China : environmental aspects of economic development

00 C> 441$ 59$. /iqra FILE COpy The Peoples Republic of China: Environmental Aspects of Economic Development Th orl.d 3ank SeCC..Zer , 1982 Table of Contents Preface ....................................................... i Acknowledgements .....................:........................ i 1. China's Environment .................................... 1 1.1 Natural conditions .................................. 1 1.2 Attitudes ........................................... 3 2. Critical Environmental Problems .......................... 5 2.1 Deforestation ....................................... 5 2.2 Losses of cropland .................................. 12 2.3 Erosion and desertification ......................... 15 2.4 Reclamation of lakes ................................ 3 2.5 Conservation ........................................ 5 3. Environmental Pollution .................................. 28 3.1 Air pollution ....................................... 28 3.2 Noise Pollution ..................................... 31 3.3 Water pollution and shortages ....................... 32 3.2 Urban congestion and chemicals in the environment 36 4*. Environment, Food and Energy ............................. 39 4.1 China's agroecosystem ............................... 39 4.2 Rural energetics .................................... 42 4.3 Modern eneretics ................................... 46 4.4 Population .......................................... 47 5. Solutions and limitations ................................ 48 5.1 New awareness and persistent limitations ............ 48 5.2 The outlook ......................................... 53 6. References cited .......................................... Appendices A. Principal farming regions and their climates ........ 61 B. Land use and land cover ............................. 62 C. Industrial and farming statistics ................... 63 D. Law on environmental protection (full text) ......... 65 -. Some researchers and administrators ................. 77 F. Protected areas in China ............................ 78 G. Rare, protected or endangered biota.................. 80 E. _Outline of the environmental literature on China 86 Conversions 1 mu - 0.1647 acres - 0.0667 hectares (ha). The Chinese currency Renminbi is denominated in Yuan ( ) $1.00 -Y 1.85 (1982) Preface This paper conveys one essential message: China's environment, natural and man-made, is in poor shape now and deteriorating rapidly. Chinese domestic writings, ranging from articles in party newspapers to technical analyses in scientific journals, broadcasts and news reports have been recently carr7ing countless descriptions of environental neglect, malice, failure and abandon. This contrasts strongly with the environmental success tone of much information emanating from China unt-I recently. Without this new information, this report could not have been written. This paper is essentially a new look at China's enviroanment based almost exclusively on Chinese domestic writings. Some careul judgments are included in order to interpret the little known environmental situation in China. Acknowledgements This paper was prepared by Professor Vaclar Sail, Consultant, with R. Goodland and G. Toh. We are grateful to Dr. John Seidensticker of the Smithsonian zoo .for much assistance with the mamal list.and to Dr. T. Du4ley of the National Arboretum on the flora. Ys. Nancy Birsall and Y,r. Janson Chang reviewed the population and pollution sections respectIvely. 1. CHINA S _7IRONMENT All settings a=e unique but this is surely the most unique country of all: the planet's longest continuous civilization - 4000 years of written history - harboring nearly one quarter of mankind. A land spanning tropical coral reefs and boreal forests as well as the world's tallest mountains and most densely settled river lowlands; a nation which has achieved so much - and yet also has had suich stark setbacks. Understanding of Chinese affairs benefits imensely from knowledge of Chinese environment and energetics (from food to fuels), the key underpinnings of a nation's economy. 1.1. Natural conditions China's surface offers one of the best illustrations of the processes of crustal upheavals based on the theory of plate tectonics. The collision of the Indian subcontinent with Eurasia formed the world's highest plateau in lizang (Tibet) and created the steep west-east gradient between the high mountain ranges of lizang, Qinghai and Sichuan and China's seacoast ranging from 20 to 400N. Tectonic history thus largely limits China's prime cultiv- able lands to the plateaux, river basins and coastal lowlands east of 1100 the only major exception being the sheltered, fertile Sichuan Basin (see Appendix A). Combination of the country's physiography and its position at the eastern fringe of Eurasia expose it open to the cold, dry Siberian anticyclone in the winter, and to the monsoons including some violent typhoons, in the summer (Boucher 1975). Consequently, scarcely a year passes without some serious droughts or floods. Since the large continental or hemispheric pres- sure cells and air flows, are much beyond human intervention, China's situation shall be, in this respect, always precarious. Irregularity of precipitation patterns is most troublesome in the densely populated plains of the eastern third of China. Mean annual rainfall is greatest in the southeast and decreases gradually toward northwest: coastal Fujian has on average more than 2m of rain a year; the Lm isoEyet runs approximately from the mouth of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) to the central Sichuan; Beijing has just over 0.6m and Urumqi in linjiang gets less than 0.3m. There are at least 100 rainy days a year everywhere south of the Yangzi, but only around 50 in the Huang He basin (Watts 1969). Both in the south and in the north most of the rainfall is assoc- inted with the moist monsoonal southeasterlies - as much as 90 percent of annual precipitation may fall between May and September - but when these arrive early and propel the intensive rain belt northward faster than usual, then the normally wet Jiangnan (area south of the Chang Jiang) may suffer a -3- fuelwood and timber, for cremation of the dead and, to a mo smal effect, for ini-ak±ng soot from burnt pines. This traditional discrepancy between the environmental attitude and behavior (Tuan 1968) could not cease on that October day in 1949 when foundation of a new China was proclaimed. The Chinese environmental record of the past three decades. is a mixture of excellent intentions, good achievements, interspersed with neglect during periods of strifie-. -4- 2. CRITICAL ENVIRONMNTAL PROBLEMS Environmental pressures represented by large-scale deforestation, losses of cropland, reclamation of lakes, erosion and desertification have intensified since 1949. In some instances it has been the result of state policies, as in the case of conversion of grassland and lakeland to fields, and the extension of grain cultivation. In others it has come about as a mixture of resource exploitation and desperate actions by poor peasants: deforestation is such a case. 2.1. Deforestation - Deforestation appears to be the country's most critical environmental problem. Chinese writings, citing extensive afforestation in the not so distant past, have in the last three years portrayed one of the gravest environmental crises in global terms. This assessment contradicts those of some Western visitors to China in the 1970s noting the country-s strong commitment to large-scale afforestation supported annually by statistics. Kenneth Galbraith (1973) generalized: "The hills of China, which I had always heard of as being bare, are no longer so". Although China has a larger area of forests now than in 1949 - some explanation is needed to show that, in effect, the opposite is nearer reality. Official Chinese figures, old and new, are often contradictory. During the 1950s the published estimates of the area covered by forests ranged between 5 and 10 percent of China's territory. The latest official Chinese figure for 1979 (repeated during 1980) is 12.7 percent, or 121.4 million ha, up from eight percent (76.5 million ha) in 1949 (Anonymous 1979a). This new total is inconsistent with another official figure stating that between 1949 and 1979 some 28 million ha were newly afforested (Anonymous 1979b) - the L979 total should be only 104.5 million ha assuming no deforestation took place. This large difference, however, may be irrelevant. China may now have a nominal tree cover over nearly 13 percent of its territory - but much of it cannot qualify as true forest, and little can be classified as productive stands in standard forestry terms. In 1963 the Ministry of Forestry noted (Richardson 1966) that nearly 50 percent of the then estimated 96 million ha is secondary forest following partial or complete exploitation, hence of low productivity. The latest afforestation figure similarly could be misleading. The previous total of 27 million ha of afforested land nay have been a target for the years 1949-1959. Subtracting the poorly stocked secondary growth (at least 46 million ha), the newly planted areas (28 million ha) and the mature forests destroyed during the past two decades (conservatively estimated at about 5 million ha) - 6 - -6- endangerment of several wildlife species. China's other large area of tropical forest, in Mishuangbanna on the Thai boundary experiences similar '..legal logging, forest fires and shifting cultivation which destroy 3,300 ha a year. Although the area is a Protected National Reservation, more thm 7,000 people have encroached, establishing 40 villages and cutting trees for buildings and firewood (Yang 1980).. Cbina's richest subtropical evergreen forest was in the moist m1ritime province of Fujian: in 1940 timber reserves totalled 178 million M - now they stand at 89 million m . Annual cutting surpasses the natural increment by 44 percent. ?orest fires destroyed more than 54 million trees in 1977, and more than 3 million in 1979 (Anonymus 1980). Even the tiny remaining forests or the groves of tree crops (tung oil trees, mulberries, bamboo, oranges) and threatened: they are cut and the land sown to grain (Ming 1979). China's forests are thus rapidly receding - from the boreal stands of firs and pines in Beilongjiang to the mangroves of Hainan, from the mixed subtropical forests of Sichuan to bamboo groves of ZheAiang. The partys official daily Remin R-bao now runs frequent fIrst page appeals to save 'the vital resources of the nation". New forestry Laws went into effect in 1979, afforestation continues, but the situation continues to deteriorate. Very large numbers of trees have been planted in China since 1949. A revealing folk saying explains why some areas plant trees every year - and still have no forests: "Trees everywhere in spring, just half left by sumner; to care taken in the fall, all trees gone by winter" (Wang 1978). Survival rate of new plantings has been very low - often much below tan percent - for several reasons. Unsuccessful planting, inadequate maintenance and lack of an effective scientific approach to afforestation are cited as key causes. The Policy Research Office of the Ministry of Forestry (1981) recently estimated that nationwide since 1949 no more than one-third of all plantings managed to survJve. Forestry law has yet to be enforced. Tts provisions are strict: illegal felling of trees in state forests is absolutely forbidden and a guilty party not only has to pay high fines, but also has to plant three new trees in place of one destroyed and has to guarantee the saplings' survival. The regulations also forbid any forest clearing to areate farmland, and hold the leading forestry officials responsible for losses caused by large forest fires. :n reality many forest fires cannot be stopped as there is "always a lack of professional firemen and lack of funds to protect the forests" (Zinhua in Chinese, 26 November 1978). The absence of personal responsibility in a system of collective leadership, unrealistic goals and desperation of poor peasants are forwarded as the causes of deforestation. regional climatic changes have been documented. During the years 1950-1958 20 million ha of cropland were annually affected by natural disasters (mainly prolonged droughts or extensive flooding) while between 1972 and 1977 the annual average rose to more than 35 million ha, or a third of all farmland (Yi 1980). The same source states that in wet South China where two out of three days used to be rainy, :ow two out of three years are excessively dry. In Heilong,jiang, formerly one of China's most forestad provinces, overcutting and grassland destruction have brought previously unknown serious droughts and duststorms (Reilongiang provincial broadcast, 15 August 1979). At the opposite end of the country, in subtropical Yunnan, long-range climatic records show a severe drought once every 9.6 years between 1470-1950 - yet between since 1950 and 1978 extreme spring and spring-sumer drought occurred every 3.2 years and the frequency of floods also tripled (Wang and Zhou 1981). The conclusion is clear: if current deforestation trends are not reversed within a generation, major ecological disasters are likely in what is already a very erosion and drought-prone country. Economically, the worsening wood shortages impair living standards by affecting: a) the development of modern coal mines (pitprop shortages are acute), b) railways (sleepers have to be made of concrete consuming scarce fossil fuels in the process), c) industrial and housing construction (housing gonditions, especially in the cities are poor, with average of 1.7 m of floor space per person), d) education (paper shortages are so severe that textbook production suffers). Although much of the former forestland was converted into grainfields,.China's total area of arable land declined dramatically. 2.2. Losses of cropland In 1957 China's cultivated area was 1.677 million mu or 111.8 million hectares (ha). According to an agricultural development report by the Central Comittee of the Chinese Cu-munist Party (1979) between 1957 and 1977 more than 100 million =u or some 7 million ha, of cultivated land were requisi- tioned for various capital construction projects. This loss alone implied that China-s arable land in the late 1970s was no more than about 105 million ha, a decline of at least six percent in coparison with the late 1950s. The total cultivated area (ca. 105 million ha.) represents only 11% of the total land area, a very small 0.12 ha per capita. India has three-and-a-half times as much cultivated land per capita- relative to rural population. Japan has twice as much and even indomesia and 3angladesh are marginally better off. However, on most occasions in 1979 and in early 1980 a variety of Chinese sources, in- - 10 - of the current 100 million ha of farm soils already belongs to a low-yield category: there are semi-arid, arid, saline, alkaline and eolian sandy soils in the North and Northeast, many paddy sails in Cbina's subtropics and bog, clay and heavily eroded soils around the country (Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences 1979). Recent cropping practices are seriously degrading the previously good or excellent soils. Careless irrigation is spreading the area of saline and alkaline soils throughout the aubei Plain and is creating bog or gley soils in many intensively cropped soils in Jiangnan-. In Htmano less than 40 percent of cultvated area (1.2 million ha) has been turned into bog soils whose lowered air content and lowered temperature slows the absorption of nutrients and impedes plant growth. Taihu lakeland in Jiangsu and large areas in Guangdong are also seriously affected. Continuous double and even triple- cropping of rice, improper application of synthetic and lower quantities of organic fertilizers, and failure to rotate vet and dry crops (especially decreased green manure and legume planting) conrLbu=e to soil degradation. Proper crop rocation is declining: For example, Jiangnan's area planted to green manures decreased from 8.4 million ha in 1972 to 7.7 million ha by 1977. Shandongs soybean fields shrank from tvo million ha in 1949 to 0.73 million ha by the mid-1970s (Soil and Fertilizer Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences 1979). . Fewer green manures and lower application of organic fertilizers . recently caused a rapid decline in K, ? and organic content in Guangdong's soils. Water accumulation in continually-cropped paddy fields throughout Jiangnan leads to the formation of 'blue asbestos mud', a 10 cm thick clay some 20 c= below the soil surface, which retains water and fertillzer, prevents roots growth and causes frequent rotting (Mi 1979). Crops grown in these degraded shallow sails, low in organic matter, do not respond to higher (and increasingly costly) water and chemical fertilizer inputs, so that many of Guangdong's paddies mow yield just 2.25-3 tonnes per ha. Hybrid strains are blamed as fields cannot surpass the record yields. set in the 1960s (QiU 1979). ?rincipal changes in the use of Chia's farmlands during the past three decades have been an initial expansion and subsequent decline of culti- vated land, steady and sizable increase of irrigation, growth of aulticropping and greater emphasis on grain crops. The irrigated area was expanded more than three tines since 1949, and it zow accounts for aearly ball the cultivated land (with about two-thirds irrigated by liquid-fuelled or electric pumps) but qualitative deficiencies are widespread. For example, total irrigation capacity of more than 6,500 large projects should be some 29 million ha, but only less than 21 million ha are efficiently watared. Leaks and seepages cause average losses of 40-50 percent of the channelled water, and in many localities the losses are up to 70-60 percent (71i3bua in Chinese, 27 July 1978). nx-1cropping has been largely ained at increasing the grain output, and there are clear indications that its most intensive form - triple-cropping in the Chang Jiang lowland and in Guangdong province - may not be the best per cubic meter, and the mazimum silt concent in several Shaanxi rivers has been recorded at more than 1.5 tonne per cubi meter. The annual total of loess eroded in the Huang He basin (745,100 m ) is now approximately 1.6 billion tonnes, about 17 times the Nile's silt load and nearly 25 percent higher than in the earl7 1950s (Roleman 1968; linhua in English,'17 January 1979). This major increase in silting is related to the extensive conversion of forests and grasslands into new farmland. Unprotected, or only partially vegetated, loess surfaces have enormous erosion rates. While the average annual rainfall in Shaamxi may carry away about four kilograms of topsoil from each mu of forest and 6-7 kilograms per mu of grassland, the rates are nearly 250 kilograms for farmland and 450 kilograms for fallow land (Tong and Bao 1978). Moreover, the new fields have, after only a few years, extremely poor yields. Annual output of food grains over much loess land does not exceed 0.5 tonne per hectare, resulting in stringent food rationing (average for 122 worst affected counties is less than 150 kilograms of grain per capita a year) and living standards so low that they are "in quite a number of places still lower than during the early post-liberation period or the War of Resistance against Japan" (Tong and Bao 1978). These authors, writing in a revealing and unorthodox way in Ren-in Ribao (People's Daily), give the most striking example from Guyuan county in Ningxia, where the 1949 grain availability of 410 kilograms per capita has fallen to 100 kilograms, and where farming on the reclaimed land provides an average annual income of 19 yuan per person (Y-$US 0.54). Previously lucra- tive cattle breeding and local forestry have almost disappeared, while the new farmland yields only 100-150 kilograms of grain per hectare. Conversion of forests and grasslands decreases local precipitation and introduces unpredict- able frosts, making the selection of proper crop varieties for steady farming even more difficult. The Huang He control plan published in 1955 envisaged a comprehensive solution of the loess problem by large-scale afforestation, grassing, terracing and dam building. But nearly a quarter century later the Government observes that "the process of ecological destruction" on the loess highlands has been especially severe "over the past 30 years" and that "many hills had been stripped bare" (Xinhua in English, 7 March 1979). The large Sameuxia reservoir built in the late 1950s to lessen the silt deposits along the lower Huang He in Henan and Shandong has been a dangerous failure. As the accumulation of silt behind the dam progressed much faster than anticipated, the city of Xian, upstream from the dam on the Wei He, was threatened by the floods resulting from the rising river bed and the Sanmenzia storage had to be drastically reduced by cutting the outlets through the dam (Smil 1979). Consequently, piling up of the silt along the Ruang He's course through the North China Plain continues nearly as much as before; the river bed rises high above the farmland and the already high dy-es have to be strengthened every year to hold back the muddy torrents. Moreover, the deposits lengthen 14 1980). The magnitude of the erosion problem in the Changjiang basin was outlined by Guo (1980). Large-scale deforestation, especially during the 1970s, has been responsible for rapid topsoil losses (in Jiangzi as much as four cm a year), decline in crop yields (in parts of Human cereals harvests are down to more 800 kg per ha) and widespread reservoir silzing. This last problem is especially dangerous in the flood-prone Hubei province where 178 reserpirs in Ruanggang district lose to silting an average of six million a of storage capacity a year. Even sone larger hydro- alectric stations had to be taken partially out of operation and many small reservoirs were abandoned in just two to three years after completion. Silt content of several major rivers in the basin in the years 1966-1973 was Z3 percent above the 1956-1965 level. There is now 29 perFent more sediment in Poyanghn, China's largest freshwater Lake (3780-5100 km area), and navigable channels in Jiangzi were cut by 977 km compared with the year 1957 (Guo- 1980). As is the case with spreading erosion, most of China's desertifica- tiqnq problems can be ascribed to human actions. Since 1949 about 65,000 1cm- in 207 counties in all provinces were desertified and 91 percent of ' this deterioration has been ascribed improper land use (Ma and Chang 1980; Wang, 1981). The country's extensive orthern-northwestern grasslands bordering on large interior deserts of Mongolia, Ningxia, Gansu and linjiang have suffered most heavily. True grasslands in the semi-arid North China cover nearly 287 million ha, with 85 percent in short grasses and 15 percent in more productive long-grass meadow formations. Approximately 20 -41lon ha could be used for pasture, mostly in Nei 4ongol, Gansu, Qinghai and Minjiang (Xinhua in Chinese, 29 July 1979). However, during the past two decades the widespread. and indiscriminata reclamation for grain and frequent overgrazing led to an alarming devastation of this potentially rich natural resource. Accord- ing to one source (MLi-hua in Chinese, 29 July 1979), some 46 million ha of pastures (about 20 percent) have gradually degenerated. Statistics from the 1979 national conference on grassland development show that more than one- quarter of Cbina's grasslands have deteriorated since 1949 into sand or have been alkalIzed (Xinhua in Chinese, 24 July 1979). Nei Iongol provides striking examples. In Ih Ju league, 1.2 million ha of grasslands turned sandy between 1957 and 1972; in recent years more than 200,000 ha of pastures became sandy each year. In Ju Ud league, 40 percent of its 4.7 million ha of grassland have become sandy. Similar grassland losses occurred in Ulanqab and Il1n Gol leagues. The effects are predictable. First, desertification reduces both the quantity and the quali:y of the grass available for grazing and reduces the anount of hay for winter feeding. Consequently, large numbers of cattle die of hunger and cold. Animals dying as a result of chronic spring shortages of fodder far surpass the number of cattle delivered to the state by herdsmen (Iinhua in Chinese, Z9 July 1979). The decline of cattle herding in Nei hongol is best illustrated by the - 16 - famous -ong Hu lake was halved in size to 40,000 ha since the late 1960's (Anonymous 1978a) and much of the remainder is so shallow that people could wade through. Incomplete 1949-1978 statistics for China as a whole show a loss of over 20 million mu, or at least 1.33 million ha, of waters suitable for inland fishery, an area equal to about eight percent of the country's total inland water surface (Cong 1979). The effects have been predictable. Natural inland catch in 1978 was half of that in 1954 and it constituted only 30 percent of the total freshwater harvest. In spite of the extension of reservoir and pond breeding, the total inland harvest was down from 40 percent of the aggregate aquatic output in 1959 to just 23 percent in 1978. Guangdong province-s annual catch dropped from 20,000 tonnes in 1966 to about 10,000 tonnes in 1978. Hunan's average 1970s landings were 37 percent below the 1950s. Hubeis Hong Hu county output fell 60 percent between 1975 and 1978 compared with the 1950s. Harvests of reeds for manufacture, water plants for fbod and waterweeds for fertilizer or feed have declined substantially, as did floodwater retention. Although the fish and crustacean breeding, spawning and feeding grounds were destroyed, a large part of "reclaimed" land surrounding lakes now lies wasted and empty. But the water surfaces are gone and with them their moderating influence on local climate, above all on the extension of frostfree period, a critical consideration in all colder double-cropping regions of populous eastern China. Rice or wheat cultivation in the newly reclaimed land often has low yields. On the one hand, widespread destruction of freshwater fish through land reclamation, blocking of migration routes by dams and locks built without fish passages (in the Changjiang basin over 50 large lakes have had their outlets to the river cut), growing urban, industrial and farm pollution (in three Northeastern provinces almost all rivers are now seriously polluted) as well as by overfishing including dynamiting and poisoning ("Tu 1979). On the other hand continuing mass campaigns urge the digging of new suburban fish ponds and the creation of new aquatic breeding centers. With effective incentives and conditions, the potential for China's aquaculture is impressive. No less than 40 percent of China's 16.7 million ha of inland waters are suitable for aquatic breeding. Opportunities are espe- cially good in the country's nearly 90,000 water reservoirs. Less than two-thirds of their two million ha are now used for aquaculture and the average yield has been only 80 kg per ha (Anonymous 1978b). In contrast, the average 1979 yield of 7400 ha of China's 'intensive fish ponds was about 1,000 kg/ha, yields at aubeis Hong au can be around 4,000 kg/ha, Tilapia bred in the southern lakes brings up to 18,000 kg/ha and a new method of raising freshwater fish in cages in reservoirs and lakes gives harvests as high as 70,000 kg/ba (Xinhua in English, 24 December 1979). Scientific management of inland fisheries could thus bring enormous nutritional benefits. Current annual freshwater fish consumption averages are one kg per capita; even in Hubei it is just 2.5 kg/capita (Smil 1981a). * . - 18 - three decades has been commensurate with the reduction of the coU=ry's natural habitats. Since 1949, ten species (including wild horses Equus caballus przewalskil, and high-nose antelopes) became extinct and 20 are very near ex- tinction. The Crested Ibis, Nipponia apon, one of the world's rarest birds, was rediscovered in May 1981 in the Qining Mountains of Sbaanxi province, after being believed extinct in China (Yinzeng 1982). Indiscriminate hunting reduced the population of fur animals throughout the country: while in the decade of 1956-1965 animal harvest averaged 16 million skins, now it is just over seven million (Ma and Chang 1980). Pere David-s dear, Cervus davidianus, also was 'discovered- by French missionary/=aturalist ?ere Armand David in 1826 in the Imperial Hunting Park Nan Eai-tzu just south of Beijing. ?ere David sent several specimens to Europe before the Run-lo river flooded in 1894, destroying the park walls allowing the deer to escape. Herbrand Arthur, Eleventh Duke of Bedford, accumulated some of the European specimens and managed to breed them into a small herd which survived two world wars. Two pairs returned in 1956 startad to breed in China after more than half a century absence. As the country's richest tropical and subtropical forest suffered, so did their natural inhabitants. Hainans tropical forests sheltered in 1949 more than 200 rare slope deer, 100,000 water deer,. and more than 2,000 black crown apes (1ylobates concolor); today their respective counts stand at about 40, 10,000 and less than 30 (Zhang 1980). In Yunan's Mishuangbanna national reserve many protected specLes, including gibbon, leaf monkey, slender loris, wild elephant and wild ox are near extinction. One commune shot 39 protected oxen in 1979 and a local party secretary-killed eight Oxen in one day. As the writer in Guangming Ribao rightly remarks, if pro- tacted animals are treated this way, one can imagine the fate of other fauna (Yang 1980). Spreading pollution contributes to the decline of wildlife. - 19 - 3. EIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Western literature on China's environment in the early 1970s portrays mature-loving people keen on cleanliness and suggests pollution is scarcely known. Recent reports suggest however that China's pollution is severe, ubiquitous and worsening. 3.1. Air pollution Air pollution, particularly severe in virtually all of China's large cities and industrial areas arises from primarily the widespread combustion of low-quality solid fuels. Nearly one-third of China's 600 million tons of coal is used as household fuel, either as lump coal or coal-dust briquettes (Smil 1978). Combustion of these low grade fuels in small inefficient stoves converts only 10-18 percent of the chemical energy of the coal into useful thermal energy, as opposed to 80-90 percent conversion in large boilers. Pollutants are released without much dispersion very low above the ground creating the nation-s most serious air quality problem especially in the northern cities. In industrialized nations, most such fuel is burned in large power plants and large industrial boilers equipped with electrostatic precipi- tators (which removes fly-ash), and tall smokestacks which reduce the ground concentrations of gaseous pollutants. According to the head of the Office for Environmental Protection, the high winter concentrations of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide are responsible for much chronic respiratory disease. Air pollution in China's four most affected large cities - Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan and Guangzhou - is estimated to be responsible for more than 6,000 premature deaths annually (Qin 1980). Industrial coal combustion similarly contributes to Chinas air pollution. In Beijing, where over eight million tonnes of coal are consumed annually, 72 percent of the fuel burned by industry is wasted. Low (30-40 percent) efficiencies are typical for most of the country's boilers. Con- sequently, in 1978 otly 180 million tonnes of the more than 600 million tonnes total coal output were converted into useful thermal energy (Chen, Huang and Iu 1979). Improved efficiency of combustion in China's numerous outdated thermal power plants and industrial boilers could thus reduce, even without additional controls, particulate and gaseous emission by as much as 50 percent in many cases. Installation of electrostatic precipitators would virtually eliminate gro-ss black smoke not only from the older boilers, but also from new plants (for example in Wuhan). The overall magnitude of the control problem is, however, enormous. combustion of 600 million : of China's low grade coal releases annually 120 million t of ash, 20 million t of flyash and 12 million t of S02 (Liu 1980). Airborne concentrations of particulate matter and dustfall in urban and - zJ1 -. Moreover local damage in many places appears to be beyond easy repair and some reports indicate a lack of technical information regarding proper pollutant disposal. In. September 1980, workers in a Liaoning province chemical factory took & 500 kg of chlorine tank and dumped it into the river. The exploded cloud of chlorine seriously poisoned 78 patients in a. nearby sanitarium. The local hospital refused to treat them (as they were not local residents) and they had to be put into an army hospital (L-aoning provincial broadcast, 2 October 1980). Heavy industrial pollution in Lanzhou's ligu district already has destroyed fruit trees in nearby villages, date pal.s flower but bear no fruit, and pumpkins fail to mature; livestock has oral cavities which ulcerate, perforate and keep them from eating, causing high death rates (Miong and others 1978). ?hotochemical smog, now detectable in the Lanzhou area about 130 days each year, will worsen the situation. 3.Z Noise ?ollution Noise pollution in large Chinese cities was cited in 1981 by the deputy Minister of the Environment to be the worst form of pollution. Atar a recent visit the editor of High Fidelity magazine labelled BeiJing the noisiest, if not the most polluted city he ever visited, with such an incessant, insistent cacophony of car horns that one could almost imagine cars crowding the streets". Taxis honkinzg timed in Beijing and Shanghai averaged a fairly constant rate of one per car every 1.2 seconds (Marcus 1979). The situation is not helped by turning off the ignition at stop lights, and restarting the motor to save gasoline. The impressions of inordinate noise were given a quantitative confirmation by Ma Dayou, deputy director of the Chinese Academy of Sciences Institute of Acoustics, who stated that noise in Beijing is greater than in Tokyo, a city with 15 times the number of vehicles and many more factories and transport terminals than Cbina-s capital. Even bells from Beijin's three million bicycles are a nuisance. Heasurements in Shanghai, Tianjin, Wuhan, Hangzhou, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Nanjing and Harbin showed the average decibel levels in aU these c4ties to be worse than in New York, London, Rome or Tokyo (Xinhua in Chinese, 18 March 1979). To-thirds of Beijing now experi- ences average noise exceeding 70 d3 (Xinhua in English, 11 November 1980). It is thus hardly surprising that Chinese urban residents complain to their local environmental protection units most often about the unbearable noise. 3.3. Water pollution and shortages With the rapid expansion of energy, chemical and metallurgical industries and with the growth of cities, water pollution has become wide- spread. All major rivers - the Chang Jiang, the Huang He, the luai He and the Chu Jiang - have been seriously contaminated in the stretches downstream of large cities discharging large quantities of untreated industrial and urban waste (Xinhua in Snglish, 17 'lay 1978). Waterbodies receiving chemical fertilizers, bioc1des and aight soil in rural and suburban areas are seriously contaminating existing and potential drinking water supplies. aters of. the. Li Jiang in the vicinity of the scenic Guilia in Guangxi have been so badly polluted by phenol, arsenic, chlorides and cyanide rhat the chree fac=ories causing the pollution had to be closed down and operation of another one was suspended. Most of the cormorants traditionally used for fishing in the river - 23 - twice the appropriate total. 2Subsurface subsidence funnels are already extending over about 1,000 km and surface subsidence is now also appearing (Zhu 1980). Groundwater usage in Beijing area exceeds sustainable flow by about 50 percent, and the current extended droughts will further curtail the supply. Nationwide, it is estimated that 40 million people suffer permanent and serious scarcities of drinking water (Xinhua in Chinese, 12 June 1960). Extent of the pollution control task is best appreciated by realizing that nationwide discharges of polluted water are now estimated to surpass 78.8 million t a day (nearly 29 billion ta year) with each t of wastewater contaminating on the average 14 t of natural water and annual economic loss caused by this massive pollution is put at about V 5 billion (Qin 1980). In the capital alone two million t of untreated water are released each day (Zhu 1980), In Tianjin 1.26 million t a day, while Shanghai's water treatment facilities can handle no more than 250,000 t of waste- water a day (Wen Hui Sao, 11 November 1980). Urban wastewater could be used as a good liquid fertilizer but it contains such high concentrations of heavy metals and organic poisons from industrial enterprises that its use on crops has led to serious contamination of soils in the suburban communes (especially serious cases occurred near Tianjin, China's third largest city). One of the greatest water pollution "successes" of the recent past turned out to be a cruel fake. A new sewage treatment oxidizing pool near Echeng city on the shore of Yaer Lake (Hubei province) was built at a cost of 4 6.53 million and with six million hours of volunteer labor to eliminate severe pollution caused by discharges of three large chemical plants. An expensive model of the installation toured the the country and shortly after completing the construction propaganda articles in 1979 portrayed the lake to be pristine again (Xinhua in English, 18 July 1978). The Commimst party daily reporter visited the region in summer 1980 and found that while all sewage from three large factories should be taken to the pool through a 9 km long pipe, it flowed that way for only one month after the work's completion in August 1979. As the sewage is not pretreated and the pipeline would corrode rapidly, all the wastes now flow in an open ditch along the pipe, contaminating all water for several tens of thousands of peasants: during drought they irrigate their fields with it, during floods it covers their field and they have nothing else to drink. The outlook: no solution seems to be forthcoming (Liu Heng, 1980). 3.4. Urban congestion and chemicals in the environment The preceding accounts have shown that severe air and water pollution problems are encountered in China's largest cities. Environmental degradation is intensified by excessive noise, lack of open space, scarcity of greenery, - 25 - Recently announced goals of turning large Chinese cities into environmental showcases - Beijing is now obviously highest on the list - will be a ao small task, and its success or failure will be a telling indicator of China's ability to deal with its environmental problems. But the cities represent a minority of people in China (about 17 percent) and environmental problems will be adequately solved only by addressing the triad of environment, food and energy. - 26 - 4. ENVIRONENT , FOOD AND ENERGY Providing the world's largest population with food and energy depends greatly on the environment while, at the same time, shaping it 'to a notable extent.- China's agroecosystem and rural energetics share many common features with other large, poor and populous countries while also showing many unique characteristics. 4.1. China's agroecosystem The outstanding characteristics of China's agroecosystem are the predominance of plant: food over meat in human diets which, however, remain only barely adequate;, and near total reliance on traditional biofuels. Plant tissues and their derivatives supply 95 percent of food energy, 90 percent of protein and about 60 percent of lipid intake. Grain alone provides nearly 90 percent of energy and four-fifths of protein (Sail 1981a; all of the following discussion of nutrition draws on this paper). Such an efficient, basically vegetarian diet is, of course, common to all large populous developing nations. Rice supplies little more than two-fifths of food energy, while wheat flour accounts for little less than one-seventh, not much more than corn. Potatoes remain unpopular, while soybeans and their multitudinous products are scarcer than a generation ago. Vegetable oils have been in especially short supply, just two kilograms of oil per capita per year. Seasonally, vegetables may be plentiful and varied, but in winter, above all in the north, only cabbage and turnip predominate. Fruit is often scarce, and sugar is rationed to eight grams a day per capita. As for the animal foods, for the two decades before 1979, per capita consumption of meat and poultry never surpassed ten kilograms and for most of the-time was much lower. Five to eight kilograms of pork per capita a year, provided all but about ten percent of meat. Availability of poultry (mostly chicken, some ducks) averaged about one kilogram a year. Fish, both ocean and freshwater and other aquatic products, always an important source of protein in many parts of China, have been declining in consumption during the 1960s and 1970s (see section 2.4) compared to the 1950s. Nationwide average stands at less than five kilograms a year per capita and fish has been often scarce even in the midst of Jiangnan's "land of fish and rice" or on Hainan Island. Eggs and animal fats also have been in short supply. Changes initiated in the late 1970s have been slowly removing some of these scarcities. Larger areas of private plots and more lIberal attitude toward private production and sales in reopened rural markets have brought considerable improvements in the supply of pork, poultry, eggs and such quintessentially Chinese foodstuffs as melon seeds, red dates, hoisin sauce and bean sprouts. - 28 - tounes of 2, and some 3.6 million tonnes of K from this source. Naturally, volatilization and leaching losses from human and animal wastes both before and after application are substantial and highly variable, so it is impossible to be precise on the actual availability of nutrients, especially N, recycled from night soil and manures. Other orgazic materials regularly gathered, often composted and applied to fields include various crop residues, oil seed cakes, city garbage, bones, fish wastes and Lake and river silt. Green manures cultivated in rotation are not as popular as a generation ago but still occupy some ten million hectares each year. The combined theoretical contribution from all sources of organic ZnUtients is about five million tonnes of N, 1.6 million tonnes of ?, and just over five -illion tonnes of K. In comparison, chemical fertilizers now contribute some five million tonnes of N, less than a million tonnes of F, and half a million tonnes of K. In a similar comparison, tradi- ttonal biomass energies are even more important than modern fuels. 4.2. Rural energetics Impressions concerning rural energy supplies are contentious. Small hydro stations (now about 90,000 in total, averaging less than 70 kW per station) have contributely significantly to rudimentary rural electrification. Most of this production is consumed by communal industry and crop processing, not for household consumption. Per capita use of electric!ty in rral China (most of it is actually the energy used to pump water for irrigation or drainage) is less than 40 kWh per year, just enough to keep a 50 W lightbulb shining for two hours a day. Small coal mines ease fuel supply in many areas, but their output is of very low quallty (never sorted, more than half is rocks). Its combus- tion, besides being highly polluting, is very inefficient. Biogas generation in parts of Sichuan province and in some counties of a few other provinces (especially in Jiangsu and Zhejiang) is a successful enterprise. In general, however, the biogas program recently has been revealed to be disappointing since 45 percent of all completed digesters were found to be unable to generate any biogas. Many such units were abandoned after a few years of operation, with peasants complaining about high labor needs, high cost and poor perform- ance of anaerobic fermentation and unwilling to build further units. Chinese villagers, therefore, are still overvhelzingly reliant on traditional biomass fuels. The country Is so deforested - and deforesting - to such an extant that scarcities of fuel are both acute and massive. Yang Jike (linhua in English, 3 January 1981) claims that of 800 million rural inhabitants 500 million lack adequate fuel during three to five months of every year and in the hardest hit provinces 70 percent of peasants lack- sufficient fuel. Even in the best-off regions about a quarter of villagers are short of their needs. Wang Menkui (1980) estimates that of 170 million rural households, more than 70 million suffer 'serious shortage" o. fuel. - 30 - One of the obvious ways to alleviate the situation - planting of small fuelwood lots - was until recently discouraged or even prohibited. In Shanxi's Yan'an-Yulin region, dry and heavily eroded loess area drastically short of fuel, the private planting of trees for fuelwood was repeatedly prohibited, most recently by the provincial administration's order in October 1979, as a clear sign of "promoting capitalism" (Jiang 1979). Problems with small coal mines, small hydrostations and biogas digesters mean that these energy sources do not contribute as importantly as generally thought just a few years ago. China's rural energy scarcity is, to borrow Magoroh Maruyama's cybernetic concept, a problem of a deviation amplifying system. Increased need for fuel and food causes more deforestation and land degradation, which in turn intensifies the initial scarcity. The problem could be helped from outside the rural sector, (i.e. by the aation's modern energy sector), but only to a limited extent. 4.3. Modern energetics Many fundamental limitations in China's modern fuel and power industries contribute to the country's environmental degradation. Although China has the world-s largest hydroenergy potential and ranks, respectively, third and thirteenth in coal and crude oil reserves, and although its total primary energy production now ranks third behind the USA and the USSR, shortages of all forms of energy in China are so severe that one-third of all industrial capacity cannot be used. Industries suffer from repeated interruptions of electricity supply, and the most efficient fuels (liquids and gases) are used in much lower proporzions in China than elsewhere in the world. Clearly, if there is not enough to supply even the country's largest cities, little help can be expected for energy-poor rural areas. Contribution of modern energetics to China's environmental pollu- tion is a result of two factors: low conversion efficiency and, until recently, lack of control technologies. China's average fuel conversion efficiency is about 28 percent, compared to 40-50 percent rates in North America and Western Europe, and to nearly 60 percent in Japan (Smil 1981c). Generation of the same amount of useful energy in China thus requires combustion of twice as much fuel as in Japan - accompanied by twice as high emissions of air pollutants and discharges of wastewater. In several key industries with high pollution potential (metallurgy, chemical industries) the discrepancy is even higher. Since industry consumes such a large propor- tion of all commercial energy, industrial energy conservation offers the greatest opportunity. Consequently, one of the most effective ways to combat air and water pollution in China would be to conserve fuel, eliminate the most wasteful enterprises altogether and improve the conversion efficiencies of other key plants. Since China 4s aware of this, lage-sale coservaion shock campaig=s have already brought encouragi4g resulzz.: n 1979 pr-.:.ar e=ergy consumpfou we--= up by only 2.3 permenz but zhe -nioal icome -ose by seven percent. 4.A Potulation hough Cinas populaion (983 ill at Cnd 198C) ls by far :he orld's larges: (.nd±a is second with 6.56 ln id-L979), China's popula- ion grwth rate (n es:-aed 1.2- in 1980) is low by daveloping counry seaa-ds. aingz the bir_h rata since 1965 reorse=s a declýne far faster han recurded in any other coutry. However, abour hal. of Ch2=a's populatlon is younger han rwenry-f2.ve years. With sa =any people reachtg child-bearing age i- :te ext nio decades, only rio childreu per famjly projects a populat:on of at least 1.23 bi.3 by Che year 2000 Vh~Irteen =lilon new c4iens are being added each year. In SCIte of rte curren intensive campa.gn for one-child famliies (promotad by the combintaion Cf delayed =arr:age age -- Ce cmined age of brIde and groom =ust toeal 50 years ar =are - and econ--<- ince-_tlves such as bettar food ratom=, =re lving space, prearenc_al access : k.idergarens and educat:ou ties) i- wou.ld be unealisti:c to e=pect i to succeed fully, especily i= :he vi.ages. An average of 1.5 children per cou=la for the ext geration wouLd be a =ajor success - but i: would sr_ll push the toail to 1.156 b.ln by the year ZC00. Even in che case of ate cosr optJ-ls:=c outome, China's popula:ian icrease i te Czjg decades W.ll be enonously influntial in etlortz to haL: and reverse enviLo.mental de;radatou. - 32 - 5. SOLUTIONS AND LLwITATIONS The fact that all the preceding pages could have been written on the basis of Chinese studies and reports is an encouraging sign. The country's environmental scientists are using the present period of new candor to publish an impressive array of observations - and to gain the attention of policy-makers. Improvements are being achieved, although many fundamental limitations persist. 5.1. New awareness and persistent limitations Current awareness of environmental degradation is in sharp contrast with recent past attitudes. Credit must go to those people in China who know something about the compleities of environmental affairs and who, often at personal risk, have been bringing the true and dismal state of China's environ- ment to public-s and to policy-maker's attention. A profound limitation is the tiny number of such experts. In the whole country of one billion there are less than 600 people educated in ecology, and until the last two years there have been no university curricula offering such training (Liong 1979). Among the existing experts, largely people educated decades ago in the West, Japan or in the USSR, a perceptive Swedish observer (L. Lundegardh, leader of a Swedish delegation of environ- mentalists, 1981) found an impressive degree of theoretical knowledge - while the practical measures in environmental control he assessed to be at the level of the 1930's. Scholarly ferment and education of public, after more than a decade of total silence, now take many forms. Conferences are held, new journals are published, scientists write to party and provincial newspapers. As a result, laws are promulgated and some practical steps are being taken. China's first national conference on ecology sponsored by the Academy of Sciences was held in lining (Qinghai) In August 1978. About 120 people attended, 64 papers were presented (mostly on ecology of forests, farmlands and pastures) and an eight-year research plan was drafted to promote cooperation among different disciplines (Xinhua in English, September 3, 1978). The first 2ational symposium on ecological equilibrium met in Zhuzhou, Hunan in December 1980. It focussed on appropriate resource use tn the country's large subtropical and tropical region which covers 21 percent of the total territory, contains nearly half of the population, and produces 60 percent of all grain. This region also supports 1,400 genera of plants and 1,500 species of animals but, particularly in its mountainous areas, ecological equilibrium was destroyed largely by the state-s "grain first" policies (Yinhua in English, 28 November 1980). Among many other recent environnentally- related meetings have been symposia on river sedimentation, on water transfer from the south to the north, on loess control, desertification and rural energetics (Xinhua in Chinese, 3 January 1981). "he Chi Scce=y of remenal. Sciences ;as estabi.shteý led . 1979, and saveral special.:ed -jourals devotad to .intrdiscipinary s:tudy of the en?:Cnez= are =ow Pub!shed =egularly. "hey i.clude Euanjing (.ir~nment:) Pubi-Lshed monhl7 i= Guangdo=g, Euanj4ng Bachu enal Protection), a binanthly from Bezjing, Euanjing Zau (.ve al. Science), bionthly published !n Be4j!ig, and ga jing Kaz uebao (Jour--a. c£ - CCverage :n hese journals is broad an intrdsc2iinry, with papers rangig from ar s and heavy =etaLs t dn.k, war, .o &conam:c pT."nning and envionental medine. Cbtia ow c=operates vit_h -al.avat brancnes o4 tte U Z a;ons (T , I O, dO ith many other in:aratinal organ±zations. Sold plans and legLslat:on deali tr he cc=nr's pressin e r- ental problems. Zher" are plas for la=ge-scale ražresta:ion in EeIlongijag; a star--r plan ro plan: same 700,000 ha of quic-growing high-yielding trees in t.he Jiang~an to ob2-1n useful tiber n just 10-15 years; and massie afforestation planed for the zhree norther= ar±d araas , :he planting of huge system of shelcer belts and fores=s from :j±ang :o e±logjiang: just the Irsc stage to be f!n4shed by 1385 calls fcr estabi4shmn of abou 5.3 ili ha of nev crees, an ecedingly dcžf4cult ask in zhe dry, Cold zorther- envronnent (Lnhua i= Chinese, 2 October 1980). The =ationwide goal t plant nearly 67 il-lmio ha cf =ev forests by =he year 2CC, zha: Ls eendng :e curran- tocal by hal. Wile C''a's environmn needs ths huge uev forast cover, its effective fulif h nt l be d±iu. Illegal fei..± g of trees in state or local ±oreszs has been strcty orb:idd boh tze state a p c reagulazts and n 1-979 he State ConuM i issued a new law .hat ot only raui =as fines and panrng of :hree nav rees in place ož one desroyed but it Uao dea==ds gumara=res for av saplings' sur:Vval (Linhua in Cinse, Jannary 25, 1279). These =ew regula- a.Ls afr a=7 farast ccea±~ zec-'--<- =ea'f.L a=d pfor pude<ShTm: for leadag ,cs=y zeszso e.b or huga Izzaes causeid by =a.-o= forest ±s A oew urent c±rcular vas publ_shed on Dece=ber 6, 980 placing distuion of all er produc=s i forest tones -nder :' ule fied managemen: of che forast depa r-n:a, forb:4 all ot.er orgzatons or i a to ftll or :o puc:hase any :rees, clcsing all free nae for Lmber and wood produc=s, and forbidding che za"ways :o si any wood ithgu foresr- adn4 e:ration cert.fia:es (X hu= In =glish Decmber 6, 1980). ?r1,ious laws basiaLly wer o less ssrict, bu the realiy deribzed in :Se secz:on on dežrestaion (2.) as =ot =uch a-`eczad by :i: issu.ance. -a long as the need for lumber or fuel. e=4n desvera=a, er as long as profis could be nade on the sa.le of jocd and ood produzcts, pas: eser.ence shiows :ba: complianca ad leanta:ion oay =:O Ce a tie. Couner-roductve conversion of uaka and grasslans inzo :a.Land ay 'e s1Zwing. Sott ac.izns done on :Sa orders --om above clealy d±d n - 34 - benefit the local peasants or herdets. Consequently, new policies of abandon- ing this course are generally welcome. First important steps to prevent and to reverse the destruction of water resources were taken in 1979. On February 10, 1979 the State Council issued "Regulations Governing the Breeding and Protection of Aquatic Resources" which list some 70 fish, mollusc, crustacean and plant species to be protected, restricts areas and periods open for fishing, outlaws-harmful harvesting practices and provides for penalties and rewards. In some areas reclaimed lakeland has been already reflooded and work on further extension of cropland has ceased. Similarly, further conver- sion of grasslands into fields was banned in Nei Mongol and elsewhere in the large zone of northwestern pastures. As for environmental pollution, fees are now by far the most popular tool to force negligent factories to reduce or to eliminate effluents. Penalties are usually set a little higher than the cost of correct disposal and they alone have succeeded in many local cases where simple changes were required to deal with the problem. During 1980, 1,500 factories were fined as an example for China's 400,000 enterpris s which release each year 28.7 billion t of waste water, 3.8 trillion a of waste gases and 450 million t of solid residues (Xinhua in English, August 18, 1980). Different control strategies are needed for large industrial plants: some outdated processes may be closed entirely, some operations may be combined to use the residues of one as raw materials of another, and most frequently modern control equipment may be installed. The present system of levying flat rates on excessive discharges of industrial waste water may be improved by using progressive rates in order to provide incentives for plants to treat their own pollutants on site. Pollution changes on industrial waste water discharges have been imposed in Shanghai size 1980. State investment is needed, and although Chinese publications readily admit the shortage of money for pollution control, some initial steps have been made. In late 1978, three central organs under the State Council (the State Planning Commission, the State Economic Coiission and the Environmental Protection Group) ordered 186 major metallurgical, chemical, oil, machine, textile, light and building enterprises to take the necessary corrective steps to control their wastes by the year 1982 - or to face a shutdown (Peking Review, November 24, 1978 ). An even better sign of the serious awareness of pollution problems was the decision of the three central organs requiring all major new or expanded industrial projects to install the necessary control equipment. Culmination of the Central Government s effort to deal with environ- mental degradation was the promulgation of the "Environmental Protection Law of the PRC (for trial use)" by the 11th Session of the Fifth NPC Stand- ing Committee in September 1979 (Appendix D). This deals with most aspects of environmental degradation. Individual provinces, regions and municipalities have since been enacting specific rules and regulations based on this law. 5.Z. 7te ouclook Tha rece=- assessment of e e tal -).:eczion (Gua, Z.98 eijig .eview) lisztater recycing a ci :ndustry, pval o by paper =:Ills5, lowerin:!g 0! aiz pollution1 inSone c4ities, and !.mproveme=': a.: war qua.:1z7 of seme rivers, lakes, reser==s , and coas al seas as che =a.-;or advrances. "e lolg legacy of seeking quc m esuls by forcømfu"17 emplo ng nat=rat l rsourcs and negl: their przcection sa ldged. Zhe .ack Of ecological kowledge ad prevasiveLy lo e e of using nergy and aw acerials uhou the economy lsc are e;has.z ad. "Cr the --me being, we canot apprpriate auch for ti (i . nvioena nrzll use." he aiproach Is : be, of =ecessi7, gradual and c= =t=atad. ke ndustri:Les and Ikey ci:Les (the ca;iLa!, and _amous sceni attactons as sangzhcu, Suhou, GIV -). Gven taasonable stabll=y, many of the acuza pol:ut:o and eivegoal deg?ada::on prnbles wl be dealt with. The alerative - in a c so densely populatd, so criticaLly depende=t oM ý: own 'ibod resour:es (Cbla s:L± y canno- ever be fed by iporz), =ry-= :o modernize so broadiy and rapidl7 - would further aggravaze evi eal degrada=:o= -:h ec=a-a g eco c cosequencas. The task woul2d be d n in he best ož r stances. ct =C Chi-ese case, przble solq'7ers have lt:=e mo=ey and al=os: -o sklled apower. :ha enormity of :e ask - -cg re of :Se en7uent iz - early a quarter o± bam-i:7 li7es - Ls becoming recognzed. yornar neglect and racen.t destrcaion worses :he prospecz; a:tindas ož people wio emerged a doe= years of barsh prfvation into a =cre prosperus l s are =c coducive t= conserration, sav:ngs and es wn of immedaze c=su-prion. The oposi:I is :rue and zhough one =ay c c:ondone i:, it Ls 'mmne.y so nder3candAle; zlie @eis nce of paallel econy so o-en descbed 4 te S52,. L3 stong i= China and It viLI c.Larly coun7arac: e=arta -o deal wit1 proble-ma c! :the rom=on good. The best outiook 13 for some g:adual locaizd e and for p n rther Lajor degradtion n ay sec:or3 and areas. lasponsiba CbIese ar acuzl7 awar hat an un;precedénad bcafwa of t ec:osys-em 1i a real c a to be addressed and Zun4raced. The ?olay aesearc O~f ce of She hi:±stry of Foesty (1981) czncluded sta-k.ly bu ?a e do not taka f:rL and decizsiTe ac:on =ov .... :ie d4e onseguecez are ,wzg±»na SCe ." Such s he ,sta=a C he e%voe iawed by knowledge- able Cbiese. he large poouLa±io, Sh relative povty of -he na-ionz, an:d ts po.lica.l inst.abi.liy say prove to be Iess t-dae=tcal czrs!rain' :o economic improvement than past age to theenioen. - 36 - 6. References Anonymous. 1978a. Order for control of environmental pollution. Beijing Review, 21 (46) , 31. Anonymous. 1978b. Ensure the supply of fish by all means. Remin Ribao, 18 October 1978, p. 1. Anonymous. 1979a. Strengthening research on forestry economics. Guangming Ribao, 17 March 1979, p. 4. Anonymous. 1979b. ?rotecting the forests. Beijing Review, 22 (9), 4. Anonymous. 1979c. Sandstorms threaten Beijing. Guangming Ribao, 2 March, 1979, 'p. 1. Anonymous. 1980a. Damage to Fujian forests. Renmin Ribao. 23 March, p.3. Anonymous. 1980b. 300 .natural reserves. 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It i o mdiate urgency o protecz ou anvionment and aual resouces. Jo, Ga , No.. 10, 15 October 1980, pp. 2S-29. Marcus, 1. 1979. China chrncle.s. E±i .ideliy 29. 64. Eyuam.a, 3. 1963. The second cyberneticA. Ame-. Sci. 51L:64-179. .licy 2.esearch C.ffice of :te Y=.±stry of orest-ry. 1981. 1= forestry work ac:ordi.ng o 1aw. Hongac, No. J, March 1, 198., 41-47. Qi ' . L 980. Aý discussion of Cn.a's enna.I protection eonoogy. ae=n mlbao, 4 Augus 1980, z. 4. Q1u,Ecngquan. 1379. The oz's cse and sol o power. Sandang liao, 3 Januar 979, p. 2 . Qin Inan. 1981. 7egecable plots in la;e ci:L-es =ms be srabilized. H±, 2.ibac, 1U February 1981, p. 2. Qu Ge±png and L- Il e', 1981. . o e- nagmen: in Ch. S.. 1966. Foesr in omunisr Chia. Salcre, jcns Szpciýs~ P=essz. Seidenstikar, J., LLsenberg, :.Z. and s d. 98. The ;anglang and ;-gng=a Giar Panda :eser7es and g conserra- :.on in :he ?eopLe's :e=ubl of Ca. 3coiat Cse=ra4cn press). - 38 - Shangguan Changjun. 1980. Ways must be found to solve energy problem in rural areas. Nongye Jingji Wenti, No. 4, pp. 17-56 - rV-58. Smil, V. 1978. China's energetics. In: Chinese Economy Post-Mao, 323-369. USGPO, Washington, D.C. Smil, V. 1979. Controlling the Yellow River. Geographical Review 69, 253-272. Smil, V. 1980. China's water resources. Current Eistory 77, 57-61, 86. Smil, V. 1981a. China's food: availability, requirements and prospects. Food Policy 6, 67-77. Smil, V. 1981b.- China-s agro-ecosystem. Agro-Ecosystems 7, 27-46. Smil, V. 1981c. Energy development in China: the need for a coherent policy. Energy Policy 9, 113-126. Soil, and Fertilizer Institute of the Chinese Academuy of Sciences. 1979. Rational use of land resources. Guangaming Ribao, 17 Agusut 1979, p.2. Tan Manni. 1979. Shanghai. China Reconstructs 28 (11), 5-8. Tong Dalin and Bao Tong. 1978. On the policy for the construction of the northwest plateau. Renmin Ribao. 26 November 1978, p. 2. Tuan, Yi-fu. 1968. Discrepancies between environmental attitude and behavior: examples from Europe and China. Canadian Geographer 12, 176-191. Wang, Honqqi. 1978. On scientific afforestation. Guangming Ribao, 12 July 1978, p. 4. Wang Mengkui. 1980. Pay attention to solving rural village energy problem. Guangming Ribao, 19 July 1980, p. 4. Wang Lichao. 1981. China achieves unique developments in desertification research. Guangmin Ribao, 19 February 1981, p. 1. Wang Yongyan and Zhaag Zonghu, (eds.) 1980.Loess in China. ?eople's Art Publishing House, 11'an. Wang Huanziao and Zhou Eong. 1981. Wby are droughts and flooding on the increase in Yunnan? Huanjing, No. 1, 20-21. Watts, I.E.M. 1969. (75-116) In: M. Arakawa, ed. Climates of Northern and Eastern Asia. Amsterdam, Elsevier. Xi, Changfan. 1979. Environmental scholar studies soil. Jiefang Ribao, 18 January 1979, p. 2. - 39 - Ing Guangia.. .1979. h are helpe'd by he helping fld? 10- aibao, 5 JanVuaIr 279, p. 2. 110ng, Yi and ochers. L978. Earnestly strenghen he screntif t sudy of he ecosTsta. Ga=gmin Rbac, 28 November 1973, p. 2. ya=g Yuguang. 1980. prztectng id resoures of Ioshna a. G.ang=.e ubao, 13 Jun 1980, p. 2. peopla. Re~n 3±bao, 10 November 1980, p. 5. Ti±zng, L±u. 1982. Searc Uor the c=ested is. New Scientis:, 15 Apr:!. 1982, p. 17. .u, Tall. 1979. Adopt e2fec:lve neasures :o protec= fishery resces. G-acadn- ljbao, 20 arhat 1979, p. 2. Zhang Tian-rng. 1980. Vigorousl7 prorect aina- Tsand's forest resources. Gan-ming RLbao, 2 Ju.ly L980, p. 2. Zhang zh£TT=Jng. 1980. shour. loudly 42r conservTation C te use oflad Ra Uibao, 29 Aril4. 1980, p. 5. Zhu Zu24. 1980. A dLscussion of Che deve7opment of Beiji-g's dustr n zars of :he curent staz f envomnal poluio. Euanjing , No. 5, 5-7, il. - 40 - 4m %ek cu z ~ - p \ (Sichuan asin soux Zhujiang Lowland 0 200 400 600 M4es 0 200 ,60 600 800 Kiiometers 솥∼ APPENDIX A Prhie.1t)at faruilnR regions (maj ) and their climates (Alimitle characteristics of China's major agrtcultimal regions Region Place Mean temperature OC Mean annual total precipitation evaporation Insolation 2 Dajlv average Dally range Him KJ CIR Northeastern Lowland Harbin 3.3 11.9 577.4 1,504.5 500 Shenyang 7.3 11.9 710.7 1,758.0 525 Lovs!3 PIaLeatj x1an 14.0 11.4 575.9 1,620.5 480 North ChIna Lowland Tianjin 12.8 10.8 526.7 1,846.0 540 Jtnan 14.8 10.9 631.3 2,761.0 540 YangzI Lowland Nanjilig 15.7 8.7 918.3 1,648.5 480 Wtihan 16.8 8.1 1,202.0 1,559.0.. 470 "Ichuan Basin ChongqIng 18.6 7.2 1,008.7 1,228.5 395 Zim,11atig Lowland Guangzhou 2t.9 3.1 t.720.1 1,752.5 460- Sonree: SmIl 19811) .;??ENDI 3 Z.aý use and land cover :n China in 1979-1980 Share of China's ..and use - land einver ha) sur!ace (percent) rablet and 100.0 10.3 :r:igatcd la=d 46.7 4.9 rut. tees 16.6 1.7 CUl-bearing trees 6.7 0.7 Lubber -ees 0.3 0.0 Grasslands 382.4 40.0 Pastures 22a.0 2u3.0 Degenerated pas curns 44.0 4.3 Grassy hls and sloves 66.0 6.9 orss12..4 11.7 Affrested 1949-1979 23.0 2.9 -Aer<a17 a rste 1959-1979 10.7 1.1 ?oductive forests 37.0 3.9 ,.akes 6.3 0.7 2.0 0.2 azars su<able or ish breedig 5.0 0.5 0ther .and Deserts 109.0 11.4 Dnne deserts 64.3 6.7 Gravel and oth.er desares- .7 4.7 ý.ac1 i ble wastaland 33.0 3.4 Lan su±:able for ažorstation 80.0 8.4 Swa=s 10.0 1.0 Source: 7a.rius Chinese ?ub«lcarns. -43- APPENDhX C Industrial and farming statistics and food consumption Output of major industrial products in 1980 Coal (million t) 620 Crude oil (million t) 106 Natural gas (billion m ) 14 Electricity (billion kWh) 301 Steel (million t) 37 3 Timber (million m ) 54 Chemical fertilizers (million t) 12 Tractors (thousands) 98 Hand tractors (thousands) 218 Output of major agricultural and aouatic products in 1980 all figures are in million t) Grain 318 Rice 139 Wheat 54 Cotton 2.7 Oil crops 7.7 Sugar 2.6 Meat 12 Aquatic products 4.5 All figures are from the State Statistical Bureau in Beijing - 44 - Average dail7 per caýPia food cons=vcIon in Ch=. i= 1978 Annu l Dail.y per capira coumpion .per capi4t,a adrc 92.8 915 17 33.7 330 11 29.3 230 7 3 Other gralns 18.3 170 6 Pnta:ce: 64.3 160 3 1 Scybean 3.4 30 32 7egetal o1l 2.0 30 - 5 Vegetablas 103.3 60 4 f r: Lt: 5.z 5- Suga 3.0 30 - - Plant 2oods 335.9 2,030 13 Pork 7.3 63 2 6 0ter =eas 0.3 3 0.9 5 - iså4 10 Egs1.3 5 2 ,2 as0.4 10 -2 lana od.9 100 6 10 Total ,13057 So=ur:: Smi- 13812a A.PPLDMIZ D Law on Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China (for trial use) as adopted in principle by the 11th session of the-Standing Committee of the Fifth National People's Congress Article 1 This law is formulated pursuant to Article 11 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, which stipulates that "the state protects the environment and natural resources and prevents and eliminates pollution and other hazards to the public." Article 2 The Law on Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China undertakes to utilize rationally the natural environment and control and prevent pollution and damage to the ecology so as to create a clean and salubrious environment for people's life and work, protect people's health and promote economic growth in the interest of socialist modernization. Article 3 The term environment used in this law encompasses the air, water, land, mineral resources, forests, grasslands, wild plants and animals, aquatic life, places of historical interest, scenic sites, hot springs, resorts and natural areas under special protection as well as inhabited parts of the country. Article 4 The work concerning environmental protection shall be done in accordance with the principles of overall planning, rational arrangement, multipurpose utilization, changing harmful things into beneficial ones, relying on the masses and engaging everybody in protecting environment and benefiting the people. Article 5 The State Council and its subordinate departments as well as local people-s governments at all levels must effectively protect the environ- ment. While formulating natIonal economic development plans, overall 46 rr ensz for enVIroenal protec:4n and rve nt sha. be ade, and suct proecton and improvement shall be carried out cnscianvously and iz an organ4zed --er. Nessary plans nut be workad oum to cope with any existing envrotnentl polluton and other bazards CZ- thep 30 as zo el-n e theI in a planned and gradual. 4ay. A.rticle 6 .In sel:ng cos:rnation sites, Making desins, arryin oun con- strnntion proj=e and. emba non producon, all enterprises and other underak gs shal pay adequata azte:nion : prevt.ing envromenal poll- 21= ad 1a2-e. While carrying out aew const=uctlon or renovat:Ion projec:s, a repor an =a:ers ta: may af:ect te envizo=ent stall be sum::ead firzt, and design work can be started only atar such a report has been reviewed and approved by ahe departen concerned. acies for preven=1ng poflr±on and other hazards to che publC nut be designed, bu:!!= and puz ino operat:ion s±nleaneously wiah aha prLnCpal project. :be discha:ge of a 1 e r±als shall be carred out in accordance with the standards prescribed by the statc. 4h0se unit:s wh-ch have already caused enviromen:al pollution or other baards to the pubic shall work out plans and brng them nder e-feet4'7e conrt-l in aCco!r14=e Wirt the principlthat whoever Inas Caused the P.11ution -ust brtng 2= under Cntrol, or they shal1 obtain :necessary aproval f=o te competent aurhorities for a ctange in the :ype of operalon- or seek ralocation. ÅA~i 7 .n renovai.ng old urban areas and bu ` 2aw :owns, an anpraisal of the posaibla impac: on the env:romen of :te ==tusrial zne, resietal area, publ-In utriltes and green area shall be Made on che basis of Meeor - logcacl, gesrapical, y gal and ecological cmndi4ions . Overal7l ?1" shall be Made t= prevenat pollut±on and other hazads t thae publc so as to build =dern and claan cities. .L. citeans~ have rte right =o superLsa, Inforn ag-'- t and ac~use any depar=en:s or idivIduals of causing enrnental polluzion and aage; te sad depar-=ents and individuals shal' n resort to an7 zrzaaiCn. A.rtica 9 AL. foraign atoals and fore.gn aircra:z, 7essels, veales, arials and lving bens C rt=g or zransl~ng Zhe -te rial -arers and arsrace of China ust obser=e :tIs _aw as -el' as other regla- :±ons and ralas Zor en-vtrmentzl jrotac:'o. - 47 - Chapter II. Protection of Natural Environment Article 10 Land must be used rationally according to local conditions, soil improved and conservei, vegetation increased, soil erosion prevented and land kept from hardening, salinizing and becoming sandy waste. To reclaim wasteland, reclaim land from lakes or seas by building dikes or build large or medium-sized water conservancy projects, compre- hensive scientific research must be conducted in advance and effective measures of environmental protection and improvement must taken to pre- vent damage to the ecosystem. Article 11 The waters of rivers, lakes, seas and reservoirs must be protected and a good quality of water maintained. Aquatic life must be protected, developed and rationally utilized, and destructive fishing and damage must be prohibited. Water for industrial, agricultural and daily use must be strictly controlled and economized, groundwater rationally exploited and the dry- ing up of water sources and surface subsidence prevented. Article 12 In exploring mineral resources, comprehensive prospecting, evalua- tion and utiUlzation must be carried out, indiscriminate mining strictly prohibited, tailings and slag properly disposed of and damage to resources and deterioration of the natural environment prevented. Article 13 The state forest law must be strictly observed, forest reserves protected and developed, forests rationally opened to use and properly tended and reforested; reclamation of wasteland by destroying forests as well as denudation must be strictly prohibited and forest fires prevented. Afforestation must be vigorously promoted, with waste hills, waste- land, deserts, villages, towns, cities and mining and industrial areas afforested. s4 Wberever possible, crees and grass =usz be plan=,ed on odd ots nar plans, -ing area£, schools , gOer en ožC= ces, villages, rads, homes ad watars so as to tur= he Land into gadelik fcelds. Akrtclr_e 14. Forage resouraes ~us: be protec=ed and, developed. Grassland bi-lng =ust be actewvly planed and carried ou=, gazlng raticnally carried ou, egenerative capacty of gasslands nazained and iZproved, dageration of rassslands prevenred, M.ecriminate rea i=mon o 1iand from grasslands stlatl7 prohb:ted and prair=e 1±ires preventad. A4rticl.e 15 W:Ud planns and a=L aus= be protected, daveloped and ra:ioal utiized. Euting4 and mac=tch of valuable and araa wld ani,als as well. as pickng of valuable and rara wild plants nusc be str:c:ly proh.biced. in accordancc %r:t the stare -agulat:ins. Chlaner .Preventon and Ccut"! of Foluton and Other Eazards :o tte ?ubic..± • -f,ect:ive =easure aus: be :2- :o cznrol and prevenr pol!lior. and dA&=-e a t the evironenr caused by wasta gas, wasta wacar, slag, dust, sewage, -ad,.ac7c =arertal and orter harmfal a=ar: , as weul as polluion m aoise, -r_bratLon and toz4c odors emimad from -m-ng and indusrial ent:aerrzes and foud i= urtan lfe. Articia 17 No enarprise or iznst=ony a ay poIlu=c the -evroment ay be built naar ing ýaarra-s in i:as and :ons or beside proctacad areas o waar, placas of hisorli. inarwst, sceni spoCs, .ot srin-!gs, asorts or a:uMral areas =nder prac::on. åas for :tose already eCsting, naasures stould be m.;- to Con=rol1 :Sehi= polluion, : readjust :he= or ove :ha= : oväer si:as in a g7en per1od. a New :acology and täods of prmccs'ng as we.L. as :ew products wtich ±ill aauae =o or 1.css o u:on shou a e acti4ely castad and aåoptad. - 49 - Article 18 Enterprise management must be strengthened, civilized production carried out and multipurpose utilization of waste gas, waste water and slag that may pollute the environent carried out so as to turn harm into benefit. Those enterprises that must discard waste gas, waste water and slag must reduce the waste materials to standards fixed by the state; those enterprises that do not meet state standards in this regard must take measures to control the pollution within .a given period; and those that fail to reduce their pollution to state standards within the given period must limit the scope of their production. Fines should be levied in accordance with the amount -and density of pollutants as stipulated by regulations on enterprises that discard more pollutants than the state standards permit. Article 19 Effective measures must be taken to eliminate smoke and dust from all smoke-emitting equipment, industrial kilns and furnaces, motor-driven vehicles and boats and ships. Harmful gas should be reduced to standards fixed by the state. Energy sources with no or little pollution such as coal gas, liquified petroleum gas, natural gas, marsh gas, solar energy and geother- mal heat should be vigorously developed and utilized. A regional heat supply system in cities should be actively promoted. Article 20 No rubbish or slag should be discarded in rivers, lakes or seas. Draining of waste water should meet the standards fixed by the state. Boats and ships must be prohibited from draining materials contain- ing oil or poison as well as other harmful wastes into waters protected by state regulations. Draining of harmful or poisonous waste water through seepage pits or crevices as well as by dissolving or diluting should be strictly prohibited. Seepage of industrial waste water should be prevented so as to insure that groundwater is not polluted. The source of drinking water should be rigorously protected and sewage as well as water-purifying facilities in cities should be improved step by step. - 50 - A.ricle 2. nsctcieshain hig eficiency with lo~w poisonous efect and, residual Coxiity should be acvelJey developed. .atpurpose -and blo.gical =zI=ro should be promotad, sewage iriation ra.ionally utlized and polluCioz o so.l and crops prevenced. A.r±icle 22 Con=rol of industral1 :oise and vibrat:on i4 =4:1es should be strengttened. Al ac3-, do-rven Tehicles and pLanes :ha= caus enorous =oise ad ribration should be installad it s.lencers and braio proof device3. Article 23 Airtight przduc:!i equ:pm=nr and =ethods of processing should be ac.1vely adoptad at al ti-ts .tat cause a gas and dust co spread, and devilces for e dust c&lection, air pr co and racLaam- ton should also be installed. The aont cf harZ-ul gas and dust in -ork"-g areas should meet standards fixed by stare regulatons coc g ndustri..al Aticle 24 Regisrato and cntrol o poisonous cariascws should be kep: sea.lad. L4akage i= the oi sto-age and nsport suld be reventad. Rad:Lact7e =atria.lz as ve.l as electoagnet: radiaion stou.ld be st=:ctly pr=tec=ad and cznaolld iný ardance with rlevant :agula- -ons of the state. Aticle 25 cf food in he course of producto, procesing packing, ansoting , s tarig and se.ll 7 should be sric.L y preven:ed. shou.ld be s=trentened and those foods that do a=r =eet the sani:ar scaa-ds of :'e stata -shoul. be s-ricly protibi:ed o being so1d, exportad or imorted. 44 Chapter IV. Environnental Protection Organizations and Their Responsibilities Article 26 The State Council shall set up an environmental protection organiza- tion, and its main responsibilities are the following: A. Implement the principles, policies, laws and decrees of the state governing environmental protection and supervise their enforcement; 3. Draft rules, regulations, standards and economic and technical policies on environmental protection in coordination with the departments concerned; C. Formulate long-term and annual plans for environmental protection in coordination with the departments concerned and supervise their imple- mentation; D. Organize unified monitoring and surveying of the environment, have a good grasp of envtironmental conditions and their developing trends throughout the country and set forth measures for their improvement; E. Organize and coordinate scientific research on the environment and the conduct of education in this regard in coordination with the depart- ments concerned and actively popularize advanced experience and technology acquired at home and abroad in environmental protection; F. Direct the environmental protection work of various departments under the State Council and of all provinces, autonomous regions and municIpal- ities directly under the central government; and G. Organize and coordinate international cooperation and exchanges in environmental protection. Article 27 The people's governments of all provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government shall set up environ- mental protection bureaus. The people's governments of [otherJ municipal- ities, autonomous prefectures, counties and autonomous counties shall set up environmental protection organizations according to their needs. Tbe main rssibilities of lcal ta zoccIn organ- ai are to Check ad superise the l by varous depa=rents and uts n te a,eas uder :heir jurisdicion of tha State priciples, pocies, lawi and deraes governing envirmental pzrect_o=; dra.it stadads and r=les for local enioenal prtec::on; orane moni -g and surey- Lag oaf the environmnt; have a good understanding of envionenal aonditics aad he devela .pn nrends i= rheir aras; fouaelong-taer and anuail plans for e neal pote o i. ooa with the depar:menzs concerned in hei areas and super7ise hae r impeentaro; organeJze scieni- fic resarch al the environaen and the czduct of educa=on ina hi.s regard; and. actIve-1y popa2-irza advancd epernce and cnogy acquired a= home an abroad. ArtIiclIe 28 Zha depar==encs czcezned cf the State Coucl and o.f varaus local people's govermenrz, b:i and nedium-sized e:erzr:.ses and :he :nst:zu- :io=s coccried shall ser up envronmental protect:on organizat:ons according Zo thei.r needs ad shall be zes=c=sIble resecvely for ioenal przcec- tLcia i zhei. on sysams, depaments or un.is. Cbavter 7. Sciantfio Research. Frzaganda and duation The Chinese Istienc~ of ± Eirnenal Sciece, the sinii researh organizat:cs concerned and sttinsof 'zga= !ear--ng should rigorously engage in researh en che basic theories of e sc:ence, evoena.l maagemn., enviromeral econmy, cmpehensive tcng :or environmenta ~C=Zl, assesz:ent ož envioenal quality, env nena.l polluon = and an's ea.l, a a use and prztectnoe of the a environ- mez and otber questions. Article 30 Caz-a and propaganda depatnenes shouad a ey dise-,wee aud Co.dut educatin !n the knowledge o. n sc.eea order to zaise e =nderstand:Ig and scen i and :acol±ogica4 Lavel of :te brzad S pecial±zed personne.L i envronent,al ,ro tect.n shouz.ld be -raned in a planed way. Educaion deartmets should oten recui.ed c-urses or special. stn.dies on environmenal procacti.on in institutons of hi;;;uer Laanin and ri4:a adecuara cžration on environmen.al prato inte :ex ak fr pr-±=r7 and =:L schools. -46 Chapter VI. Reward and Punishment Article 31 The state shall commend and reward units and individuals who have made noticeable achievements and contributions in environmental protection. The state shall reduce taxes for products of enterprises that use waste gas, water and residue as their main raw materials, exempt them from taxation or give policy consideration to their prices, and the profits of these enterprises shall not be turned over to higher authorities and shall be used for pollution control and environmental improvement. Article 32 As for units that pollute and-harm the environment and endanger people's health in violation of this law, and other rules and regulations governing environmental protection, environmental protection organizations at various levels, with the approval of the corresponding people's govern- ments, shall criticize, give warnings to or levy fines on those units or order them to compensate for losses or stop production to bring pollution under control according to their individual cases. The leaders of units, those directly responsible or other citizens who pollute and harm the environment so seriously as to cause people's deaths and injuries or heavy losses in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, sideline production or fishery should be investigated for their administrative, economic or even criminal responsibility. Chapter VII. Supplementary Article Article 33 The State Council may formulate rules and regulations governing environmental protection in accordance with this law. 4"-~ M= T Soe raesearchers and adistra:ors 'Followg are :he namas and pcsitions of sc=e peopla 1n China who, an :ha basis of thei are kowledgeabla abou= h en nditions. U CbacbC Director of the Eviro=eta- ?=cac:ion Of_f`ice o2 =h Sata C3 4 Being Xa Shij= ?rside== Chnese SoCe17 cf E.clogy QIan 1Ing a ofth S:t H,eration C =te o£ te Chines~ Soc-iaty of Eydraulc .=gineering Qu Vice-dector of the nva ?roteco Off ož :he Scate Council, BeJlzg 7a Zhongl Vlc-prcsident Ctinese Academy of Foras=y liang Y2 Professor of So±lý Sciencc Nanjlng Unversi.7 Y sa ==1 Secre=ary-generil of :e National Comm:ce o c and the 3Bozphere Zang Shu-ang 7ce-resideu Cblzese Socea=-of Ecology nehng ZUCln 7tce-Presiden: c-- Sociey f Zooogy I ".banda 71cc-director Deser= :=sisearch s af the C.hiese Ama-~y of Saences 4,g addess es of. all these and any chr goveromene or academy off4clals are adJ.17 aoba:L=bja from tha COMCMItz or Scientf?c C icainw the ?RC, as XAtIonal Academ7 of Sc.iences, ±ashMngtzn, DC. -48- APPENDII F AvDendix F - Protected Areas in China (caly those 10,000 ha and more) From: Wang, 1980 Year Province Name Area (ha) Established Main Objective Heilongjiang Hanma-Eujin Dazinganlin Coniferous forest (Ieilungkiang) Nature Reserve 480,000 1960 Jinlin Changbais han Nature (Kirin) Reserve 215,100 1960 Different ecosystema containing north- east tiger, sika dear. Sichuan Wenchuan Wolong Nature 200,000 1975 Subalpine ecosystem (Szechwan) Reserve and giant panda Gansu Baishuaijiang Nature 1963 Subalpine ecosystem (Kansu) Reserve 95,292 (1978) giant panda Fujian Wuyishan Forest Reserve 56,666 1978 Evergreen broadleaf (Fukien) forestecosystem Shanxi Taibaishan Nature Reserve 54,158 1965 Different ecosystems (Shensi) Heilongjiang Qiqihari Zhalong Crane 42,000 1976 Red crowned crane (Heilungkiang) Sanctuary - and wetland eco- system Sichuan Baoxing Dachygou Nature Subalpine ecosystem (Szechwan) Reserve 40,000 1975 and giant panda Sichuan Qingehuan Tangjiahe Subalpine ecosystem (Szechwan) Nature Reserve 40,000 1978 and giant panda Sichuan Liangshan Dafengding Subalpine ecosystem (Szechwan) Nature Reserve 40,000 1978 and giant panda Guizhou Tongyen Fan.jingshan Different ecosystems (Kweichow) Nature Reserve 36,700 1978 and golden monkey Shanxi Foping Yueba Nature 35,400 1978 Subalpine ecosystem (Shensi) Reserve and giant panda - 49 - Prvnc ame .Area (ta) Z.s:ablished 'Main Objective Inman Megyang Sarure (Tenan) Reserve . 32,800 1958 Monsoon and rai forests: elepant, gaur, green pea.foVl SIihuan uoriqa± ,abu (S=echrwan) W'ldZLf e Sa=ctuary 30,000 1964 S.lka deer Sichuan Pingu Wag (Szechwan) Zaure Reserve 27,700 1965 SubalIpine ec0sysam and g±an: panda. S abe S ubal pize ecsya" (Szec.hwa) ?aur Reserve 20,000 196:3 ad gian: panda. i ganeglin Foras: ed oin and gWaz) Reser7e 13,400 1963 deci.d=oas brcadleaf an±~d fors GnLongsi1eng Euapi:lg Ef.verege broadleaf (Kangsi) Fores- Raserv 13,918 161 SicauanT.eng=a L.abane (Szechwan) Natura Reaserve 12,000 197 akin. Sichuan 3eichuan Nau-.r: Suba.lpine ecosysem (Sz=twan) R~esere 10,000 1979 and gau anda. Guan Lgano Lnggang Limstone evergreen (2Cngz) .--cres= Reserve 10,000 1979 :nz:soon fo-esr - 50 - APPENDIX G Appendix G: Rare, Protected or Endangered Species of China (Selective Listing Only) Common Name Scientific Name 2/ Family Status 1/ (informal) ANMIALS Golden monkey ?ygathrix roxellana Cercopithecidae F,P Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta Cercopithecidae S Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis Cercopithecidae S Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca fuscata Cercopithecidae S Macaca thibetana Cercopithecidae T Macaca nemestrina Cercopithecidae S Phayre's langur Presbytis phyrei Cercopithecidae F White-handed gibbon Hylobates lar Hylobatidae Pileated gibbon Hylobates concolor Elylobatidae Slow loris Nycticebus coucany Lorisidae S Crab-eating mongoose terpestes urva Herpestidae S Hair seal Phoca vitulina Phocidae S Yangtze river dolphin Lypotes vexillifer Platanistidae E, P Black finless porpoise Neophocaena phocaenoides Phocoenidae S Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla Hanidae S,D Brown bear Ursus arctos Ursidae Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus Ursidae Giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca Ailuropodidae T Red panda Ailurus fulgens Ailuridae S 1/ E: endangered; V: Vulnerable; P: Protected; R: Rare; D: Depleted; T: Threatened; I: Indeterminate; L: Listed; F: "First Category"; S: "Second Category" of PRC 1962 list. 2/ Scientific names after Honacki, J.H. et al. (eds.) 1982. Mammal species of the world. Lawrence, Kansas, Alan press 694p. -51- 2.?3DX G Coon Name IN=C ±± N Sam - Sau (inoral) Custela =Ivali 14tlaJ-4dae 5 marztes tbae nalidac 5,? äar=es i ona ost-a l1dae S Ot:ar Lucra lur-a ýCustcU .dae S cVvrra zIbeta VIver±Idac CIuded eopard Nec2lis nebulasa Felidae Sw ltopcd na (Panchera) u a Felidae Tæn½k's ar Flis minei .Fe.Udac Leopad Pathera pardus Fel±dae 7 Northeas. rige40r .a=hera :igriz al a1ca ?elIdad Chtnese tiger ?athera :igrIs amoyensUs .el,dae aochinese ±ger ?anthera tigris carbett 7e1.dae åsian elepian Elftpåas maxi-s -lephantdae Preavask ' horse auu cabajlus przewa.Sk.: quda, Ingoian wild as3 quus hemicus EquIdae 5 Kiang Equs kang EquIdae7 WIld tact=ian cal Camelus bactr:iaus ferus c.am a da,e El Alcen alces Car±iae 5 Black !=n jac tt=ttacd C=ar7,dae D Tutted decr E.ep=dus cphaloaus Car.dae leindeer Rang±-fer arndus Carvtdae5 Carvu= e(ld1" s:enss ida D (T a.Lad m brow-a red>) - 52 - Comon Name Scientific Name FamIly Status (informal North China sika Cervus nippon mandarinus Cervidae F South China sika Cervus nippon kopschi Cervidae F Shansi sika Cervus nippon grassianus Cervidae S Yarkand stag Cervus elaphus yarkandensis Cervidae S Sambar Cervus unicolor Cervidae S MacNeills deer Cervus elaphus macneilli Cervidae White lipped deer Cervus albirostris Cervidae S Pere David's deer Elaphurus davidianus Cervidae 1/ Musk deer Moschus berezovskii Cervidae V Musk deer Moschus moschoferus Cervidae S,L Chinese water deer Hydropotes inermis Cervidae F Argalis sheep Ovis ammon Ovidae S Gaur Bos frontalis Bovidae F,R Yak Bos grunniets Bovidae S,L Saiga antelope Saiga tatarica Bovidae Mongolian Gazelle Procapra gutturosa Bovidae Serow Capricornis sumatraensis Bovidae F Chirus Pantholops hodgsoni Bovidae F Sichuan takin Budorcas taxicolor tibetana Bovidae F,P Golden takin Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi Bovidae Goral Naemorhedus goral Bovidae S Crested ibis Nipponia nippon Threskiornithidae E,P Oriental white stork Ciconia ciconia boyciana Ciconiidae T Chinese egret Egretta eulophotes Ardeldae Swans Cygnus spp. Anatidae Mandarin duck Aix galericulata Anatidae Chinese merganser Mergus squamatus Anatidae T 1/ Not in wild - 33 - ~au Wte-taLledi eagla la42et-,1 albic-lla Acptia Peragrine falcon Fal= pereg:Laus al iae 3rwn-eared pielasant CrassptJl an atchuru Phas 2C , Elu-Cared Pneasant CrossooptIlon =-rt= Phalniiaf S Siennl- whiteC-car-ed C=0330lnrosp"JIlQU hainia Sclater's ==nal Lophophorus sCIatcri ?has 4 -4dT Chj=ese =oual LophopSr 11ny73 Dhazida 5,V Silver phezsant Lopåua =ycrhemera PhaS 31ood pfeas.=c Ihagin eus P adae S ed jungi fowl Ga.ua gallus ?basianidae Green pea foel Pavo zur-,us Pasianidae 3lyth's tragcpan Tragopan blyttll Paslan;idae Cabot's :ragopan Ttagopan caboti daeL Sma's bar-taJled Syma us humae Pae ELiIZ's Pheasan= Syt:atcus el,4 P ?hasianidae. Golden pheasa.t Crysolophus pictus Phasi andae s Lady ämhesc's påeasanmt Chryslopdus =bers::ae PhasianIdaec Japanese ae rus japonenzis Gruldae 7,7 Sibeian wiza c=ane G=-= lcucmgeranus Gr-idaE ECoded =une Grus =onacta Gr-,dae 7 Black-cked c-ane Gr= grcl Gruldai Whita-naped =ranc Gr:3 TiplaGuia Nordman's Sreensa2k Z=nga gur.Ier Sclozacidac Asian dowi:caer Li=i-drous seMIpai=a=-.s Scmlopacidae Ralla: gu. L. l ChC!s sted :er= Sterna :!er-2n Laida -54- Common Name Scientific Name Faily Status (informal) Hornbill Buceros bicornis Bucerotidae F,L Yangtze Parrotbill Paradozorinis heudei uscicapidae T Chinese (Yangtze) Alligator sinensis A.ligatoridae P,T alligator Chinese giant Megalobatrachus salamander davidianus Cryptobranchidae I PLANTS Boschniakia rossica Orobanchaceae R Dawn redwood 1/ Metasequoia glyptostroboides Taxodiaceae P Cathaya argyrophylla Pinaceae E Emmenopterys henryi Rubiaceae I Sinowilsonia henryi Hamamelidaceae Ginseng Panax schinseng Araliaceae R Davidia involucrata Davidiaceae 1/ The Chinese endemic redwood etasequoia glyptostroboides was described as a Cretaceous-Pliocene fossil. Later, in 1946, it was discovered alive in Mou-tao-chi. Now some 7,000 are protected in a natural stand. 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