmq***m*m-mm? v 2. Did pox seek anjr k e i p o r t r e s t z e ~ t order f o biaxTe chiltren ? If so - what t r e s c w t ? k'ho- eacsuragei yvcl t o k ~ this s treetmezt ? d T p i i ? .$;mm? q-a?-rn'T?P~Sq5~i~~7fi*? - This s c k e b l s is a rcdified versioc of a questicrcaire dea:elc~ed 3 3asuniara Dungal (end other =enbe= of t h e C:i$S stzff vorjdcg ca t n s . Status GZ Ckildren ?=co ject) v i t h soze i r X c r a i c o z s u i t a t i o n with t h e Status of ' l i m n Tmjecf Advisor. 3. I n your o;inim, fra w k k eg= does ckild 'si=D b c c a c i i f f i e ~ l t for a vozan 7 Age: 5esscn. - ~ T ~ ~ m * m ~ F T T m - m q ST ? m: --------- $q :------ years I f t e r m r r i a g s cea a couple go *&thoat haviag t 5 i l d r a . Hov ~ a n y 1 before people begin t o t a l k znd say they should k v e a child ? Ho,of pears: ?aascn: - % m d ~ H ; r d ~ ~ m w ~ ~ Y ? r n g 5. Hcv m y children do YOU think it i s g o d t o have 7 a Total Boys Girls u u~ ~ ~ ~ F ? i = l T W ~ ? m r M ; r f i r ~ - 4'1 ------ - 7--,,,---- -- Xote: Your r e s p d e a t mxy not have a c l e e r at assuer hem o r nay say "as mny es gcd gi7esn. Don't force an ansver i a -be=. If rsspondent gives a o w r i c a . 1 ansuer pmbe t o f i n d a t why she thinks tkt r ' h e r or' children o r tirat nu35er of >oys vs. girLs i s best. A 6 . I n yous opi~Ao=l i s it b e t t e r f o r a women t o hive a son o r a daughter f i r s t -- o r does 4ir m t t e r ? C a n yau ex?lein t o I Z ~ vhy 7 iq.rlirl ~ ~ ~ * ~ % I T ? T ? .2 - 11 - - - - -- - ---------- Y $7 sfi ST ----------- ? Iztarccie~er. , 4 sk t h e follw-cg q u e s t f m s u i t h specific reference t o t h e e.mim's nost recent psegancy and delivery. Note vhether t h e child ;tss a l e c r r'ez.de. , r 7. k-~sr:you were ?rew did ycu s t o p dcricg m;l t e r t i c u l e r type o f vozk ? Xf s o w h e t k i d of we& 4 z t t e r x'hich zslith of Fre&.?sncy 7 - m ~ * a . i r M % t c n . r C ~ $ 9 t ? i - U '5 - 8. +o essioted gcu in d e i i - r e v cf ycuz child 7 *sl;lr~drn*'':*w;r-*? *I 9. **&tcEd you o r y a r f a s i l ~ ei7e ' bo t k e person w h o assist& ycu ?  10. If you had aojr dicfic~lees2urhg deliva=y u h t yau do (sr vkat I vould you h v a doca) 7 U. Uhen you vam prepmt lare a!g special foods to $7~. you ? If so vhy vere yau given tkat ' Idd or focd-7 12. Idhen ycu *ampregr..a?t did 70% mf reiz f m a eatit- certain f c d s ? v so utip ? 13. Is the= ~ S Y GW to t e l l if c child is g o k g g Y 3 3e e 50y cr a @rl before its bn ? l.4. Kaile yaz were prep& did y a do e c p k 2 ~ i g t o ~ m t e c t ycu or the baby ? ?or 5-ple: a) uesriq sc;1~t?&g b) sc%ia?g sc~t~&ig c) 2laciog somthiatg i n the base d) p e r f m = . i ~ a ritl;el e) else ? If you did m&bdq for ;rztectio.s, xh', did ycu ?o a12 viio assisted ycu ? 15. '+hen ?a,~ u ~ I s k r xers j-ar g i r ~ n s b cjt5hg 50 ? If e ~ t SO -~ k t a d c m yau t e l l a? vhy that facd uas gi723 50 j ' ~ ; :? 16. m l e 3ou w e r e = S C O P S X ~ =f-3 ~ dzlirsry t i ; . ' = Zrr! of s;:e:fzl r'cods were give2 to 7012?  17. While yau were recoosrisq fro^: c u l d Mrth k w tk ~eny e s a day d i d ycnr eat 3 For how loag a pried 7 18. Oa 2Mch day efter delivery i s the urMUcal card m t 7 %iho cuts it ? Whnt do they cut it 'dth ? I s there r l t ? ? a lassociated v i t h - c2ttiIIg the card 3 wtmmmmq? e ~ ? FapqQ? ?W$?TRT? <fa?-) ! 19. mere i s the after Mrth disposed of ? !+i%o d i s p s e s of it ? Caa you t e l l ce shy this person shculC do it ? W f % F l ~ 7 m b ~ ? 20. 'dm zany daps d t e r d e l i v e r y do ycu urmelly be,-ir, 50 pt o i l on en irrfect ? ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T f a f % v T k 5 ~ 21. t the >%en yuu p t o i l on ycrur baby uhere do ycu uswill7 s i t c ~ h - sun or fnsi6e e moa 3 I f yau sit 13 the sm, ;rbj 7 If you sit i o s i z e a m a , why 7 a mm s - i ~ ~ ~ Q m *;i a mm ~ Z R 3 g? m I .mmJm&e7p**? m~md&m7$*? - . 22. 39 t o ub: -a do 7 s . a?ply o i l on ycur ' i k y 7 .9 ~ ~ m + h ~ 1 a 1 5 + d m t m - ~ e ? - - - d - * - 23. 30 y a gene- bethe s neutam i&ent ? If yos, kcw -azny Cws 8 aftar b i r t h do ~ G U to &the the i r f z n t ? 24. 25. 25. 27. 28. 29. 30. Y Ew q t-e I mT$rn;Fhmz;ramq$~? the s s a t inside, w h y ? rmrQ'aam'~~$a? WmImPn ezmfnmm$a75firl? U % ~ m a T mY v * m ? If B w sooa e f t e r Celiverg did ycu &gin to have o i l assages ? p i ~ ~ f t m 7 * m & ~ ~ w ? a day did yar k v e c i l mssages a-er Where did yar usualu s i t while h a a g y a m o i l kassege ? Cut in m o r inside a roam 7 If y a sat ia t h e sun, r& ? If yeu 'Who g e n e m y spfled o i l f o r you w h e n p u ware mcovering f r o n child Mrth 3 Saereane froa t h e f d l y ? Saneore aployed f o r t h e prposa? Yourself' 3 Other 3 ar~&iScam mmm : .;r J T R*? : 3 services 2 3 &mmV@? s rn I 6 ~ pmtact yourself ? d s * $ i T & ~ m m m m ~ :3 .3iefrnsS3first? L Durhg the- first u Uhlle ycu uem =?coverkg Xm3 childbirth did you wear anything t o so cen pau tiil ae - A t ft ues 1 deliver^ If you peld sonecne t o epply o i l , v h t did you give then f o r t h e i r ? a f t e r the child was 'ccm ciid enycce do e n r t h f n g t o ~ r c n e c t 3 h eh b y 7 If so what ? U h did if 1  31. Duricg the f i r s t m = t h a f t e r 'cirth did ecyora do aofihing t o protect t h e baby ? If so u b t 4 on uMch day 3 32, a f t e r the f i r s t m n t h tut ;r',tkda the f i r s t year a f t e r b i r t h uas dcne t o p P t e c t t h e cMU ? If so w h e t e A w h e n was it dooe ? p ~ W % p + % j i ~ ~ R W m $ f % ' r T m m ? ~ f W Y y t 3 f W Y * ~ r n 3 ? 33. Uhile your baby was s t i l l a r s i n g did y a ever take ycur &by sutside the house with p a when yar ted t o go out t o wcrk ? M 4w9 w 3 m f a v l ~ T m T $ m T *UT f ~ q ? 3 If yes to 33, did ycar do angrtUg (ritual) o r taka e n y t b d q alcng t o . 1 , protact the baby ? If so can ycu t e l l 3e .;bet 7 35. H~ve m y of your c h i l d s n ever &en s i c k ? (Fiecord = s t zecent i l h e s s ) 3x.n your child uas sick =here did you go f o r coam;l$etion o r t r e a t = ~ n t? 36. Did ycu 5rsast feed y a r l e s t CaSy ? I f nct why ? ir'ea i2 &cause LO ril;r s&, o r mt e~cugh o r B C P ~ ~ t t e fe~scn r ? - .f (7) .pTire - h 1 'ss 57 I 37. Hcv w y d g s a f t e r deii;.arj (TI a- (pidza) &d you begin '3:eest fecdicg jrcx;r &by. w h e t d i d ycu feed thz bcby *&?ti1 7m b e g s t o .mrse i : ? ;ies ~1)3Yki23 dcne t o k e l p t h e d l k f l c v s t e s 7  38. U n t i l uhzt ege did 3% bmad r'esd yc:r last c s l d ? imr&iiqqmTn#m9*r+5;r=ig~~? U N u ~ $ T $ ~ ~ ? LC. If you & &'t breast f e e d your c M l d b-t did yuu feed it ? ~rnrf-~m$~1711t"m'a~*$'i4t? t i r e s a d a y did pcu breest feed pcur last c h i l d ? U . Hav z e ~ y ? a) During t h e first sccoh sfter b i r t h b) Betueea o m acd six m t h s r c) Sietueen six s n t b tnd e 3 e r : d) Betseen cze ocd tw gecrs of eger e) Fetueen tuo =d t h n e years o f ages f) aetveer; t h ~ azd e f i v e yecrs of cget a v i f s m m s m * T z ~ ~ ~ ~ ? (a) T&T mmrd (8) 0-q ---LZt YIC-II * - m S n p m ~ ; q ~ o r + (q) p-? ;75f'it m f (Bo) ?-a & 7 T F Z $ m (?I 3 - u , - c y s f i i ~ ~ U . >%err y m e;-e 25 h c e viro besides j-cu l x k s efts= y a r c?Lldrer, 9 the 3- ? - - 45. m U * V v5 m mw ~ ? mer v k t we do y m beg- t o scold yczr child if he/sha dez'icetes insida the hzase ? - qpyll7Tr - *Err ill, ** 7.1 mm 5- ? 46. U t e r w h a t age do ycu begin to scold yezrr child if b/she deffcetes in the c c u r ~ y d ?  t-- * &--av 7-3 FZ! ?aathrls ?at,&r F? m w ?athrls :.iotbr 3 - 1 9 .. lwr ! k=h3r1sh t k e c PA ET Sm' i " $ra qF?T I r I U iawksrls i Yathrls 3mttBer F b I r z I ir %T< h 5 B %i:kerls Fattker P. aZ 6 Father's eUar Mrok t ar t i- n:-. r r r s t b z l s suer Zro-r i F: 8 i ?a-hrls k t h e z l s 'me i 9 ; F s t k r ' a e E e r Sister m Srf i m i ; I 0 %'.?.*r:s ~unger Sister PPt = li= Taa ; I i ! ? a C ~ : ~ 3hstar'a Fabcd i i 12 X&rls elder 3mthsr FW F mVTT j ! ii i :3 Ystbr's p-r I Bmtbr PlYj rm -. SmT I ?4i #??JI.'S ,%tkeres Wife ! 15 " Patbrls eV,er Sistar 1 1 16 :*t>zrksp q v r SirLer . :7 I!~btter's5istar1s 9 - t x ~ . ' t Z P 81 I WI - 1 II - I 8 ~etker'o S i z b:'r ! eider S c j ?Ye5 %=ff Z'E '9 - 75 i 1 % ti~;.'s b =n S-&+,arts y = u s r - - * 20 I ?atter3s ~ ~ S C ~ S S jOcfs . E I. f . i I - 2: j?oz=r's Tmthsrls elCer 1 t Scr: 22 ? a t b ~ = ~3e =therfs y w x e r Sca \ L P - 23 , ? a t b r y s s~ctker's %rite I- ! ,id s* I t i II ! i 1  SSGLISY =a. I ca2 :=AS 7 ~ x 4 VIUE TFI~LY 24 Fa4rberfs-%tbrfs elder fte 1 bueter ?3eD I 25 ( ?atkerfs Zrothezls go.wger 1 Decghtar F%9 m .I 26 1 Fat5erf8 &otbrls pan I ~d 1 ! D3ughter1s R~skand F3H 23 j r"etkarlsSistgrls elder j Dau,;hter FZeD '7* fz* I i 23 rhtk!rls Sister's ;Imager DOcgk-~: 29 j ?stixrls Sister's , kdgt:terls Ss'ts.1~3 I - II 39 bticsrts 3 x ~ t h e r ~ s Dcu~5-r' q Eak,-i. Fatkerf s s Sisterf z ~ E i Scn 43 j #atherls Siskr's 1 i I fcff I ! elder %ug!ater C .I P a : I U- i & t b r l s Sister's youagar i i Dau&txr 3 i rmj !- 46 I EUer Sister ( Z ]* I 1 1 17 ?cuqer Sister ! m ,mTr I I ~8 : s i s t e r ' s 1-b~ I z :mve1d 49 ISszls 'liifels Father I jS;Z ! !- 50 !s0n1s% i I e l sY ! k e r I Si M ! - 5 a 53 i 3othsr's Son ! I M) l&ughterls Euhd I 61 Sister's Son 62 / ~ i s r e r ' s Scnfs Vife  E I I G ~~' i u . j COBJ IZALI nm WILUIE I Sister s Daughter I s I ( qTT l ~ K U S ~ I ~ i mi I Son's ~ c n I b ss I~wR j ScarsDawter 3ro'.hr8s 9ayltrr1a Son 1 S !7m I I Sister's Son's Son ; i :IT* I SisbrrsSon's Zaughter I 2 3 s hcgkiter's Scn Sister ' Sister's ilau@*erls 3aueter Z3D Great Sol X~'&nd's Bw-*nd's eider Siazer ZrcAker I/ 3 1 ?ZZ  E l G W d EFA I CmS h-AIJ EXY 1 VILLAGE E?J+ 87 5ushzd1s mger Sister i hY ' Z 1 I i-4 I! ! E3 i i ~ k d Smtbrlci I ' ~ ! i f! EED im I I 1 :aught+= . i I t 69 j s=tsndls Brother's Son i 1 9 ~j B ~ C T ; I 1 91 j * b t a n d l s Sister's , Daustor !i H P I ~.. Tyrr 1 I 95 :'AUals e x e r 3rother 1 1 YaB $ ~ i I % ] % i f a l s-yormgsrBmtter 7-7 i~ I j i ii3-3 om, I 97 jk'i,t'sls elder i3mtker1s yauqer Brother's jilif9 r ?? 2 5 ~ ' s~ M e Sb*&r I I i i C 0 X i Z 3 I s ywsger Sistsr i ! , , 101 ( x s e L 1 fC Sisterls 2 !'%ysls Scn I I I Ststarlz e U e r wzea i I uzjrii B I I A. Traditional: 1. Koaen's Croups Are t h e r e a n y . l o c a l : r a d i t i o n a l "female s o l i d a r i t y groups?" These could be l a b o r exchange o t work Sroupe, r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s , credit groujs, etc. Are t h e s e . formal, cont lauous groups *:i:h a f a i r l y s t a b l e aembership -- (such a s Rod1 Ghar) o r i n f o r m a l , s p o r a d i c groups w i t h s h i f t i n g - a e m b e r s h i p -( l i k e Par- l a b o r exchange groups o r pilgrimage groups)? Observe group's i n t e r a c t ions. WIO a r e the l e a d e r s ? Xhat purpose does t h e group s e r v e a c c o r d i n g t o i c s ovn members? Khat o t h e r . . purposes does i t s e r v e ? Z%en w a s :he group f o r i e d and by whoa? ' Are :here any f a c t i o n s ui:hin t h e group? How a r e t h e s e deal:' oirh? (t.e. j o k i c g , a e d i a t i o n by a r e s p e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l , avoidance e t c . ) . Vhat r o l e does :he group p l a y i n c ~ o b i l i t i n g1oyali:ies and a c t t o n (of i t s =embers and of t h e %icier community)? Are women's groups c e n t r a l i n s t i u t i o n s u i r h i n t h e e c o n o d c r e i g i o u s o r p o l i t i c a l syscen? ( S c h l e g a l 19i7: 19). ghat a r e nen's a e : i t u d e s :osards v a r i o u s r y p e s of woaen's groups? - ZE a o such t r a d i t i o a a l uonen's groups e x i s t xhae is t h e f e a s i b i l i t y - of forming su'$ a n o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e community you a r e s t u d y i n g ? ghat a r e v i l l G e r ' s ( n a l e / f e m a l e ) r e a c t i o n s t o t k s suggestion of e forming a 'wome%'s g r o u p ( s a y a co-op t o produce and J a r k e t a c e r t a i n product)? Xould women from different sub- groups u i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e (high c a s t e vomea and untouchable wonen f o r e x a t p l e ) be w i l l i n g t o vork t o g e t h e r o r ~ o u l di: be n e c e s s a r y t o have. s e 2 a r a t e groups? 2. 'docen's Role i n Cosmunitg O r g a n i z a t i o n What a r e u o e n ' s communication networks u i t h i a t h e v i l l a g e and beyond? What Types? Social? Religious? Political? Work-oriented? Xhat a r e men's comaunication networks and how do t h e y compare w i t h woeren ' s ? Do women i n v o l v e theratelves i n c o o a r n i t y d e c i s i o n s and d i s p u t e s ? How m c h weight do men p l a c e on vomea's o p i n i o n s ? In ?ublic? If e x p r e s s e d a t home? I f wown e x p r e s s r e l u c t a n c e t o a t t e n d p u b l i c meetings what r e a s o n s da t h e y g i v e ? Among t h e voaen i n your v i l l a g e , ~ h is o i n c r e s t e d i n i s s u e s and p u b l i c a f f a i r s , f a c t i o n s , i r r i g a t i o n , schools, roads, l o c a l p o l i t t c s etc.? Are women's c o n c e p t i o n s of s i t u a t i o n s (and p r i o r i t i e s ) t h e saw o r d i f f e r e n t than nen's? Give axamples of c o a m n l t y d i s p u t e s n o t i n g t h e manner and e x t e n t t o which woaen i n v o l v e d t h e n s e l v e s . These could be p a s t i n c i d e n t s which you a c t u a l l y observed ( j u s t be c a r e f u l t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e :wo and mke your s o u r c t o f i n f o r o a t i o n c l e a r ) . Try t o r e c o r d two o r t h r e e c a s e h i s t o r i e s of s u c h i n c i d e n t s and be s u r e t o n o t e who v e r e t h e worwn r , r leaders. - Do men encourage/discourage women t o i n v o l v e t h e m e l v e s i n t h e i r - (men's.) a f f a i r s ? Do t h e y a s k f o r .ronen'$opinions (publicly/ privately)? D - o wonen a c t as h o s t e s s e s a s p u b i i c a f f a i r s o r a c t i v e *I participants? Do women :en t o s u p p o r t t h e i r own male kinsmen's views arid f a c t i o n s o r do t h e y p l a y a mediaciag r o l e b e t r e e n =ale f a c z i c n s ?  If women i n t h e c o a m d t y you a r e s e ~ d y i n gb e l o n g t o alxed mle/ ; a I f e a a l e g r o u p s , is a c c e s s t o c?ecfsion-king r o l e s e q u a l l y o?en t o b i both sexes? ( S c h l e g e l L977:g). t Do u o m a i d e n t i f y as a group? Usually? I n c e r t a i n si:uatios? On c e r t a i n r i t u a l occas? Do t h e y d t s c u s s i s s u e s among t h s a s e l v e s ? Are B t h e i r o p i n i o n s c o l l e c t i v e or i n d i v i d u a l ? 3. Leadership Roles who a r e t h e s o s t r e s p e c t e d women i n t h e v i l l a g e ? ghat c h a r a c t e r i s- tics d o t h e y have? Age, w e a l t h , education, b o l d n e s s , r e l i g i o u s t F, piety? Do t h e s e r e s p e c t e d v o m n t a k e a n a c t i v e r o l e i n v i l l a g e i P Do t h e y c o n f i n e themselves t o the d o m e s t i c s p h e r e o r d o affairs? :hey we i n d i r e c t ceans t o i n f l u e n c e comarnity d e c i s i o n s ? Kow d i d thes? roaea a t t a i n :heir leadership ? o s i t i o w ? Sy a s c r i p t i o n ? (i.e. by i n h e r i t e d w e a l t h , o r b e i n g j a r r i e d t o a mle l e a d e r o r b e i n g from a h i g h s t a t u s l i n e a g e ) o r by a c h i e v e w n t -- i f s o , by % h a t k i n d of achieveuient ? 4. C l a s s and S t a t u s i n t h e Cocmunity How do c l a s s and s t a t u s d i f f e r e n t i a t e g r o u p s of woaen? (c.f. Economic Dbension. Q u e s t i o n on: F S i c h womenahire o t h e r voaen a s l a b o r e r s ? 'rihich women exchange labor? hihfch women v o r k f o r o t h e r s ? ) . %hat - - c l a s s c o n f l i c t s exis: anong uozen? ;ire xomen as c o n s c i o u s of r a n k .4 L and h f e r 2 r c h y a s xeG 9ou do questions 3f s t a t u s a f f e c t :he k i n d s of = v o r k uone3 a r e r i l l f n g t o do? iikat d e c i s i o n s abouc thensel*res a ~ d sI t h e i r daugh:ers do uosen oake Eor sta:us reasons? (dbdullah L Zieciecstien: 1976)  Government ( c .f . Coareunity Level I ~ f o r z i a t i o n ) . 1. Panchayat ( V i l l a g e Counci 1 Government ) Are a n y vonen members of t h e v i l l a g e panchaya:? Were t h e y e l e c t e d o r appointed? I n t h e p a s t have any women been m e m b e r s of t h e l o c a l panchayat? Do uosen a t t e n d v i l l a g e a s s e m b l i e s ? Do they v o i c e : h e i r > p i n i o n s o r j u s t observe? 2. N.Y -0. (Nepal Womea's o r g a n i t a t i o n ) Are any women i a v o l v e d a s meabers o r o f f i c e r s 13 X.U.O.? 1s t h e r e a n active local organfration? What programs have t h e y c a r r i e d o u r ? Is there a n a c t i v e D l s t r i c t l e v e l organization? Are l o c a l v l l l a g e wonen involved? 3. Other Groups i.e. B a l Yandir, v i l l a g e / w a t d l e v e l h e a l t h c o s u n i t i e s ; S a j h a ; suall fa-mer groups. 30 yoaen p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y ( o r i c d i r e c t l y ) i n any of t h e s e groups which m y e x i s t i n t h e community? C. C a n s t r a i n t s and h ~ o r t u n l t i e sf o r I n v o l v i n n Uooer! i n Connunity Ac:iviries and7DeveIopFr:TFog res s 1. From o b s e r v a t i o n and u n s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w d e s c r i b e t h e r e l a c i o n s h i p be:ueen nosen and v a r i o u s f o r n s of g o v e r a w n t e x t e n s i o n and vill~ge other o u t s i d e iafluences. Xow d o women i n t e r a c t u i t h : Yomn i) - - "Rorkers, ii) E-Is (and o t h e r a g r i c u l z u r a l e x t e n s i o n agenrri j , iii) .2 L . V i l l a g e H e a l t h Xorkers, i v ) E a a i l y planning workers (from 3.7.0. h - r I Tram R e a l t h N i n i s t r y ) , v ) l o c a i s c h o o l t e a c n e r s , v i ) Y a t i o n a l . E Development S e r v i c e s t u d e c t s , v i i ) o t h e r s . Are t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s  ikvelopment S e r v i c e s t u d e n t s , v i i ) o t h e r s . Are t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by : r u s t , s u s p i c i o n , r e s e n taent, respect o r aloofness? Do t h e y r e l a t e b e t t e r i f e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s are f em l e ? 2. V i l l a g e vomen's p e r c e i v e d needs. k'ha: a r e t h e uoaen's p r i o r i t i e s f o r government s e r v i c e s and development p r o g r a a s ? L%at d o v i l l a g e women * se as c o n s t r a i n t s t o t h e k i n d o f s e r v i c e s and Frograms they need? - ' h a t i d e a s d o they have f o r ways t o s a l v e t h e i r p r o b l s n s ? Would t h e y f e e l more a: e a s e i f t h e r e vere female h e a l t h and e x t e n s i o n w o r k e r s ? To h asked to 35 adult ferrsles'bzr a3er,g se-71s howekL21", oof varf5r.t ages. 2e sure t o =cord Pdl irdentificaticn deta on eac3 mspodaat (i.e. houehold no. + p r s c n no). 1. C a n ycu s e l l er give away your C e i ! ~ ( i . e . @St of roprty or a s h froa your natal f a d l y ) cr your f i .* a g ln fro= your husband) d e r Y e p a l lav 1 Note: A Uomn bas rights over 1OC% cf her dailo a x!a t o sell or d i s p e of as she likes. Can also =ill it t o uhcc she desires. . 2 % S e w law do you think d a i j n or can be lsec! l e e l l y ky your h u ~ b r dor prents-in-lev for sore need 0 1- the joint household 2 3. If you don't q r r y , can yea g e t a s h e of your f a A l j r proprt-j -. riot%: ycu pt an e q d ??!!lare 8s lozg 6s you Pave reached 35 years ot' age ard eo not r a r j . r: you .%r.zy, this sbre ~ v e r t s t o tke c 3 l l a t e r a l ~ l e t i x - e s . L. I S y ~ Pave u brat!m,-s, cen y m i r h e r f t y o u f a r b r t s Foprty? Note: I S pur f a t t a r wills his e s t a t e f a YGU, you are Lnstftuted a s C w a c.3 you cac i r h e r i t 1W of M s estate:. A t your d e a t h , i f ycu Faye sans, they ir-herit. If you have no sons, but a daughter, you can L w t i t u t e h e r a d e i f q t o i n b r i t your e s t a t e . If you d i e iss=l?ss, the e s t a t e ~ v e r t s t o yoan f a t k r ' s b e i r s . If he dces nct mze jrou 3 3 h e i r (i.e. d a l s u ) you c3= a f t e r v i r e s , scns e& B O ~ 'sors of ~ C L - Sther i n l i z e of succession. 5. If y ~ a r k ~ b takes d 8 setorxi =if=, ctn yo.; c l a b a share !iota: Yes, you, )mu sons, ~ J h..shnd, F h i s caw v l f s 8r.O any ckildrea tkey may h v e all &co=le cc-prceners. If y~*ur b h ~ b d a s a second vift, you cen claim s e p r ~ t i a n f r o m your kusbmd ard get your legs1 skare. after the p o p f l y )us beec divided, if he recarries or if any son is b o n to &J, you h c p pour original sksre. 6. ;Zf !rut' h ~ ~ k n d you t o sf^. a =srz4-=, can he l e g a l l y gets -%J a setcr;d vife 7 Not*: U d e r ~ r c s e f i lta w , no. 2:ez i f you s i p e ~ ~ t q u r , if the legal criterion far takLng o second vife are not : et, you csn sGe 13 court. (see ~ o t e s cn legal s t a t l a . )  7. If 3- tystand divorces y0-2, zst you !x given a spare of " - his ? r c p r t y 3" Sate: Ycu d a f t get a s h m , t u t are elloved 5 ye.eorls ~ k e n alloved f o r f a t i l t zaintenaace unless fM d i v 3 . r ~ has on y m r prt. If you h v e cl.Ll3.ren, they eiso get S ' I F F O F ~ . 8. If you go off v i t h another =en o r $3 m, v b t con~ccsaticz nrt pcr h u b a d , lover, give pur h r r s h d ? Hob: Sy c q u s n t 3 ~ e l h i d , is SQ langer a catcgcry. T!IO c3qde is l i a b l ~ t o a prison sentence cf one t o two =ro=t.hs a& a fh .0 of . % 1 1,000 te 2,090 a.cd co c s c p n s e t i c r . k~ cleimhle l e g a l l y .  A. A t t i t t i d e s towards e d u c a t i o n f o r u o m n - 1. Yen's at t i e u d e s Ask key male i n f o r a a n t s i f they a r e s e n d i n g t h e i r s o n s / d a u g h t e r s t o school. Ask reasons f o r s e n d i ~ ~ o r g i r l s t o school ( I . @ . boys expected benefits t o i n d i v i d u a l r t a d e n t s and s t u d e n t ' s family.) Is a g i r l a o r c o r less marriageable i f s h e is educated? W h a t are reasons gf ven f o r keeplag boys o r gf rls o u t of school. Econoaic? ( i .e . :hc boy8s/girl's l a b o r 1s needed.) Social? (e.g., t h e g i r l w i l l become t o o bold, o r l a c k o f r e l e v a n c e of school f o r v i l l a g e l i f e , ) " 2. Goen's attitudes Ask saae q u e s t i o n s of womn. Do they share t h e i r husband's views on t h e v a l a e of e d u c a t i o n f o r g:rls? Do they wish they had received s c h o o i i n g o r f e e l t h a t s c h o o l i s of no u s e t o women? B. Form1 Schooling .Assess c o a s t r a i n t s and o p p o r r u n l t i e s of classroom s i c c a t i o n and currlculun. Observo c l a s s r o o a situa:fon i n l o c a l primary and secondary school. Conpare behaviour of male and f e 3 a l e s:udents I r e (asser:iveness, obedience, p e r f o m a n c e ) and a s s e s s t e a c h e r ' s - a t t i t u d e s and t r e a E s e n t of mle and f e n a l e s:udents. .+ (e.g., punish=n: - is i: s o r e scvee f o r boys rhan f o r g i r l s o r t h e - saue?). - s t u d e n t s about p r o b l e n s of I n t e r r i e w r e a c h e r s dhd s e l e c ~ e d * s t u d e n t s , relevance of c u r r i c u l u m , e t c . (c.f . 'e re1 Infor- Coanunity L 3 a : i o ~ an L o c a l Schools.) C. Yon-Fornal Zduca:ion/Adul: Literacy: .Assess c o n s t r a i n t s and 0ppor:uni:ies provided by e x i s t i n g 3 r o g r a a s . Describe e x i s t i n g 3 r o g r a a s (from h-0, Education X i n i s t r y ) . 'rjho runs them? b u long do t h e y l a s t ? Do women a c t u a l l y a c q u i r e l i t e r a c y and nuneracy? Do t h e y r e t a i n t h e knowledge? 1s t h e r e r e s i s t a n c e from men t o a l l o w women t o attend? Are c l a s s e s scheduled a t convanienb cines? Do women have time to a t t e n d c l a s s e s ? Where do they a e e t ? Xhat a t t i t u d e s do wown e x p r e s s towards e d u c a t i o n i n g e n e r a l , f o r g i r l s , t o r thenselres? How do t h e y t h i n k i t u i l l b e n e f i t :hem o r do t h e y see it as a lux;lr/ and a s t a t u s symbol only? ( c . f . Cnmmni:y Level Information.)  A. I n h e r i t a n c s and Property Division Collect r u l e s o r ?at t a r n s of inheritance: e.g. do b r o t h e r s g e t 'equal s h a r e s o r is t h e r e some form of ?rimogenture ( i n h e r i t a n c e by e l d e s t - . o n l y ) o r u l t imogenfruw ( i n h e r i t a n c e by youngest son o n l y ) ? Do d a u g h t e r s g e t a s h a r e of p r o p e r t y ? Y!ovab!e o r izmovable? Under i b 6 i 1 - wlrsrt c o n d i t i o n s ? Is l t t h e i r r i g h t o r d o e s i t depend on t h e d e c i - P sion of other relatlvcs? Does a d a u g h t e r have any r i g h t s o v e r h e r F 1 F mother"^ a b s o l u t e p r o p e r t y o r p e r s o n a l jewelry? W e t is t h e o r d e r of s u c c e s s i o n :o a n c e s t r a l p r o p e r t y ? 'In o t h e r words, i n t h e absence of p r e f e r r e d r e l a t i v e (e.g. s o n ) , uho i s n e x t i n l i n e f o r inheritance? Sex:, etc.? Du t h e s e p a t t e r n s e n t a i l a s i n g l e c l e a r c u t s e t of " l e g a l r i g h t s " o r a r e t h e r e a l t e r n a t e sys:ecs, o f which one o r a n o t h e r could be a c ~ i - v a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e c l s i o n of a group of kinsmen? (e.g. con- s u l t i n g N e p a l i S a t i o n a l l a w s f o r some P a t t e r s , J u d d h i s t t e x t s f o r o t h e r s and " t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e " f o r o t h e r s ) . I n o t h e r words, how s u c h v a r i e t y i n t y p e of a u t h o r i t y s o u r c e and f l e x i b i l i t y i n i n t e r p r e - Cation of t h e s e s o u r c e s is t h e r e ? Sfhen does p r o p e r t y d i v i s i o n g s u a l l p t a k e p l a c e ? A t t h e d e a t h o f one o r bo:h par en:^? At t h e a r r i a g e of :he f:rst son? Of each s o n , etc.? ' h t s o r t of dowry o r b r i d e w e a l t h payments a r e c o m o n ? (i.e. Cash? Uvestoc!<? F!usehoiC i t e a s ? ) . Fhen a r e :hey gi-ren? ( a: zinc of engagement, -deciding o r l a t e r ? ) . Xho a k e s t h e payment c r gift and who a c t c a l l 7 keeps i t ? L f a woman b r i n g s a o v a b l e / i z n o v z 3 l e T r o p e r t y  w i t h h e r i n m a r r i a g e who e x e r c i s e s c o n t r o l o v e r i t ? (i.s. Vho c o n t r o l s t h e produce, who h a s t h e r i g h t s of d i s p o s a l -- i d e a l l y and actually?). Xethodology: Ask t h e s e q u e s t i o n s and r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s t h a t you m y . t h i n k of a t least 3 i n d i v i d u a l s a t s e p a r a t e times. Compare t h e i r answers and a s k a g a i n i f some p o i n t s seem confusing. 6 I - Ask about t h e d e t a i l s of a c t u a l c a s e s that you my h e a r of d u r i n g your f i e l d work. Compare t h e outcome of t h e s e c a s e s w i t h t h e a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e s o r " r u l e s " and asic about any d i s c r e p a n c i e s t h a t you n o t i c e . You may d i s c o v e r a l t e r n a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t a r e i a p o r - :ant i n o p e r a t i o n b u t v h i c h m y not be a e n t i o n e d because t h e y con- f lkt w i t h t h e d o d n a n t ideology (e.g. s g s t e n s of female I n h e r i t a n c e i n a strongly patrilineal society). 3. Marriaye and Divorce 'ohat c o n s t i t u t e s a l e g a l marrlage? trha* a r e t h e r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s e n t a i l e d ? % What a r e t h e circumstances under v h i c h people divorce?* How 1s p r o p e r t y d i v i d e d a t d i v o r c e (e.2. does :he female have f u l l . I r i g h t s o v e r h e r dowry? Does s h e have any claim on :be joint property? Under v h a t c o n d i t i o n s ? '&at r i g h t s do c h i l d r e n have to - i n h e r i t t h e f a t h e r ' s p r o p e r t y a f t e r paren%' divorce?). .- -< . s - - * Is t h e r e any compensation o r f i n e t h a t one p a r t n e r g e t s from t k e I o t h e r ii the d i v o r c e Is i n s t i g a t e d by one s i d e ? (e.g. "jari" o r 7 a d u l t e r y paycent.) Under what c o n d i t i o n s ? What a r e :he a t t i t . ~ C e sof v i l l a g e r s towards t h o s e who denand and t h o s e who pay such conpensa- t ion?  - 29 - a r e t h e d i f f e r e n t f o m s of marriage? *%hat (e.8. a r r a n g e d , elopement, capture). Do these e n t a i l different legal rights? Do second mr- r i a g e s e n t a i l t h e s a n e r i g h t s as f i r s t ? (e.g. r i g h t s t o compensation f o r a d u l t e r y , f o r d i v o r c e , r i g h t s of c h i l d r e n to i n h e r i t a n c e ) . l F:r Xethodology: Saae as f o r i n h e r i t a n c e and p r o p e r t y d i v i s i o n . How- . t e v e r , many of t h e s e q u e s t i o n s (such as t h e f i r s t t20 p o i n t s marked by a s t e r i s k s above) are too a b s t r a c t t o simply a s k a n informant. They need t o be e x t r a c t e d from t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d under " divorce," e t c . , e.g., i f c h i l d r e n of a n a r r a n g e d n a r r i a g e have a r i g h t t o i n h e r i t t h e f a t h e r ' s p r o p e r t y , b u t c h i l d r e n n of a n e l o p e s e n t m a r r i a g e do n o t t h e n i n some s e n s e a n elopemen: does not c o n s t i t u t e a l e g a l marriage. Are there illegitimate chjldren i n the society? Vha: are t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which a c h i l d is c o n s i d e r e d " L e g i t i n a t e ? " C. T r a d i t i o n a l l a v us. t h e "Hulki Mn": Are t r a d i t i o n a l lars w r i t t e n ? If t h e p r i n c i p l e s o r rulcs you g e t from y o u r f i e l d e n q u i r i e s a r e t h e same as t h o s e c o n r a l n e d i a t h e o f f t c i a l X a t i o n a l Code o r "?lulki Ain" t r y t o f i n d out f o r each point: (1) whether t h e ~ r a d i t i o n a ls y s t e a t t used t o be d i f f e r e n t . (Ask whether t h e s e rules and p a t t e r n s were t h e s a n e f a former ttmes). -- ( 2 ) 8ou :he t r a d i t i o n a l s y s z e a and :he X u l k i - Xin i n t e r a c t i n ~ $ r t i c u l a r c a s e s . (Take d e t a i l e d n o t e s on c a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y conf::&s c c n c e r n i a g d i v o r c e , e t c . and a n a l j z e then t o s e e whichprinciples * z r a d l t l o n a l o r "aodern" -- y e r s gu: i n t o opera- tion). .%.id q u e s t i o n s based on some of :he a r e a s covered i a Xonograph 2, of :he S t a t u s o f 'Joaen, Vol. i. S e r i e s ( " T r a d i t i o n and Change i n t h e Legal S t a t u s of S e p a l e s e Uoaen"). For example, does a w i f e have t h e r i g h t t o d i s p o s e of (sell) h e r own p r o p e r t y o r docs s h e need h e r h u s h n d ' s o r s o a e o t h e r r e l a t i v e ' s c o n s e n t ? Does a husband need h i s - v i f e's consent? Note and c o a p a r e customary laws concerning polygyny (and i n h e r i t a n c e r i g h t s of c h i l d r e a Erom a polygynous m a r r i a g e ) with t h e n o r a s l a l d dowa i n t h e Xul'ri a n . S o t e c u s t o a a r y Laws o a t h e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s o f unmarried s i s t e r s , d a u g h t e r s , vidoued mothers, etc. Under what circumstances do people g e t a l i f e s h a r e o r j h n i bhag i n t h e cornmun1:y you a r e s t u d y i n g ? Are t h e r e c o n d i t i o n s under r h i c h people c a n ;rill:heir property, o r i n some a y s e l e c t a n h e i r , o r does p r o p e r t y a u t o m t i c a l l y go t o sons o r r e v e r t t o c e r t a i n ( p a c r i l a t e r a l ) r e l a t i v e s a: a person's d e a t h ? Xhat r i g h t s does a wooan (married o r u n n a r r l e d ) have o v e r s e l f - e a r n e d property? Is t h e r e customary p u n i s b e n t f o r rape? D i f f e r e n t i f v1c:iin is married and u n n a r r i e d ? D i f f e r e n t depending on c a s r e of t n e vic:in and/or t h e per?etrator? Yhat is =he p u n i s h ~ e n r ? How decided? I I 0 Record c a s e h i s t o r i e s . - Try t o f i n d o u t from key i n f o r n a n t s and from l o c a l d i s t r i c t c o u r t i r e c o r d s i f p o s s i b l e uha,: i a p o r t a n t c a s e s have ' j c t u a l l p Seen taken t o c o u r t i n t h e a r e a of f a n l l y law? Xow do ?eoplZ (par:icxlarly wcoen) Feel. abou; g o i n g : a governaen: c o u r t s ? #ha: e arzerative 3ean.s do people have f o r s e t z l i n g t h e i r d i s p u t + s ? *at :y?e of peoplz (=le/fe=lc, li t s r a : e / L l l i t e r a t s , upper/Lower econoai c s t r a t a ) :ecd t o use :he governizenc courts and uha: peaple p r e f e r :he t r a d i r i o n a l  mans? Wherever p o s s i b l e c o l l e c t c a s e h i s t o r i e s of d i s p u t e s -- t h o s s -- s e t t l e d i n c o u r t and t h o s e s e t t l e d iraformally. Are t h e r e any examples i n your a r e a of c o n f l i c t caused by d i s c r e p a n c y between t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e and t h e S a t i o n a l Code? Who b e n e f i t s . from t h e s e d i s c r e p a n c i e s ? Zecord any c a s e s and t h e i r c i r c u a s t a n c e s . and outcone i n as m c h d e t a i l a s p o s s i b l e . r . To what e x t e n t a r e womenlmen aware of uoaen's new l e g a l r i g h t s i n t h e XarionaL Code? The a t t a c h e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e on " awareness of X e p a l i Law" may h e l p e l i c i t i n f o r s a t i o n on t h i s t o p i c . If possible 1: s h o u l d be a d s i n i s t e r e d t o both men and women. What f u r t h e r changes would wown l i k e t o s e e ? I n t h e laws? In the judiciary structure? . C o l l e c t a c t u a l c a s e h i s t o r i e s when e v e r p o s s i b l e ! THE IDEOLOGICXL/RELIGIOUS DLY .3S-.ON - A . Women's Roles i n :he Ci1:ural and B e l i g i o u s L i f e of t h e Connrmnl:y: Co1lec:ive Sorms, Values and I d e a l s 1. Action and Behavior How do women behave when t h e y a r e i n a grou? t o g e t h e r w i t h no nen present? How do :hey ac: when c e n a r e p r e s e n t ? aou do :hey behave i n p u b l i c si:ua:ions o r i n :he presence of s t r a n g e r s ? When a r e women modest? When bold? A%en a r e t h e y t a l k a t i v e ? Do :hey smoke o r d r i n k openly? I n c e r t a i n si:ua:ions only? So: a: a l l ? How much do t h e y joke - and w i t h whom? Do t h e y exprq3s :heir f e e l i n g s and o p i n i o n s o r do you o b s e r v e h e s i r a n c y ? I f s o i n what s i r u a t i o n s ? (c.f. F a m i l i a l i)inension, " Life S:agest' and Poli:ical/Canmni:y Disension "IJonen's Groups"). Hy:hs and S t a r i e s Ar+ t h e r e any s E o r i e s about women? How :hey :rea: :heir c h i l d r e n ? T h e i r husbands? TheLr p a r e n t s ? Their frtends? Xha: images of vomen e m r g e from t h e s e s:ories? A r e woaen d e p i c t e d a s c a u s i n g c o n f l i c t ? l e a d i n g :he young o r pen a s t r a y ? How do SroEhers t r e a t s i s t e r s and v i c e versa.? b%at female k i n s h i p c a t e g o r i e s a r e p o r t rayed sym?a- * t h e t i c a l l y and which seem p r o b l e m t i c ? What a r e t h e s:ated notiva- =Tons f o r voaen/o:her's actions t n the s t o r i e s ? I f the s t o r i e s a r e a l l e g o r i c a l , s h o i n :he s t o r y :akes t h e f o r 3 of a n a n i a a l ? Plan:? * Superca:ural beinq? Are t h e s e s:ories s e t i n v i l l a g h s (i.e. the * huuian s o r i d ) i n :ne wild o r i n c e l e s ' i a l realms o r a conbination of settings? Are t h e r e c e r t a i n i s p o r t a n t f i g u r e s xho r e a s p e a r i n d i f - ferent stories? kha: a r e t h e i r nanes ar.d c h z i r a c t e r i s t i c s ? Are :heir  names r e f e r r e d to/used i a everyday 'Life as f o r a s of abuse? Praise? (e.g. Goma, L a d , S i t a ) . Uho t e l l s t h e s e s t o r i e s ? Women? Hen? Children? t o vhoa a r e they told? I n what s e t t i n g and how o f t e n ? Are t h e y writZen o r j u s t remembered? Do t h e s e stories r e v e a l uha: p l e a s e s and d i s p l e a s e women? Do t h e y show how vomen can p l e a s e o r c o n t r o l men? Displease o r anger aen? Do g x l s o r s p i r i t s punish wown/men f o r t h e i r a c t i o n s ? 30 t h e y f o r g i v e them? B J u s t c o l l e c t s t o r i e s , any s t o r i e s ! 3. R i t u a l s and T e s t i v a l s klat rituals/festivals exist? Can wooen p a r t i c i 2 a t e I n a l l of i them? Some of them? Can a e n p a r t i c i p a t e i n a l l of :hem o r a r e t h e y excluded from some (e-g. l o o k a: b i r t h , d e a t h , menstrua:Con, puberty, marriage ( r a t a u l i f o r example), hair c u t t i n g r i t u a l s and e s p e c i a l l y any r i t u a l s r e l a t i n g :o l i n e a g e gods, etc.). Are :here any r i t u a l s u h i c h e v r e s s o r d e a l bii:h p r o b l e m o r s i t w z i o n s which p a r t i c u l a r l y k concern voaen? (1.e. basae, t i j v h i c h c e n t e r on m e n s t r u a l ~ p h a po1lu:ion and a e a n s pf p u r i f i c a t i o n , ezc.) ' A z ; happens i n t h e s e rituals? Have i n f o r a a n t s d e s c r i b e t h e n and i f p o s s i b l e observe t h e n - yourself. .a Ask f n f o m n t s why t h e s e rit--1s must be done. ( T h i s is a - though of - good4luesticzi f o r any t y p e of r i t u a l c o u r s e you ill r e c e g e a n s v e r s on nany d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of e x p l a n a t i o n Eron d i f f e r - r en: tnforaants). a r e women ( o r t h e " f e m l e sex" a s an abs:rac: iio*~ concep:) r e p r e s e n t e d in r i t u a l s ? Sy f i g ~ r e s ,symbol images? 30u do t h e s e compare u i t h repressn:a:ions of t h e m l e s e s ?  Uha: r o l e s do wonen ? l a y i n r e l i g i o u s p e r f o r r a n c e s ? @o :hey s e r v e a s priests, healers o r religious leaders? ' h v e any women f roru :he - v i l l a g e become nuns o r f e a a l e uendican:~? k h 2 d d a o t h e r v i l l a g e xen and voaen t h i n k of such i n d i v i d u a l s ? j To what ex:en: do men's and o o m n ' s r i t u a l s c o i n c i d e ? In r i t u a l s t - i n v o l v i n g b o t h s e x e s wha: d o wown do? Yha: do a e n do? Are t h e r e - tE r e a s o n s s t a t e d f o r khese d i f f e r e n c e s ? kh: r i t u a l activires are for- E C: bidden :o women and what do t h e y choose no: t o do? k'ha: su?por: ac:ivt:ies d o women perform i n :he background d u r i n g s p e c i f i c c e r e - aonies (e.g. making b e e r , p r e p a r i n g s p e c i a l foods o r ri:ual items, p u r i f y i n g :he house, s i n g i n g a u s p i c i o u s songs ( s n g a l s ) , e t c . ) . Can wonen kte h e a l e r s ? I :hey can, is t: more unusual f o r :hem than for e n ? Is :here any d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e form of i n i t i a : ion? I n :he k i n d of h e a l i n g :hey a r e c a l l e d upon :o do? I f t h e r o l e of :he h e a l e r Is h e r e d i t a r y , i s 1: passed through :he female o r male l i n e ? Bow t o u o m n become h e a l e r s ? I f beconing a h e a l e r 1s not h e r e d i t a r y , is = h e r e any t y p e of vosen who become p o s s e s s e d ( e . 8 . young b r i d e s , u i d v ~ s , uea1:hier wocea, poor women, e:c.) qorp than others? a * Are = h e r e any s?iri:s u h i c h u s u a l l y o r a l v a y s p o s s e s s somen? How do wonen Sehave when p c s s e s s e d ? o f t e n a r e 'he? possessed? Do sen +w .3 - a l s o b e c o ~ l epossessed by r h e s e S p i r i : s ? - Arc t h e s e ;piri:s f e n a l e o r mle? - Is = h e r e a s p e c i a i c a t e g p r y of s p i r i t which or1gina:es v o m n uho d i e d i n c h i l d bir:h? Record n a x s anci charac:eri!i:ics from of such spirits. How a r e f u n e r a l s perfoceed f o r voaelr vho d i e i n c h i l d b i r t h ? Gan v o w n who a r e no: recognized h e a l e r s o r g a n k r i s and ye: who some:tmes become p o s s e s s e d p e r f o r n any func:ion as j a n k r i s o r h e a l e r s ? Are fearale j a n k r i s excluded f r o o s o z e :asks and ac:ivi:ies coma1 t o women? If s o why? Are :hey s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d vonen? If they a r e s o w way is :his only r h i l e i n posses- b e l i e v e d t o become " o a l s l ~ n s i o n o r always? Can f e a a l e j a n k r i s marry o r i f married, con t h e y con:inue s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h :heir husband? Are nale and female p a t i e n t s g l v e n t h e same t y p e o f :reatmen: f o r similar illnesses? If t h e r e is a d i f f e r e n c e , d e s c r l b e 1: . Do cer:ain zypes o f i l l n e s s o r spiri: p o s s e s s i o n a f f e c t o n l y males o r o n l y females? According t o i n f o r b a n t s , do men o r v o t e n become ill n o r e f r e q u e n t l y ? hiha: reasons a r e given? Who d e c i d e s :o call I n a h e a l e r , women o r men? 2ho is nos: prominent i n o r g a n i z i n g :he h e a l i n g cerenony? Are = h e r e any b e l i e f s abou: f e n a l e pol1u:lon i n t h e group you a r e s:udylng? I f so, what aspec:s of womanhood a r e c o n s i d e r e d p o l l u = i n g (1.e. firs: aenstrua:lon, e v e r y ciens=rua:lon, pregnancy, c h i l d b l r t h , , in:ercourse)? 'h:r e s = r i c t l o n s a r e p l a c e d on women :o keep :hen from ~oll!~:ir.g '3 - o:hsrs? :oo?,How Uho do t h e y pollu:e? ! ? n i s p o l l u = i o n :bough: :o affec: only? O r vornen and c ! f i l d r e n a person? I C (e.g*:ake away L vl:ali:y, h e a l t h , ri:ual p u r i t y o r s p e c i f i c r i t u a l powers)? !;ha: can Se done :o coun:erac= po1lu:ion once con:ac: has occurred?  Ask women and men what :hey t h i n k about p o l l u t i o n b e l i e f s and how s t r i c t l y :he r u l e s of avoidance a r e observed? Can wonen be p o l l u t e d by inen (of :he same c a s t e ) i n any circumstances? . B Personal Ilrrages o r S:hno-Ideologies of Wonen- 1. How Hen and btomen View Themselves and :he Opposite Sex: Dvyer (1978) h a s r e c e n t l y d r a m a::en:ion t o t h e i:~portance of d i s - t i n g u i s h i n g t h e Collowing f o u r p e r s p e c t i v e s when c o n s i d e r i a g t h e male and sexual s t e r e o t y p e s of a given c u l t u r e : and f e m l e i ~ a g e s a. men's view of themselves b. men's view of women c. uomen's view of themselves d. women's view of men Discrepancies v N c h o f t e n emerge between t h e s e d i f feren: perspec:ives on male and f e a a l s n a t u r e ofZen r e v e a l much about :he relationship between :he sexes i n a given culture. I n a d d i t i o n Dvyer s u g g e s t s :hat c o n s i d e r a = i o a of each p e r s p e c t i v e s e p a r a t e l y and then i n c o a b i n a t i o n of:en h e l p s t o understand :he t y p e of s:rategies which uomen use :o a c h i e v e t h e i r a i m wi:hin t h e framework of zale donina- :ion. For example, i f women have a n e g a t i v e viewiof :heo.selves, they a r e u n l i k e l y :o c o o p e r a t e even i f :hey s h a r e a n e g a t i v e view of men- I n s r e a d , t h e y w i l l probably pursue t h e i r ends i n d i v i d u a l l y and secre:ively r a t h e r than through group ac:ion. k h i l e :his need not concern us as a theors:ical i s s u p , we may f i n d i: u s e f u l i a . unders~andicgvhy t h e vomen in :he connunity under scud? do o r do not Croups I' ) .  Hence w e should through i n t e r v i e u s w i t h male and female infomiants and through observation of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n wi:hin and be:ueen the sexes, try t o l e a r n about: a. Yen's views of themselves. Do they b e l i e v e :hat :he a a l e s e x Is s u p e r i o r t o :he female? Complemn:ary? O r inferior? I n what ways? hiha: is b e l i e v e d :o be t h e b a s i s of arale/feaale s e x differeatia:ion? (Physiological? Moral? Chance? ,. $ i Spiri:ual?) Record any myths about :he o r i g i n of :he sexes. F h. . k P *&a: do a n vlew as t h e q u a l i t i e s of a n i d e a l man? A bad man? hiha: a d j e c t i v e s do they use :o convey n a s c u l l n i : ~ ? Yen's views of vomen. What a r e :he male s t e r e o t y p e s abou: f e m l e nature? Do men consider women a s f o z a l people? O r are they rhough: :o be l a c k i n g i n some way? Do oen envy vomen i n any way? A r e women viewed a s being a s competent a s s e n I n f i n a n d a l affairs? . As strong? As r e s p o n s i b l e ? Xs r a t i o n a l , a s co- operative, a s in:eres:ed i n sex, etc.? (c.f . ":4ale/f e n a l e Stereotype Survey Da:amm). Wha: reasons do men give f o r t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i f any? A r e t h e s e m l e qua1i:ies inheren: or learned? Uh: o s a y wonen, wife, g i r l , whore? Are :hese words a r e used : derogatory o r r e s p e c t f u l ? (With :he kxcsp:ion of whore which i s obviously derogatory!) To uha: exten: does male honor and f a d l y p r t d e depend on t h e v i r t u e of :he - vonen vho "belong" :o :hose -,en o r =ha= T a a i l y ? 5;ha: is t h e a::ituCe of .w men towards wonen uorking o u t s i d e t h e hose? Vorking f o r cash? TraveLlixg  withou: ale cscor: kyond the village? ( c a t . Economic Dicen- sion). "Arc r o m n valued i n t h e i r own righ: and :herefore i n a p o s i t i o n :o r e c e i v e p r e s t i g e ? O r a r e :hey valued as objec:s in :he s o c i a l , p o i i z l c a l a n d economic a f f a i r s o f aen?:' (Schlegal Do aen s e e 3 :o have more affectPona:e, r e l a x e d relationships utth af f i n a l women (wives, s1s:ers-ln-low, e t c . ) o r con- s a n g u i n e e l voaen (daughters, sis:ers and mothers)? Do w n view uometi as e s p e c i a l l y d i v i s i v e and quarrelsome? Are women s e e n as c a u s i n g c o n f l l c : vi:hin s o c i a l groups (1.e. family, l i n e a g e , work group or even village)? I f aen do s e e women as d i v i s i v e and themselves as co-opera: i v e vha: reasons do they give f o r t h i s ? To what exZen: a r e e n ' s b e l L e f s backed up by your 0bserva::ons of w l e / L e ; ~ a l egroup behavior? 'ha: do w n g i v e as t h e q u a l i t i e s of a n i d e a l woaan? X bad adjec:tves %oman? ?h: a r e used :o convey feninini:y? c. Koaen's *rievs of t h e s s e l v e s . Do wouen b e l i e . * that the fenale s e x is s u p e r i o r :o t h e male? Coqlementarg? C r inferior? In vha: ;rays if any do women f e e l s u p e r i o r =o e n ? (Strengzh, 7 t c l e v e r n e s s , purizy, religious p i e t y , compassion, ? a t f e n c e , etc.). - 90w do they e x p l a i n t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s ? 90 wonen accep: o r a n o r e =en's view of =hen and =en's assessnen: of rhctr  30 w o e n use dzaeanl.lg t e r n s t o r e f e r :o themselves o r members of :heir own s e x (e.g. c a l l i n g o n e s e l f a "dog" o r an "untouch- able" d u r i n g =enstrua:ion; s c o l d i n g one's daughter by c a l l i n g - h e r a r a n d l ( r h o r e ) , e:c.). Do you observe w r e c l o s e and long s:andlng f r i e n d s h i a s betsreen . sen o r o m e n ( o r s a w f o r bo:h)? Do warnen seen :o :rust each o:her? O r are :hey s u s p l c i o u s of each o t h e r ? Ask women :o :ell . you about f r l e n d s h i p s :hey have had i n t h e ?as: and p r e s e n t . Do uoMn see o t h e r women as e s p e c i a l l y d i v l s l v e o r q u a r r e l s o n e ? Uha: do u o e n g i v e a s t h e qua1i:ies of an i d e a l uonan? A bad woaaan? h ; a: adjec:.lves do :hey u s e t o convey feaialni:y? d. 'Jotaen's vtews of mine b i t a r e woaen's s:ereo:ypes about atale C Zb nature? Do women view m n ' s r i t u a l and poli:ical r o l e s w i t h awe and r e s p e c t o r w i t h amused t o l e r a n c e ? Do :hey s e e men a s more 1n:eres:ed in s e x : b n they a r e o r l e s s fn:eres:ed? Do women envy sen o r "vish :hey were men" f o r any reasons? What do vooen view as :he qual1:ies of a n i d e a l nan? A bad zmn? Uha: adjec- :ives do :hey use :o convey mascullnl:p? C. Fartilt'& and Xotherkood 1. itov inportan: Is rhe 3o:herhood o a wcoan's s e l f es:een? role : kha: a r e :he at:i:udes - Zouards c h i l d l e s s u.men i n :he coonu~li=yunder 2 - s:udy? is :he f a i l u r e t o produce a cbdld u s u a l l y blamed cn :he vonan C s :here or : of s a l e tnfer:ili:;r a n awareness of :he p o s s l ~ l i r y as uell? To what e x t e n t does a yoman's s:a=us i n t h e family and con- mni:y ( a s s e l l a s h e r econarnic s e c u r i z y ) depend on naving a l a r g e  fadly? Do women you t a l k t o s e e any a1:erna:ive aeans t o s t a t u s and security? I f so what a r e t h e y ? 2. From conversa:io?rs w i t h Ley i a f o m a n : ~ , r e c o r d c u l t u r a l b e l i e f s about :he p r o c e s s of c o n c e p t i o n and fe:al developmen:. Kha: a r e women's aon:hly f e r t i l e periods? hk: s p e c i a l prac:ices a r e t o be followed by ex;lec:an: oo:hers? S p e c i a l foods t o be t a k e n o r avoided? Sork pa::erns? R e l i g i o u s prescrip:tons? Is :here a ban on sex d u r i n g pregnancy? Bow s 2 l c t l y do women s a y t h i s is observed? When may sexual in:ercourse be resumed a f t e r c h i l d blr:h? 3. From conversa:ions u1:h key tnforman:~ and where ? o s s i b l e f r o a observa: ion, d e s c r i b e t h e prac:ices surrounding c h i l d b i r t h and :he c a r e of :he i n f a n t and new ao:her. Who a::ends :he btr:h? Do o n l y women of c e r t a i n c a s t e s become s p e c l a l i s t s o r do experienced women of any c a s t e k c o a e midwives? Are :hey p a i d ? I f s o how much? Differ- en: f o r b i r t h s f a boy o r g i r l ? Yay s e n a t t e n d b i r t h o r a t e t h e y supposed : o be "unauarsm' o f uha: is happening? In v>-a: position ( s t a n d i n g , squa::ing o r p r a m ) do mHt vcaen d e l i v e r ? 3 e s c r i b e :he procedures s u c h a s massaging o t l i n g , use of h e r b s and special s=reng:h-giving foods, e:c. in:er?ded o help : : he uoaen :hrough l a b o r and d e l i v e r 1 o f =he p l a c e n t a . hb: is Cone =ii=n :he placen:a? How - - and vhen is :he chtld's cord cut? D e s c r l k firs: feeding of i ' lafan:. Are :here any practices followed r e g a r d i n g :he ini:ia:ion i Z 8 nursing? .4ng ne=:?ods t o s t a r : 3 i X c flav? ;+a: a r e :he r i t u a l s surrounding pregnancy, c h i l i b i r t n ( i n c l u d i n g :hose aimed a t s e c u r i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l c a r e 2ro:ec:ion of :he i n f a n t and ner ao:her af:er childbir=h)? Is :here any 5ir:h ?ollu:im? If  s o , d e s c r i b e p r a c z i c e and hou s:ric:ly adhere3 to. How is :he c h i l d ' s name chosen? Dces b i r z h n o r j a l l y t a k e p l a c e i n :he uoaan's paren:s8 hone o r h e r husband's home? Does a womn ge: a "vaca:ion" a f t e r childbir:h? Hou long? Wha: s p e c i a l trea:aent ( t e e e m a s s a g e l o i l i n g ) o r foods a r e l given t o :ha newly d e l i v e r e d mother? Does :his recuperatton take . , p l a c e t n h e r parenzs' hone o r h e r husband's home? l o c a l methods of abor:ion avallable? ma: A r e :here is :he a::t:ude any :ovards a b o r t i o n (Lor married u o m n w1:h r o o many c h i l d r e n , o r f o r a n unnar- i r i e d voman)? The a t t a c h e d "!Cey Informan: Schedule on Pregnancy C h i l d b i r t h and k Social1za:ion" may prove u s e f u l i n col1ec:ing sys:ema:ic d a t a on :his s u b j e c t and t n ge:tiag wonen :o begin d i s c u s s i n g i t . D. Sex Role Social1za:ion: 1. Reaction :o Yale and Female C h i l d r e n Through i n f o r m a l q u e s t i o n i n g f i n d ou: whether p a r e n t s e x p r e s s a marked p r e f e r e n c e f o r n a l e o r f e o a l e c h i l d r e n . If s o vba: r e a s o n s do t h e y g i v e f o r :heir preference? (.Yale and female a d u l z s nay n o t a g r e e on t h i s q u e s t i o n s o be s u r e :o n o t e any d i f f e r e n c e s .) I f p o s s i b l e o b s e r v e f a d l y ' s r e a c t i o n a f t e r t h e b i r t n of x a l e / f c m a l e ~Uld. 2. Child Care 2esponsibili:y ( c . f . "Perrf1i:y-and Yotherhood") Hov is c h i l d c a r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a l l o c a t e d - i n :he faail:?? - -xclu- s i v e l y :o :he n o t h e r ? To t h e ao:her and o t h e r s e n i o r / j u n i o r yonen ( o r o n l y t h o s e w o e n who g e t a l o n g -aeli . d t h t h e l o t h e r ) in :he family? To n a l e nenbers of t h e f a n i l y a s y e l l ? ?lake no:es on any I  observa:ions of a a l e s u n d e r t a k i n g c h i l d c a r e responsibi1i:y. Yere they o n l y p l a y i n g ui:h t h e c h i l d f o r a s h o r t :ime o r d i d :bey assume f e e d i n g , b a t h i n g , c l e a a i n g and comEor:ing responsibi1i:fes over an extended p e r i o d ? Who is i n charge of d i s c i p l i n e ? Of m a l e l f e ~ ~ a l cehildren? A: differ- en: ages? Do co:hers lose c o n t r o l o v e r boys as they grow o l d e r ? Do f a t h e r s ri:hdraw f r o n d i s c i p l t n i m g g i r l s as :hey ma:ure? Is :here any n o t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e la t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y s t y l e used by sale and female a d u l t s (c.5. v i t h d r a w a l of affec:ton, p h y s i c a l punishment, s c o l d f n g , shaming, o f f e r i n g rewards, u1:hholding food, e:c.)? Are differen: d i s c i p l i n a r y t e c h n i q u e s used on boys and g i r l s ? Prom wha: age is :his d i f f e r e n c e no:lceable? Do p a r e n t s s a y (and do you o b s e r t e ) :ha: t h e y a r e more s t r i c t vi:h m l e o r female c h i l d r e n ? If s o %ha: r e a s o n s do t h e y g i v e ? Do p a r e n t s pu: much conscious e f f o r t i n t o t h e t r a i n i n g of a c h i l d ? If s o , f r o n vha: age f o r g i r l s o r boys? klhers do i n f a n z s and c h i l d r e n s l e e p ? Ui:h whom? ;I.differences / for male and f e m l e c h i l d r e n ? 3. Paren:a? Responsiveness and Parent-Child 1n:erac:ion Do n o t h e r ' s r e a c z i o n s (and :hose of o t h e r n a l e l f e s i a l e f a a i l y care- r t a k e r s ) :o :heir c h i l d ' s needs vary a c c o r d i n g t o =he sex of :he child .g - - L - wi:h r e g a r d :o: - * C a. r e s p o n d i n s =o a crying infar.: or c h i l d (.~i:h food o r a : t e n t i o n ) 8 - b. o r : r a d i = i o n a l ) when c h i l d s e e k i n g medical c a r e ( e i t h e r ~ o d e r n i s ill  FZ-:~ n r e a r 9 3 r a g i n g tire c h i l d o r "showing =he c h i l d o f f " 20 .,T;t=2x%z % a -:~ , - c z g acd o:her m a t e r i a l item IZ mxz5zzion i n m t e r n a l ( o r g e n e r a l a d u l t ) response t o mws~~&.- -en, vhen does 1: begin and how does i t aanifes: 8 - :r? - % ~ - 2 . ~ @urn a mrs encourageaen:/orien:ation towards E r a i n i n s :-,.-we; s e l f - r e l i a n c e ; r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; achieve- UWE=..L. S&z=zs pj4twa:ions i n a s m ~ c hd e t a i l a s p o s s i b l e . - t ~ z c h i l d and a bad c h i l d ? ?m=ss ixxcd5e a ~ o o d Are :here some t.sxwee--m t h e y vould p r a i s e o r accep: i n a Soy bur d i s - m - a d vice versa? Specify and a s k f o r rcascns. Yhen d e--, =a o r angry w i t h a male c h i l d ? h female &9cL'"' . -- r r s = ~ r i s : l c s a r e s a i d t o be passed on 20 a c h i l d e s i d e and what through f a t h e r o r n ~ o t h e r ' s~ %SA-~&& - * :he i d e a l mother, f a t h e r , wife, husband? R e - t l t zs&%=ssa,%-oun mother and f a t h e r ? (affection, fear, - : = - r- > ? 30 :hey i d e n t i f y with ( o r =an= =o be l i k e ) t h e i r mtsez e c 5 = 1 e ~6=e whenever possillle' t h e con:ent and zone :o \ .-- L L-----~ -3 s= - ~p i c ;bf socia1iza:ion t h e r e r i l l be a area: d e a l : - i e S h a v i o r o i d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s and ~~- eL-- ?nu d l 1 0 0: have :he t i n e : o spend hours obser-ring a xx5 ='3irdren and T a r e n t s r i t h behavior c h e c k - l i s t s - -3 e - ~ ~ - i v e -~ . i ~ . ~ z - ~ = i Of eta on :he r e l a t l . r e f r e q u e n c y of c e r t a i n n s . you may v e l l be a b l e :o pick o course =.q paEtizrr1s Ehrough >*our observa=tons over :he L 4-s-- ~ - . S e v e r r h e l e s s always 5e aware of :he ziature of your Cata on socia1iza:ion behavior. - .-- ---,:-.a - J TXCZS and a::itudes, even i f g a t h e r e d from o n l ; ~a - - - 25 i e o r i u a n t s should, however, be qui:e dependajle. 4. Sex Dif feren:ia:ion A: what a g e do d i s t i n c t i o n s Setueen sale and f e b a l e c l o t h i n g and d e c o r a t i o n s begin? Li: a r e t h e s e dis:inc:ions ( t e e . Sepal1 caps f o r boys; b a n g l e s , p i e r e e d e a r s l n o s e , t a t o o , s k i r t s , e:c. for yirlr) In :he communi:y under s t u d y ? Eow much v a r i a t i o n (such a s young 7/8 y e a r - o l d g i r l s wearlag boys d r e s s l a s t e a d o f s t r l s d r e s s , + :c. ( ts Kha: kind of games o r p l a y do g i r l s l b y s engage i n ? (Observe and d e s c r i b e coope:i:ive games, i m i r a t i v e p l a y , f a n t a s y play, e:ce) Xtth vhon do g i r l s l b o y s norinally p l a y o r spend :heir ticxi? ~ro:hers/sis- ters? Xe1a:iveslo:her v i l l a g e children? Same s e x l o t h e r ? When does marked segrega:ion of :he s e x e s begin? You Is i : enforced ( t o e . by p e e r p r e s s u r e from c h i l d r e n :heaselves o r by paren:al d i rec: i a n ) ? Are :here any c h i l d r e n ui:h whom b o y s l g i r l s a r e discouraged from playing? 'Vho a r e t h e s e c h t l d r e n and what r e a s o n s do paren:s for ~ i v e not van: tag t h e t r c h i l d r e n t o p l a y w i t h r h e a (i.e. c a s r e , d i s l i k e oE p a r e n t s , e:ce)? i)o boys o r g i r l s s e e n t o have a wider c t r c l e of f r i e n d s o r peers ourside t h e family? k3o spends more t i n e vl'h I a d u l z s , boys o r @ r l s ? 1 If t h e r e is a cul:ural - i d e a l of modesty o r Laj ezc. i n f e n f n t n e - - Sehavior, vhen and how is = h i s i n s z i l l e d i n g i r l s ? 'Does 'r :be -ispor:ance of "modes:" behavior i n c r e a s e suddenly a; - pu3er:y and t h e - Qnse: of sens:ruarton? O r o n l y upon f o r m 1 a a r r ~ a ~%at e je:?a-;isr (e.g. apprtracbia3 and :al!ciitg vL:h s t r a a g e r s ; gorog 3 5 0 ~ : zaked o r only p a r z f a l l : ~clozhed; going abou: d i r t y o r u n g r 0 0 ~ e d ; touch- ing/pla;:ing ri:h g?ai:als; running and phaytng roughly; laughiz;: a n d  -- 5.5 - :allcing l o u d l y , e:c.) f s forbfdden/:olera:ed aziong g i r l s / b o y s a: various ages? Is t h e r e any r i t u a l o r s e r i e s of ri:uals which a a r k s t h e t r a n s i t ion - f r o = g i r l h o o d :o womanhood? Is :he :ransi:ion viewed as sudden and complete o r is t h e r e a c o n c e p t of a d o l e s c e n c e -- of being between g i r l h o o d and wonanhood (1.e. tarunf)? k%a: are :he sharac:eris:ics of f e u a l e s a t :his s t a g e and t h e p a r t i c u l a r problems :hey f a c e ? %hen is t h t s s t a g e b e l i e v e d :o k g i n and how long does i: g e n e r a l l y last? Describe any r i r u a l s which mark :he :ransi:ion (i.e. ppha basne, - - Ihi, ere.) i n d e t a i l and a s k woeen of v a r i o u s a g e s :o :ell you abou: it and how :hey remember :heir own e x ? e r i e n c e of i:. , How do female puberzy r i t u a l s compare wi:h :hose for sales (if 1 acy?). Are :hey more o r less e l a b o r a t e and cos:ly? 30 t h e y i n v o l v e 1i:erary :raditio;ls a s opposed :o o r a l :radi:ions? e:c.? (c.f. F a m i l i a l Dimension " Life Stages"). A: what a g e a r e g i r l s l b o y s asked o r expeczed t o begin making a con- :ribu:ion t o :he household economy? Ask p a r e n z s , ana o b s e r v e how s:ric: :hey a r e i n e n f a r e i n g :heir expec=a:ions. I L - - -9 -L * * - I 5 C  The S e t t i n g : Comuuni:~ Level 1aforma:ion The f o l l o w i n g is a lis: I-of / :he k i n d s of communi:y l e v e l d a t a which you should c o l l e c t abou: :he v i l l a g e you a r e s t u d y i n g . k J e n you v r i t e up your m a t e r i a l t h i s i n f o r n a t i o n w i l l be h e l p f u l i n es:ablishing t h e general-"se:- :tngB' of your v i l l a g e . I: w i l l a l s o p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r comparison betsseen villages. . - Suggested Co=unt:y Level Da:a :o be i n c l u d e d a s par: of "Settinq" ohen w r i t i n g u p Case S:udy. 1. Local eaployment o p p o r t u n i t i e s 2. n e t h e r t h e r e is a f a c t o r y o r o t h e r l a r g e employer t n t h e p l a c e r 3. ir'hether p e o p l e commute t o jobs i n nearby ci:ies o r :owns 2 t i 4. Xeans of :ranspor:a:ion/access by road 2" 5. A v a i l a b i l i t y of elec: r i c i t j 6. P r e v a i l i n g wage r a t e s f o r men, women and c h i l d r e n (1.e.. our Econodc Dimension,'Key Informant Schedule 1) 7. In and o u t m i g r a t i o n p a z t e r n s a 8. Location of 9arke:s nos: w i d e l y used ( r o l e of wonen i n marketing) 9. o fields Type of c r o p s grown and cropping p a t z e r a s , d i s t a n c e : - f o v e r a l l agrlcu1:ural e c o n o d c ptc:ure 10. A g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s used and animal h u s j a n d r y prac:ices ( i . e . I e which animals r a i s e d and how cen:ral t o economy). Also use of appro- e p r i a t e technology such a s a i l l s , i r r i g a z l o n puaps, e:c. + Xi. Xelfare program a v a i l a b l ~ i n t h e a r e a (and = h e i r r e l e v a c c e and a c c e s s i b i l i = y :o uoizen) . .rB 12. !4ass s e d i a pene:ra=ton papers (i.e. - u s e of r a d i o s , a v a i l a b t l i z y of nevs- b fl* 8 I t - jein - 12 Yeasuring Xousehold Economy S:~:US and Sehavior i n Developia3 Countries" (.'!ueiler 1978:23) and :a:er a l t e r e d and augoen:ed ( s p e c f r ' f c a l l y f r o n Yo. 15 o n ) by Lync Senne::, C h a r l o z t e :-Iardnan and Augus:a :-!olxar.  13. Sane of panchaya:; ward o r wards; b r i e f background of aresen: panchayat body; t r a d i : i o n a l adoinis:ra:ive s t r u c t u r e and ~ e t t l ~ e o e n : patterns i f d i f f e r e n t f r o o present s t r u c t u r e 14. Sketch map of :he v i l l a g e , u i t h p o s i z i o n of wazering p l a c e s , m i l l s , d h i k i s , washing p l a c e s , defeca:ion p l a c e s , e:c. 15. I n d i c a t e 1oca:ion of t h e v i l l a g e i a Yepal i n ske:ch aap b 16. Descrip:ion of u h a t t h e houses are mada o f , l o o k l i k e bo:h I n s i d e and & o u t s i d e . How f u r x i s h e d ? Hou zany rooas? D o exzended f a m i l i e s s t a y i n one d w e l l i n g ? Are a n i r s a l s k e p t I n houses or o u r s t d e i n s h e d s ? . 17. L i n g u i s t i c 1den:tty. k%at language, a p a r t from S e p a l 1 spoken, i f any 18. Clothing t 19. Some remarks on :he h i s t o r y of t h e a r e a l p e o p l e i f known I 20. The v i l l a g e i n r e l a t i o n 20 o t h e r v i l l a g e s . Did your v i l l a g e have much contac: ui:h o:her v i l l a g e s ? i4ow d i f f e r e n t is your v i l l a g e from o t h e r s u r r o u n d i n g v i l l a g e s i n term of w e a l t h o r e t h n i c i : ~ ? blha: a r e =he doufnant e c o l o g t c a l fea:ures somehow e f f e c t i n g :he l i v e s of :he v i l l a g e r s ? .Ire t h e r e any s p e c i a l n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , t.e., fores:, c a t e r , ~ e t a l s ? How a r e c o r n n a l r e s o u r c e s alloca:ed? .hy coopera:ive sys:esrr used t o r e g u l a t e i r r i g a t i o n , use of p a s t u r e , u s e of wood a n d f u e l . Land d.is:ribu:ion pa:terns. Any c o n f l i c t i a g : r a d i t f o n a l sys:ens of land landownership? .Any grea: dispari:ies? E a s t o u r i s m affec:ed :he v i l a l g e i n any way? Xum3er of households i n v t l l a g s - roughly t a l l y of popu1a:ion. In a d d i t i o n you w i l l f i n d :-ha: T a b l e s 1 a- 8 f o r "Form 40: Demographic Dara Shee:" g t v e , u s e f u l i a f o r a a t t o n on :he a g e s:ructure, relative s a l e l f e n a l e p o p u l a t t o n econonic s:ra:ificat ion, e:c. of t h e v i l l a g e as a whole Caszes r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e v i l l a g e ; rough ranking; d e g r e e of e r p h a s i s one$as:e h i e r a r c h y i n p u b l i c in:erac:ion. T a b l e 3 "Fom 40: Benographic Da:a Sheet" w i l l g i v e :he dis:ribu:ion of c a s z e s i n :?e v t l Z a g e and :he =any o:her :ables throughou: :he TXS d 40-90 S e r l e s v h e cas:e i s used as a v a r i a b l e a a y Se u s e f u l i n your d e s c r i g t ion of Hbv cas:e func:ions i n your v i l l a g e . 26. Knusera:ion of major p u b l i c and priva:e comnuni:y f a c i l i t i e s , also use of appropria:e technology such a s n il l s , i r r i g a : i o n , i u a ? s , t c . Lse t h e c h a r t below :o i n d i c a t e a v a i l a b i l i t y aed d i s t a n c e . Yake s e p a r a t e n o t e s on any s p e c i a l fea:ures o r p r o b l e m o r r e a s o n s  f o r t h e s e s e r v i c e s i n your c o m n i t i e s . .Us0 r e c o r d any s p e c i a l p r o g r a m a v a i l a b l e f o r vonen i n c o n n e c t i c n uith t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s . Yo:e how long v a r i o u s s e r v i c e s have been p r e s e n t i n :he Conmunity and i n d i c a t e v i l l a g e p r i o r i t i e s f o r in:roducing t h e s e s e r v i c e s i f tihey a r e not p r e s e n t . Service Present Distance Post Office Hospital Health P o s t Family P l a n n i n g C l i n i c Ayurvedic C l i n i c Tradi:lonal H e a l e r s ( J a k r i s , , Wdwives e t c . ) Primary School Secondary School Campus .r\dul: Wuca: ion VeEerinary 3ospi:al Agricu1:ural Development Bank Agricu1:ural Supply Corpora:ion Sa jha Range O f f i c e Herbal F a m Roads Departaent Canp I r r i g a t i o n Faci1i:ies (W. o r Cov: ). Drinking 5a:er F a c i l i t i e s P ( : v. o r Gov:.) 6 General St:ua: i o n (I .e. d i s c a n c e and puri:y) Roads k p a r z c e n t O f f i c e 'ikndicraf ts o r s k i l l t r a i n i n g center 0 : hers r I I 27. Sose Suggested Xddi=ions = o l i s t of Topics which n i g h t 5e i n c l u d e d i i i each Case SEadv - "The Se=:ine" 1. hWj and how =he p a r t i c u l a r v i l l l t g e w a s chosen 3L 2. The ;lane o f :he v i l l a g e and any s p e c i a l a e a n i n g i : h a s , s.g., is i t t h e sarie as = h e narze of a c l a n , % h i s = o r i c a l f i g u r e - d e s c r t p t i v e of . a p a r t i c u l a r environnen: f e a t u r e e:c. 3. Descrip:ion of your l i f e i n :he v i l l a g e . Was it l i k e t5.s: of t h e v i l l a g e r s o r d i d you s u ~ p l e s e n : your l i v i n g w i t h p r o v i s i o n s from Kathmandu. Xhere d i d you l i v e ? CondiZions and probless faced during f i s l d work. H ow you came t o know people. H ow d i d you a s k :he ques:ions? How d i d you d e a l wt:h opposi:ion o r e a b r r a s s i n g si:ua:ions? Did you Save b e t t e r , more comior:able re1a:tonships w i t h t h e =en o r t h e women? Did t h e f a c t t h a t you v e r e a f e s a l e / o a l e r e s e a r c h e r aake any d i f f e r e n c e , do you t h i n k , t o what you v e r e a b l e :o achieve i n t h e v t l l a g e ?  Xeferences Cited Xbdullah, Tahrunnessa and Sondra Z i e d e n s t s i n 1976- Finding Ways t o Lean About h r a l 'haen: Experiences from a P i l o t P r o j e c t i n Bangladesh. Dacca: Ford Foundation._ (sound ?limeographed). Anker, Richard 1980 Research i n Koaan's Rales and Lkr~onrahicchange: Survey Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s f o r Households. '%men. !!en and Copnuni t i e s with 3acknround E x p l a i n a t ion. ILO, Geneva. - 1979 1 k g e s and Self-Images: Colombia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . Yale and Female i n ?brocco. Yev York: C f e l e , J a n e t Z o l l i n g e r and W r y Chapaan Smock 1977 Women: Roles and S t a t u s i n Elnht Countries. Yev Pork: John Wilcy and Sons. Jones. Rex and s h i r l e ~Kurz Jones 1976 The ~ i a a l a ~ H n Woten: X Study of Liabu Women i n :fartiage and Divorce. Palo Alto: Mayfield Publishing Company. K e s s l e r , Evelyn 5. Vfeu. 1976 Gomen: Xn . h t h t o ~ l o q i c i ~ l ?lev York: i l o l t , Xinehart and Vinston. Levy, Zobert 1973 T a h i t i a n s : X n d and Experience i n t h e S o c i e t y I s l a n d s . Chicago: Chicago U n i v e r s i t y Press. N i l t o n , Yay 1979 Y ~ l eS i a s i n Anthropology? 1: Yan. - (S.S.) Vol. 1 5 , So. 1, Yarch 1979, pp 18-39. Yueler, Eva , 1978 The !Jcaenns I s s u e i n ?easuring Rousehold fconomic S t a t x s and a e h a v i o r i n Developivq Countries. Paper prepared f o r iJorkshop on Wonen i n Poverty: %%at Do Hz sou? (Yimeographed). Quinn, Yaoni 1977 .4nthropoloqical S t u d i e s on !Jonenns S t a t u s . : Annual Reviev of Anthropolog7, Vol VI. Falo Alto: ~ n n u a l - ~ e v i e uXnc.s B Rosaldo, ?ii:helle Z i m b s l i s t an3 Louise ~anphe;e, eds. i974 Yonen, C u l t u r e and S o c i e t y . Stanford: S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . B e i t e r , Xayna R., ed. 1975 Tovard aa h t h r o p 0 1 0 ~ ~ %men. of Yev York: ?lonthly 3evisv Press. Schlenal. Alice 1977- Sexual S t r a t i f i c a t i o n : A Cross Cultural View. Sew York: Coluzibia University Press. -  WPEIATION C 91r3UV ESOL2CtS DIVISIOH DISCUSSION PXTEaS [I by t h e n u d e r i n d i c a t e s t h e paper is Bank-confident la1 o r o t h e n r i s e r e s t r i c t e d . ] 81-1 Oey A. Yeesook, 'Dewgraphic C h 3 r a c t e r i a t i c s of I n d i v i d u a l s and t h e Neasuremeat of L i f e t i a e Income'. February 1981. 81-2 Susan 8. Cochrane, T h e Economics of F e r t i l i t y v i t h Examples from Asia'. February 1981. 81-3 Rashid ? a r u q t e , 'Social I a f r ~ : t r u c t u r e and S e r v i c e s i n Z imbabve". February 1981. 8 81-4* Richard Sabot, A. a e r r y , A. Bazlevood, J. Knight, J. A m i t a g e and ?I. B o i s s i e r e , 'Cognltlve S k i l l s : T h c i r O c t e d a a a t s and I n f l u e n c e on Earnings i n Two Poor UrSan EconoPies.' February 1981. Dean T. Jamison, Barbara S c a r l e , Stephen Heyneman, and Klaus Calda 'Improving Elementary Xathemat i c s Education i n Nicaragua: An Experiaaeatal Study a f t h e Impact of Textbooks and a a d i o on Achieoement'. .Yard 1981. Rashid Zaruqee, ';\nalyzing t h e Impact of H e a l t h S e r v i c e s : Sarangval and O t h e r Experiences'. March 1981. J. 3. Knight and 2. H. Sabot, Z a b o r H a r k e t ~ i s c r i a i n a t i o ni n a Poor Urban Econoay'. Xarch 1981. Oey A. Xeesook, ' I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s betveen Demgraphlc F a c t o r s and Income D i s t r i b u t i o n : Problems of Yeasurement, I l e s c r i p t i o n and Interpretation'. A p r i l 1981. Susan 8. Cochrane, N i n a a l a J o s h i and iCalpana Xandwani, " F e r t i l i t y A t t i t u d e s and Sehavior i n t h e S e p a l Terai". A p r i l 1981. \ J . B . Knight and Zichard,Sabot, 'The Role of t h e Ftrm i n Wage Determination: An k f r i c a n Case Study'. A p r i l 1981. J.B. Knight and Richard Sabot, "The Xeturns t o Education: I n c r e a s i q g v i t h z~-,c-rienceo r Decreasing v i t h Sxpansion?" Xarch i981. . .* J.B. m h t and Xichard Sabot, "From Y i g r a n t s t o P r o l e t a r i a n s : F h p l o p n t Experience, Y o b i l i t y and Uages i n Tanzania". Xarch 1981. r A. Berxy-and Richard Sabot, "Uneoploymnt and Zconomic Development". A p r i l 1981. a s h i d Faruqee and Ethna Johnson, "Health, S u t r i c i o n and Family Planning: A Survey of E:qeriinents and S p e c i a l ?rejects i n I n d i a " . A p r i l 1981. F r a n c o i s G r i v e l and Dean T. Jamison, "The C e s t - E f f e c t i v e n e s s of D i s t a n c e Teaching P r o j e c t s " . J u n e 1981  81-16 Richard Sabot, 'Labor Force C r w t h , E s p l o y ~ n tand Earnings i n Egypt: 1966-1968'. B y 1981 81-17 K.C. Zachariah, 'Anooaly of t h e F e r t i l i t y Decline i n Kerala: S o c i a l Development, a r a r i a n Reforas, o r t h e Family Planning Program". i%y 1981. 81-18 Richard Sabot, A. Berry, A. Bazlevood, J. Knight, P. C o l l i e r , - J. A& tage, Y. S o i s s i a r e , 'Education Expansion and Labor Yarke t A d j u s t w n t i n Kenya and Tanzania A Background Paper". !lay 1981. 61-19 Hancy S i r b a l l a d Oay Yaesook, 'Child Schooling, Number of Children aad I a t e r g e a e r a t i o n a l Transadssfon of I n e q u a l i t y : A S i a ~ l a t i o n " . May 1981. 81-20 Francoir O r i v e l , T h e Impact of A g r i c u l t u r a l Extension Services: A Review of t h e Literature'. J u l y 1981. Also a v a i l a b l e i n French a s "Leiapace des S e r v i c e s de V u l g a r i s a t i o a Agricole: Xevue de la Licterature'. 81-21 Saacy B i r d s d l a d Y. Louise Fox, ' Why Yales e a r n Hore: Location, J o b P ? r e f e r e a c e s and J o b Rf s c r i d n a t i o n Amng a r a z i l i a n Schoolteachers". Yay 1981. b 81-22 Xlthea U11, T h e Dcaographic S i t u t a t i o n i n Sub-Saharan Africa: A Discussion Paper'. Yay 1981. 81-23* a. Sabot, A. a e r r y , A. Hazlcuood, J. Knight, J. A m i t a g e , X. Woissiere 'iloes t h e Z q a a s i o n of Education Coo?ress t h e Struclture of 'ldages and Reduce t h e I n e q u a l i t y of Pay? A P r e l i d n a r y Analysis". J u l y 1981. 83-24* Saacy B i r d s a l l and Dean T. Jamison. 'Income ==A, Other factor!^ I n f l u e n c i n g F e r t i l i t y and Y o r t a l i t y i n China". October 1981. dl-25* ~ a n c fB i r d s a l l , Sulekha P a t e l and K. C. Zachariah, * A l t e r n a t i v e P r o j e c t i o n s of t h e Chinese Population'. June 1981. 81-26* Dean T. J a s i s o n , T.J. Ho, and P.L. Trw-bridge. 'Pood A v a i l a b i l i t y and t h e Jutri:ioual S t a t u s of C h i l d r e I n Chiaa". September 1981. - s , - 81-27* Dean T. JaPison. "Child X a l n u t r i b i o n a d School Xetardaticn i n China". I I September 1981. *. 81-28 Deborah Lhazon Y a d l k n . "Lacguage P o l i c i e s f o r .if r i c a n Prima q Education: Summary of t h e Anglophone Sssearch L i t e r a t u r e . " J u l y 1981. 81-29 f a d a Thevenin. 'Les I n p l i c a t i o n s Pedagogiqp~esd c s P.,litique!s d e Laagues dari l'enseignernent en Afrique: 3ne zavur, Ce l a l i t t e r a t u r e Francophone". June 1981. Also a v a i l a b l e i n English as "Pedagogicai I s p l i c a t f o n s or' 'Lamage Polf cy i n A f r i c a n Schools: X Revfew of t h e Francophone L i t e r a t u r e " . Vicente Paqueo. A ' Household Production Yodel of School Enrollment: A P r o b i t Analysis of the 1978 Bicol Yultipurpose Survey Data". June 1981 Bryan L. B m l i e r and Vicente 8. Paqueo. 'On t h e Theory and Xeasurer~ents of t h e Determinants of Yortality'. June 1981 Reynaldo Y a r t o r e l l . 3 u t r i t i o n and Yealth S t a t u s I n d i c a t o r s : Suggestions f o r Surveys of t h e Standard of Living i n Developing Councriesw. June 1981. 8 . Sabot, A. Berry, A. Hazelwood, J. Knight, J. Armitage, and P (. Boissiere. 'Correlates of Educacioaal Attainment i n Tanzania". J u l y 1981. Susan 8. Coehrane. 'The Determinants of F e r t i l i t y and Child S u r v i v a l i n t h e Sepal Terhi'. J u l y 1981. Joanne Leslie, B.C. Baidya, and K. Nandvani. "Prevalence and C o r r e l a t e s of Childhood X a l n u t r i t i o n i n t h e T e r a i Region of Nepal". J u l y 1981. a. % a s e l l Prothero. 'Perspectives on Population Y o b i l i ty i n Z e s t Africa'. August 1981. Tioothy King. -Population Grouch, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Resource T r a n s f e r s , and Internatioacr1 Yigration'. August 1981 Timothy Xing. ' I a n t g r a t i o n from Developing Countries: Some P h i l o s o p h i c a l Issues'. August 1381. R. Sabot and J. Knight. % i y Wages D i f f e r : Earnings Functions i n a Poor Urban Economy'. August 1981. Joao B a t i s t a de Araujo e O l i v e i r a and F r a n c o i s O r i v e l . "In-Service Teacher T r a i n i n g System: Logos I1 i n a r a z i l ' . August 1981. 3. Sabot, A. Berry, A. Eazlewood, J. Knight, J. Armitage and - - 3. B o i s s i e r e . 'Correlates of Educational Attainment i n Kenya". 'i August 1981. - - * P e t e r Fallon. I I a c o e s , Poverty and Income D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Rural Botswana: A Synthzsis of Evidence Based on t h e a u r a l Incone - * D i s t r i b u t i o n Survey." September 1981. Barbara Watanabe and Eva H u e l l e r . "A Poverty ? r o f i l e f o r XuraL 3otsuana.- October 1981. Eva X u e l l e r . "The Value and Allocation of Tine i n Xural 3otswana." Noveuber 1981.  81-45 Robert S.B. Lucas. T h e D i s t r i b u t i o n and Z f f i c i e a c y of Crop Production i n T r i b a l Areas of aotsuana.' September 1981. 8146 Robert Z.B. Lucas. 7 h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of Wages and Eaployr~eat i n Rural Botswana.' September 1981. 81-47 Dov Chetnichovsky. 'Socioecontnnic and Demographic Aspects of School E a r o l h n t and Atteadance i n Rural Botsvana." October 1981. 81-18 Dov Cheroichovsky. ' S o c i o e c o n d c C o r r e l a t e s of Fer:ility Behavior i n Rural Botswana.' October 1981. 81-49 S h e r r i Aossoudji a d Eva Mueller. "The Economic and Demographic S t a t u s of Female Headed Households i n Botsvana." October 1981. 81-50 Francois O r i v e l.Za T;l;visioa Econornique e t Perspectives." S c o l a i r e du s;aGgal: Aout 1981. Evaluation (Summary a v a i l a b l e i n Euglish. ) 81-51 H i l l a r p P e r r a t o n , Dean I. Jamison and F r a a c o i s O r i v e l . "Nass Xedia f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Sxtensioa i n Malawi". September 1981 81-52 Thooas W. Xerridt. f h e I s p a c t of Access t o Piped Yater on I a f a a t H o r t a l i t y i n Urban B r a z i l , 1970 t o 1976." August 1981. 81-53 X. Krishnaa Saraboodiri. -Determinaats of F e r t i l i t y i n S r i Lanka." September 1981. 81-54 S. Krishnan Namboodiri. "Ase a t Harriage i n S r i Lanka." October 1981. 81-55* R. Sabot, A. Scrry, A. Bazlewood, J. Knight, J. A m i t a g e , ? lB . oissiere. "Th: s t i u c t u r e of Wages i n Kenya and Tanzania: hihat Role Has Pay Policy Played?" October 1981. . t r 81-56* l E. Sabot, A. Berry, A. Yazlevood, J. Knight, J. Armitage, ?l.o i s s i e r e . B 7 -Wage Dynamics i n Taazania and Kenya: P o l i c y Simulations." October 1981. 81-57 Dov Chernichovsicy a d Oey A. Xeesook. "Female Labor F o r ~ e Participation i n Indonesia. " October 1981. - 8 81-58 Dov Cheroichovsky a d Oey A. Yeesook. "Poverty I n Indonesia: X P r o f i l e . " Yoreaber 1981. 81-59 Susan H. Cochrane and Kalpana Sandvani. "The Determinants of F e r t i l i t y i n 22 V i l l a g e s of S o r t h e r n Thailand." December 1981. 81-60 Dean T. Jamison and Z e t e r 2. Yoock. " P a r a r Education and Faria Ef f i c i e n c y i n Nepal: The Role of Schooif n g , 2 x t ension S e r v i c e s , and Cost cfve S ' d l l s . " December 1981.  81-61 . Jamison. T h e Deteminants and Susan 8. Cochrane a d Dean T Sonsequences of Educatioaal Achievement i n the Rural Chiang Yai Valley. ' Decesber 1981. 81-62 Rashid Paruqee, Carl Taylor, R.S.S. S a m , Xobcrt Parker and e V i l l i a m Reinke. 'Benefits of Integrating Family Planning w i t 1 1 Health Services: t h e Narangval Experiocnt'. December 1981. R i l a r y Perraton. %ass Hedia, Basic Education and A g r i c u l t u r a l n Extension . January 1982. K.C. Zachariah lad Sulekha P a t e l . 'Trends and Determinants of I u f a a t and Child H o r t a l i t y i n Rerala". January 1982. Soa Pudasafai. f d u c a t i o a and A g r i c u l t u r a l E f f i c i e n c y i n Nepal.". January 1982. Katherine S l a i r . "Econoaic Self- Sufficiency and t h e E f f e c t s of Economic Davelopmat o a V i l l a g e Housing i n Yepal". January 1982. Heeaa Achaqa. T i m Use Data and Living Standard Yeasuremeat Study". Harch 1982. Sancy B i r d s a l l . "Child Schooling and t h e Xeasuremen: of Living, Standards'. February 1982. Teresa J. Eio. 3 l e a s u r i n g Health as a Component of L i * ~ i a g Standards". ,March 1982. Sancy 3 i r d s a l l . f h e I s p a c t of School A v a i l a b i l i t y and Quality on Children's Schooling i n arazfl'. Wrch 1982. J. Y. S u l l i v a n , S. 8. Cochrane and W. D. :(alsbeek. "Procedures f o r C o l l e c t i n g and Analyzing H o r t a l i t y Data i n LSYS." A p r i l 1982. Yancy B i r d s a l l and J e r e 3ehroan. 'Income Returns t o Q u a n t i t y and Quality of Schooling i n Brazil: Is Q u a n t i t y Alone Yisleadiug?" January 1982. Xeena Xcharya and Lynn Bennett. "Wonen and t h e Subsistence Sector: Z c o n d c P a r t i c i p a t i o n and Household Decision-!faking i n Nepal". A p r i l 1982. . v