First Seminar on Veterinary Public Health, Tokyo, 20 April-1 May 1959 : final report

WORLD HEALT H ORGA NIZAT ION 1

REGION AL

OFFI~E

FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC

REPORT ON

THE FIRST REGIO NAL SEMINAR ON VETER INARY PUBLIC HEALT H

•

Tokyo, Japan,. 20 April -1 !\<lay 1959

4

-r

FIRST SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PtllLIC HEALTH

Sponsored by the WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION REGIONA.L OFFICE FOR nIE WESTERN PACIFIC

in Collaboration with

THE JAPANESE GOVERNMENT

and the FOOD AND AGRID ULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAa)

"

TOKYO, JAPAN

20 April - 1 May 1959

FINAL RER>RT

'.

World Health Organization Western Pacific Regional Office

,J..

Manila, Philippines

July, 1959

'".

CONTENTS --------

?li.RT I

1.

GENERAL DESCRIPl'ION OF 'IRE SEMINAR

1.1

Its Origin Objectives

. .........•...•...•...•..... ••.........••••••.......••••.•.............•.•

1 1 1

.. :-

1.2

....................................................

1.3 2. '

Preliminary Planning and Overall Responsibility

ORGl.NIZATION 11.ND AD1lINISTRi;'TION

........................................................... .. .........................................................

..........

1

2

2.1 2.2

Services provided by the Government Local Organiz ing Commit tee The Faculty

..........................................

2 2 2

2.3 ...

......................................................................................... .................................................................

2.4

Location of the Seminar Working hour s

2

.....................................................................................

:2 2

... 3. 4.

2.6

Language

................................................................................................ .................................................................................................... ..

?ARTIe I PANTS

3 3 3 3 4

WE SEMrnp..R ?ROGRAMME AND ?ROOEDIRE

.............. ,. .... ,. ....... .

4.1 4.2

Openirlg Ceremol'V War ldng pa.JlE3 r s

••.••••.•....•............•• ..••....•.••••• •.••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••• •.•••••"•.••••

Working procedure Closing ceremol\V

•••••••••.••••...•••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••.........••..• .•.••••••••••••••

4 4

5.

FIELD VISITS

................................................... . ............•...............•......••..•.....•

..

•

4-

6. 7• 8.

SOCIAL ACTIVITIES PUBLICITY

4 5

..................................................... .................................................... . .......................................•..... i

FINAL COMMENI'S OF DR. JAI'1ES H. STEELE, WHO VPH CONSULTANT •••••• ElTALUATION

5

9. 10. , -r ,

6 7

ACKNOWLEDGEl'1E NI'S

?ART II StJt.1l'UlRlES OF THE DISClBSIONS

............................................................. PART III

8

ANNEXES

1

3 4

........................ LIST OF ?JillTICL'ANI'S .............................................................. QUESTIONNfI.IRE ON VETERINllRY ?lELIC IElI.LTH ........................ LIST OF CONSULTl.NTS AND DISCU:3SION IEIJ)ERS

39

/,

43 52 55

............................................................................. ProGRA11HE FOR 'IHE O?ENING SESSION AND llESSI.GES

5 6

...............

LIST OF TITLES OF WORKING ?ii..?ERS OF :HEll~TI!. ArID WELF'tJ{E:

...........................................

61 62

7

MESSI\.GE OF fl.?_'RECIfl.TION BY THE vrCE-lITNISTER • .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. .. .. .. .... ....

8

... . .... .. .. .. .... .

63

•

- ii -

PART I

l.. 1..l. Or:igin

GENERAL IlESCRIF'l'ICfi CF mE im'Im\R

The Regional. Committee for the Western Pacific and the Worl.d HeaJ.th Assembly approved the hol.ding of the Seminar on Veterinary Public Heal.th. This was hel.d in Tokyo, Japan, 20 April. - l. May l.959. l..2 Objectives The objectives of the Seminar were: l..2.l. The identification or problems in the fiel.d of veterinary public heal.th and exchange of information about the present practices deal.ing with these probl.ems in the various countries of the Regionj

1..2.2

The detennination of guiding principles lihich mq be applied in planning, organizing and execution of the programme for more effective sol.ution of veterinary public-heal.th probl.ems in the Region; The detennination or the most effective co-ordination of veterinary publ.1c-heal.th activities among the various responsibl.e government agencies, ut1l.ization of existing resources and the training of persormel. i The determination of how assistance from existing bilateral. and international. agenCies can most effectiveJ.y be utUized.

l..2.3

l..2.4

l..3 Operational. responsibllity for the Seminar was vested in the Reg:l.onal. Public-Heal.th Administrator (Dr. C. Y. Shu) at the mo Regional. Qf'f1ce for the western Pacific. A preparatory committee was established at the Regional. Qf'fice. The regional. office operational. officer worked cl.osel.y with the Veterinary Publ.ic Heal.th Qf'ficer at WHO Headquarters, sel.ected the consuJ.tants, establ.1shed the titl.es of the working papers and wOl"ked out the administrative details. The Food and AgricuJ.ture Organization (FAO) accepted an invitation from WHO to callaborate in the Seminar •

...

- 1 -

2.

ORGANIZATION AND A.I:lMINISTRATION

2.1

Services provided by the Government

Conference space, office equipnent and supplies, official transportation within Tokyo, the services of three experts as resource persons and discussion leaders, administrative and clerical assistance were provided b,y the Government of Japan.

2.2

Local OrganizlDg Committee

This Committee dealt with arrangements for the accommodation and physical facilities at the site of the Seminar. It contributed greatly to the smooth manner in which the Seminar functioned.

2.3

The Faculty

This consisted of two consultants provided by WHO, one being the Veterinary Public Health Officer at WHO Headquarters, Dr. H. M. Kaplan, the other the Chief of veterinary Public Health, United States Public Health Service, Dr. James H. Steele. FAO provided three consultants, the FAO veterinary Consultant stationed in Burma, Dr. R. B. Griffiths, a Copenhagen Royal Veterinaxy College professor, Professor A. Jepsen, and a Professor of Pathology an:i Bacterlology, College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore, Dr. M. Abdussalam. The resource persons and discussion leaders provided by the Japanese Government were the Chief of Animal IVgiene Section, Bureau of A.n:imal Industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Dr. Kogi Saito; the Chief of the Department at: Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Institute of Health, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Dr. Hasami Kitaokaj and the Professor of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo thiversity, Dr. Shutaro Yamamoto. A copy of the list of consultants, resource persons and discussion leaders is given in Annex 1. 2.4 Location of the Seminar The Seminar was held in the Institute of Public Health, Tokyo. Working hours The Seminar met frem 9:00 A.N. to 12:00 Noon and 1:00 P.Me to 4:30 P.M. every d~ except when there was a field trip. A copy of the daily programme is given in Annex 4.

".. ,

2.6

Language

-

The English language was used exclusively during the Seminar. - 2 -

3.

PARTICIB\NTS

Invitations were sent to fourteen countries and territories in the Western Pacific Region and candidates were nominated by ten of them. In addition, three of the countries sent an additional. nine participants at their own expense. (See Annex 2 for complete list 01' participants.) The participants were requested to complete a questionnaire to provide information on the veterinary public health situation in the various countries and territories. '(See Annex 3. which is a specimen 01' the questionnaire. ) 4.

THE SEMmAR PROGRAMME: AND PROCEDURE

4.1

Opening Ceremony

-

The Seminar was officially opened by Dr. C. Y. Shu on behali' of the Regional Director. Iofussages from the Japanese YJinister of Health and Welfare, Minister of Agriculture and Forestry, the Deputy Governor of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, the President of the Japanese Society for Veterinary Science and the Directors~eral of WHO and FAO were read. (See Annex: 5 for programme and messages.)

4.2

Working papers

...

A total of twenty-one papers were contributed by the consultants, resource persons and discussion leaders. These fonned the basis for the discussions which covered the following main topics:

;t.

Potential. contributions of comparative medicine to human problems 01' cardiovascular diseases, cancer, metabolic disorders and radiobiology; Inter_relationships of human and animal health and disease; Veterinary public health practice; Advances in the control of specific zoonoses; Control of food and products of animal origin of importance in the transmission of diseases. 't,itJ:.~s;of

2. 3. 4. 5.

Se.e. :Annex·6 for li?t of the

these workinb papors.

"

The Japanese Veterinary Public Health Iegislation was reproduced and distributed.

- 3 -

In addition, reports and monogra:fhs on veterinary public health published by WHO, other publications and reprints were supplied as background ini'o:nnation. Appr-op:riateJaudic>-v:ls;ual aid material wasaIso prosented".

4.3 them.

Working procedure The 'WOrking papers were introduced by the authors but not read by

This was followed by discussion. each session.

A new chairman was appointed for :r'

The consultants pt'epared a daily summary of the discussions.

4.4

Closing ceremony

The closing ceremony took place in the afternoon of 1 l-l8¥. A message of appreciation from the Vice-Minister of Health and Welfare was read. (See Annex 7)

5.

FlELD VISrrs

Field visits were paid to the following places; 1.

2. 3• 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Laboratory of the National Institute of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Tokyo Central Fish loiarket Shibaura Slaughter Hous e Meij i Hilk P.l.ant Powdered Hilk Plant, 11Drinaga Daily Company, Hiratsuka Yakuruto Fennented Milk Plant, Fujisawa Yukijirushi Ice Cream Plant Taiyo Canning Company Kitchen facilities, Mitsukoshi Deparhnent Store Restaurant 6. SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

The Government of Japan courteously agreed to the WHO suggestion

that entertainment should be reduced to a minimum.

Receptions were given

by His Excellency the ¥d.nister of Health and Welfare, and the Japanese Veterinary Medical Association invited the group to see a Japanese operetta.

These two events offered an excellent opportunity to the visitors to obtain some concept of Japanese culture and customs.

•

- 4 -

0" ~

A

-

7.

PUBLICITY

From 28 April to 1 Ma;y, the last foor dlo/s of the Seminar, Mr. J. G. Milwertz, the WillO Public Information Officer, was in Tok;yo to attend to the press coverage of the Seminar. As a result, five news items on Seminar subjects appeared in the Japanese press and one of the press releases received worldwide circulation through the Associated Press and United Press International. Public information material on veterinary public health released after the Seminar has been used by newspaper, magazines, and b,y radio stations in several countries of the Region, to a great extent as a result of Seminar participants' co-operation. 8. FINA.L COMMENl'S OF DR. JAl-1ES H. STEELE, WHO VlfI CONSULTANr

The Seminar was generally most successful. The Japanese host Government (the Ministry of Health and Welfare) was most efficient and did a good job in the arrangements, secretarial services, reproduction of papers and transportation. The Japanese Veterinary Medical Association and various other veterinary groups were most cordial. The attendance at the meeting was good althongh it is regretted that more public-health physicians and medical officers were not in attendance. "The group make-up was veterinarians 75%, physicians 2~, and scientists 5~. The outstanding developnent of the Seminar was the identification of parasitic zoonoses as the major veterinary public-health problem along with food hygiene in the Western Pacific Region. Liver, blood and lung flukes, tapeworms and roundworms are all major problems. Attention should be given to these problems as soon as trained public-health veterinarians are available. Many of the parasitic zoonoses can be reduced or controlled by meat inspection and animal disease control, e.g., Taenia solium, T. saginata, Schistosoma japonicum, Echinococcus granulosus. It is important that the vari ous countries in the Western Pacific be given assistance and encouragement in planning disease control campaiglls that may in some instances lead to eradication. The rabies problem in the Western Pacific is a mixed one with the South Pacific area, New Zealand, Australia, Mallo/a and Japan being free of the disease. Immediate efforts should be made to eradicate rabies in such areas as China {Taiwan} and Korea, which have reduced it considerably. The problem needs urgent attention in the ?hilippines. The dog control problem in the Western Pacific is a very costly one both as a public health and economic problem. Japan is an example of a country where drastic dog control along with canine vaccination has eradicated the disease. This is also true in Hongkong, Malaya and Singapore. Dogs spread many other diseases that affect man besides rabieS, e.g., tapeworms, roundworms, flukes leishmaniasis, ringworm, salmonellosis and leptospirosis.

"

--

-;

The problem of arthropod-borne encephalitis is a big one in the Western Pacific and needs to be studied throughout the Region to see what is its :incidence and effect upon the health of man and animals. This project could tie in with the studies of hemorrhagic fever. Bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis are less impcrtant in some countries of the Region. The good progress in reducing too incidence in some countries should lead to eradication. other countries need to develop a programme. The problem of human tuberculosis in animals needs iInroodiate attention. The feeding of hospital garbage to swine should not be allowed under any circumstances. The food-borne infections are many in this region but one of the larger problems is that of salmonellosis. This requires epidaniological investigation and follow up to keep it under control. The b,ygienic handling of meat and meat products including poultry is the best procedure for prevention of salmonella food-borne infections. To start such a programme requires good abattoir facilities and water supplies. The general impression was that the facilities for slaughtering animals ani handling meat products in the countries visited are below acceptable b,ygienic standards. The major functions of the World Health Organization in the field of veterinary public health in the Western Pacific Region would be:

'y

1. 2.

Develop liaison with FAO and national agricultural services; Assist in the establishment of veterinary public-rnalth programmes; Development of improved food hygiene services; Epidemiological surveys of zoonoses j Inauguration or expansion of zoonoses control programmes.

3.

4. 5.

Before the participants dispersed, nineteen of the participants completed eValuation questionnaires. These questionnaires covered the organizational ani administrative aspects and the achievements of the project. The participants were requested to put a tick opposite each statement in whichever column would best express their considered opinion. The four columns indicate whether the Seminar was considered as excellent, good, fair or poor in terms of its effect an:i in respect of its arrangements. In addition, comments and suggestions from the respondents were invited and the forms were to be unsigned. The questions on the administrative and organizational aspects of the Seminar collected 262 replies, of which 51.2% indicated that too Seminar arrangements were "excellent", 42.7% "good", 5% "fair" and 1.1% "poor".

- 6 -

From the above results of evaluation and from the comments made by the participants (see Annex 8), the Seminar may be graded as successful in respect of organization and operation, and as very successful in terms of immediate achievements. 10. ACOOWLEDGEl£NTS

It "WOuld not be possible to include and thank everyone for helping to make the Seminar a success but special mention must be made of the following: The Japanese Goverruoont:

Ministry of Health and Welfare The Insti tute of Public Health Ministry of Agriculture arrl Forestry

..

The Food and Agriculture Organization The Japan Veterinary Medical Association The institutions, factories and other establishments visited during field trips Individuals:

Dr. KYoshi Saito

-

Dr. Takemune Soda

Dr. Dr. Dr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Dr. Dr. Dr.

Dr •

T. Matsui C. Asomura M. Kambayashi Nishio Ohashi Yuichi Saito M. Ishida K. Watanabe Kog! Saito Masami Kitaoka Shutaro Yanamato Shinichi Matsuda

...

-

- 7 -

PART

n

SUMMARIES OF THE DISCUSSIONS

Session 1. Monday M:>ming, 20 April 1959 Inter-relationships of Human and Animal Heal. th and Disease One usual source of confusion was noted in considering this subject, i.e., the use of similar tel1llinology in diseases of animals am man having entirely dif'ferent etiologies. For example, "dog typhus", "canine", and "duck "iDtectious "hepatitislt are caused by agents completely distinct from the ones causing human typhus and infectious hepatitis, respectively. In considering human and altiJnal diseases, their epidemiology was viewed in te:nns of their natural history or evolutiOnary developnent of each disease in their total and changing enVironment. The common origin of related diseases of man and an:1lnals is taken as a starting point and through various mechanisms of selection, adaptation and mutations we are faced with a particular disease process at the present time which, however, must also be considered in many instances to be in a state or flux, i.e., the constant inter-change of infecting agents between man am animals.

Three brotId categories of communicable diseases were made = a) those caused by identical organisms, e.g., rabies, brucellosis, arthropod-borne encephaJ.itides;

b) comparisons by analogy, e.g., equine infectious anemia and human infectiOUS hepatitiS, having distinct etiologies; and c) diseases where a common etiological cause is uncertain, although some evicience points to possible relationships, e.g., dog distemper and measles. The necessity for being alert to unsuspected epidemiological relationships was emphasized by a review of hwnan inn uenza, where until recently an azrlmal ccmponen t in its epidemiolQ6Y was not considered to be an important factor. Recent work has established that at least four distinct animal. diseases are caused by strains of Type A human influenza. Their exact role in the epidemiology of human infl uenza remains to be detel1llined.

....'

The discussions included Sendai virus disease caused by para-influenza 1 or the hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ). This is a common contaminant of mouse colonies, but also an infection of man and sWine. Antibodies to this virus have been observed in man in the tBA. and tBSR, but it ls uncertain as to whether these antibodies are spec.:i.f'ic (failure to isolate the virus itself). Consideration was also given to the psittacosiS - IJJV - trachoma group of viruses and their differences in infections of man and animals.

-8-

Session 2, Mondaf Afternoon" 20 April 1959 Discussion of' Comparative Medical Research, Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer" MetabOlic Diseases and Radiobiological Problems A sUllllJl8.XY of the problems that are developing in comparative medicine was given as consti:tuting an additional dimension in veterinary public health wrk (apart from zOt)noses and food h1giene). Veterinaxy research in the cardiovascular field which is 'being supported b,y the National Heart Institute, U.S.P.R.S." was then presented; a sUllllll8.lY of which was distributed to the partiCipants. Aortic stenosis in swine was mentioned as another comparative medical stud;y wortb¥ of' attention. A monograph has been published on this work in Denmark. The lesions in this entity usually occur just below the semilunar valves in the aorta, and are thought to be congenital. No clinical signs of disease are observed in young pigs" but death orten occurs without warning in older animals. Regional iletis of swine" which has only been described in Denmark to date, was also described. The disease usually begins with a subacute enteritis in the posterior part of the ileum and this gradually becomes chronic. The charact.er1st.ic pathology is a hypertrophic inf'lammation of the mucous membrane that .frequently involves the muscularis. Saretimes the inflammation is so severe that the ile1.lll ulcerates and teritoatis follows. The cause may be an allergic response to enteric bacteria.

.. \

,

-

'<

The availability o.f radiobiology fellowships for veterinarians .from the FAO as well as WHO and the International Atomic Energy AgEnCY" U.N., Vienna, was brought forward. The urgent need for trained veterinarians in radiobiology was mentioned in connection with the responsibilities they will. be called upon to assume in the near future in research, food control and in connection with reaotor accidents which must be expected in the course of the develoIJll8nt and use of atomic and nuclear ene rgy. The subject or leukemia in animals then was discussed. Nearly all the areas of the Western Pacific reported avian leucosis as a problem which appears to be increaSing. This increase is associated with the importation of improved breeding stock. Other tumors of aIrlJn.als seen in this area incluie canine venereal sarcoma, canine mammary tumors, brand tumors and cancer eye of cattle, a tumcr of the nictitans membrane in horses (Australia), liposarcoma (New Zealand)" canine hepatic tumors associated with clonorchis sinensis (Rongkong)" canine leucosis among Scotch terriers, horn cancer (squamos cell carcinoma) of Bos indicus which often metastasizes to the lymphatic system am evenliually caUBe'S'death as it spreads to vital organs. Oral papillomas 'Were pointed out as being common among dogs in the Far East. Cattle warts which are usuaJ.ly papillomas are also COllUllon. The incidence or animal tumors in general were :frequently seen on post mortem inspection, and it was suggested that these data be colle cted during the next two years to serve as base-il.ine data to be used in the coordinated research progl'8Dlll8 in comparative medicine planned by WHO for implemEntation in the next year or two.

.,

- 9 -

Besides comparative medical studies in cancer and cardiovascular diseases, other studies involving muscle, bone and joint disorder should be i'l'Llit1'ul but priority would be given to the first two in the next few years to come. It was stressed that Where epidemiological studies in man on unique occurrences of certain types of cancer (e.g., gastric cancer in man in Japan) or other diseases, that similar studies be undertaken in animal population. An lUlusual prevalence of a particular type of cancer or cardiovascular disease in domestic livestock or a cOlUlt17 should be sought for, ao:i this may be accomplished Kith improved systElllatic inspection procedures in abattoirs in collaboration with vetertnar,y laboratories. Session J, Tuesday Horning, 21 April 1959 Discussion of Epidemiology , , ,

or Food-Borne Infections

A noteworthy difference undoubtedly exists between food-borne int'ections as experienced in highly industrialized countries in comparison with undeveloped countries based principally on an agricultural economy. In the latter countries, and particularly those in the tropical region, animals are usually slaughtered and the meat consumed on the same day. Problems encolUltered in industrialized countries such as mass feeding, storage or food products requiring retriger&tion, and the types of food consumed raise problems quite different from those seen in undeveloped countries.

-

/

'

In the Western Pacific region a principal item of food is fish, and in a country like Japan, the majority ot all food poisoning incidence are due to fish and fish products. and only relatively amall percent is caused by milk, meat and their products. In Western Europe and North J.merica, fish is usually considered to be one of the safest foods from the standpoint of food poisoning. Different cultural and food habits and community life in Asian countries unquestionably arfect the types of food-borne diseases encountered. Corunll1ption of raw or slightly cooked fish, raw snakes and frogs, raw snails, raw crabs and other seafoods are detenninants in the types of diseases encoWI\;ered, particularlJr parasitic infections. Infonnation was admittedly ver,y incomplete from most countries in the Western Pacific concerning the food-borne infections encountered. Infonnation was based on a ve17 incomplete epidemiolOgical and bacteriological investigationa. Parasitic infections would appear to play a ver,y important role in foodborne infections. However. little can be stated With certainty lUltil carefUl. investigating procedures and surveys are instituted. Emphasis was placed on the necessity for a systematic investigation of food-borne outbreaks which would require the establishment or re-organization or public health laborator,y services, and the adoption or standard nomenclature and reporting systans, starting from the general practitioner or Malth" 6.ffieer through the government health services in collaboration with the veterinary services, which mav be either in health or agricultural depar1ments.

~

~-

-10 -

•

-'<

Reports were made from various colmtries concerning the pt'esence of cysticercus infections which appear to be pt'esent in most countries in the Western Pacific. Anomalies were pointed ouli, such as the pt'esence of T. saginata infection in man and the apparent lack or cattle infection. This was ascribed to the ~bability that meat inspection procedures were inadequate, and each COlmtr,y would have to determine the best sites for inspection, since these may differ according to the anilnal breed and other local varia tiona. Fish poisoning caused by a neuro-toxin fOlmd in blow fish during certain seasons of the year was dis cussed. The clearer delineation of the cause of various fish poiSOnings appears to be greatly needed. The question or use of anti-biotios in food pt'eservation and in the feeding or animals was also discussed. The use of anti-biotios for preservation purposes was considered to be harmless to hwnan health only where assurance is present that the food product would be adequately heated before consumed. The importance of bacterial resistance developing from the use of anti-biotics is not mown at present, but the possibility or sensitivities in humans to such anti-biotios was pointed ouli. Although there is little or no evidence that either occurs, a conservative attitude tOW'ards this question would appear to be advisable, except lilen there is a question of food products containing anti-biotics as against no food at all. It was pointed ouli that most broad spectrum anti-bioties now used for food preservation were ineffective against salmonellae and organisms causing spoilage or fish, e.g., pseudomonas, and that local studies would have to be instituted concerning the effect d anti-bioties on particular micro-orgalisms involved.

...

... ...

P)nphasis was placed on the necessity for a new approach towards establishing the pattern of food-borne infections in a particular country. While gastro-intestinal diseases apparently provide the greatest single causes of morbidity in undeveloped areas, there is little or no mowledge conceming the specific agents involved. To overcome this deficiency, careful surveys are required using standard microbiological techniques, and using a statistica.lly significant random sampling procedure. Exceptional oulibreaks of food-borne infections may give a distorted view of the real pt'oblem, and onlY by a long tem stud;y an accurate system can be obtained. The experience in Great Britain in this connection may serve as a useful axampl.e which could be adapt,ed to local conditions in clarifying the problem of food-borne infections as they affect Western Pacific colmtries.

- 11 -

Session 4, and, 'ITt of Session 5, 1rJednesday Morning, 22 April 1959 Discussion of Specific Control Measures for Milk, Meat, Fish and Processed Food A. Milk I I

I I I I

II

The principles of milk control ..ere outlined with special reference to pasteurisation. Particular reference was made to microbiological contamination on the farm and to the necessity for the instruction of farm workers in too hygimi:c handling of milk. In outlining IOOthods of pasteurisation it was pointed out that where milk is grossly contamin~ted with thermoduric organisms, it is necessary to ensure that temperatures which will inactivate peroxidase, i.e. temperatures of at least 800 6. for 10-15 seconds, are applied. 'it lower temperatures as in the HT-ST process at 72-75 0 C. for 10-15 seconds, thermoduric organisms, e.g. faecal streptococci and lactobacilli, will survive, and i f the milk is grossly contaminated with these the pasteurised product will not exhibit good keeping qualities. It was considered that in countries which are in an early state of development of their milk industry, and especially in countries with a tropic~ climate, it is generally necessary to recommend the application of temperatures sufficient to destroy peroxidase. This will impart a slightly cooked flavour to the milk and will result in a lowered cream-rising capacity, but experience has shown that this is not objectionable to conSt~rs in the warm countries of the region.

" " ~,

II

It was emphasized that while efficient pasteurisation will destroy most of the milk-borne organisms pathogenic to man, it is fallacious to accept that pasteurisation will afford complete protection on every occasion, for the process depends upon machines and breakdowns in pasteurisation efficiency can occur. One must,-.tht'!ref'ore, aim at a second lire of defence, namely, disease-free herds. After discussing bacteriological standards for pasteurised milk, emphasis was placed on the avoidance of recontamination during subsequent handling of the product. In this connection distribution of pasteurisad milk in bulk is of special interest to countries which have difficulties in providing suitable individual containers, e.g. bottles, cartons, etc. The procedure is considered practicable provided that a reasonably safe system of distribution can be effected. It would require special milk shops .dth refrigeration facilities where cans of pasteurised milk could be stored and the devices for measuring out supplies to the consumer must be such that the contamination risk is avoided. The discussion included references to other methods of milk preservation. While sterilized milk is not acceptable in some countries because of its flavour, this is not so in the warm countries of the ragion. There may be a tendency for consumers to be careless in the handling of sterilized milk on the false assumption that i t is not perishable after the countainer is opened.

-:r.

- J2 -

Particular reference was made to t he addition of milk as a preservative. It was generally agreed that be recommended but might be considered where, through preservation facilities, one is faced with t he choice treated milk or no milk at all.

hydrogen peroxide to the procedure is not to lack of more suitable of hydrogen peroxide

With reagrd to certain zoonoses the failure of pasteurisation to destroy the spores of the Bacillus anthracis was mentioned, but the risk of anthrax infection from milk is only slight. The temperature of the holding process using 143 0 F. for 30 minutes is not sufficient to destroy Coxiella burnetii, the cause of Q fever; slight rises in temperature, e.g. 1460 F., are adequate. Passing reference was made to mastitis caused by Nocardia and the question was posed as to whether Nocardia is pathogenic or only saprophytic in man. B. Meat

There is no universal agreement on the rules of judgement in meat inspection. Different countries have different objectives in the meat inspection practices. Whithin individual countries, however, it is desirable for veterinary public health authorities to prescribe certain guiding rules for procedure, especially With regard to minimum standards. Wherever possible bacteriological facilities should be available to support organoleptic examinations. This is particularly necessary for the rational judgement of emergency slaughtered animals if a maximum salvage of meat is to be effected. It is recognized, of course, that the provision of such facilities necessitates considerable organization, not only in the provision of laboratories but also in storage space for suspect carcasses while the necessary examinations are being made. In the construction of slaughterhouses it is of the utmost importance that "unclean" operations, e.g. bleeding, flaying, and the removal of the alimentary tract should be separated from the "clean" operations of dressing. This is particularly important in large plants in continuous daily operation with a large throughput • Reference was made to t he disposal of by-products. It was generally agreed that we should aim to keep by-product plants separate from the abattoirs. It is true t.!tB!t if the by-products plant forms part of the abattoir and proper precautions are taken. There is not much risk of contamination of the edible meat products by material from the by-products plant. The risk chiefly concerns the possiblity of contamination of the sterilized byproducts with material from the "unclean" section of the abattoir. EmphasiS was laid here on the possiblity that Salmonella organisms might be transferred from the "unclean" end of the abattoir to the sterilized by-products and there con+,aminate meat meal, etc. It was acknowledged, however, that it is possible to construct a by-products plant as part of an abattoir, but certain special features of design to seal off the by-products plant from the "unclean" section of the abattoir are required. One such plant in the course of construction in the region was described. In the diSCUSSion, an epidemiological study on Fasciolopsis buski ~ the vicinity of a rural slaughterhouse where pig faeces gained access to adjacent ponds containing the snail vectors of the fluke and edible water plants were described. :-:J"PQ~!J ~" was laid on the provision of proper siting and drainage

..

,

... :,.

-]J -

facilities. Special ref3rence was made to the problem of Cysticercus cellulosae infection in pigs in the r3gion. Various abattoir practices including the use of high pressure water-sprays as a means of redUCing surface contamination with micro-organisms were described. It was generally agreed that this is a sound practice, but it was suggested that the use of too high a pressure might cause organisms to be carried into the musculature and that this aspect might need investigation.

c.

Fish

The spoilage of fish is caused by the combined effect of bacterial activity and autolytic chemical processes, the former being the more important. Achromobacter is mainly responsible for the reduction of trimethylamine oxide to trimethylamine and this change is the predominant one in the first stages of spoilage when the fish takes on a progressively stale "fishy" odour. The later stages of spoilage are characterised by the decomposition of proteins, chiefly caused by Pseudomonas, and the fish then develops an ammonical or putrid odour.

In fish preservation it is important to know how the growth of these organisms can be suppressed. Data presented showed that storage at 60 C. had little effect on the growth of the organisms for they are able to grow quite readily at this temperature. However, an appreciable prolongation of the lag phase in the growth of the organisms is effected when the storage temperature reaches freezing point. In the diSCUSSion reference was made to the Volatile Reducing Substance test for the determination of spoilage. It is regarded by some workers as a very valuable test, and forms one of several useful methods of examination. It was stressed, however, that the chemical tests merely support organoleptic examinations which are the basic ~l'1a of the fish inspector. In developing chemical tests within countries it was considered that each country should critically examine the available tests under its own conditions, having regard to such variable factors as species of fish and the temperatures under which they are normally kept. A disease of man follOwing the ingestion of the cooked livers of the Giant Bass (Stereolipis ishinugi) and characterised by pyrexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea~d skin desquamation, was described. The causal agent is not known but it was considered that it might be a hypervitaminosis. D. Processed Foods .'

The important consideration is the prevention of contamination from the following primary sources: soil, naturally polluted water, animal and human reservoirs. The differences in approach between working out bacteriological control for the preservation of food product:; a ..d the investigational procedurt:ls in food-borne diseases were stressed. In developing control procedures each country will be obliged to determine its own particular problems to' analyse the bacterial flora concerned, and to set up st~dards in line with these findings rather than to transpose automatically standards formulated in other countries. Methods for technical procedure used in advanced countries could however, be adopted with profit. '

- 14 -

Session 5, Wednesday Afternoon, 22 April 1959, continued Discussion of Specific Control Measures of Other Animal Products, and Administration of Food Hygiene Programmes For other animal products the main points brought out were the necessity for prevention of recontamination of sterilized products, and the use of gemma_irradiation· for the sterilization of hair and wool. The latter discussion is included under the section on "Anthrax". Discussion notGs for Administration of Food Hygiene Programmes are incorporated into those of Session 6 which follows. It was stressed that the main object of reporting and investigating outbreaks of food pOisoning was to find out the cause. Available information on the causes of food poisoning in the Western Pac·ific Region is scanty. When the cause in an outbreak has been ascertained, it should be reported not only to local authorities but also to neighbouring areas and even to neighbouring countries where similar cases may be encountered. Session 6, Thursday Morning, 23 ilpril 1959 Discussion of National, Provincial, Municipal and Rural Organization and Administration of Veterinary Public Health The existing organization and administration of Veterinary Public Health in various countries of the Western Pacific Rigion and .the United States was reviewed, and the existence of two types of organization was noted. In countries with an adequate number of veterinarians for agricultural as well as public health work, such as Japan and U.S.A., a veterinary section exists at all levels in the public health organizations. There is a separate organization for veterinary work in the agricultural field. In other countries with a relatively inadequate number of veterinarians, there is usually no separate veterinary public health organization except at the municipal level for meat inspection. The necessity of having veterinary public health units of suitable size at all levels,8%OOpt rural, in the public health organizations was emphasized i f effective control of zoonoses, food control, research in these fields and in comparative medicine, control of radiation hazards and of air pollution hazards are aimed at. The present difficulty of set1r.ing up adequate units at the rural level in this region was noted and the possibility of enlisting the assistance of village headmen, school masters and priests was mentioned. When the main veterinary organization is placed under a ministry other than that in which the public health units are set up, it is necessary to have a coordinating mechanism for the policies concerning matters of carmon interest. The existance of a committee of experts drawn from the Ministries of Health and Agriculture in Denmark, for this purpose, was mentioned.

- 15 -

In the organization of food hygiene activity, the necessity of entrusting the control of product'ion, storage, processing, handling and distribution to a single authority was emphasized. The vatarinary p u b l i c - " ' " ) health worker is the best qualified person to be entrusted with responsibility as far as foodstuffs of animal origin (milk, meat, eggs, fish, crustacea, etc.) are concerned. The practice of restricting veterinary supervision to production only, as is commonly done in this Region, is illogical and highly unsatisfactory. The control of these foodstuffs should be the responsibility of the public health veterinarian at all stages from production to consumption, provided these are sufficient veterinarians available for this purpose and that they are well-trained.

- 16 -

i-<

Session 7, Friday Morning, 24 April 1959 A - Discussion of Reporting of Animal Diseases including Zoonoses The mechanics of reporting animal diseases in several countries of the Western Pacific Region were described. Several points emerged from the experience gained so far. It was pointed out that passing back of compiled reports with reviews of epidemiological problems to the field worker encouraged reporting. Utilization of the reports in a control or eradication programme also has a similar effect. Laboratories and hospitals often have important information and should be required to report communicable disease as do nractitioners and field workers. • Surveillance is often necessary to follow the activity of an infective agent in an animal and human population. Information on clinical cases only reported by field workers is hardly sufficient to form the basis of a control programme. Field surveillance are particularly useful in diseases like psittacosis, brucellosis, rabies,tularaemia, and encephalitis. It was realized that at present animal disease statistics were not satisfactory and reflect the actual state of affairs to varying degrees in different areas. The central authority in oach country should endeavour to remedy this situation by spot checks and also by verifying and re-checking the information received. At the international level, activities of the FAa, OIE and WHO in reporting animal diseases and zoonoses were reviewed. One of the difficulties in the past had been the absence of an internationally accepted list of disease names. The delay in the publication of animal disease yearbooks, which is inevitable in the present conditions of gathering, compiling and publishing disease statistics from allover the world, was mentioned. It .vas hoped that it may be possible to broadcast daily or weekly bulletins on the prevalence of animal diseases as is done by the WHO for human disease. It was also suggested that in publishing disease statistics, the value of the control measures adopted may be stated where possible. B - Discussion of Training .~ Veterinarians

.....

The training of veterinarians at the under-graduate level to meet the needs of veterinary public health was reviewed. Two bread categories of under-graduate veterirk"-ry edu~tion can be made. Tho first is in advanced countries where there are Sufficient vetorinarians so that specialization in clinical subjects is follmrod. The second, usually in undevoloped countries, is where emphasis is placed on preventive work since there is little scope for clinical practice following graduation. In both types of schools, tho subject of food hygiene is not taught sufficiently in d'~pth. Th.3 already overcrowded vetarirery curriculum presents difficulties in introducing new subjects. This difficulty could be overcome by ro-arrangamont of alraady existing courses under a chair or department in prov0ntivo m0dicino and public hi)alth or v'.Jterinary public health. Under this department ther0 C01l1 (I ;n T-'J;~p~d the various subjects pertaining to - 17 -

veterinary ~ublic health such as infectious diseases, food hygiene, sanitary scienc2, and the addition of a small series of lectures in subjects like epizootiology, statistics, public health administration, etc., so that the student COIID s to regard these subjects in a veterinary public health context. It Ylas felt that the te2.ching of food hygiene reauires marked inprovement in many under-graduate schools, and special emphasis in this connection should be given to subj.3cts lik" microbiology and analytical chGmistry, both of which form important basis for food control. At the graduate level the) facilitias and courses given in Japan during th0 last 10 years was reviewed. Gcnaral courses lasting one academic year were available, as well as special courses of 2-5 months. Large numbers of veterinarians have passed through these courses. Unfortunately in other countries in the Western Pacific no such facilities wers as y8t available, and the hope was Gxnressod that schools of public health in Singapore and Australia might find it possible to accept veterinarians for post-graduate training leading to 2. degree. A certificate or degree was felt important in order to ensure the veterinarian having a recognized status upon return to his home country. It was stressed that in their post-graduate training, vetarinarians should participate on an equal basis with othJr disciplines concerned with public health, including physicians, dental surgeons, sanitary engineers, Gtc. ThG basic public health courses could b'J follavred with these groups, and towards the end of their training sp]cial arrangem-;nts might bc mad8 for intensive studies of specifically ~terinary public health interests such as food hygiene, communicable diseases and epidemiology. It was pointed out that training of v,Jterinarians should be done in the region of th,:; country conc0rned rath~r than in a country cf an entirGly different cultural and economic development, except in caS'JS where very advanced studies are followed, or teachers are being trained. In these instances, the basic principles obtained from far avmy countries would have to be adapted to a particular region concerned.

-~,

Discussion of

~nule the importance of studying the ecology of domestic animals and of wild animals living in or'll'ound hUTflD.n habitations, in conmction with their possible rol,:; as reservoirs of hUIn9.n diseas,:;s, has gcnerally bJ8n r,:;cognized, the investigation of wild aniIn9.1s whos,:; habitats are r0mote from human dwellings has generally not beon included. This is a serious omission since hunters, trapp,:;rs, foresters, and othcrs Hilly be oxposcd to speci2.l risks in some areas. Moreover, attempts in sone sc:ttL:;d arcas to control certain zoonoses rna:>, be unsuccessful if there is a rcmote vlild animal reservoir with which hunters and the like occasionally como into contact, for even occasional contacts may be sufficient to carry infections back to the community. In some dis:::ases, for example in sorno of the viral encephalitidos, migratory birds may serve to introduce the infection from a wild snzootic focus into a human popu12tion. Another important consideration is that population pressure in some rJgions is forcing human beings to migrate to areas hitherto unpoDu12.tJd by man, but lim3re r,Jservoirs of zoonos,:;s may e:xist, and we should be pr0pared for th0 possible hazards connected with such

- 18 -

migrations. ment.

We should not be content merely to examine our immediate environ-

In roviewing the Gcological approach, the complex of host-parasite, and where applicabla, vector relationship was stressed and a plea was made for close teamwork among the scientists of the various disciplines involved in ecological and epidemiological work on wild fauna. In the discussion it was generally qgread that tho epidemiologist must be ready always to broad~ his horizons. ThG value of collaboration in the various scientific disciplines was illustrated by the recent finding in Malaya of the filariid parasite Wuchereria malayi in hosts other than man. It is now known to occur also in cats, dogs and certain monkeys, and is thGl'cfore a zoonosis. With regard to emerging zoonoses it was stressed that adaptations in infectivity is a possibility with micro-organisms. It is not surprising therefore that somo:,ventually become infective for hitherto refractory hosts. Reference was again made to human influenza and tha recent discovery of at least 4 distinct animal diseasos caused by strains of Type A human influenza virus. The epidemiological status of the strains occurring in animals, relative to epidemics of human influenza, is not yat known, but this may be an example of an emerging zoonosis.

- 19 -

~~ion _~,J!~nday

Morning, 27 April 1959

Discussion of [,nimal Tuberculosis The problem of anirral tuberculosis especially that occurring in Bos indicus and water buffalo was revie'\ved as to its occurrence in the Far Pacific region. There is a difference of opinion as to the susceptibility of these anirrals to tuberculosis. People who have worked in this area are of the opinion these animals are just as susceptible as European breeds. The Bos indicus and water buffalo are also susceptible to human type infections although fortunately these seldom produce generalized disease. Other causes of tuberculin sensitivity are Mycobacteria johnei; M. lacticola and others. In some instances lesions are seen in animals that are due to a filaria worm which are mistaken for tuberculosis. Bovine tuberculosis was reviewed as a cause of human disease. It was pointed out that the bovine type disease can frequently produce pulmonary infections in man. These are transmitted by droplets in dairy barns where animals are coughing. The transmission of bovine type tuberculosis to man through milk is well knmm. It was pointed out that the very young are more susceptible. Formerly, it was thought that a small amount of tuberculosis in the milk could stimulate resistance on the part of the host. This may be so, but it is too great a risk to allow such a practice to continue. In a rural survey in Denmark, it ViaS found that 42% of the pulmonary type tuberculosis was of bovine origin. This was a result of exposure to diseased cattle. Formerly tuberculosis of the skin, lupus, was frequently seen in butchers that handled tuberculous carcasses. This disease has practically disappeared. The condemnation of entire anirral carcasses due to tuberculosis is widely practiced. In many instances there is no need for condemnation of the entire carcass because the disease is localized, of long standing and is not dangerous. The parts that are affected should be condemned, otrer parts can be used for focxi. When there is evidence of acute inflammation or recent spread of the disease, the carcass should be condemned. In Japan it was reported that tuberculosis has steadily declined since animal tuberculosis testing was inaugurated in 1901 by the subcutaneous injecti~n of aT. In 1948 the intra-dermal test replaced the SUbcutaneous method. The incidence of animal tuberculosis has dropped from approximately 5% in 1905 to 0.2% in 1957. Occasionally human type infection has been demonstrated in cattle. There is no record of avian disease having occurred in cattle. In Japan, svnne tuberculosis is rare, being .05% in 1956 and .02% in 1957. Usually the human type organism is recovered in swine. This is the result of feeding hospital garbage or being in close contact with human type tuberculosis. Tuberculosis of sheep and goats is rare. None has been reported in horses or chickens. Dogs occasionally suffer from human type infection. It is thought that carriers may exist among stray animals. Philippines: The incidence of bovine tuberculosis is thought to be l~f. Occasl0nally It is found in imported cattle. The carabao or water buffalo is considered to be just as susceptible as EurO~cll·. breeds. Swine are occasionally

- 20 -

I

'"

found to be infected with tuberculosis, which is usually of the human type. No bovine or avian type has been identified in swine. The incidence in 1950 was 2.5%, in 1954 it was .12%. Fiji: Animal tuberculosis is a major problem in cattle and swine, but they CIOIiot have the avian form of disease. Samoa also has an extensive tuberculosis problem in their cattle. In Fiji there are approximately 120,000 cattle. All dairies producing milk for human consumption are under compulsory testing. This covers approximately 20,000 animals. Animals producing milk for butterfat are under a voluntary testing scheme. Those producing milk for home consumption are not tested. Owners are allowed to maintain infected herds which are separate from their clean stock although this is realized to be a poor practice. tuberculos~s; bet~en

South Island of New Zealand has a low incidence of bovine 1 and 2%. In the North Island the incidence is 7-8% in cattle. Bovine tuberculosis is occasionally seen in swine. There is no evidence of Johne's disease or avian tuberculosis.

New Zealand:

Taiwan: Since 1948 there has been routine testing for bovine tuberculosis but the lncidence of the disease has not declined. In 1956 the government established regulations that required that all reactor animals should be slaughtered. The reaction rate in 1957 was 4.5%. Tuberculosis in swine due to human origin is occasionally seen. There is no evidence of avian tuberculosis. ~kistan: The incidence of tuberculosis is fairly low in the villages throughout the country although in cities infection rate is quite high. In northern Pakistan the rate is as high as 25%. These figures are based on slaughterhouse records. A few cases of disease in cow due to avian or human types have been reported. Johne's disel".se is conmon in cattle and sheep, being 27% in cattle, and 16% in goat and sheep.

=--

Australia: Tuberculosis is found in cattle, swine, and poultry. The incidence in dairy cattle is much higher than beef. The overall incidence is thought to~e about 5%. Bovine type disease is frequently transmitted to swine through raw skim milk or cattle droppings. Occasional human tuberculosis is found in swine due to the feeding of uncooked garbage. So far as can be determined, climate has no influence on the incidence of tuberculosis. In northern Australia breeding bulls are often found to be the source of infection. There is no national tuberculosis control campaign in Australia. Each state has it's own program, the biggest limitation is the availability of funds for replacing animals for condemned-animals. There are approximately 12 million beef animals and 5 million dairy cattle in the country. Malaya: To date, littlo tuberculosis has been found in mtive cattle .tIOI' has any infection been found in poultry or swine. The number of animals that have been tested are small. Korea: Among 5,000 animals tested for tuberculosis, a small number of caset. were found. Calves are used for 3Ilallpox production. The reactor rate in this group is 0.1%.

- 21 -

Hongkong: All dairy animals are tested every 6 months. Any animals found to be reaCtors are immediately removed f Clr' slaughter. The incidence of human disease is overwhelming. Cattle that are imported from mainland China are frequently found to be diseased. Singapore: There are 5 large dairy farms in Singapore having a population of 1,500 cattle. These are tUberculosis tested every 6 months. Few reactors are found among these animals. The incidence of tuberculosis in Indian cattle is 8 out of 4,000 tested. No tuberculosis has been found in Sovine, poultry, or dogs. Tuberculin testing of swine, poultry, and dogs is not nearly as effective and is not an accurate as the test for rumimnts. The control of tuberculosis in cattle is based on tuberculin testing and removal of reactClr's. In swine, control is dependent upon the elimination of open cases of bovine, avian or human type infections. Avian tuberculosis can be controlled through management practices which result in the disposal of the flock and at the end of an egglaying period.

- 22 -

~

--

Session 10, Monday Afternoon, 27 April 1959 Discussion of Rabies A revi8w was given of the coordira ted studies initiated by WHO to evaluate various methods of antirabies treatment of humans and preventive vaccination of animals. Both controlled experiments and field trials were reviewed in some detail. The importance of giving hyperillmlUnserum as soon as possible and proper 'Washing and care of the wound was stressed. Suturing of any wound should be delayed as long as possible. Serum is tobe administered only once as repeated injections will interfere with antibody response from vaccination. Killed vaccire s are comparable with live vaccines for the immunization of dogs and cats, and the comparative merits and changes of these vaccines for man and animals were reviewed. Preventive vaccira tion of animals gi. ves an average of 75-80 percent protection in eXIBriments where vaccinated animals were challenged with virus. The egg-passage Flury vaccine must be given intramuscularly. In puppies immunized below two months of age vaccination must be repeated after they reach six months of age. Law"-egg-passage vaccine should not be used in cats and in cattle; use phenolised brain tissue vaccine or high-egg-passage vaccine. In cattle two inoculations are indicated. In the discussion Dr. Relawa I s work on curative treatment of human cases with ilmlri01o:grms inmlUne serum was mentioned. Results could still not be evaluated due to insufficient diagnostic criteria presented. Experience in Taiwan has shown the value of serum treatment. 20 cases treated with serum and vaccine all responded favourably. In Japan serum treatment is considered effective only when given within 24 hours. The situation with respect to wildlife reservoirs of rabies in U.S.A. was reviewed. Infection is found in skunks, coyotes, insect-eating bats, foxes and jackals. In 1915 an estimated 10,000 cases in wild animals Teported, and 1,000 cases in dogs. Vaccination with phenolised vaccine started in 1945. In 1957, 7 million doses were given to dogs. Urban rabies has been brought under control but sylvatic rabies presents a difficult problem. The situation with bat-rabies was reviewed; as high as 18 percent of bats in some places carry antibodies against rabies. The mechanism of natural transmission within the bat population is unlmown. Fighting is presumed to be the common mechanism for transfer but the virus may be passed through milk. In South America the blood sucking vampire bats are responsible for numerous cases of rabies in cattle and humans as well. Bat-rabies has been found in Jugoslavia and Turkey, and is suspected in Germany and India. In the discussion the identity of rabies strains from bats with other strains was pointed out. The situation with regard to rabies in the countries represented was reviewed along with presentation of methods of control and results. In the Philippines the rate is increasing. Reported dog cases are about 40-50 per year and repcrted human cases about 500 per year. Procedures of control are standard, but implementa tions needs improvement.

- 23 -

In Taiwan human cases have dropped from 248 in 1951 to 6 in 1958. Countrywide vaccim tion of dogs has been done since 1957. The dog population is about 100,000, of which 59 percent bas been vaccimted. No proven wild animal reservoirs. In Fiji no rabies reported. None in Australia and New Zealand.

In Hong Kong every dog over 3 months is vaccinated and registered. Tattoo earmarks used. Last outbreak in urban part of Hong Kong in 1949. Last case in rural area in 1955. Dog population 16,643. In 1958, 1,500 dog bites; the animals are quarantined for 7 days, i f vaccinated. Dogs are inoculated every third year with LEP vaccine. In Korea, 250,000 doses of vaccine were given to dogs in 1958. 10,000 doses to humans. In 1958, 4 troman cases reported. In 1957, 16 people bitten by a rabid wolf, 4 died, of which one had received treatment. In Japan about 5,000 dog cases were seen in 1925, 255 fatal human cases at the same time. Dog population now (1.8 mill.) All dogs are vaccinated twice a year with phenolised vaccine. Since 1951 number of dog cases have dropped from 500 per year to 6 in 1956. In 1957 and 1958 no cases observed. Last human case reported in 1954. In Malaya dog population is 120,000. An inmnmity belt of vaccinated dogs is being maintained along the Thailand border since 1953. Vaccination repeated at 3 years interval. Last two cases in dogs were in 1955. The incidence of serum-sickness following the use of horse immune serum to man was about 20 percent. Post-vaccination paralysis has an overall incidence of about I in 2,000, but wide differenceS are reported in different parts of the world. The possible role of monkeys in transmitting rabies was discussed. Humans bitten by monkeys should be vaccinated. Finally, it was stressed that in spite of encouraging progress in the control of the disease, very many aspects still are obscure and await further stringently controlled research.

- 24 -

Session 11, Tuesday Morning, 28 April 1959 Discussion of Arthropod-borne Viral Infections The rapidly expanding knowledge in the field arthropod-borne (arbor) viruses, which included several important pathogens besides those causing encephalites in man and animals was noted. Because of the wild vertebrates and vectors involved, the successful solution of problems in this field needed close cooperation of virologists, zoologists, ecologists, and epidemiologists. The proposed survey of antibodies against arbor viruses in human beings and animals in various parts of the world to be carried out by WHO in collaboration with national institutions was mentioned and it was agreed that the information gathered will greatly help in understanding the epidemiology of these infections and will make the forecasting of outbreaks possible. The epidemiology of the mosquito-borne encephalitides with special reference to Japanese B encephalitis, was described. Birds constituted the main reservoirs of infection. Domestic mammals (horses, pigs, etc.) were infected in nature but 2Ppareritly did not become principal r~servoirs. Since equine infection preceded the clinical appearance of the diseases in man, this animal can serve as a 'sentinel' indicator unle ss vaccinated. Epidemiological features of the disease were explained by studies on the ecology of culicine mosquitoes, which acted as vectors. The infsction occurs throughout the western Pacific Region and extends into India, but it is specially important in the temperate areas.. The Murray Valley Encephalitis of southern Australia is a.closely allied infection, and the mosquito-borne encephalitides of this Region have some basic similarities with the encephalitides occurring in North and South America. It was stated that vaccination with formalinized suspension of infected mouse brain increased the resistance of children to the disease and experience in Japan showed that it reduces the incidence of the disease. In horses, however, vaccination is more succe"ssful in preventing the disease. It was stated that anti-mosquito measures would be more effective in controlling the disease than vaccination. The need for further studies on the ecology of the disease and its vectors and reservoirs was stressed before more effective control measures could be suggested. Tick-borne encephalitis caused by the Russian Spring-Summer-louping ill group of viruses was described. The RSS virus was incriminated as the cause of Kyasanur Foust disease in India. Studies are being pursued on the possible role of migratory birds in introducing this disease in India. Western Pacific countries should also be on the alert for the RSS virus, because human infections have been frequently reported in the Far Eastern part of the USSR. Such vigilance is in order also with respect to the as yet ill-defined "hemorrhagic fevers" of Tomsk and Korea.

- 25 -

" II

Session 12, Tuesday Afternoon, 28 April 1959 Discussion of Brucellosis It was reported that Brucella abortus infdction in cattld has been detected throughout almost the whole of the region but some countries had a very low incidence. Control measures varied. Some adopted Strain 19 calfhood vaccination; others were operating an eradication programme through a test and slaughter policy. It was pointed out to those who were considering the introduction of schemes for the creation of brucellosis-free herds that where the initial incidence of brucellOSiS was high, it might be necessary, for economic reasons, to start with Strain 19 calfhood vaccination until the incidence of natural infection had been reduoed to a level suffiCiently low as to allow the introduction of a test and slaughter eradication programme. If the vaccine were administered when the calf was between 6 and 8 months of age, there would be no serious interference with subsequent testing since most vaccinated calves lose their agglutinin titre by the age of 30 months. It was important that revaccination should be avoided since it is not only uLDCcessary as calfhood vaccination gives protection for 7 years or more, but undesirable since adult animals on vaccination retain their titre for long periods and this WJ uld interfere with subsequent eradication based on the sero-agglutination test and slaughter policy. One country reported that investigations had been started on brucellosis in the buffalo but details as to the species of Brucella involved were not available. As far as is mown, the disease in bUffaloes follows mora or less the same pattern as in cattle but more work on buffalo infections is needed. In this connection it should be borne in mind that Br. melitensis is a problem in some buffalo herds in the Mediterranean region. I t is of interest here, however, that from limited investigations there is as yet no evidence of Br. melitensis infection in sheep and goat.s in the West Pacific Region, except ii1mainland China. PartiCipants reported that studies on sheep have bean largely confined to investigations in Australia and New Zealand of a species of Brucella which causes epididymitis in rams but which is non-pathogenic for man. Br. suis infection in pigs was report,3d from most countries, but Japan and New Z6ai~3re notable exceptions. Human brucellosis was repol~ed from most countries but it did not present such a serious problJm as it does in certain other regions. No detail.e were available as the Brucella species involved in the human casas which did occur. In this connection it was felt that, having regard to thJ relatively high incidence of ~. ~ infection recorded in pigs in some countries, a close vigilance for human cases should be kept. The importance of cooperation between medical and veterinary authorities in dealing with this and other fonns of brucellosis ~iaS emphasized. Diagnostic procedures were discussed. In particular, the need for standardization in the interpretation of the sero-ac~'.utination test was stressed. Participants were advised that national and other accredited laboratories could - 26 -

obtain International Standard Anti-Brucella Serum for standardization purposes from the Central Veterinary Laboratory, Weybridge, England or the Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Danmark. • The use of the milk ring test as a diagnostic tool in the establishment of brucellosis-free herds of cattle was discussed. Its value for surveys in areas wishing to obtain a rapid assessment of the brucellosis situation where vaccination procedure have not been applied was mentioned. It was pointed out that where the test was to be applied to the milk of the buffalo, ewe or goat, it would be necessary to modify the standard test slightly. Datails of the necessary modifications could be obtained from WHO. Reported incidence of brucellosis

A recent survey indicated that only 0.03% of the cattle in the country gave positive reactions to the sero-agglutination test. Positive cases are restricted to a few prefectures, within which approximately 2% of the cattle are reactors. Br. suis and Br. melitensis infections have not been found. Human brucellosis is infrequent. Out of 2195 abattoir workers examined in 1957, 14 were serologically positive. Korea The examination of 1352 dairy cows in 1956-58 revealed 22 reactors to the sero-agglutination test for Br. abortus. The examination of 244 pigs for Br. suis revealed 51 reactors. No information was available regarding human brucellosis. ....

Australia ~.

abortus infection is widespread in dairy herds. ~

Br.

in pigs is reported from two states only.

Br. melitensis has not been recorded, although a careful surveillance is kept. Human brucellosis is infrequent. About 40 cases are reported annually in the whole commonwealth. Mortality amounts to approximately 1 per year out of a population of approximately 9 million. A Brucella species(ovi~~ causing epididymitis in rams, but not abortion in ewes (of New Zealand report) also accurs, New Zealand In 1945 approximately 22% of the dairy cattle of the country were reactors, but the figure is now well below 2%. Br. suis has not been recovered, A Brucella species causing nor has Br. melitensis. in rams and abortion in ewes occurs.

epidiQymiti~

Twenty-three cases of human brucellosis were reported in 1958, mostly in cattlemen, veterinarians, and abattoir workers.

- 27 -

Philippines Br. abortus infection occurs in cattle. From a survey made in 1952-53, 15% of the cattle tested were reactors. By 1958,10% reacted to the sero-agglutination test. Relatively few animals were surveyed. Buffalo infections have been invGstigated, positive reactions have been obtained but the species involved are not known. Br. ~

infection occurs in pigs.

Forty-three goats were tested in the survey. Two doubtful reactors appeared. Doubtful reactions have also been obtained from horses. Malaya There has been no survey of indigenous cattle. Some seven years agao there was a suspicious reaction in a bull in one of the Government farms. Human brucellosis has amounted to 5 cases in 5 years. Taiwan It was reported that the incidence of reactors in dairy herds has been reduced from 13.3% to 1.0%. /

Br. abortus infection occurs in the cattle population. Th~re is no evidence of Br. ~ infection in pi~s which have been investigated. Br. melitensis is not suspected but a goat survey has not been made. Hong Kong Br. abortus infection is found particularly in exotic dairy cattle. Br. suis infection is common in pigs. In native pigs the infection has recently changed in character from an asymptomatic one to a clinically recognizable condition. There have been no surveys in the few goats in Hong Kong. Human brucellosis occurs very occasionally.

,

~,

- 28 -

•

l~

Session 13, Thursday Morning, 30 April 1959 Discussion of Salmonellosis Salmonellosis is a major veterinary public health problem. The difficulty of establishing the incidence of Salmonellosis in man and animals was discussed. The development of public health laboratories and veterinary diagnostic surveys are essential in defining the size of the problem. It is well to point out that even though typhoid fever is now attributed to one of the Salmonellae, so far as can be determined there is no animal reservoir. This is also true of the paratyphoid group, although occasionally some of these infections are found in animals. The most important Salmonella groups as far a5 animal reservoirs are concerned are C,D, and E. There are more than 500 Salmonella species most of which are found in the C, D, and E group. In some parts of the world it is estimated that approximately 1.5% of the human population is suffering from this disease, or are carriers. The incidence in animals including fowl vary considerably. Ruminants are thought to have the lowest incidence although many large epidemics of Salmonella infections have been traced to cattle, meat and milk products. Salmonella dublin and S. typhimurium are the most important. Infections in ruminants have been reported in the Western Pacific region. Swine. Swine have been known to be carriers of Salmonella for more than half a century. Pork products have often been incriminated as a cause of large meat poisoning epidemics. Recently it has been demonstrated that swine carcasses and meat products made from pork are frequently contaminated with many verieties of Salmonella. The disease in swine can be controlled through good sanitary practices and the avoidance of raw garbage feeding.

I

1--

j

t

!'

---

Fowl. Fowl constitute by far the largest population ofcbmestic animals and they have the highest incidence of Salmonella. Hence they are considered to be the largest single reservoir of Salmonella. Investigations have revealed frequently more than half of older breeds are carrying Salmonella organisms. Turkeys are known to have a high infection rate. Salmonella can be spread among birds by eggs or by fecal penetration of the egg shell. Young birds may become infected by ingestion. Egg products are usually contaminated through the shells, although in some instances they are contaminated after processing. It has been pointed out that as long as cracked soiled eggs are used in dried and frozen egg products, one can expect a high incidence of Salmonella in those products. Dogs and cats have been identified as carriers of Salmonella. Rodents have long been known to carry Salmonella enteritidis and S. typhimurium. They also carry marry other types. The types found in rodents often reflect those that are common to the environment. Attempts to control mice and rats by the use of S. enteritidis, var. Danysz are not recommended. This is a dangerous public health practice. A number of food processing outbreaks in man have been traced to these organisms. Salmonella have also been found in cold blooded animals as well as insects. It is known that flies can be mechanical carriers but fortunately they are dangerous only for a short period of time. Salmonella have also been isolated from fish and shellfish. They were probably infected in waters that were "'_wL __

- 29 -

contaminated by man or an:ilnals. In recent years it has been found that Salmonella are frequently found in wild fowl that inhabit sewage polluted waters. The use of sewage effluent for irrigation of pastures is a dangerous practice. Salmonella are known to be widespread in many foods. It has been found in beef, pork and poultry, also various types of egg products. Aside fnom these foods, the organism is frequently found in vegetables and an:ilnal feeds derived from both an:ilnal and vegetable sources. The spread of Salmonella in animal feeds has become increasingly important in the past decade. Such feeds as bone, meat, fish, cottonseed meal and sunflower cake are just a few of those being identified as being contaminated. The control of Salmonella contamination in animal feeds should be investigated by any one using theSe products. The role of the buman carrier in the spread of Salmonellosis is sizeable and should be investigated in any community where Salmonellosis appears. In a large series of Salmonella isolation almost 30% of the cultures obtained from human beings were isolated from asymptomatic persons. The human carrier rate in countries where such studies have been made is est:ilnated to be 0.2%. Some investigators point out that the carriers are the result of occupational hazards in persons who continually handle uncooked meats and carcasses, poultry, and egg products. In most instances, the carrier phase is of short duration but many may persist in long periods. Direct transmission from man to man may occur. This phenomenon has been frequently observed in infants in hospital nurseries who may contract infections from other persons or from asymptomatic staff members. Infections of babies by mothers has been repeatedly observed. The spread of Salmonella from man to an:ilnals is not an uncommon occurrence. Such episodes have been observed betw3en man and dogs, cats, swine, and poultry and in turn these animals carried the inf8ction t.o other parsons. Control. The control of Salmonellosis in man is dependent upon its 1) reduction in animals; 2) avoidance of contamination of food products of an:ilnal origin; 3) the control of human cas8s, both carriers and convalescents, and 4) the elimination of the organism in the environment. The demonstration of pullorum disease control in fOVll lends hope that other types of Salmonella infection can also be reduced or ~l:ilninated. Another important step in control of the diseases in domestic animals is to avoid the continuous seeding of disease through infected feedstuffs. Pasteurization of an:ilnal feedstuff is a practice to be r3commended. Any individual showing symptoms of gastroenteric infections should be prevented from handling food until it is established that pathogenic bacteria cannot be identified in his stools. Lastly the control of~gienic conditions in proceSSing plants as well as food dispensing establishments must be improved. It had frequdntly been demonstrated that abbatoirs are often the source of contamination of meat and meat products and likewise the equipment in butcher shops may contaminate meat and meat products. It has been suggosted that the adoption of bacteriological standards for the c0ntrol of abbatoirs and food processing establishments would be very helpful similar to standards that have been established in the dairy industry. More rigid control of food processing becomes increasingly important in this age of centralization. In the control of Salmonella in food products, e.g., mayonnaise, it has been observed that through a combination of acidification and mild heating that bacterial populations can be held to a minimum.

- 30 -

A~rnEX

- Salmonellosis in Japan

Mr. Chairman, I should like to e:xplain the present situation of Salmonellosis in Japan. Numerous workers have carried out the investigations of the type distribution of Salmonella in Japan since 1949. The National Committee on Enteric Bacteria in Animals was established in 1952 and 2,482 Salmonella and 16 Arizona strains have been isolated from man and a wide variety of animals, namely, cattle, horses, sheep and goats, dogs, foxes and .. minks, cats, rats, mice, guinea-pigs, rabbits, chickens, other fowls, eggs and man in the period of 1949-1957. Detailed antigeniC analysis was carried out on the isolated strains. Summarized table was already distributed to you when you visited our National Institute of Animal Health, to which I should like to add several words. 1) A total of 2,482 Salmonella and 16 Arizona cultures which were isolated from man and animals in an 8-year period were classified. 2) "The 2,482 Salmonella cultures ware divided into 58 serotypes, of which 32 were found fraquantly, while 26 were found only occasionally. 3) Of the 58 typas, 24 occurred in both man and animals, The largest numbers and widest varieties of types were found in man, dogs, chickens and eggs, From SWine, contrary to expectations, Salmonella was isolated very infrequently, 4) Although most cultures from fowls and eggs were isolted from disease outbreaks, some animals were found to be asymptomatic carriers. 5) Beside such host-adaptive types as S. paratyphi A, S. paratyphi B, S, abortus equi, S. typhi, S, sendai, S, pullorum and S. enteritidis were found most frequently in man and animals, COPlPosing19.6% of all the cultures studied. On the other hand, S, typhimurium was found in only 5.4%, 6) S, choleraesuis was found in 2 outbreaks of infection and in a daad chick embryo in 1954, and since that no cultures have been isolated from man nor animals, S, dublL'1 was not found in the study. 7) Among the cultures from chickens and embryos dead in the shell, S. senftenberg was the most frequent type after S. pullorum, and composed 39% of the cultures from embryos, 8) S, derby, S. thompson, S, potsdam, S, bareilly, S. give and S. newbrunswick were also common types, S, narashino, S. nagoya and S. sendai, all of which seem to be exclusive for Japan, have been repeatedly isolated. 9) The 16 cultures of Arizona group 1.JrB classified into 9 types, of which type 7:1, 7.8 was the largest. The ~of Arizona groups is still very rare in Japan. Thank you •

......

- 31 -

Session 14, Thursday Af't9rnoon, 50 April 1959 Discussion of HYdatidosis and other Parasitic Zoonoses While the usual method of transmission of hydatidosis to man is through the ingestion of eggs which have contaminated the hands of the individual bandl!i3lg,:::".af:' an infected dog's egg-contaminated coat, it should be borne in mind that water-borne infection is a particular hazard in areas in which water is scarce and where water supplies may become contaminated through dogs defaecating close to water holes, etc. In a review of diagnostic procedures for human hydatidosis, attention was drawn to the limitations of the Casoni test which sometimes gives both false

negatives and positives. The complement-fixation test also bas its limitations. Recent developments are a bentonite-flocculation test and a direct and indirect haemagglutination inhibition test. Of the various tests, probably the bentoniteflocculation and indirect haemagglutination inhibition tests are the most satisfactory • Anthelmintic control of Echinococcus infection in dogs, involving the administration of arecoline hyarobromlde three times per year, reduces the amount of infection in dogs provided that the distribution of the anthelmintic and its administration is properly supervised. It should not be thought, hOl'rever, that arecoline hydrobromide provides 100 per cent efficiency as an anthelmintic even under optimal conditions. Sometimes it may remove only 30 per cent of the worm burden of an individual animal. All other aspects of control - the proper disposal of offal, the rigid exclusion of dogs from slaughter-houses, personal hygiene must be vigorously practised. The need for further research on the biology of the parasite and on anthelmintics was stressed. In the discussion it was reported that in New Zealand the incidence of hydatidosis in Europeans is decreasing but there is no decrease in infections in Maoris, who in their dwellings have a much more intimate contact with dogs than Europeans do. A participant from Australia described the dingo-wallaby cycle of Echinococcus infection vmich occurs in an area of Queensland and which accounts to a conslderable degree for a high incidence (77%) of hydatids in cattle in that area. The dingo acquires infection by killing and eating hydatid-infected wallabies. When the dingo runs over farm land it defaecates and contaminates the pastures where cattle graze. From several countries there were 0 _-(.purts of human hydatidosis. Within the region it is principally a problem of j.ustralia and New Zealand. other parasitic zoonoses were discussed in considerable detail. Attention was drawn in particular to the seriousness of trematode infections of man in certain countries of the region. The control of schistosomiasis (SChistosOOla japonicum) was reviewed with special reference to control measures based on

-

..

- 32 -

changing the habitat of the snail vectors to make it unsuitable for snail reproduction, and on chemical methods involving the use of molluscicides. In Japan a programme of ecological control coupled with the use of sodium pentachlorophenate as a molluscicide twice a year (April/October) has given good results. Reference was made to the pilot schistosomiasis control project which is being developed in the Philippine Islands with WHO assistance. Other matters discussed were paragonimiasis with special reference to skin tests in diagnosis; clonorchiasis; and Fasciolopsis buski infection. All of these infections which are acquired by man from various articles of food contaminated with metacercariae present a challenge to those attempting to control them. If people would change their food habits and cook their food adequately, control would be relatively easy.

-----

.

- 33 -

Session 15, Friday Morning, 1 May 1959 Discussion of Leptospirosis A review was presented of the work initiated by the WHO and FAD to nomencla ture and laboratory techniques in leptospirosis. Reference was International Microbiology Congress subcommittee and the WHO/FAD expert publications. Regional Leptospirosis centres have been established and sera prepared for 36 sero-types with more forthcoming. standardize made to the committee reference

Yamamoto, Japan, revielved the occurrence of the disease in Japan (WPR/VPH/:21) and the epidemiological studies made in humans, cattle, swine, horse, dogs and wild animals. The circumstantial evidence of moon blindness in horses being associated with leptospirosis was discussed. As yet he has tried no experimental reproduction of the condition using leptospira for infection experiments, but the high titers found consistently in serum and aquaeous humor from affected horses were underlined. Serological surveys have shown the following percentages of reactors (minimum significant titer 1:300): Cattle, of 1961 tested 3 percent pos. Horses, of 779 tested II percent pos. Pigs, of 1340 tested 6.2 percent pos. Leptospirosis in cattle is found endemic in certain areas. Of animals showing clinical symptoms approximately 30% died. In urban environment strains found in human cases are L. icterohaemorrhagiae and canicola both carried by rats and dogs.

In rural population a variety of strains are involved including L. hebdomadis, australis autumnalis, same as in cattle 2.nd horses, and all being car;::'ied by field rodents (Apodemus, Hicrotus). Kitaoka, Japan, reviewed prop~1actic measures which must be based upon 1) control of carriers and shedders of the organism, 2) improvement of environments to create less favourable conditions for perSistence and survival of the organism in nature, 3 ) preventive vaccination of exposed groups of humans and animals. Vaccines should be heat killed (60 C. for 30 minutes) and contain more than 50 cells per dark field. Two injections of 1 cc each may be given subcutaneously 7 days apart, or 0.1 cc doses m~ be given intradermally. Agglutination titers subside in the course of approximately 90 days. It is believed that vaccination offers some protection for a period of about :2 years. Controlled experiments with challenge of :ilnmunized animals as well as controlled field trials still are lacking. It is therefore difficult to evaluate the efficiency of vaccination in the prevention of leptospirosis from Japanese work as well as from vlork performed elsewhere (Italy). Vaccinated individuals may stili become excreters upon exposure. Treatment with antibiotics was discussed. The experience from many countries howe,:,er show~ that such treatment is unreliable both in relieving clinical symptoms and :Ln stoppmg (renal) excretion of the organisms. PenicWin Streptomycin . a ndK anamyc:Ln . were mentioned. " Aureomycm 0

- 34 -

On the occurrence of leptospirosis in the Western Pacific Region the following information was given: Fiji: negative. Leptospirosis is suspected in dogs and in pigs. So far limited testing

Hong Kong: In dogs L. canicola and L. icterohaemorr~gi&eare found. The first mentioned being the most frequent type and predominant in urban areas" while icterohaemoIi.<tn.g~mainJ.y is seen in rural districts. In pigs L. pomona. has been demonstrated. Human cases are sporadic. Australia: leptospirosis has assumed greater importance in recent years. L. pomona in some districts is widespread in dairy herds (trot in beef cattle). Produces redwater in calves with appreciable mortali1;y. Adult cattle affected to a lesser extent. The keeping of calves in wet yards and the use of natural wa ter supplies tends to perpetuate the disease. Pomona-infection is associated with a small marsupial (locally kno..m as Bandicoot), which arrilnal acts as wild life reservoir. In pigs L. pomona likewise is found, causing abortions and still births. Most prevalent in Queensland where 20f, of pigs may show serum titers. Human infections with L. pomona occur in farmers due to hand contamination from cowtails soiled with urine and in abbatoir workers (bacon factories). L. pomona has also been noted in sheep on one occasion in a dairy farm. L. icterobaemorrhB.giea is not present in cattle and pigs but in dogs hunting rats. Rats in garbage dUlTlps show high incidence. In the sugar cane fields human leptospirosis is a recognized occupational hazard because of great reservoir found in the cane rat.

About 200 human cases are reported yearly. Mortali ty 1 percent. Icterohaemorrhagiae is the predominant type in urban areas (from rats), totalling about 20 per year. In the cane fields" L. Australis A and B cause the bulk of cases; pomona in farmers and slaughterhouse workers. As yet no evidence of L. canicola in dogs. L. pomona was found in dogs. New Zealand. Nain type is L. pomona. L. hyos found in cattle. No canicola or icterohaemorrhagiae in dogs. A survey made in pigs showed 5 percent reactors. Human cases reported 79 last year. Mostly farmers attending herds suffering from red water. In untreated calves with red water mortality is high. Streptomycin used in treatment. In infected herds of cattle a wave of abortions reoccur ever,y five years, indicating that natural immunity lasts Lhat long. The Philippines. vlork on leptospirosis up till now only scanty. Increasing incidence of jaundice in pigs has been observed in slaughterhouses. Association with leptospirosis doubtful. First demonstration of leptospira-organisms in kidney of pigs made 1958. A case in dog has been observed too. Korea. No definite information availabl.e. The diseases believed not to occupy an :important position. Not discovered in Korean rice-field •

.. 35 -

Singapore. L. icterohaemorrhagiae and canicola found in dogs. known about cattle and pigs. 30-40 hUlllan cases per year, mainJ.,y in Indian sewage workers. Taiwan. No definite information available.

Little is

Malaya. In the course of 10 years 188 human cases were reported. A.ttention was drawn to the extensive work of leptospirosis in Malaya performed by U. S. AI'l1\Y laboratories, demonstrating several new serotypes in various new rodent hosts. The persistence of leptospira-organisms in natural environments was discussed. In Japan pond waters have been found to harbour 1eptospira-organisms frequently during summer months, disappearing in winter time. From Jl.ustralia information was given to the effect that leptospira-organisms have been found able to survive in natural water for approximately three months.

Session 16, Friday Afternoon, 1 May 1959 Anthrax It was noted that in contrast to the position in South-East Asia there was not a high incidence of anthrax in animals in the warm and moist areas of the Region. Human infection, which was comparable with the agricultural anthrax of the industrialized countries, occurred mainly as a result of handling infected carcasses, often in cutting up for hUlllan consumption. In the temperate areas of the Region, the incidence was low and usually restricted to the warm and moist part of the year. In one area of Japan, outbreaks occurred after flooding caused by typhoons in autumn.

In control of the disease in animals, stress was laid on the proper disposal of carcasses and regular vaccination in anthrax zones before the season of high incidence of the disease. In man, contact with the infected an:iJnals, carcasses and other animal products should be avoided. Workers in establishments liable to be infected might be protected with an aggressin-type vaccine. The possibility of the disease aeeoming an atypical picture in man was mentioned. This necessitates careful investigation of suspected cases. The necessity of close collaboration between medical and veterinary workers and health education in rural areas was stressed in controlling the disease in this Region. Recent progress in phage typing of anthrax bacilli for differentiation from allied organisms, and the application of the fluorescent ~ technique in diagnosis was noted.

--

- 36 -

Session 17, Frida,y l\..fternoon, 1 May 1959 Fungal Diseases

The various fungal diseases were briei1.v reviewed. Actinomycosis was discussed as a problem common to ma.'1 and animals. Currently it is not thought that the disease is transmitted from artilnals to mrul, bnt that both are infected from the environment. The disease has been reported as being transmitted to man through bite of animals. The systematic .fungal diseases nameJ.y, Blastomycosis, Coccidioidom.vcosis, and Histoplasmosis were reviewed even though these problems are not known to occur in the Far Pacific region. Cryptococcosis has been reported in Japan in pigeons. In other parts of the world it is reported as a cause of mastitis in cows and has been isola ted from milk. Nocardiosis was discussed as a developing zoonosis. This agent causes a wide variew of diseases in man, such as maduromycosis and mycetomas. RecentJ.y it has been found to be the cause of pulI"lonary condition which is very s:1.Inilar to tuberculosis. Identifica tion of this organism in animals especially milking cows has caused considerable concern, especialJ.y in the light of the fact that the organism resists the usual pasteurization temperatures.

-_/

Ringworm. There are three groups of fungal ringworm agents which are known to CM.Se ringworm in m'l.n and animals. These are the anthropophilic or human types; the zoophilic or animal tvpe; and the geophilic or soiJ. organisms. The human 'f:nles are found Wily in man although recen~ there have been reports of their transfer from man to anjmals. The h\;.:r.'l.I) types are represented by Microsporum audolUni which is the common t~·t.se of epidemic ringworm of the scalp of children. The tr.-ansmission is from parson to person. l.nimals are not cons:idered a reservoir. Trichopl?,yton rubrum is the common cause of ringworm of the feet and nails of man. There is no evidence that animals arp. involved i:.1 the epidemiology of this disease although the agent has been recovered fr0m an.'tm!"~s. I. new species, }ucrosporum distortum, has been described as a cau~o of ht~T.an disease in New Zeal&Jd o Recentli this agent has been isola ted from I".o!ilwys and dogs. The most :J..mportant r:ingworm agent of a."·d.maJ.s is Microsporum canis. This agent is the cormr.on cau.se of ringworm in cats and dogs. It is also a cause of disease in monkeys. This is the rr.ost inportant animal fungal aeent so far as man is concerned. In some count-ries 10-:';0% of the human infections are caused by this agent. The control of this disease in children and animals is quite difficult. It also af'!'ects adults. Anothe:.~ 2.r..i:.:aJ. ringl.:orm tr.at causes disease in man is the Trichonhyton menta?rouhvtl3s. HUl':'_an infecticns with this agent are encountered principally in rural areas. -This fungus is pa thogenic for a number of animal species both domestic and l-1ild, including rodents and larger mammals. Trichopb,yton equinu;n, as the name implies, is primariJ.v pathogenic :in horses. Outbreaks have been reported in horses throughout the world. In some instance the disease has also appeared in humans having close association with diseased animalso Tr:l..ch0phyton verrucosum is the principal cause of cattle ringt-lorm. OccasionalJ.y the infection occurs 1.'1. other animal species. Man is quite susceptible to infection. It is a principal c<.use of suppurative ringworm in humans residing in rural areas.

- 37 -

The geophilic organisms are Microsporum g:ypseum and Keratilomuces ajelloi, anl has recently been found that both these agents can produce disease in man and animals. It is presumed that man and animals become infected from the soil. It goes without saying that the control of the zoophilic fungal infections in man is dependent upon lmowledge of its discovery in anmals. Up to the present time it has been most difficult to control these diseases. Until these agents are proven to be susceptible to satisfactory treatment the best control measure at the JIIO!IIeIlt are the reJ1X)Val of diseased animals from close association with man. In the Far Pacific region ringworm is known to occur in a number of the islands. Fiji repe rted it as a heli!. til problem in both an1ma.ls and men. Not

~-

much information was known about its incidence in other parts of the region.

- 38 -

P.1RT III .bREX!S

Annex 1

List of Consultants and Discussion Leaders Dr. Martin N. Kaplan Chief, Veterinary ?ublic Health, WHO, Geneva Dr. James H. Steele

Chief V.?H., U.S.?H.S. Dr. R. B. Griffiths Veterinary Consultant, FAO ?rofessor i... Jepsen Royal Veterinary College, Copenhagen Dr. M. Abdussalam College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore, Pakistan Dr. Kegi Saito

Chief, Animal Hygiene Section, Bureau of Animal Industry, Ministry of Agriculture & Forestry, Japanese Government Dr. Masami Kitaoka Chief, Department of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases National Institute of Health l1inistry of Health and Welfare Japanese Government ' Dr. Shutaro Yamamoto

Professor of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo Uhiversity

Operational Officer Dr. C. Y. Shu

Regional ?ublic Health Administrator, WHOjWP.RO Manila Public Information Officer Ml'. J. G. i1ilwertz

Regional Public Information Officer, WHO/WPRO Manila

- 39 -

Annex Ii.

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

AUS'l'RALIA

Dr. C. E. Cook Direetor, Division of Public Health Commonwealth Department of Health Mr. K. S. MoIntosh Assistant Director of Veterinary Hygiene Commonwealth Department of Health

CHINA (TAIWAN)

Dr. Y. T. Kuo Ckief, Technical Expert Division Taiwan Provincial Health Ackninistration Mr. S. L. Hsu

Senior Technioian Taiwan Institute of Environmental Sanitation Provin~ial Health Administration Dr. Chao-Ching Lin* Vioe-Director Taiwan Serum Vacoine Laboratory

Dr. Hsin-chen Hsieh-::Professor and Dir3ctor of Department of Parasitology Kaohsiung Medical College FIJI Mr. k.F .S. Ohman

Chief Veterinary Officer Department of Agriculture Suva HONGKONG Dr. G. B. Smart

Chief Port Health Officer and Epidemiologist Mr. J. M. Riddell-Swan

Acting S~or Veterinary Offi~r Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry Department

*extra participants

- 40 -

JAPAN

Dr. Mor:ilnatsu i'latanabe

Chief, Division of Biological Products National Institute of An:ilnal Health Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Dr. Kiyoshi Imaizumi

Chief, Department of Veterinary Science National Institute of Health MinistrJ of Health and Welfare Dr. M. Kambayashi As~istant Chief and Technical Officer Veterinary Sanitation Office Public He~Bureau MiRistry of Health and Welfare Dr. A. Shishido Chief, Division of Rickettsiolegy Department of Virology & Rickettsiology, NIH Dr. Sadamoto S!\kasegawa Professor of Veterinary Public Health Nippon Veterinary and Zootechnical College Dr. Miy0shi Ilceda*

Assistant Professor of Veterinary Public Health Faeulty of Agriculture Tokyo URiversity Dr. G. Tokutomi,< Technical Officer Department of Veterinary Public Health Institute of Public Health, Ministry Q! Health and Welfare Mr. 5higeru Kondo,< F.oqd Inspector Health Bureau of Tokyo Metr~politan Government Dr. Chiharu AsOlllura*

Councillor on Veterinary Affairs Ministry of Health and Welfare Chief, Department of Veterinary Public Health Institute of Public Health

Dr. T. Matsui*

Dr. Korekiyo Matsushita*

Technical Officer, An:ilnal Hygiene Section Bureau of An:ilnal Industry Mini~try of Agriculture and Forestry.

-lIextn

participants - 41 -

KOREA

Dr. S. T. Kim Acting Chief Assay Division, NIH liinistry of Health and Social Affairs Hr. N. S. Lee Director Livestock Bureau I1inistry of Agriculture & Forestry Dr. K. M. Lee"~ Agriculture Division OEC, Seoul

-.-'

,

FEDERATION OF HALAYA.

Dr. Haji Mohamed bin 110hamed Ibrahim· Deputy Chief l1edical & Health Officer Z1ini stry of Heal th Inche Johari bin Haji 11ohd. Daud Director of Veterinary Services Kuala Lumpur

NEW ZEALAND:

Mr. G. V. Wallace Veterinarian Agriculture Department J.uckland

FHILIPPINES:

Dr. Anacleto B. Coronel Acting Director of Animal Industry Bureau of Animal Industry Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Dr. Felicisimo San Agustin Bureau of Animal Industry Dr. Dominador Rubio Heat Inspection Board 11anila City Health Department Dr. Ireneo Encomienda Jr. City Veterinarian Quezon City Health Department Dr. Leoncio H. Lorenzo City Veterinarian Pasay City Health Department l1r'. Cho Chak Nam j.cting Chief Veterinary Officer Veterinary Department Professor 1..• i ... Sando sham Professor of Parasitology lliiversity of Ha.laya

*extra participant

- 42 -

Annex 3

Questionnaire on Veterinary Public Health to be filled in by participants of the Seminar on Veterinary Public Health, WPRO Tokyo, 20 April - 1 May 1959

To have useful background information for discussion during the Seminar, participants are asked to complete the following questionnaire in triplicate and return it as soon as possible to WPRO, WHO, Manila. Please give short narrative replies to the following: I.

What are the zoonoses (anilllal diseases eonununicable to man) of illlportance in your country? Give whatever data you can on the prevalence of these zoonoses (bovine tuberculOSiS, rabies, arthropodborne encephalitis, brucelloSis, anthrax, leptospirosis, hydatidosis and other parasitic zoonoses will be discussed during the Seminar, and should receive special attention in answering this question).

- 43 -

II.

Please describe the administrative set-up of the Veterinary Public Health Service in your country. Who is responsiblo for the overall co-ordination of Veterinary Public Health activities in the various government departments?

III.

What measures have been undertaken to control or eradicate the zoonoses as listed under item I and indicate the results of such campaigns.

- 44 ..

IV.

If no measures have been used to control these zoonoses in your country, are any plans being made?

v.

Meat hygiene practice in your country 1.

Sale of meat and meat products: Is it permissible to sell for human consumption meat and meat products that have not been submitted to official meat inspection?

2.

legislation: Who are the authorities responsible for legislation concerning meat hygiene and meat inspection?

3.

Food animals: What kind of animals ara embraced in the term "food animBis" in your meat inspection legislation?

....

...

- 45 -

4. Food animals slaughtered: Give the approxiroatd numbers of food animals slaughtered per year.

,-"

5.

Slaughterhouses and premises for storage, processing and sale meat: Is legislation in force for such establishments as Slaughterhouses, and all premises wh3re meat or meat products are stored, processed, and/or sold?

6.

Handling and transportation of meat: Are regulations in force governing the maintenance of cleanliness in the handling and transportation of meat?

7.

Medical examination of food handling staff: Do you have regulations prescribing physical examination for communicable diseases of staff employed in the meat industry, both before anrj/or during employment?

- 46 -

8.

Meat inspection and superv~s~on of premises: Who are the authorities responsible at the national and the local levels for meat inspeotion, and the supervision of premises where meat and meat products are stored, processed, and/or sold?

-

9. Meat inspection staff: Who directly employs the meat inspection staff?

10.

Ante-mortem inspection:

Is this obligatory?

li.

stunning before slaughter: Is this compulsory? Give short description of the methods of stunning used in your country •

.. 47 -

12.

Post-mortem inspection:

Is this obligatory?

--

13.

GiVG catdgories of diseas<.ls or conditions entailing (a) total condemnation of carcasses, and (b) partial condemnation of carcasses.

14.

Judgement of meat: What are the usual terms applied in your country in the judgement of meat for human consumption?

15.

Bacteriological examination: requ~ed, ~n wh~ch cases?

Is this required by law?

If

- 48 -

VI.

Legislation and practices in food hygiene in your country concerning fish.

VII.

Milk hygiene practices 1. List the commonly cons\Dll9d milk and milk products (e.g. fluid cow's milk, dried cow's milk, fresh white cheese, etc.).

2.

Who are the responsible authorities for milk hygiene legislation? Enforcement of legislation and milk hygiene practices?

... ,

- 49 -

3.

Do

milk handlers have medical examinations'? are made and how frdquently'?

If so, what tests

---

-

4.

What percentage of milk is pasteurized? tfuRt are the pasteurization methodes) used? Briefly describe any othJr form of heat treatment or processing of milk or milk products.

5.

What hygienic control (bacteriological and other tests) procedures are practised.at (a) collecting stations, (b) pasteurizing plants, (c) retail shops? i i II

..~

~

50 -

\

VIII.

Please list and describe the major veterinary public-bealth problems in your country.

....

IX.

Please supply three complete sets of veterinary public-bealth laws, rules and regulations promulgated in your country. If original is not in English, kindly supply translation or summary in English •

....

- 51 -

I -/

I I

iU1I1ex« 1j

Daily Programme First Week 20 ii..pril Monday Morning Opening Ceremony 1. - J..fternoon 2. Inter-relationshi s of human and animal health and disease Dr. Steele) Potential contributions of comparative medicine to human problems of cardiovaseular diseases, cancer, metabolic disorders, and radiobiology (Dr. Kaplan) I

3.

Control of food and products of animal origin of importance in the transmission of diseases

- Evening 21 i.pril Tuesday Horning i.fternoon

Reception by His Excellency, the Hinister of Health and Welfare 3.1 Epidemiology of food-borne diseases (Dr. Kaplan) Field visit (leave the IPH at 1 p.m.) 1. l1eiji 1-tilk Factory (milk plant) 2. Yukijirushi Ilfilk Factory (icecream plant) 3.2 Specific control measures of milk, meat, fish, and processed food (Dr. Jepsen) Specific control measures of other animal products (Dr. Jepsen)

22 April

Wednesday- Morning

-

i.fternoon

3.3

3.4 Administration of food hygiene programmes (Dr. Jepsen and Dr. Steele) Veterinary public health practice

23 April

Thursday -

Morning

4.1

National, provincial, municipal and rural organization and administration of veterinary public health (Dr. Steele and Dr. Kaplan)

':':52 -

,

-

Afternoon

Field visit (leave the !PH at 1 p.m.) Laboratory of the National Institute of Animal Health, 11inistry of Agriculture and Forestry 4.2. Reporting of animal diseases including zoonoses (Dr. Griffiths, Dr. Steele and Dr. Saito)

24 April

Friday

-

Horning

4.3 Veterinary education in public health undergraduate and postgraduate (Dr. Jepsen and Dr. i.bdussalam) - l.fternoon 4.4 Ecology and emerging zoonoses (Dr. ..:'~bdussalam and Dr. Kaplan) Field visit (leave the hotel at 8:30 a.m.) 1. To~o Central Fish Market 2. Taiyo Cannery Co. 3. Shibaura Slaughter-house 4. Restaurant, Mitsukoshi Department Store (food inspection practice)

25 April

Saturday -

Uorning and Afternoon

Second Week 27 April

M:mday

-

Morning

5. Advances in the control of Specific zoonoses 5.1 Animal tuberculosis (Dr. Jepsen and Dr. Griffiths)

- lU'ternoon 28 April

5.2 Rabies (Dr. Kaplan and Dr. Steele) Operetta, invitation by Japanese Society for Veterinary Science 5 .3

Evening Morning

Tuesday

-

29 April

(check out of hotel before 11 a.m.) Afternoon

.\rthropod-borne viral infe~tion (Dr. Kitaoka and Dr. Griffiths)

5.4 Brucellosis (Dr. Kaplan and Dr. Jepsen) Leave :GH at 4:30 by bus for Atami Hakone, staying overnight at Atami.

Wednesday-

National Holiday

Visit to Morinaga Hilk Factory and Yogurut Factory

30 April

Thursday - Morning Afternoon

5.5 Salmonellosis (Dr. Jepsen and Dr.

~'D)

5.6 leptospirosis (Dr. Yamamoto and Dr. Steele)

-

~3

_.

-.;'

1 Nay

Friday

-

Morning

5.7 Anthrax (Dr. Steele and Dr. Griffiths)

-

,

5.8 Hydatidosis and other parasitic zoonoses (Dr. Kaplan and Dr. I..bdussalam) Afternoon

5.9 Zoonoses of lesser importance (Dr. Steele and Dr. Kaplan) 5.10 Summary of Seminar

II II

,

,

II II

II ~I

- 54 -

.~

F 1.

fumex 5

Programme for the Opening Session Monday, 20 April 1959 at 9:00 a.m. Institute of Public Health, Tokyo Message from the Regional Director, WHO Western Pacific Region. Read by Dr. C. Y. Shu, Regional Public Health Administrator, WHO, WPRO, Manila. 2. Address by His Excellency, Mr. Michita Sakata, Minister, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japanese Government. Read by Mr. Shigeo Tanabe, Vice-Minister. 3. Address by His Excellency, Mr. Kazuo Miura, Minister, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Japanese Government. Read by Mr. Tomonosuke Shiomi, Vice-Minister.

4. Address by His Excellency, Mr. Hajirne Sato, Deputy-Governor, Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Read by Dr. Kobayashi, Director of Bureau of Public Health, Tokyo Metropolitan Government. 5. 6. Address by Dr. Yuichi Ochi, PreSident, Japanese Society of Veterinar,y Science. Message fran. Director-General, WHO, Geneva. Read by Dr. M. M. Kaplan, Chief of V.P .H., WHO, Geneva. 7. Message £rom D:i.rector-General, FAO, Rome. Read by Mr. R. B. Griffitlw, FAD Veterinary Consultant.

..

8.

Group Photograph •

- 55 -

20 April 1959

~~ssage by the Regional Director W.H.O. Western Pacific Regional Office

--

The Regional Director of the Western Pacific Regional Office of the World lwalth Organization has requested me to convey to you his most cordial greetings, which I extend to you with his best vlishes for a stimulE:ting and productive meeting. The World Health Organization is one of the specialized agencies of the United Nations whose purpose is to assist governments in improving their health services, so that each individual may attain the highest possible level of health, which is his inalienable right. As you know, the World Health Organization also co-operates in many \7ays ni th her sister specialized agencies and with various UN agencies in developing programmes vlhich are aimed a t helping Governments to improve the level of living and economic development. This is the first Seminar on Veterinary Public Iwalth to be held in this region. Similar seminars have, however, been held in Europe and are scheduled for the Eastern Mediterranean and African Regions. The World Health Organization attaches great importance to the problems of veterinary public health and the diseases of animals transmitted to man, known as zoonoses. W1IO demonstrated its concern for this phase of public health when it created a section on Veterinary Public Health shortly after coming into being in 1948. Since then it has worked very closely with the Food and Agricul ture Organization in line I-lith the view of obtaining the closest collaboration between health and agricultural groups and the use of their combined resources to meet common problems affecting human health. A number of expert committees and seminars have been held in this connection and the number of publications on the subject issued by RHO, and in some cases jOintly ,lith FAO, attest to the contribution that has boen made by the Organization. I believe, for instance, that the report of the Joint WHO/FAO Expert Group on Zoonoses which contains a list of more than one hundred zoonoses is an important contribution to the literature on that subject. I feel that the contribution of this seminar will be an important one. In welcoming all of you, I would like to offer the thanks of the Regional Director of the lTIIO Western Pacific Regional Office to the Government of Japan for its generosity in acting as host to this seminar and to the Food and Agriculture Organization for sending Dr. Griffiths, Dr. Jepsen and Dr. Abdussalam. In thanking the Japanese Government, I would liko to particularly mention the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and the Ministry of Health and Welfare for providing the services of the Japanese discussion leaders, for all local arrangements made and the Institute of Public Health for placing their bus and conference and office accommodation at our disposal. May you have a very pleasant and profitable meeting. Dr. C. Y. Shu Rogional Public-Health Administrator Vi .H.O. Western Pacific Regional Office ~nlla ' - 56 -

"

II

..., ;

20 April 1959

Greetings by the Nunister of Gentlemen,

I~alth

and Welfare

I consider it a great honour to say a few words of greetings in behalf of the Japanese Government on the occasion of the opening of the Veterinary Public I~alth Seminar for the Western Pacific Region sponsored by WIlO with the collaboration of FAO. I understand the present seminar will deal with problems of vital importance in the field of public health administration, with specific reference to veterinary public health programs as our common interest in this Region. We feel honoured that Japan has been selected as the host country by WHO and FAO, and it is indeed our great pleasure to welcome the consultants, discussion leaders and the participants. I wish also to take this opportunity to thank and pay homage to the officers concerned from WHO and FAO who were responsible for the preparation toward opening of this seminar. In the field of veterinary public health administration, Japan has had Animal Disease Prevention Law since as old as 1896, which was followed by the Law controlling Food, Drinks and Other Related Objects of 1900 and the Slaughter House Law of 1906. Since then these laws have been amended and incorporated partly in the Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Law of 1951 and partly in the Food Sanitation Law of 1947. Rabies Prevention Law was promulgated in 1950. These are the landmarks of our efforts in the field of veterinary public health program in this country and still we are faced with the task of improving or revising the existing system and programs. In this respect we expect much out of the results of the present seminar. As the world advances in the concern for public health programs, more and more attention is given to the veterinary public health problems, and this applies not only to this country but to all countries from which we have participants here in the present seminar. In this re spec t again, i t is our hope that the present seminar will produce much that will be of mutual benefit for all of us concerned.

In closing I wish to express my hearty appreciation for the persons representing vari~us agencies here and abroad who took part in the pre~rations for the present seminar. Let me also wish further successful operat10n of WHO and FAO in promoting welfare of the mankind and peace of the world.

Michita Sakata Minister of Ileal th and Welfare Japanese Government

- 57 -

20 April 1959

-Greetings by the Gentlemen, It is an honour for me to say a fe',~ ',lOrds of greetings on the occasion of the opening of the Veterinary Public Health Seminar for t~e Western Pacific Region sponsored by WHO with the collaboration of FAD, participated in by many persons from the countries in this region and 'iJi th the presence of representatives of the international agencies concerned and authorities in this field. While the animal husbandry in the western Pacific region in general has not quite approached the scale of modern industry, excepting the cases of better developed countries, it is our common kno'lledge that the proper development of animal husbandry will contribute to the increase in national income and it constitutes a necessary condition for the securing of the supply of animal protein as a vital part of nutrition of the people. The present seminar, as I believe it, merits the importance from these grounds. In this country also, animal husbandry has been playing an important part, especially since the War, in the rationalization and development of farm management, and in conjunction with the spread of knowledge on nutrition among our people with the resultant improvement in eating habits. As the basis for such development we must never forget the contributions of the veterinarians. The maintenance of health of domestic animals not only contributes to the promotion of aniDEl husbandry but it also constitutes a necessity for the maintenance of public health. I understand in this connection that the techniques in the field of veterinary public health has achieved a marked progress. Also I am appreciative of the active progralT of WHO, FAD and OIE through technical exchange and assistance, etc., which have achieved much in helping develop the industries and improve the national life for many countries. N~nister

of Agriculture and Forestry

It is our great joy that the present seminar is being materialized with the participation of many authorities in the field and those interested in our common concern. I ';Iish to welcome you all on my part and I would "ish a brilliant success of this seminar contributing to the further advance of both national and international veterinary public health programs. Japan is sincerely desirous of cooperating, though her ability may be 1imi ted, for the sake of peace of the world and for the friendly relation with the neighboring countries, and we have been' endeavoring to'.vard this end. It is my hope that the present seminar ',Jill furnish a good opportunity not only for exchange of knowledge and techniques but through these an opportunity for international cooperation and friendship, In c10sing,I hope each of you will enjoy your stay i'o:.yo and in Japan. Kazuo Miura Minister of Agriculture and Forestry :: _ ... Jl,:-se Government - 58 -

20 April 1959

Opening Sessio%! Congratulatory Address by the Deputy-Governor of Tokyo

Mr. Chairman, Distinguished Guests, Excellencies, and Gentlemen: On the auspicious occasion of the Official Opening of the Seminar on Veterinary Public Hoal th ",1hich is convened in Tokyo under the auspices of the World lfualth Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific, I feel it a distinct honour, no less than a pleasure, for me to extend on behelf of the people of Tokyo our \,armest greetings to the delegates who have come all the way to Tokyo in order to take part in this Seminar, and at the same time, to offer my heartiest felicitations on the opening ceremony of this Seminar of much significance. It is the first time thet this type of international conference of veterinary public health experts was ever held in this land, and it is indeed very reassuring to think that at this Seminar various questions and problems pertaining to veterinary public health will be closely looked into with the distinguished participation of Dr. M. Kaplan, Chief of Veterinary Public Health Section Headquarters, Dr. C. Y. Shu, Regional Public lfualth Administrator, Dr. James H. Steele, Chief of Veterinary Public Health, the United States Public Health Service, seconded for service with WHO, Prof. A. Jepsen of the Royal Veterinary College in Copenhagen, Dr. Griffiths, field staff member in Burma, Prof. M. Abdussalam of the College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore, Pakistan and many other outstanding experts of our friendly nations in the West Pacific. Needless to say, in the field of veterinary public health prevention of various harms should be aimed at in connection with the inter-relationship bet'.1een human and animal health and disease, and in order to attain this end much painstaking efforts should be made by veterinarians in an unobtrusive way. However, these worthy efforts of theirs, when viewed from the standpoint of preventive medical SCience, are of primary importance for the ~elfare of buman beings. As for the problem of food hygine a remarkable progress has been achieved in recent years in all the participating countries, but the fact tbat nearly one fifth of the human diseases is attributable to harmful food casts a big problem for us. On the other hand, in the field of rabies-control a striking progress bas been achieved, but it is to be regretted that this perilous disease has not yet been completely stamped out from the earth. In view of the fact that we have piles of other problelllB which are not yet solved in this particular field, animated by our ardent desire for a more healthy and brighter life, we entertain 11 great expectation of the result of this Seminar, and wish to take this opportunity to pay our high tribute of admiration to all the vetarinarians for having contributed their unpretentious, but peerless share to the cause of the veterinary public health. In addition to reiterati"'~ my sincere >lords of welcome to Tokyo, I wish to end my address by hoping that au the visiting participants wbo have come from abroad would find their stay in Tokyo an enjoyable one. Hajime Sa to Deputy-Governor Tokyo M3tropoli tan Government - 59 -

20 A.pril 1959

-

II

Greetings by the President o~ the Japanese Society o~ Veterinary Science We feel much honoured and rejoice in having here the Western Pacific Veterinary Public Health Seminar under the auspices of WHO, assisted by FA.O. Veterinary science is a study dealing in general with the phenomena of domestic animals. On the one hand, it applies to the animal hygiene IIhich aims to prel~alth

"

Ii ...... . -

"

serve the life and

of animals, while on the other hand, it applies to

the veterinary public health which contributes to the preservation of manls life and health. The animal hygiene of our country has made remarkable progress

and we are happy enough to believe that it is not inferior to that of the Western countries. However, in the field of the veterinary public health, we In order to promote its deveTherefore,it is very signifi-

are far behind the leading nations of the world. lopment we are making a serious effort every day.

cant to have the present seminar in Tokyo at this time, and this is a matter to be congratulated for all of us who take part in the veterinary science.

We

hope that this Seminar '1ill bring about good results and contribute to the scientific and administrative development in this country but in all the countries concerned. ~ield,

not only in our

Yuichi Ochi President of the Japanese Society of Veterinary Science

- &0

~.

~

-

1-" .-

Annex 6 LIST OF TITLES OF WORKING PAPERS

1. 2.

Inter-Relationship of Human and Animal Health and Disease The veterinary Scientist and Cardiovascular Research Comparative Medical Research and Chronic Diseases of Animals Studies in Comparative !4edicine as a Veterinary ?ublic-Health Activity Veterinary Medicine and Radiobiology The Epidemiology of Food-Borne Diseases

3. 4. '-

5. 6.

7. 8.

Human Infections with Parasites of Animals with Special Reference to those Occurring in the Oriental Region

An Outbreak of a Peculiar Disease Affecting the Central Nervous System Caused by an Unknown Agent in the Fishing Districts of Minamata City in Kumamoto Prefecture

9. 10. 11. 12.

ItY'gienic-Bacteriological Examination of Prepared Foods PrinciPles and Techniques Spoilage of Fish and the Examination of Fish Specific Control Measures of Animal Products Other than for Consumption Programme of a Complete Course in Food ItY'giene and Food Control for Public ··Health Veterinarians Education in Veterinary ?ublic Health Significance of Ecological Studies on the Wild Animal Reservoirs of Zoonoses

13.

14. 15. .;..

Animal Tuberculosis Epidemiological Aspects of Tuberculosis Control Arthropod-Borne Viral Infections The Arthropod-Borne Viruses (Arbor Viruses) The Epidemiology of Leptospirosis in the united States with Special Reference to Wild ImilT.::: .. R"servoirs Leptospirosis Prophylaxis Against Leptospirosis in Man with Vaccine - 61 -

16. 17.

18. 19. 20. 21.

,;,J1nex 7 JvIassage of ApprClciation by the Vice minister of Health and Welfare On the occasion of the closing of the Veterinar Public H::lalth Seminar Mr. Chairman, and Gentlemen,

1 May 1959

I have the honour, on behalf of the government of the host country, to say a few words at the close of the Vet3rinary Public Health Seminar for the western Pacific Region sponsored by the vJHO with the collaboration of the FAD. It is my special privilegCl to congratulate you for the successful completion of the present seminar thanks due to the hard work of officers, consultants, discussion leaders and participants of this seminar representing WHO, FAO and various countries in this region respectively. I wish to congratulate you also for the fruitful outcome of this seminar for which each of you contributed in the discussions and studies made together, for many of you in a climate different from your own. And in this respect, I wish to express my appreciation and to pay homage to you all. As the host country, we did eur best to cooperate with WHO and FAD in to the accommodation for the present seminar, and if we have failed in any respect in meeting your needs, we wish to beg your leniency. attendin~

It is my sincere hope that you will go back to your respective countries with what you have acquired through this seminar and to consider this as a starting point for our future concerted efforts in the public health administration of the countries or areas you represent. In closing let me thank all of you as individuals and as reprasenting different organizations, here ar;d ::>r,..,ad, for helping the present seminar and bringing it to a successful "r,':'. ..:.et me also wish further development and achievements of the programs of WHO and FAD for th e sake of peace of the world and welfare of mankind.

Shigeo Tanabe Vice Minister of Health and welfare, Japanes3 government

t

- 62 -

I

i • "

-. Annex 8

Statement

Definitely Yes 6 1

Generally Yes 9

Gener- Definally ite~

No

No

.

-

1• 2.

Travel arrangements were satisfactory. Reception arrangements on arrival were helpful.

6 6

4

2

3. Financial arrangements were satisfactory. 4. 5. The residential accommodation was adequate. The Seminar accommodation was adequate.

13 11

4 8

9

1

6.

The working hours were convenient.

11 6

6 9 9

1

7. Lunch was satisfaotory. 8. "-

3 4 1

There was adequate information about the Seminar before arrival. The documentation was satisfactory. The reference material proved valuable. The audio-visual aids were suitable.

4 lJ lJ

9.

6

10. 11.

5 ? 8

10 10 10

12. Field trips were well planned and conducted

... ... "-

lJ.

The opportunities for associating and working with the staff were adequate.

9

14. Entertainment was satisfactory • 15. The length of the Seminar was right. TOT A L •••••••.••.••••••••• !lE:RCE~

11

7 13 112

6

13 5.0

TOTAL

134 15.2

3

262

••••••••••••••••••••••

42.7

1.1 100

.;. 6.3 .-

Statement Definitely Yes Generally Yes Generally

,;'~

II ,

I

,

No

Definitely No

1 1

16. 1'tY preparatory war k for the Seminar proved useful.

9 9

6 9 11

1

>'

17. The main topics covered the major problems involved.

18. The topics discussed were developed in logical manner.

8 10

19. The methods used during the Seminar were effective. 20. The discussion leaders were helpful.

8 3

16 9 14

21. Adequate opportunities were provided for me to put forward my ideas. 22. The opportunities to discuss problems and exchange ideas were valuable.

10 5 4

r

23. ltr understanding of VFH problems has been broadened.

15

24. New ways of dealing with vm problems in my own situation have been brought

out.

12

6 6

25. For me, the Seminar was productive of new ideas.

13

~

26. I consider the Seminar was successful. TOTAL ~CENT

15 130

3 71

- TOTAL

"-1

....................

1

0 0

202

", 64.4 35.1 0.5 100

••••••••••••••••••••••

7--

·64 -

-

- Whilst conceding (a) the undesirability of discrimination particularly on apparently national ground and (b) the necessity for conserving funds, it is urged that some thought be given to solving the problem for the long legged participant who travel overnight or more. Tourist class accommodation is very crampy when sustained for 24 hours or more. Perhaps a break of journey could be arranged as an alternate to first class travel. The break when and if offered could be optional. Language - Those participants whose language is not English are easily dominated by those commanding this language very well • General Organization of the Seminar - I was expecting the report suOOlitted from each country to be mimeograpbed and distributed to each participant and since r understand that there is shortage of secretarial staff, I am reluctant to press the issues. ~ay future seminar should have more secretarial staff. - Would have preferred shorter working hours. A university hostel with the seminar room on the spot would have saved travelling time and delegates would have lived together as one group. 9 a.m. to 2.00 p.m. with 1/.2 hour break for coffee and sandwiches would have provided time for sightseeing and shopping. - It was unnecessary to visit more than one milk factory. - Longer seminar would have less advantage. - More basic dat.a for discussion are wanted. Each participating country should be requested to present too following data for circulation among participants from other countries. (1) official name of country, (2) population, (3) area in adequate unit (e.g., sq. miles), (4) important animals with their populations, (5) munber of veterinarians with tooir job classificationss if available, (6) source of supply of veterinarians (No. of veterinar,y schools, in the case of self-sufficiency; with student enrolment; or the name of foreign country where students are trained), and (7) chart of administration with which regulatory veterinarians are related. With these data, discussion will be more practical. - In such a less-advanced region as the Western PacifiC, training of compet-

. ,"-

ent veterinarians should be considered deeply, though it takes long time and apparently wasteful efforts until its results are displa,yed. So the problem of veterinary education in public health should be discussed on another occasion. It was only nominal and apologetiC to deal with this matter in an hour or two without providing any sufficient data on statWJ quo.of veterinary schools in individual countries. A separate seminar is hoped to be convened to discuss veterinary public health education. , 1-

a,

/ ADDTIrONAL COMi1ENTS

r

--

Selection of participants - Generally speaking, the number of veterinary officers among participants of the Seminar exceeded too much that of medical officers. Nowadays the veterinary public health must be achieved by intimate co-operation between medical and ,'eterinary officers who are working on the field of public healt,h. The medical doctors or officers should understand the 1mportance of zoonosj_s, neat hygiene and so on from the standpoint of public health. In this rr,eaning, the participants from each country should have been selected in almost same number from both medical and veterinary officers. If they were so, the discussion would be more effective to improve the understanding of importance of veterinary public health for madical and veterinary sides. Pre-Seminar documentation - As to the information about the Seminar, we got some documents on some subjects before, but each topic or daily programme was not informed in detail. So my preparatory work for the Seminar was not properly prepared. The more detailed programme and subjects which would be discussed on the Seminar should have been given to each participant before he would leave his home. - We would be better prepared i f the daily programme had been distributed before we arrived here. - No prior information or document received before arrival in Japan. Travel and reception arrangements - Arriving on Sunday we were not met. - With respect to the reception upon arrival, it might be well to assign somebody to meet incoming participants who might come on Sundays and official holidays, This will probably facilitate their clearances and will be helpful in arranging their transportation from the airport, and in checking hotel reservations, especially i f the participants do not speak the language of the host country. - A better reception could have been planned by which each and every participant would be met at the airport by at least a representative of the airline to guide and facilitate the partiCipant through the routine immigration, monetary and customs check and to put him aboard a vehicle with fare p~ent taken care of to take him to the hotel, as it will always happen in attendance similar to this that the partiCipant will not have any local currency available on hand if no advance in stipend prior to arrival is made.

"

Conduct of the Seminar - The discussion leaders were very helpful, but they might be more helpful if they did declare some statements or conclusion, which we had made from our discussion in each topic, at the end of discussions. - I felt that the discussion leaders should have taken less time and certainly not cover the ground contained in previously circulated documents in such detail. Chairmen should encourage discussion by inviting conunents from the silent members as well.

.-

- It might also be useful that at the end of each day's session a sort of an oral summary of the various pOints brought out be made before dispersal at the last hour, thereby reminding everyone of the important points and views taken up. - I suggest that for purposes of future references of value the tables or schemes demonstrated by projection be reproduced by print or photography to be distributed to all discussion leaders and participants alike, to make effective the primary objective of this Seminar to revise the thinking on the V.P.H. aspect of Public Health in the different countries of the Region, for such tables or schemes will be needed in conferemes, lectures or demonstrations in the respective countries of the participants. - Charts or diagrams are preferred to be distributed in mimeograIiled sheets. It is difficult to take note from them if they are projected in a darkened room. Slides be limited to pictures or photograIils. - It is deSirable that discussion leaders ask partiCipants more eagerly for opinions so that even very shy people may be more encouraged to speak, that they speak more slowly and use the blackboard more frequently, and that their long lecture is itemized, each item not exceeding several minutes. - At the beginning of the seminar, the participants should be made acquainted with one another by correct pronunciation of their names, either by roll call or by self-introduction. Without knowing the name, no participants have group-consciousness. - Participants be given chances and time to exchange views with one another at the discussion period. Accommodation - The lunch served was cold and insufficient in quantity. improved. This should be

- Lunch was too cold to be appetising, having been served in advance. - Living in different rooms in a hotel did not bring the delegates together sufficiently for informal discussions. - 67-

- Larger conference room preferred. understanding.

Wider blackboard be used for clearer

- Cooled lunches be avoided by timing the progress of the conference. Entertainment - .A. fm·, dinnors could have beun arranged in the hotel, each person contributing his share of the cost. '!Te could then have invited

individual guests especially the J8panese. I suggest such a dinner be organized for next Thursday and we invite some of the Japanese officials as our guests. 'rhe expenses of entertaining guests could be met pro rata or l~O may like to meet the cost of guestsl dinner. General Comments - On the whole the seminar was very successful.

The relationship between participants and consultants had been excellent.

- I suggest that to further realize the objective of this Seminar both WHO and FAO in their annual meetings always schedule discussion on V.P.H. and require progress report on the progress of integration in the governmental policy on health or agriculture of each of the member countries, including the inclusion of fellowship training programme on V.P.H. for qualified veterinarians or researchers. - In general, this seminar was proved to be very informative and provocative

for future administration and education in veterinary public health. It is hoped that the acquaintanceship grown on this opportunity will never fade away but will contribute to further interchange of information and publications among the alumni participants.

.,.'

•

- 68 -

WORLD HEALTH ORGANI.%ATION

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PAOFlC BUREAU REGIONAL OU PAOFIOUE OCOOENTAL

•

ORGAMISAnON MONDIALE DE LA SANTi

SEMDW!. ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

wm/VPH/1

J.6 February

19~

ENGLISH (ELY

..... m'IER~IATI(ESHIP

OF HUMAN AND AN!MAL HEALTH AND DlSEASE

by

James H.. Steele, D.V.M., M.P.H.*

COO'IENTS v,

1. 2.

lNTRODUCTION • • • • • •

. . . .. .

• • • • • • •

• • • •

• • • • • • •

1

ENCEPHALITIS • • • • • • • • IDBERCULCBIS • • BRUCELLOSIS RABJES

•••• • • • • • •

• • • • •

2 4

.3. 4.

• • •

• •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

6 8 9

5. 6. ~

CHRONIC DlSEASES •

... '" . . . . . . . . •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

f

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• • • •

• • • • • •

REFERENCE

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 12

"

•

*Department o.f Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of State Services, Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, Georgia.

•

r

• 1. INTRODUCTION

WPR/VPH/l paga 1

A.--

The biological adventurousness or animal diseases is exceeded onJ.;y by the :Insatiable adventuresomeness of man. The struggle of the infectious diseases or lower forms of life to adapt themselves to more highJ.;y developed hosts is unending. As these disease agents insure their continued existence by adapt:lng themselves to a broader host spectrum they become a greater threat to mants wellbeing. Man, in his most tenuous position on this earth, has been able to protect lWnself rrom this biological onslaught onJ.;y by his snll in developing the preventive JIlBdical practices that are the foundation of our present public-health practices. In this century man has made greater progress inhold1ng back or e]jJninating certain infectious diseases than he had made berore :In the countless eons. since he appeared on this earth. Progress:ln the ctrltrolof host specific human diseases, such as smallpox, ,diphtheria, cholera;, epidemic t,yphus and syphilis, has brought to the fore animal disease problems which in many areas of the world are major challenges to human health. ' Animal diseases threaten mants health and well-being in many ways. To examine the importance of animal health to human health it is well for us to ccnsider the WHO def:initicnof health as a guide I "Hea1.th is not the mere absence of disease or injury ••• it is a state ofcanplete p}:wsical, mental and social well-being". The contributions that'veter:inary medicine can make in reach1Il-g the WHO objective are succinctJ.;y presented .inthe definiticn of veter:inary public healtha canprise s all the community efforts "influencing and :Influenced by the veterinary medical arts and science applied to the 'prevention of disease, protection of life, and promotion· of too well-be':lng and efficiency of man". '

t.;.

II...

,The definition of health as established by the WHO provides a very broad frameworit upon which to develop our t.heme.,How veter:inary'medicine will participate in protecting the public health and welfare 1'8 well expressed in the broad·definition of veterinary public health- and theihter-relationship of disease and health in man and anllnals provides a challenge that tests the imagination, ingenuity, and knowledge of man. , Freedom £r.om disease is a goal that man has striven for since the beginning of civilization. The plagues that decimated human populations have been exceeded only by those Which destroyed 'large domestic' animal popul.a.tions. The cause of these various ep:Ldemics and epizootics:are not known except for the Black Death or plague of the middle ages. No doubt plague (pasteurella pestis) was the most serious animal disease that threatened human health. Plague threatened to destroy civilization for a thousand yearS or, more after the fall of the Roman empire's organized preventive medical efforts; The elim:ination of plague from the urban areas of the world has removed probabJ.;y the most ;important animal disease' threat to man. This was certa:1.n:q one of the outstanding preventiye medical achievements of our times. Success came with the unravell:ing of the natural history, the epizootiology, and the

,~

',.t..

vlffi/VPH/l page ;2 epidemiology of plague and the development of rodent control. At the same t:lme influences which we have not been able to measure have also been at workr the social advances throughout the world which have resulted :in higher standards of liv:ing for mankind. Public health has certa:in4r contributed to these advances by the developrne nt of envircrunal tal sanitation standards, nutrition and health education, but eCalomic conditions have also had their influence. Better housing, more room per fami4r and per :individual; availability of hot and cold water within the home; improved cloth:ing including footwear, frequent changing and washing of' ciothing; better work:ing conditions in :industry and on the farm; lm.ger leisure time including vacations - all these inf'luence disease patterns. How have these :influences affected other animal diseases that concern man? There are more than 200 diseases of animals that are :inf'ectious or conmnmicable. They are variable as to their host specificity but there is evidence that more than 100 of the group are transmissible to man under certa:in conditions. These include infections caused by viruses, richettsiae, bacteria, f'ungi, protozoa, helminths, and arthropods~ Inasmuch as our t:iJne for discussial :l.s l:i.mited we shall try to select prototype of the various zoonoses that are direct threats to man's health as well as those that limit h:i.s advancement and development eCalanical4r. 2. ENCEPHALITlS

... ...

'

The arthropod-borne encephalitides have concerned us great4r :in North America. These infections are a var:l.able health problem both to'man and mimals but frequentl¥ can explode with a devastating biologic effect. Twenty years ago there were outbreaks that caused hundreds of' thousands of equine cases and hundreds of human infections. Hore recent4r there have been epizootics that would have affected just as m~ animals i f it were not for the rapid decline of the horse and mule population. Even though this disease is no longer a major threat to farm power animals it remains a public-health problem. In 1952, California alone had almost a thousand human infections. Since then there has been a decline across the continent, but this has not resulted in complacency. The United states Public Health Service Communicable Disease Center has :intensified its efforts to unravel the epidemiology of the arthropod-borne encephalitides. Teams of investigators consisting of veterinarians, p~sicians, entomologists, ornithologists, and engineers have all worked together toward a solution. At the recent New York Academy 9t)Scialces - Comm~ipable Disease Center Animal Disease Conference, Kissling{ and Chamberlain~2) presented same new calcepts on the epidemiology and kinetogenesis of the disease. Kissling's investigations point out that mammals, :including horses, do not circulate enough virus :in their blood during the virer.dc phase of the disease to be of any importance as a source of virus for arthropod vectors of Western Equine Encephalitis and st. Louis Encaphalit:l.s virus. Horses do have a viremia with Eastern Equine Encephalitis infection that m~ occasional4r provide an :infective blood meal for mosqu:l.toes. Birds, al the other hand, are an excellent source of virus for mosquitoes when :infected with st. Louis, Western and Eastern Equine EncephalitiS virus. During endemic phases of the disease the isolation of EEE virus from birds is usually limited to those species

~.

Wffi/VPH/l page 3 preferr:ing moist swampy woodlandsl thrushes, catbirds, grackles. Under epidemic conditions the virus is found in birds which us~ :inhabit open areas and meadOWSl sparrows, f'mches, cardinals, pigeons and pheasants. As Kissling points out, surveillance far infectim in these open area inhabitants could probably furnish warning that epidemic seed:ing is occurring. Proof of such an ltYpothesis must await an opportunity. Tn the meantime there is another question to be cmsidered - the host parasite relat:Lonship. What effect the host has on the virus, or the virus on the host during endemic and epidemic p3riods ma;v provide public-health scientists with an explanatim of wlv the disease changes its character periodica~ fran an endemic to an epidemic form. It is not definitely known whether or not there is a kinetogen1c mechanism, which adds to the virulence of invasiveness of the agent favouring epidemic spread, or whether an epidem:Lc is solely dependent upon favourable circumstances where virus, moa::).uitoes and birds coma together in suffici.ent quantity to allow a rapid sPread of virus. But Kissling has encountered EEE virus under endemic conditions that produced :inapparent infection and only titred J.Q3.8 to l05.5r.n5Q. Likewise, a strain of SLE virus isolated from a bird during an epidemic in Kentucky produced a higher viremia than California strain recovered during an endemic period. In experiInsntal infections of scng birds performed at the CDC Veter1nary Research Laboratory, virus has never been recovered from these birds later than two weeks after challenge except in two instances when the St. Louis virus was used. The anti-body response with Eastern and Western Equine Encephalitis virus is good and persists for a long period, but the response to st. Louis virus is poor and has stimulated enquiry on the latency characteristics of this latter virus.

Working on the ltYpothesis that the latent virus may be masked :in sane form, a l:I.lnited experiInsnt was carried out :in which the tissues of sparrows which had recovered from st. Louis infection were grown :in tissue cultures. This aJ.lowed the tissues to free themselves of anti-body which in turn would prevent a growth of virus in the prOliferating cells. These experiments did not yield virus. The question of latency in the vertebrate' host cannot be dismissed until many other possible mechanisms are explored. In the control of the arthropod-borne encephalitis the vertebrate hosts have been overlooked dur:ing the past decade, although earlier veterinary epidemiologists had considered the prevention of disease :in horses and mulas as the only practical measure in the control of the virus level :in nature. Kissling now suggests that the habitat of the various encephalitis viruses is such that control by mosquito abatement aJ.one is unlikely. It is only under unusual circumstances that human infection would be expected to result from an exposure to mosquitoes feeding on swamp :inhabiting birds. It is those bil'ds which live close to man that are. the more like~ source of virus for man and his domestic animals. Hence the control of pest and feral birds such as starlings, English sparrOW's and pigeons is suggested when the disease threatens a community. This procedure must await an opportunity far field tests before it can be applied as an epidemic control measure. A combined

'~.

Wffi/VPH/l page 4i

attack on both the vectors and epidemic hosts of the encephalitis viruses should reduce theactivit,y of the virus to levels that would prevent disease in man and horses. Natur~ more information on bird populations and virus concentrations is needed to determine what the kinogenesis of an epizootic ~

be. Chamberlain (2) bas developed a hypothesis that may cast further light on the natural history of st. Louis encephalitis, in which he attempts to explain the difference in the behaviour of the disease in western and eastern North America. He points out that certain mosquitoes such as Culex tarsalis and other Culex species are much more susceptible to st. Louis virus infection than Aedes and Psorophora in which it hardly develops. Hence there is little natural selection for strains that produce a significantJy high level of viremia in birds. I~s a result the virus strains being distributed in nature by the c. tarsalis etc. produce viremias which are usua~ at too low a level to infect other mo SlUitoes. The major outbreaks have coincided with big C. tarsalis populations and most of the cases are in rural areas. This'results in-pin pointing the respcnsibility for st. Louis encephalitis to £. tarsalia. In the midwest a different epidemiological picture is encountered. C. tarsalis is scarce or absent. Here st. Louis encephalitis is urban in character and occurs in years when there have been a large number of Culex pipiens or Culex qu1nquefasciatus. These mosquitoes rarely find suitable ccndi tions for breeding in the rural areas. The kinogene sis of an urban epidemic is QUite evidentl infected wild birds' probably introduce the virus to areas highly populated with £. pipiBns' or £. qu1nquefasciatus which rapidly spread it to city-dwelling birds and fowl. These, in turn, serve as a rea.qy source of infection for additional numbers of the mosquitoes. A consequence of the resultant epiornithic is exposure of a large number of people to infection via mosquito bites.

~.

1

....

Chamberlain concludes that possibly only st. Louis encephalitis gives promise of inexpensive effective control. The inter-relaticnship of the arthropod-borne encephalitis is apparent and it is also obvious that this is a problem that needs ccnt:inued :investigaticns. There is definite need to obtain further knowledge that will lead to effective control. Phases which we have not discussed but which are also under study include the overwintering mechanism and the influence of meteorologic and immunologic factors on disease kinetogeneses.

~.

:3 •

'IUBERCULOSIS

The arthropod-borne encephalitis which we have discussed is an example of the variable s that public-health workers throughout the world must face so far as animal diseases are concerned. I would now like to review an animal disease problem which will emphasize the benefits in a positive sense. Bovine tuberculosis was the first major public-health challenge to veterinary medicine;

~

.l

\

WPR/VPH/l page 5 and to the everlasting credit of veterinary medicine it can be stated that they recognized their responsibility and attempted to eliminate the disease. The control of tuberculosis among cattle in the United States is one of the outstanding preventive veterinary medical achievements of our times. Al though the goal of complete eradication has not yet been reached, progress has been notewortlW. About 378 mUlion tuberculin tests have been made on cattle in the past forty years., and just over 4 million reacting animals found and sent to slaughter. In almost every year since the eradication campaign got under w~ in 1917, the incidence of the disease, as indicated by tuberculin tests results, has been reduced below the level of the previous year. In 1918 - the peak year - near4r five per cent oJ: the animals tested were found to be infected with tuberculosis. In some milk sheds the rate of infection at that time ranged from 25 to 50 per cent. By 1956, the rate of infection for the country as a whole had declined to 0.15 per cent 3 reactors out of every 2000 cattle tested.

'*-

'.....

!. gradual reduction, from year to year, in the number of cattle carcasses that show lesions of tuberculosis under Federal meat inspection (not including reactors sent for'slaughter) has coincided with the decrease in percentage of reacting cattle. It has been calculated that close to 100 000 carcasses would have been condemned as unfit for human consumption last year if bovine tuberculosis had remained unchecked since 1917. The actual number so condemned was 178. Savings fran this source alDne are estimated at $150 million annual4r. The total expenditure for the eradication programme over the years has been $326 million. Thus, in two years the programme saves almost as much as has been spent for it in forty years. However, despite these signs of major progress, bovine tuberculosis still occurs in the United states and probably affects some 140 thousand cattle which as yet have not been identified. Since the entire nation reached a modified accredited status, a tendency toward complacency amm.g members of the livestock industry in some areas and among sane regulatory groups has been deterring the eradication effort. Research, education, and improved testing procedures have helped to bring the incidence of tuberculosis among cattle to an extreme~ low level in this country. Further re search and education - particular~ the kind oJ: . education that counters apat~ - will be needed to accomplish eradication •

.~.

In many states there is a close working relationship between public-' health officials and state and Federal liVestock sanitary officials, who keep each other ful4r informed of aqy possible relationShip of tuberculosis in humans and in animals. 'This close contact should be extended to all States. A sudden realization that a few herds are riddled with tuberculosis alerts the general public to the dangers of allowing a little infection to remain uncontrolled. We are confident that public-health groups are aware of and ~athetic to this problem. The benefits accrue from such a programme to everyone - through better health and nutrition - to those who live in cities as well as those in rural areas. In recognition of this, it was realized that the Government should

I

i

Wffi/VPH/l page 6 compensate the farmer and rancher for any diseased" animals that were removed, so that the cost is shared qy the entire citizenr,y. The positive values received by the nation are innumerable. Bovine type tuberculosis in man is almost unlmown toda;y in Merica. Since 1954 on.4r one proved human case has come to our attention. Today, the risk of human tuberculosis being transmitted to cattle is much greater than that of bovine type tuberculosis being transmitted to man. Freedom fran tuberculosis in American cattle has also allowed the rancher and farmer to improve his herds to the point where production is the greatest in histor,y. The cattle population of the United States n~ exceeds 100 000 000. The increase in recent years has been in meat type animals." Dairy animals have dropped in numbers but their total production has increased. All of this has contributed to the heal.th aIXl welfare of man, not cn~ in the United States but in many other parts of the world. It sure~ is an outstanding example of the ilnplication of health as def:ined by the WHOa "Health is not the mere absence of disease and :injury ••• it is a state of complete pl\Ysical, mental and social well-being". The tremendous strides in the control of bovine tuberculosis in other areas of the world have also furthered the welfare and health of man. Denmark" Finland, Norwa,y and Sweden are to be commended for their achievel1lEllt :in animal tuberculosis control. The rapid advances toward elimination of the disease in Great Britain, Holland" SWitzerland" Portugal and parts of Germany and France in recent years are also to be commended and epitomize veterinary medical contributions to the public health.

,i

-'

4.

BRUCELLOOIS

Brucellosis is an excellent example of the interrelation of human and animal health and disease. In sane countries, Sweden, Norway and Finland" it has been brought under cmtrol, while in others" :impressive advances are be:ing made nameJ¥a Great Britain, Canada and United States. In all of these areas the decline in the infection rate among cattle is reflected in the reduction of reported human disease.(4) Up to a decade ago :in the United States of America, it was estimated that the brucella infection rate among dair,y herds varied between 10 and 30 per cent involving 5 to 15 per cent of the lactating animals. In 19/fl more than 6000 human cases were reported. This was the highest number ever recorded. Since then there has been a stea.dy reduction - . :in both animal and human infection. During 1956, a total of 1.1 million herds and 15.6 million cattle were blood tested, a decline from 1955 of 2.7 and 8.4 per cent, respectiveq. On the other hand, 1.8 million herd ring tests were performed - an increase of 23.1 per cent over 1955. During the same yea.; 4.9 million government vaccinm;ions were made - an increase of 8.5 per cent. t 5) The data are cited to reveal to you the magnitude of the task of eliminating brucellosis. The infection rate among cattle based upon blood tests alone dropped from 2.5"in 1955 to 1.9 per" cent in 1956 and the affected herds declined fran 14.4 to ll.9 per cent. For the year 1956, 12.6 per cent of the brucellosis ring tested herds were suspicious. This was 6.5 per cent b e 1 o w i : . . ' the 1955 rate. The 1957 and 1958 rates of infection have also ccnt:inued to decline. There are now 18 states with less than J;; infection rates.

•

WPR/VPH/l page? The farmer and rancher receives this service at no expense and is reimbursed in part for any infected cattle that are removed. The benefits to man are obvious. You may wonder about the prevalence of brucellosis in other domestic an:l.ma.ls. The problem in swine (3.3 per cent infection rate) is important am steps are nOW' being takeh to eradicate it. This should not be ncll.r~ as difficult or expensive as it is in cattle. Fortunate4'" there is widespread support for a swine brucellosis eradication programme" which means it will move alDng rapi~.· So far as sheep and goats are concemed" there is no brucellosis problem. Twenty years ago the disease was not unCOllll1on in goats, but it was eliminated by slaughtering the infected herds. Fortunate~" brucellosis is exceeding4' rare among sheep and constitutes no hazard to man from that source. Occasionally evidence of brucellosis has been found in some wild animals" but they are not considered to be a reservoir. The eventual eradication of brucellosis in the United states is a foreseeable objective. Its conquest will further implement the WHO definitions of health and veterinary public health. The importan ce of animal health to the physical" mental am socialbeing of man is just as obvious as the control of animal diseases in the prevention of the tran snission of certain zoonoses to man. Foot and mouth disease is an example of an inf.'ection which rare4' threatens the public heal.til direct~ but can create havoc in a~ area of the world where it becomes established. It is unfortunate that IllalV areas of' the world have developed an apathy toward the infection and are living with it. The elimination of this disease in Europe and Asia would result in many benefits that would further manls position. It certain4' is not an impossibility" but leadership must come from the veterinary medical profession. Next I would like to touch on a group of diseases that do not have as great an impact on the overa11 econonw and public health as do the problems we have had under considerati-on. These are the zoonoses that are common~ found among pet animals. veterinary medicine has made substan tial con tributions in this area and no doubt will continue to as long as man continues to express his affection to his animal companions. The dog and cat have both contributed much to the prevention of disease and injury in man as subjects of research. The experimental approach to disease control, the understanding of physiology and pharmodynamics, the development of surgical procedures would have been very difficult without the contribution of these smaller an:i.m9.ls. Natura]4r, when anima.1.s are used experiment~" this should be done as humanely as possible. Here again veterinary medicine is responsible for providing leadership and guidance in the humane handling of these Valuable research subjects. Aside from the direct contributions of small animals to medical research and disease prevention, animal pets often contribute substantially to the rental and social well-being of man as a companion. None of us need look further than our own households to ascertain the impact of our pet dog, cat or bird on the family. AIry injury or :iJ.1ness of our pets is the concern

•

Ilk

\.

,

.

WPR/VPH/l page 8 of everyone. When this is multiplied by millions of animal. pets such as we have in the States we can begin to realize the public health significance. The most recent pet census estimate in Alnerica iSI Dogs cats Birds ::25 mUlion ::26 million 15 million

5.

MElES /' • I

The public health :il1lportance of a pet animal reservoir of the above size is significant. By far the most :iJTIportant Zoonoses anong pet animals is rabies. Rabies has been recognized in North America for at least 400 years. It has been a public-health problem during all of this period. In recent years good control has been effected by the use of canine immunizing agents. This is especially true in urban and suburban areas where the greatest nwnber of dogs are found. In rural areas the disease' is enzootic in foxes, skunks, raccoons and bats as well as other Wild 1Il:illla.ls. The eradication of rabies in the United states has been a public-health objective for the past decade. Progress has been made in some areas. The north-eastern and north-western states are relativeJ;y free of rabies although an occasional rabid wild an:illla.l is encountered in both areas. Rabies as a public-health problem cannot be measured by morbidity and mortality, which are one and the same in this case. It can be measured in part by the mental anguish of all persons concerned,including the patient, the famiJ;y, the pqysician and the health authorities. The number of people bitten by animals in a country a8 large as the United states is difficult to determine, but recently the California state Public Health authorities(6) completed a survey of health and accident problems. They reported that next to non-fatal automobile accidents, animal bites were the most frequent accidents encountered. They estimated that more than 230 000 persons were bitten in 1956. In one coun1:jy, Los Angoles, 36 000 people received bites. or this group, J2 000 required investigation by the health authorities. Eventually more than 1000 were required to take anti-rabies vaccine. The time and expense involved in a community when rabie s is rampant is much higher than one would realize. Some local health officials state that as much as 25 per cent of their budget may be expended on rabies during an epizootic period. The anguish that rabies brings to any community does not comply with health according to the WHO definition. Veterinary public health leadership is certainJ;y needed to meet the problem. There are other animal diseases that affect our pet companions that are also important and that will be discussed Qy eminent authorities at this meeting. The se in elude leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis and the dermatoplVtoses. Leptospirosis is a cammon disease among dogs in the states, often appearing in epizootic waves. Fortunate1;y it has not spread to man as of'ten as one would expect. This is also true of the leptospiroses among large animals.

/

'

WPR/VPH/l

page 9

The dermatopnytoses are a challenging problem because they are so widespread among animals and man. We consider the animal dermatopqytes one of the most common zoonoses. As the small animal populations increase these diseases will assume greater importance.

6.

CHRONIC DISEASES

\

I

L~

The chronic diseases of small animals as well as of large domestic animals have a less direct influence on manls health status but indirect~ they ma;y pla;v a very important role in resolving health problems that forestall the fulfillment of our definition of health. The :importance of research on chr<:nic diseases inc~uding cancer, heart disease, atherorsclerosis, and aging process in animals is well appreciated by this audience. The Surgeon General of the United states Public Health Service" Dr. L. E. Burney, recent~ emphasized this in an address to the American veterinary Medical Association as follows. "Probabq the greatest opportunities, however, can be found in the chronic diseases. Public health programmes in the chrOnic diseases are getting under wa,y :In many cOIllllunities. These programmes consist largeJ;y of prevention of certain diseases, of retarding the progression of others through earq detection and diagnosis, and of mitigating their effects through rehabilitation. "Much work needs to be done in each of these fields aId in perfecting the application of new techniques and procedures. In addition, considerable research - of a basic, clinical, and applied nature - is called for. Such research has expanded greatl¥, in government laboratories as well as in universities and private research centres. I am sure much of it is known to you, since many of the problems are common to both veterinary medicine and public health. "In the field of heart and vascular diseases, for example, there is a need for comparative study of these diseases in animals. A number of cardiological research projects are now under way in various veterinary medical research centres in the United states. Same of these are supported by research grants fram the public Health Service. Among the projects under study are the extent of atherorsclerosis in dogs; the anti-clothing mechanism of various animals which prevents thrombosis; and attempts to simulate rheumatic heart disease in dogs. If veterinary science can gain an understanding of the mechanism which prevents experimental heart failure in dogs, this can contribute a great deal to the management of rheumatic disease and its complications in man.

'"

-

WFR/VPH/l page 10 ItPractical~

every type of malignance found in man is encountered in animals. This provides opportunity for epidemiological studies of natural~ occurring diseases. Sane of these diseases behave in a pattern similar to that in man, while others dif'fer. Leukemia in -birds and cattle, for example, seems to show an epidemic pattern. The reported break-through in avian leukemia, with the use of a new immunizing agent, is being watched with increasing attention. The development of these agents can permit research workers to expand their studies on the prevention and treatment of certain forms of cancer under controlled conditions. "As you know, the problem of the aged in our country today is being viewed with ;increasing concern by health workers as well as by other groups. How can we extend and enrich the active life of the aging? That question encompasses a host of ;inter-related problems. "The basic answers must be sought in better understand:ing of the biology of aging. The complex nature of the problem of aging, the multiplicity of scientific diSCiplines involved in their stucty, and the relative scarcity of trained scientists to work in this field, have absorbed our attention in the Public Health Service. "Here, indeed, is an emerging field of great promise for the veterinary profession. The stucty of factors influencing the aging process in animals will add great~ to our knowledge of aging in man. An increasing number of scientists are planning to launch studies in comparative medicine, to include all species of animals in the stucty of the aging process. "As you know, research in aging must be sustained and long-range. In plans to augment our own research effome in the field of aging, the Public Health Service is assisting in the establishment of several large regional research centres operated by universities. We inaugurated the first of these, as same of you may know, at Duke University three weeks ago through the apprCNal of research grants totalling a little aver $300 000 for the first year. "Such centres for research in aging visualize largescale and integrated studies, utilizing the skills and knowledge of a variety of disciplines. Undoubtedly, veterinary medicine would have a place in a comprehensive research programme on the problems of aging. Veterinar,y research centres can contribute a great deal to such a co-operative effort, especia~ where there are medical centres on the same campus."

..

.A-. -

} )

,-

I

WPR/VPH/l pare 11 The challenge to veterinary medicine in meeting these new areas of operations is obvious. To get on with the task is our immediate problem. This will require mature planning in all fields concerned with these challenges that Dr. Burney has defined so well. No one group can accomplish this alone - to pull together requires a new type of investigator, one who has a broad interest in many aspects of disease and the imagination to translate knowledge into application. Canparative pathology met this challenge very well at the beginning of the age of bacteriology. Theobald Smith, William Osler, Karl Meyer are all legendary medical biologists who had that insatiable interest in everything that was related to disease. The challenge to present investigators is to carry on - not on~ in communicable diseases but in chronic disease and those that debilitate man. The public-health investigator who opens his eyes to these problems will not want. His rewards will be groat. ,

-

,

WPR,/vPH/l page 12 REFERENCES

1.

Kissling, R.E. (19.5'7) Host relationship of: the arthropod-borne encephalitis in North America. Proe. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Conf. on Animal Disease and Human Health. Ih press. Chamberlain, R.W. (19.5'7) Vector relationships of: the arthropod-borne encephalitis in North lunerica. Proc. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Cenf. on Animal Disease and Hunan Health. Ih press. Steele, J.H. & Ranna,y, A.F. (1957) An:ilnal tuberculosis. Amer. Rev. Tuberc. ;

2.

3. 4.

steele, J.H. (19.5'7) Observations on the epidemiology of human brucellosis in the United States. Proc. Ihter-American Brucellosis Congress. In press. Mingle, C.K. (19.5'7) Progress report on Co-operative State-Federal Brucellosis Eradication Programme. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Presented at the National Brucellosis Committee J\.nnual Meeting, Chicago, ill., February 14, 19.5'7. California. State Dept. of: Public Health (19.5'7) California surveillance report, Berke1a,y, California. 30, 19.5'7. April

5.

6.

/ ,. /..:

... ..

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

REGIONAL OFRCE FOR THE WESTERN PAOfIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL

•

OIGANISATlON MONDIALE DE LA SANTi

SEMINAR ON VETERINARY

PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959 COMPARATIVE MEDICAL RESEARCH AND CHRONIC DISEASES OF ANIMALS

WPR/VPH/2 16 February 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

by

James H. Steele, D.V.M., M.P.H. 1

CONTENTS

1. ~...,...

NEOPlASTIC DISEA.SFS I1FA.RT DISEA.SE

• .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

1 2

2.

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. •

3. 4.

nEXlENrnA. TIVE DISEAS'FS AN~L

• .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

4 6

PSYCHOS.F..S

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. •

lDepartment of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of State Services, Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, Georg:ia.

,

WPR/VPH/2 page 1

The broad interest in chronic disease as a public-health problem has raised many questions in regard to the kind and incidence of these diseases in domestic animals. Veterinarians saw many of these diseases in their clinics and practices, in meat inspection and in diagnostic laboratories where pathological examinations are made. Recently, comparative epidemiologic studies have been inaugurated in an effort to determine the natural history of neoplastic, heart and degenerative diseases in domestic animals. It is hoped that these investigations will answer questions that will lead to the elucidation of their epidemiology in animals and eventually man. 1. NEOPLASTIC DISEASES

Veterinary medicine has a wealth of raw data which can be adapted bw epidemiological methods to the service of mankind. The epidemiological approach to the neoplastic diseases of animals can provide data on incidence, trends and distribution of these diseases. It can also describe the natural history and may lead to the cause, and subsequently, the knowledge necessary to develop a control programme. Little data on the incidence of animal neoplasm have been collected. Small studies in veterinary clinics, schools and abbatoirs in Great Britain and the United States of America reveal that the rates among animals vary fram 90/1000 in dogs, 10/1000 in cats and 1/1000 in horses and cattle, and considerably less in swine and sheep. Collection of data of this type should be co-ordinated in regions and compared with human data. Veterinary medical investigators, because of their opportunity to study neoplastic diseases under experimental conditions, are in a fortunate position to learn the natural history of these infections. Natural occurring disease can be brought to clinics for further observation and attempts can be made to reproduce the disease. These conditions also lend themselves to therapeutic research programmes which have been inaugurated in a number of hospitals and univers i ties. The third aspect of the epidemiological approach is the question of cause and prevention. We lave come to understand neoplasia as a particular host response to some inciting agent. The host response may be controlled bw genetic factors or by an "immune response". The inciting agent may be physical, chemical or infectiolls. The dog which reflects the envirorll!lmt and labits of man mare than any other animal offers an excellent opportunity to test these epidemiological methods in the elucidation of neoplastic diseases. A study of canine lymphoma in New Jersey illustrates the problems in setting up such a project. These are: 1. The securing of baseline data; 2. The establishment of a reporting system; 3. The availability of a diagnostic service; 4. An eYs1uation of cases; 5. The history of each case and the tabulation of these data.

L::..---

-f:

WPR/VPH/2 page 2 The utilization of these data requires that medical epidemiologists and statisticians participate in such studies in order to detennine what epidemiologic clues may be developed. Similar investigations are being followed in regard to avian lymphomatosis to determine what the effect of this disease may have on man. Does exposure to animal lymphomatosis increase resistance or susceptibility? It is difficult to determine where these studies will lead to eventually, but with the wealth of material available the only limitation will be the imagination of the veterinary and medical epidemiologists. There are a number of other interesting investigations being carried out in the United States as well as in other parts of the world. Bovine leukosis is being studied in Minnesota and surrounding midwestern states. This disease has also been reported in southern Sweden and more recently in Denmark and Germany. Some investigators state that it is communicable and have been able to reproduce the disease. A condition very similar to lung cancer, pulmonary adenomatosis, has been described in sheep in Iceland and Peru. Research on this disease leads one to believe that it may be transmissible, although the incubation period may extend over a number of years. This may be a pattern of neoplastia with longer life spans. 2. HEART

...:.,. I

~

DISEASE

During the past decade there tas been a growing interest in heart disease of animals which reflects the increased investigations being carried out on human heart dis ease. The interest of the heart dis ease specialist in the comparative medical aspects of this major problem has resulted in support that was unknown a few years ago. A recent symposium on heart disease in dogs focused the attention of cardiologists and researchers on the possibilities of an investigation of natural occurring disease in an experimental population. The material presented at the symposium had been collected at an animal hospital during the past decade. This study revealed that prinary diseases of the heart are relatively uncommon, e.g., tumors and specific infections, but that secondary lesions appear to be extremely frequent, e.g., inflammation subsequent to bacterial, viral and metabolic diseases. In a total of 3000 necropsies the following types of heart diseases were encountered in 619 cases: Lesions 1. Mye (pan-) carditis, myecardial, edema, hemorrhage, necrosis, calcification, infarction (thrombosis and sclerosis) Vascular changes (inflammatory degenerative, metabolic), periarteritis nodose, necrotizing arteritis, athere-and arteriosclerosis Incidence

30%

2.

25%

WPR/VPH/2

page 3 Lesions Incidence

3. Valvular diseases, valvulitis, edema, hemorrhage and fibrosis

25% 15% 10%

4. Dilation, hypertrophy or atrophy 5. 6. 7. 8. Endocarditis, subendocardial hemorrhage, edema necrosis, calcification and fibrosis Primary and secondary neoplasms Epi- and pericarditis Congenital cardiac anomalies

3% 1%

1%

,

This tabulation discloses a striking frequency of inflammatory changes as endo- mye- and pancarditis which may occur either focal, disseminated, diffuse, interstitial, and acute, subacute, chroniC, granulomatous and/or sclerosing in type. The opportunities for various kinds of laboratory investigations are obvious. Another study at a school of veterinary medicine in the United States of America has shown that the incidence of cardiovascular dis ease among dogs is considerably higher than realized. One out of fifteen dogs examined at this institution had some kind of heart abnormality. The cause of these conditions is not known; neither dow e know what their relative inCidence may be in a given population. To find further information about the disease in this population an epidemiological study is being undertaken to ascertain what the external or environment factors may be that contribute to canine heart disease. This study is being carried out by veterinary epidemiologists under the direction of the National Heart Institute. Naturally the data assembled will be studied closely to determine what their value may be in the epidemiology of heart disease in man. Studies like this should be encouraged in other institutions, countries and continents in order to collect data on the prevalence of canine heart disease and to determine the influences of infectious diseases, climate, nutrition and environment. Another new development in the area of comparative heart disease research is the establishment of a clinic for the care of various types of canine heart disease. This clinic will provide natural occurring cases of various types for the clinical investigatiOns of various therapeutic, surgical and radiological studies. Arteriosclerosis seems to turn up in animals somewhat in proportion to the extent it is sought. Recently, a report from Harvard pointed out that the

--:...1-

WPR/VPH/2 page 4 ~.

,/

disease, occurring spontaneously, was fairly common in South American monkeys. The list of animals in which spontaneous arteriosclerosis occurs is quite extensive. The Philadelphia zoo in a recent report to the National Heart Institute states that 20 percent of too animals currently being autopsied have arteriosclerosis. There are some indications that hypertension, the second ranking killer among the human cardiovascular diseases, may be a common natural disease in animal populations. Studies in the United States reveal that there is a wide range of natural variation in blood pressure in dogs, some being naturally hypertensive. Certain dogs are much more susceptible to experimental hypertension than others. other investigators have found that healthy dogs subjected to severe dietary stresses and irregularities over a long period of time will develop sustained diastolic hypertension which may last long after the experimental conditions are terminated. Aside from dogs it is known that hypertension can be readily produced in rats and rabbits. It is supposed that spontaneous hypertenSion can occur in these and other wild animals, particularly when one considers the variable rigors of environment imposed by nature on wild animal popUlations. The incidence of animal congenital abnormalities is largely unknown. One study recently published reported an inCidence of 10 percent among a large group of experimental dogs. Another veterinarian investigating the incidence of congenital abnormalities in stillborn and newborn dead pigs reported 10 malformations of five different types in seven of the 48 pigs examined (14 percent). Five of the abnormalities were cardiovascular. This investigator comments that IIcongenital abnormalities in swine have been so infrequently reported in veterinary literature that it is impossible to estimate their significance ll • All of this material is available to the diligent investigator who is willing to seek it out. The opportunity for laboratory, clinical and epidemiological research is limitless. A collection of data from various geographical areas should be undertaken as soon as possible to elucidate the comparative epidemiology of the various cardiovascular diseases among animals. These data may provide information of great value to the elucidation of the epidemiology of cardiovascular diseases. 3• DFDENERA TIVE DISFASES

Ji.'

Few domestic animals live out their normal life span except animal pets, viz., dogs, cats and birds. But even with these limitations the field of comparative medical studies among domestic and pet animals offers unusual opportunities. Many of the degenerative diseases that are important to human health occur spontaneously in animals that live close to man and are exposed to the same environment influences. Probably one of the most important from a public health aspect is arthritis. Millions of persons and many animals,

..

....

6

, , WPR/VPH/2 page 5

especially swine, are affected by this malady. Comparative medical studies on this disease are neM being carried out in some veterinary and medical research centres. An aspect that needs further exploration is the epidemiology of the disease in both men and animals. It would be very desirable i f comparative medical investigations could be established in other parts of the world in an effort to shed light on the geographical distributions of this universal affliction of men and animals. Blindness in some cases is a degenerative disease that affects many humans and a surprising number of certain animal species, viz., horse and'dog. Most of these conditions occur in the aging animal, but frequently it is noted in animals that are relatively young. In the horse, recurrent iridocyclitis is not uncanmon. This leads to a permanent loss of vision as the lens becomes opaque. The primary cause of this disease is still to be determined. In the past the cause has been thought to be genetic transmission, nutritional defiCiency (riboflavin) and more recently leptospira infection. Conservative opinion is that it is a degenerative disease of unknown etiology. Dogs frequently have opacities of the lens that are of a non-specific origin. Some respond to medication but even in these instances the condition is recurring and eventually causes bl:indness. When this occurs only removal of the lens will provide relief. The natural history as well as the epidemiological pattern of this entity needs investigation. It again is an ideal subject for comparative medical and epidemiological study. Liver diseases including cirrhosis are found in many species of animals. Many of these have been studied as pathological diseases but again little study has been done pertaining to t he distribution or incidence. Metabolic disorders of many types are seen in different animals. One of the most interesting is gout in chickens. Fowls have the ability to excrete large amounts of uric acid which are converted to urates. What occurs to change this and allow the accumulation of these substances in the fowls' tissues is a challenging comparative medical disease problem. Allergies of all types are seen in some animals. Some are sensitized to therapeutic agents, foods and others by autoallergens. The most serious are those caused by infective agents, resulting in an infectious allergy. The resultant hypersensitivity has primarily vascular localization. Anemias of many kinds are also frequently encountered. Comparative hematology is an area which is just beginning and should develop rapidly with the extensive interest in blood research. Diseases of the skin are numerous among domestic animals and pets. Some are metabolic; others are reactions to insecticides, while others are infections. All of these are areas that have received little attention until recent years • • £.r

~

'"

.

WPR/VPH/2

page 6

Many animal pets lend themselves to germatological research; the dog, cat and some birds are being used already. The dog is probably the ideal animal because so much is already known about his physiology, nutritional requirements and susceptibility to disease. Also, large colonies can be readily managed because of the experience that has been accumulated in recent years. Some of these groups that are being used for genetic studies would lend themselves admirably to aging studies. The dog also has the longest natural life of the smaller animals in close contact with man. 4. ANTI1AL PSYCHOSES

II

II

It has long been known that animals are susceptible to induced psychotic ills. All degrees of derangement can be created in susceptible animals. The circumstances that permit this are not well defined except to say that certain breeds which are highly imbred seem to have the lowest threshold for artificially created mental illness. Animal psychology is advancing rapidly in the laboratory but there is need to carry out field studies to determine if there are epidemiological patterns that may reflect their breeding, environment or human relationship. A world-wide survey may provide clues of inestimable epidemiologic value. It is important tha t this area of comparative medicine receive the recognition and support needed. Scholarships for veterinarians who wish to study animal psychology should be established. )--

~I

'

,

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PAOfIC BUREAU ReGIONAL DU PACIFIOUE OCCIDENTAL

•

OIGANISAnON MONDIALE DE LA SANti

SEMlNAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

WPR/vpHj.3 16 February 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

..

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1

May 1959

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ASPEC'lS OF TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL by

James H. Steele, D.V.M., M.P.H.*

*Department of Health, Education and Helfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of State Services, Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, Georgia.

Wffi/VPH!3 page 1

The incidence of bovine-type tuberculosis in man in the United States of America has declined to an all time low in recent years. The last reported confirmed case occurred in 1957 in a rendering-slaughterhouse worker in western Massachusetts. The mfi~ recent proven case of disease in children was in an Ohio farm boy in 1954 • The child had a cervical adenitis which was identified as tuberculosis on histopathological examination. Of the cases which have come to the attention of the Communicable Disease Centre, it is noteworthy that most of the children had cervical adenitis or scrofula while the adults had pulmonary disease. The rarity of bovine-type tuberculosis in man as a clinical entity is most impressive in light of the hundreds of thousands of new tuberculosis infections and disease which occur in man annually. In some parts of Europe bovine tuberculosis continues to be an important cause of human disease. In south Wurtemberg (Germany), a heavily infected area, bovine tubercle bacilli were isolated from 19.2% of human patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and from 58.6% of patients with extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. The incidence of pulmonary bovine-type tuberculosis was 9% in patients aged under 30, but 34~)in those aged over 30. These 34% were nearly all workers in cattle byres( • Historically, tuberculosis in man and animals was first recognized as a serious public-health problem almost 100 years ago. The first organized effort to control tuberculosis in animals and man was by veterinarians employed by municipal governments to clean up their milk supplies and remove diseased milch cows. Milk sanitation and bovine tuberculosis control were the beginnings of many local health programmes. Subsequently, these local bovine tuberculosis control programmes developed into statewide programmes and these laid the foundations of a national programme which was inaugurated in 1917 by the United States Bureau of Animal Industry~ A decline in t he bovine-type infections in children was an early result of tuberculosis control of dairy cattle and the practice of milk pasteurization. These results in terms of improvement in child health were a potent force in persuading large cities to require official tuberculosis testing of all dairy cattle producing milk for human consumption. Minneapolis was the first large city to require all milk entering the city to be from accredited herds. Soon afterward a number of other cities adopted regulations which required all milk sold in their respective health jurisdictions to come from tuberculosis free herds. The enactment of tuberculosis accreditation regulations by Chicago in 1926 and followed quickly by other large cities was the turning point which insured the success of the national campaign. By 1940 the entire country became a modified accredited area and the human form of bovine tuberculosis was disappearing. With the decline in the incidence of bovine tuberculosis, the number of no visible lesions reactors in cattle has steadily risen to where they account for about 75 percent of the total number of reactors. This situation is not only found in the United States but also occurs in all countries that are carr,ving on tuberculosis control campaigns. In Norway and Sweden this has become a major problem in tuberculosis eradication. Australia reports a similar situation.

WPR/VP}l/3 page 2 . There are ma~3rauses of non-specific sensitization. These are well summarJ.led by Francis and are well known. They include: early infection followed by early recovery and sensitization to antigentically related organisms, e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis avium, haminis, paratuberculosis, johnei, phlei and recently unidentified acid fast organisms. Same of the later groups may include such newly identified mycobacteritun as the 607 strain - a saprophyte, and the Battey strain - a chromogenic acid fast organism which causes sensitization and occasionally disease in man. Epidemiological and epizootiological investigations are needed to determine the significance of these newly dis covered organisms. (,fJ the human field, considerable research is being done by Edwards and Palmer of the Public Health Service on the distribution of non-specific tuberculin reactions in man. P.P .D. antigens are being made from same of trese newly discovered acid fast organisms for human testing. A similar study with NVL herds is underway which will be discussed by Dr. Kaplan. The unravelling of the epidemiology of tuberculosis in man and animals is a major medical problem to both public health and livestock disease control authorities. Close co-operation and co-ordination in the study of these problems will accelerate the efforts of medical and veterinary epidemiologists. At the national level, all parties concerned are desirous of finding the solution to the epidemiology of non-specific tuberculin reactors in man and animals. Liaison between agriculture and health agencies should be encouraged among those who are stUdying similar situations. An example of this cooperation is tre excellent support given by tuberculosis control authorities to the studies on the serological status of tuberculin positive cattle at the University of Iowa1s Institute 9f Agricultural Medicine. This study will attempt to evaluate the Parlett t5 ) method for detection of tuberculosis antibodies in serum of tuberculin positive cattle at the time of slaughter. The Institute is also carrying on a reciprocal tuberculosis case finding project by visits to Iowa farms where reactor animals are identified. A number of states have inaugurated similar projects in recent years. An epidemiological investigation by local health authorities should be made any time animal tuberculosis is identified to determine possible evidence of tuberculosis in people who have had contact with the infected animals. Bovine tuberculosis is communicable to man by both airborne and ingestion means, and may cause pulmonary as well as extra-pulmonary disease. When bovine-type phthisis occurs in man i t can be transmitted to animal and man. Human-type disease occasionally is the cause of sensitization of cattle to tuberculin. As you know, the human-type organism seldam causes disease in cattle but produces an infection Which results in a reaction to the tuberculin test. The exchange of infonnation on the prevalence of animal and human tuberculosis by state and local public health and livestock disease control officials will expedite the necessary investigations which are needed to eradicate this age old scourge of man and animals. It is also important that

I

~'

..' 4..,.

II

.

'.

WPR/VPH/3 page 3 this information be disseminated among physicians and veterinarians so th~ will be aware of the problem at hand and can advise their patients and clients accordingly. Detailo on control and eradication of tuberculosis in domestic animals will be found in the second report of the WHO/FAO Elcpert Committee on Zoonoses which has been distributed to participants at this meeting.

-J.

-----WPR/VPH/3 page 4 REFERENCES 1. Steele, J.R. (1954) The present status of bovine type human tuberculosis in the United States. Proc. U.S. Livestock Sanitary Assoc., 207-211. Meyn, A. (1957)

.

.

2.

Progress in the control of bovine tuberculosis in the German Federal Republic. Rindertuberk u. Brucellose, £, 185-192. Abstracted in the Vet. BUll., December 1958.

3.

Francis, John (1958) The problem of non-specific sensitization. animals and man. London, pages 58-60.

Tuberculosis in

4.

Edwards, L.B., Palmer, Carroll E. (1958) Epidemiologic studies on tuberculin sensitivity. I. Preliminary results with purified protein derivatives prepared from atypical acid-fast organisms. Amer. J. Hyg. 68, 213-231. Parlett, Robert C., Youmann, Guy P., Rehr, Caroline and Lester, William (1958) The detection of antibodies in the serum of tuberculous patients by an agar double-diffusion precipitation technique, Amer. Rev. Tub., 7J.., 462-472.

5.

.....

'..

-~.~-. .',,--

__ __ ...... .~~btt~

-

~

t

...

7-----

~-

..

'-

........

•

cc.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

REGIONltL OFFICE FOR THE WEST~ PACIFIC BUREAU R.l:!:GIONAL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL S]MINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH WPR/VPH/4/Cor/l

20 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1" May 1959

AN OUTBREAK OF A PECULIAR DISE1SE AFFECTING THE CENTRil.L NERVOUS SYSTEM CAUSED BY AN UNKNmJN AGENT IN THE FISHING DISTRICTS OF MINAMAT/, CITY IN KUM.'.MOTO PREI5ECTURE

by Shinichi Matsuda, M. D. Department of Epidemiology Institute of Public Health

-

" WPR/VPH/4/Cor/l \. Page .1 : '.>:

An outbreak of a peculiar disease affecting the central nervous system caused by an unknown agent in the fishing districts cf Minamata City in KUlllamoto Prefecture by .Shinichi Matsuda, M.D. D3partment of Epidemiology Institute of Public Health General description This outbreak has occured from 1953 to 1956 and involved 69 persons including 26 deaths. All of the patients suffered from disturbances of neurological (CNS) function. The ~ptoms appeared gradually without fever and lasted for a considerable time •. No complete cure was observed. At the e'nd of 1956, a special SCientific research team was established affiliated with the Ministry of Health & Welfare. This team consisted of many scientists in the field of Epidemiology, Pathology, Chemistry, Bacteriology and also clinical medicine. The agent and the cause of this disease, however, has not been established. Clinical evidence The main ~ptoms of this disease were as follows (41 Chses): motor disturbance speech disturbance abnormal sensation dist urbance of' vision, disturbance of hearing . disturbance of swallowing disturbance of affect cramps' (convulsions) weakening of perceptions excess salivation muscle stiffness

100% 93% 53% 49%

22% 14%

20% 20%

12% 10%

10%

All of these symptoms were due to the affliction of the central nervous system. Motor disturbance was the most frequent and the most typical feature. Epidemiological evidence The numbers of patients with this disease were as follows: Patients 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1

D3aths

o 5 4

12 9 43 1

o 3

9 2

5 1

L

.

;

,

. WPR/YPH!4/Cor/1 ," . Page -2 Fatal late is 37.6%. Most cases occurred from April to September.

There were some significant differences in disease incidence by sex and

age. Most of the patients were in fishermen I s families. Morbidity rates in the age groups under 9 and over 40 years old ware higher than in other age groups. These age groups eat more fish than other age groups. It was also rather high in the male group. 52.3% of the cases occurred in families with more than one case. .J>.';

The attack rate in fishermen's fmnilias..was 59-.Zf.,. The attack rate in non-fisherman's families was 6.9%. The most important and interesting facts were that all of the _patients ate many kinds of fish and shellfish, such as lobsters, crabs, shellfish (oysters, top shells, etc.), sardines, sea-breams, gray mullets, konosirus punctatus, without any exception • . Many of the cats in this district suffered from this disease and died With symptoms similar to those seen in htnnan_beillgs at about the same time. They showed the same symptoms and pathological evi.dences as seen in man. other animals like pigs and birds were also affected by the same disease. Pathological evidence Pathological studies indicated that this disease was not a simple infection but an intoxication. ChemiCal and tOXicological study Our chemistry and pathology staff have eagerly purs1:led the agent of the disease for almost 3 years. They have foUnd many suspected substances such as Mangane se, Selenitnn, Tallitnn, Arsenic J Copper, Zinc ,etc·., which are contained in the soil of the sea bottom. It is possible to reproduce the same disease ill cats only by the ingestion of whole fish - not by any of the specifiC suspected metals. We now suppose that some of the chemical substances in the waste disposal that have been emptied into Minamata Bay from a chemical fertilizer .factory located near Minamata Bay may be the source of the intoxicants. -

• WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

REGIONAL OFFICE fOR THE WESTERN PAOFlC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PAOflOUE OCCIDENTAL

•

ORGANISAnON MONDIALE DE LA SANTi

SEMlNAR Cfi VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

WPR/VPH/5

16 February 19 ~

Tokyo, Japan

ENGLlSH ONLY

20 April - 1 May 1959

mOORAMME OF A COMPIETE COOBSE :rn FOOD HYGIENE AND FOOD CCN'IROL FUR PUBLIC HEALTH VE'IER.lNARIANs by

A. JepseIl*

~

,

-*Professor, Royal veterinary College, copenhagen

".

WPR/VPrl/5 page 1

A.

Food-borne disease s general review

The mechanism of transmission of infections or parasitic diseases through food. Food poisoning of bacterial origin. Food poisoning of chemical origin. Food allergies. General principles of prevention. B. Food microbiology

The sources of origin of the contam;i.nating microflora of foods. The soil reservoir. The surface water reservoir. The animal and human reservoir. Pathogens in soil, water and faecal content. The selective factors determining the composition of the normal microflora present in different types of food stuffs. General characteristics of the principal groups of good contaminants and their biochemical activities in foods (micrococci, streptococci, lactobacilli, coryne-bacteria gram-negative rods, bacillus, Clostridia, yeast, molds). Microbiological aspects of food preservation. Temperature intervals. PH intervals. Salt. Humidity. Smoking. Vacuum packing. Heat processing. Chemical preservation. Detvdration. Cooling. Freezing. C. Sanitation

Methods and principles of safe handling of foods. Construction. Equipment. Sanitation. Cleaning and detergents. Desinfection and disinfectants. Control of food establishments. This course should include frequent field excursions and the application of laboratory examinations to control cleanliness of utensils and to solve other practical tvgienic problems incurred in field work. D. Food control and food inspection

Milk and m:llk products. Meat and meat products. Fish and fish products (including shell fish). Eggs and egg products. Other foods. For each group information should coverl Chem:lcal composition, tvgienic-bacteriological aspects, spOilage, pathogens, methods of handling and storage, methods of control and inspection. Preserved or semi-preserved foods. Canned foods. Dehydrated foods. J'rozen foods. E. Laboratory examination of foods. Bacteriological, biological and chem:lcal examinations Milk, ice cream, milk productsl

.....-'"

W?B./VPH/5 page 2 Fat tests. Tests for added water. Biological tests (fermentation tests) for added preservatives (also for other foods). Acidity tests. Bacteriological grading (plate count, coliform count). Pathogens in milk. Tests for pasteurization. Cell counts, tests for pathological milk. Fatsl Titrable acidity. rancidity. MeatSI

Peroxide numbers, tests for

Total solids, water. Salt determination. Percentage of salt in water. Fat test. Tests for freshness (PH, H S etc.) Bacteriological examination. Biological dfrferentiation between meat of different species (precipitin tests). Fish. Volatile nitrogene, ammonia (Conway technique) for state of freshness. Bacteriological exantination. Coliform counts in shell fish. Canned foods I Incubator tests. .e~aticns.

Aerobic and anaerobic bacteriolOgical

Eggs and prepared foodsl Bacteriological analysis. This is a list of a few basic laboratory methods used in hygienic food control. It could easily be extended. Special attention should be given to specialized bacteriological analysis, using selective and indicative media, and to such methods of examination which will assist in the judging of keeping quality, state of freshness am hygienic quality. Specialized quantitative chemical analysis should be referred to a course for chemists and engineers specializing in sanitary chemistry. Veter:inary public health students are required to take all five courses A-E. Medical students should be required to take A. Food-bome diseases.

WPR/VPH/5 page Sani tary tngineering students may take B. Food microbiology and C. san:l.tat:l.on. Sanitary chemistry students ma;y take B•. Food microbiology and E. Laboratory examination of foods, plus a specialized course in advanced quantitative chemical food analYsis.

.3

·

.-

L

f.- WORLD

HEALTH ORGANIZAnON

SEHD'Ii.R

ON

REGIONAL OFACE FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC VETERINARY BUREAU REGIONAL DU PAOAQUE OCCIDENTAL

•

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTi

PUBLIC HElU.TH

16

WPR/VHV6 March

1959

Toqo, Japan

20 April - 1 May 1959

ENGLISH ONLY

THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF FOOD-BORNE DISEASES by

Martin M. Kaplan, V.M.D.*

CONTENTS 1. 2. DEFINITION AND CIASSIFIct.TION OF FOOJ).,.flCRNE INFECTIONS AND INl'OXICl,'rrOO •••••••••••••••••••••• NOTIFICATION l~lm

1

__F

REPORTING

...................................... .

3 4

3.

EPIDEMIOLOG]ru~L

INVESTIGhTIONS ••••••••••••••••••••.•••.•..••••••

*Chief ,

Veterinary Public Health, WHO, Geneva

.

-'

WPR/VPH/6 page 1

Many aspects of the subject to be considered here have been covered in documents supplied to participants and will not be dealt with in this

working oocument. (Please refer to the loJHO,IF1.O Expert Committee Reports on Milk Hygiene and on Heat Hygiene; also the WHO Monograph "Meat Hygiene".) In February 1959 a maeting was held in Geneva, attended by specialists from several European countries and FI.O, on the q-oo stion of food-borne infections and intoxications. The author participated in thi s meeting and several sections of the final report will be used as a basis for the present document. The approach will be from the standpoint of improving epidemiological investigation methods for food-borne outbreaks of disease and standardization in the official reporting of these outbreaks with the aim of clarifying and eventually controlling this group of diseases. 1. DEFINITION AND CIASSIFIC1SION

OF FOOD-BORNE INFECTIONS .h.ND INTOXICJI.TIONS

Food-borne diseases can be defined as those present knowledge and methods, can be traced (a) substance or meal which ms been contaminated by substance, or (b) to a particular food-producing where a contamination occurred.

diseases which, with to a specific fooda noxious organism or or dispensing establishment

The following list of diseases is suggested as a guide for the purpose of classifying and reporting food-borne disease. This list is oonfined to the principal well..studied diseases which, as defined previousl¥, can be traced by epidemiological mathods to food. Many diseases known to be foodborne are rot included in the primary list because of the difficulty of pin-pointing a particular source or incident or because or their relative rarity of occurrence. Some of these will be indicated parenthetIcally. A. Food-borne infections 1.

Bacterial Typhoid fever (040)* Paratyphoid fever (041) other Salmonella infections including il.rizona infections (042.0) Diphtheria (055) Bacillar,r ~sentery (shigellosis) (045) Streptococcal sore throat (051) and scarlet fever (050)

* Indicates

code number in "International Classification of Diseases"

WPR/VHi/6 page 2

(Anthrax (062), brucellosis (044), tuberculosis (001-019), tularemia (059» 2: Viral and ril::kcttsial Infectious hepatitis (092) Q fever (108)

(Food-and-mouth disease) 3. Prato~oal

l.moebic dysentery (046) 4. Zooparasitical Taeniasis and diphyllobothriasis (126), trichiniasis (128) (OOCyuriasis (130.1), ascariasis (130.0), fascioliasis and opisthorchiasis (124.2), hydatidosis (125» B. Food-bome intoxications of bacterial origin Botulism (049.1) staphylococcal entertaxin food poisoning (a..9.0)

c. D.

Food-borne disease from heavy oontamination with certain bacterial. Cl a perfringens (welchli), B. cereus, streptococci (049.2)

Food-bome diseases of' uncertain aetiology Eschericiaeae, Proteus, Pseudomonas, etc.

E.

Food-borne intoxications due to chemical poisons stipulated as to came, where determined, including fish and plant toxins (N960), inorganic am organic chemical. compounds (N964-N967) and radioactive sub stances.

F.

Food-borne diseases of undetermined aetioloSl

WPR/VPH/6 page J 2. Introduction The chapter of the Detailed International Classification of Diseases relating to "infectious diseases commonly arising in the intestinal tract" (0.40-0.49), does not include all food-borne diseases, so that other such diseases are covered by items Placed elsewhere in the Classification, such as tularemia (0.59), infectious hepatitis (0.92), hydatid diseases (1.25), and trichiniasis (1.28), and with an even greater frequency conditions listed under gastro-enteritis and colitis (age four weeks and aver) (5.71), and poisoning by noxious foodstuffs (N960). Obviously, a variety of national legislations relating to notification of cases which might be of food-borne origin exist. Also, while most coUBtri-es require notification by medical practitioners of specific conditions such as typhoid fever, paratyphoid, bacillary d¥sentery, etc. several do not place an obligation on the medical practitioner to notify "food poisoning" (infection and intoxication) (0.49) The assembling of statistical data of incidents of food-borne diseases and their cause, and the reporting of these data by national authorities

NOTIFICi.T roN AND REPORTING

in order to define with the greatest possible accuracy the cause and magnitude of food-borne disease, would facilitate introduction of more efficient measures for control of these diseases by the country concermd and by international agencies. It is, therefore, suggested that health administrations analyze reported diseases whose food-borne character was either obvious or suspected, and report them, in addit ion to the usual procedure, as a group according to the list given previously. Reporting of food-borne infections and intoxications in general While, in some cases, the physician or medical officer attelXiing a case or cases of food poiSOning can often obtain information relating to the food aetiology of the condi. tion observed and sometimes definite particulars of the food concermd, in other cases, particularly in the case ot patients diagnosed in hospitals and those diseases in which there is a long incubation period (e.g. typhoid, paraty.phoid), it is not always possible for the clinical diagnoses to be supplemented by an indication of the probable or possible food origin of the disease. It is, therefore, suggested that national health administrations as well as publishing routinely, among notifications of communicable diseases, data on those diseases commonly arising in the intestinal tract, should publish at least yearly a supplementary report relating to food-borne diseases, based on the above~entioned notifications am on the results of epidemiological and bacteriological investigations carried out in connexion with these diseases. These special reports should contain for each disease entity the number of notified cases, the number of such cases investigated and the number of those investigated in which the food origin was definitely ascertained or at least found probable. The proportions between these figures would provide a ro ugh estimate of the amount of food-borne diseases in the country cc:ncerned.

WPR/VPH/6 page 4 But, in order to provide a true picture of the epidemiology and a more precise lmowledge of food-borne diseases, the special reports should contain, in addition, information on the total number of incidents* observed, covering in so far as possible: (1)

...... '

Circumstances (community banquets, meals in restaurants, home outbreaks, etc.); Size (total number of persons affected in relation to those at risk) j Food concerned (meat, milk, fish, eggs, etc. specified in their various forms) and Sources of contamination of the said food (animal origin, human case or carrier, faecal contamination, failure of pasteurization or processing plant, etc.) Specific bacterial, viral or parasitic agent isolated b.Y laboratory examination.

(2) (3) (4)

(5)

It is further suggested that in addition to a tabular presentation of these outbreaks, the special reports contain details of some specific outbreaks selected on account of their typical character or, on the contrary, their unusual features. In the statistics of notifications of food-borne diseases, as of other communicable and parasitic diseases, it is desirable to consider separately clear-cut clinical cases as distinct from positive laboratory findings.

It would be easy to make this distinction if health administrations recorded separately the cases notified b.Y physicians and those verified by epidemiological and laboratory investigations. (These latter would include specimens originating in other persons, e.g. sub-clinical cases found among contacts of an individual case and latent infections or infestations in order to obtain an idea of the prevalence and importance of the condition).

3.

EPIDEMIOLOGICJ,.L INVESTIGATIONS

From the point of view of preventive medicine, more information is needed on the well-established aetiological role of foods in many diseases. J..n effort should, therefore, be made to profit as fully as possllile from the investigations which the epidemiologist has to make in any case in the event of an outbreak of food-borne disease.

* An

incident represents a single case, a family or larger group.

...

I

..

--

WPR,Nm/6 page 5 A primary requirement in epidemiology is the thorough questioning of patients and others who may have been exposed to the same source of infection. Next comes the collection of samples of the foods which might have been the cause of the disease, both in order to avoid more people falling sick and to aid the laboratory in detecting the real caus e of the disease. For the latter purpose, it is essential that adequate samples of suspected foods or food ingredients be sent as quickly as possible to the laboratory. It is obvious that the physicians carrying out the epidemiological investigation should receive some guidance as to how to sample correctly. Special,1ftvestigations, limited in scope, may be useful to bring more precise results of the epidemiology of food-borne diseases. Such investigations would emphasize closer studies than is normally the case with routine investigations. -

.~

-

, '

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZAnON ~

REGIONAL OFACE FOR THE WESTERN PAOFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PAOAOUE OCODENTAL

•

ORGAMISAnON MONDIALE DE LA SANti .

SEMJNl'.R ON VETERINi.RY PUBLIC HEl.. LTH

WPR/IlPH/7 16 March 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan

20 April - 1 May 1959

STUDIES

m

COMPARlLTIVE MEDICINE AS

1;.

VETERINi.RY PUBLIC

HEt~TH

ACTIVITY

by

Martin M. Kaplan, V.M.D.* CONTENTS

1. 2.

ClillCER '... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • CJUtDIOVASCUUa.R DISElLSES ••••••••••••••••••••••• ,. •••••••••••••••

1

3 5 6

3.

MtBCLE, BONE, JOINT AND lWABOLIC DISORDERS FROM THE STANDFOINT OF COMPflRAT lVE PATHOLOGY •••••••••••••••••• Rl:l.DIOB IOLOGY .............................. -. • . . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

4.

* Chief,

Veterinary Public Health, WHO, Geneva

WPR/VPH/7 page 1 It is clear from the subject matter to be dealt with at this meeting that. responsibilities with respect to zoonoses and food hygiene are major ones in the field of veterinary public health (VPH). In the report b.r an advisory group on veterinary public health (WHO Tech. Rep. Sere No. 111) and in Dr. Steele's paper on "Inter-relationship; of human and animal health" (Agenda item 1), some indication is given of the place of comparative medicine in the framework of VPH activities. The present document will enlarge on specific areas of activities in this field, as yet in the early stages of development but which no doubt will assume great importance in the relatively near future. -' Two major problems confronting human medicine are cardiovascular diseases and cancer, and WHO has been examining these fields from the point of view as to how research in these fields in domestic animals might be intensified on an international scale far possible light such research may shed on analogous human problems. There follows below a general summary of the highlights in these respective fields. 1. CANCER

V"

Neoplasms of domestic animals may be studied from the aspect of aetiology (e.g. genetic, carcinogenic, endocrinological or viral causal agents), histopathogenesis, histopathology, biological behaviour, epidemiology and geographical distribution, and chemo- and radiotherapy. (The object of therapeutic trials would be to benefit the particular animal affected, or similarly affected animals, and for its possible value in human medicine.) Species differences: The most immediately striking feature of cancer in domestic animals is the difference in incidence and site of origin between the various speCies, and as compared with man. Thus, tumours of some importance in the horse inClude melanomas of the skin, carcinoma of the glans penis, teratoma of the testis, squamous-cell carcinoma of the eyelid and of the cardiac portion of the stomach, and carcinoma of the nasal cavities and sinuses. A common malignant neoplasm of the ox is lymphosarcoma (lymphatic leukosis), and others of importance inClude squamous-cell carcinoma of the oonjunctiva, which is particularly encountered in the United States; on the other hand, cancer of the mammary gland of the cow is very rare. Neoplasms appear to be rare in sheep, which are largely slaughtered young, but two of importance amongst these rare tumours are liver-cell tumours (unrelated to fluke disease or to cirrhosis), and more or less generalized lymphosarcoma. In the ~, too, which is also largely slaughtered when young, tumours are rarely seen. The commonest tumour appears to be more or less generalized lymphosarcoma, while embryonal nephromas also occur.

WPR/VPH/7 page 2 In the ~1 in London, the most important and common cancers are cutaneous melanomas 1 marrgnant tumours of the mammary gland, carcinoma of the tonsillar epithelium, intestinal lymphosarcoma and lymphatic leukosis. In the cat similarly they are squamous-cell carcinoma of the tongue and of the oesophagus, carcinoma of the mammary gland 1 sarcoma of bone and visceral lymphosarcoma. forms. In the fowl l the predominant neoplastiC process is leukosis in its various

--

It will be seen that some tumours are important in both man and domestic animals, while some are of importance in one, and of little or no importance in the other. The significances of tress differences need study.

These differences in incidence and site may extend to breed and sex within a species; thus, limb bone sarcomas are largely restricted to the large breeds of dog, and upper alimentary tract cancer in cats is aJJnost entirely a disease of castrated males. In considering a possible explanation of these variations in incidence, it is stressed that in this field, as in that of cardiovascular and other

diseases, there is a need for a systematic summary of available knowledge of species differences of an anatomical, histological, physiological, biochemical or biological nature, as these must influence any interpretation of observed differences. These factors might underlie differences in (a) aetiology (e.g. susceptibility to carcinogeniC action~ perhaps due to differences in metabolic rate and metabolic pathways, (b) histogenesis (e.g. of melanomas in man and dog), (c) clinical course and malignancy (c.f. seminoma in man and dog - only rarely metastasising in dogs). However, probably many of the species differences are due to such factors as different mode of life (e.g. herbivo~ous or carnivorous, more or less close association with man, town or country habitat, etc.), and perhaps especially they may be influenced by age of death or slaughter. A study of aging processes and of neoplastic disease in animals, which are normally slaughtered for food when young, but would be allowed to live out their life-span, should be encouraged. This could be done, for example, in the case of cattle in India. most like cancer. At the moment, there are a number of examples of tumours of domestic animals that appear to be ripe for more intensive study, from one or more angles (e.g. aetiology, histopathology, etc.), but it is to be expected that fUrther study in parts of the world that are at present largely unknown in respect of animal tumours might well reveal others that would also be rewarding subjects.

WPR/VPH/7 page 3 The general course of events will probably be that broad surveys in certain countries or areas will reveal or confirm that certain tumours there are of particular or even unique importance. These special tumours will then be more intensively studied as spontaneous tumours, and from this study indications will arise of certain experimental investigations that would seem likely to yield information of a specific or a general significance. (An example of such course of events is given below by the mammary tumours of the bitch.) The fact that certain tumours of man are of little or no Significance in domestic animals also provides an opportunity for investigation; to account, for example, for the rarity of mammary cancer in cattle, of prostatic cancer in dogs, of gastric cancer and lung cancer in all species, of uterine cancer in bitches (which are prone to endometrial hyperpJa sia), and so on. It is clear that man is probably just as special a case as any of the species of domestic animals in the pattern of incidence of his common tumours. Tumours that might repay special study now:

1. 2.

Lymphosarcoma (including lymphatiC leukosis) in all species "Cancer eye" of cattle

3. Melanomas of horse, ox and dog

4. Alimentary tumours of dogs and cats 5. Testis tumours of dogs Bone sarcomas of dogs Tumours of poultry Carcinoma of glans penis of the horse Transmissible venereal tumour of dogs Tumours of C.N.S. Mast cell tumours of the skin of the dog Mammary neoplasms of the bitch

6. 7.

8. 9.

10.

11. 12.

2.

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES Like

Areas Yield Information of a.

to ear to have

and cardiac disorders in animals which a

WPR/VPH/7 page 4 Certain vascular, valvular, and ~ocardial lesions in both animals and man represent tissue reactions to a variety of noxious stimuli. For example, the heart valve subendocardium shows a remarkable predisposition to react allergically. Most experimental studies have failed to correlate this reaction, which has been most often studied in rabbits but occurs in other species as well, with vascular and renal changes which may occur. Study of spontaneously occurring cardiac and vascular lesions, together with thorough investigation of other organs in a variety of species may reveal common etiological factors in human and animal valvular, ~ocardial and vascular diseases. b.

Stuqy of spontaneous disease of the coronary vasculature in dogs

The pathological processes and changes associated with aging which occur in the smaller coronary arteries of dogs have not been well characterized and classified. c. ClarifY relationships between renal disease and cardiovascular disease in dogs

Dogs commonly show arteriosclerosis in aSSOCiation with chronic valvular disease ani chronic interstitial nephritis. Further work is needed to understand the interrelationships of these conditions. d. Do animals have "Collagen diseases"?

This is an area of investigation where physicians could play an important role because of their experience with this group of diseases in man. "'. "Rheumatoid arthritis" in swine and its possible relationship to polyarteritis nodosa is of speCial interest to both phySicians and veterinarians The two important degenerative cardiac diseases, "plotzliche Herstod" of swine and round heart disease of poultry bear further investigation, especially with reference to etiology ani pathogenesis Epidemiological studies There are two approaches which may be taken: 1. Survey animals presented to a veterinary clinic and through these contacts study the relationship between environmental factors ani heart disease. Such a survey is now being conducted among dogs in a large veterinary cliniC, where the incidence of detectable cardiac disease amounts to about 10 per cent.

f.

g.

2. Systematically examine abattoir material and when cardiovascular abnormalities are detected, seek correlations with environmental factors.

..

.... h.

WPR/VPH/7 page 5

Sustained, organized study of cardiovascular diseases of swine in all age groups

Since several t,ypes of cardiovascular diaease resembling specific diseases of man as well as other animals occur in swine, stuqy of these diseases in this species may be especially fruitful.

3.

MUSCLE, BONE, JOINT AND METABOLIC DISORDERS FROM THE STANDFOINT OF COMPARATIVE HI. THOLOGY

Information on this group of diseases is scattered amongst various specialities. Listed below are some diseases of interest in domestic animals where study should be fruitful as regards disease problems in man. 1. 2. Inherited-congenital qysplasia of the hip in rabbits and dogs Osteoarthritis in cattle Osteoarthritis in horses Osteoarthritis in small laboratory animals Degeneration of intervetebral discs in dogs Hemophilic arthropathy in dogs Pulmonary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy in dogs Synovial gout in parakeets Avian nephritis and visceral gout Arthritis caused b,y streptobacillus moniliformis and pleuropneumonia-like organisms in small rodents Bacterial arthritis and teno~novitis

3.

4, 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

in poultry

Transmissible synovitis of poultry Rheumatoid-like arthritis in swine Skeletal and articular involvement in brucellosis Various ~opathies

in livestock

Diabetes and other endocrine disorders

wPR/Vm/7 page 6

4.

RADIOBIOLOGY

Highly specialized training is necessary in this field where laboratory research is involved. There are rich possibilities for specialized veterinarians in physiological and pharmacological research and in food technology. However, there is an urgent need at present for at least partial training in this field because of the veterinarian's reGponsibilities in the field of food hygiene. With the increase in atomic energy projects in various countries, radioactive hazards in foodstuffs accidentally contaminated must anticipated. Basic training in radiobiology is now being offered in certain laboratories, and the provision of fellowships to national governments is now being offered by various international agencies. It is hoped that opportunitieS for such training will increase. Public health veterinarians are being included amongst those who are being trained in this field.

).

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION SEMINAR ON VETElilll"ARY PUBLIC HEALTH REGIONAL Tokyo~ Japan 20 April - 1 Hay 1959

OFACE FOR THE WESTERN PAOFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PAOFIQUE OCCIDENTAL

•

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTi

WPR/VPH/8 31 March 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

HYGIENIC-BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF PREPARED FOODS PRJNCIPIES AND TECHNIQUES by A~ Jepsen*

*Professor, Royal Veterinary College~ Copenhagen

-~

WPR/VH:!/8 page 1 Introductor,r Remarks The ever increasing research activity of veterinar,r public health workers in the zoonoses field has introduced certain radical changes in the basic concepts of epidemiology. Students of infectious disease now are learning that the artificial demarcation of the field of study, as conditioned b,y professional traditions, must be broken down. The animal host and the human host cannot be considered separately. Both are integrals of a higher natural entity which eerves the purpose of supporting the life of parasitic microorganisms. Hence public health programmes will have to consider the relationship between tIB animal and the human reservoir, and control of wqs and means of transportation, dissemination and interchange of living agents commands vigilant attention. Food control and food hygiene as well as control of inedible animal products are widely recognized as important links of the preventive system. In addition however, it is becoming increasing.ly clear that feedstuffs for domestic animals are important vehicles for the continual inoculation into the animal reservoir of certain pathogens (salmonella). This inoculation - through the animal intermediates - primarily seems to create a health hazard to humans. Food hygiene and food control problems in general According to normally expected standards, foods offered for sale for human consumption should be fresh, wholesome, free from al.\Y harmful effects and with a reasonable relationship between price and contents of nutritionally and gastronomically valuable components. So in addition to its functions in tm prevention of food-borne disease, food control both as a scientific subject and as a practical activity has a much wider scope. We want to prevent foodborne disease but we also want to prevent spoilage and waste of perishable foods. We must see that foodstuffs all through production, processing, storage and distribution are handled in such a way that they will reach the consumer in a safe, fresh and wholesome condition. We are not satisfied only by the assurance that the food will not transmit disease we also want to make sure that it will be up to standard regarding state of freshness and hygienic quality in general. The term hygienic quality of foods covers the following conditions I ~_

;.-

1. Foods that are or may be dangerous to health because they can either transmit infectious or parasitic disease or cause intoxication.

2. Foods that are changed or deteriorated regarding state of freshness, appearance, taste or texture to such an extent that they are not acceptable by local standards set by cultural traditions and general eating habits of the population •

.3. Foods that have becane contaminated or pc1luted from contact with or admixture of some unappetizing objectionable or even toxic substance.

.

.-

4. Foods that possess a keeping quality which for some reason or other is considered below that normally expected for food of this pirticu1ar type.

WPR/VPH/B page 2 Hygienic quality accordingly comprises every aspect of quality affecting the edibility of the IX'oduct, that is whether it is to be oonsidered fit or unfit for human consumption. Anot~r aspect of quality is that which solely affects the price value or the labelling of t~ product. Control of foods of animal origin Theoretically any kind of food may deteriorate or assume harmful qualities due to contamination, infection or occurrence of toxic substances, but practical experience has shown that those foods which, due to th3ir chemical and pb¥sical composition must be classified as perishable foods much more frequently present important food b¥giene problems than other groups of foods. Within the group of perishable foods fall both animal and vegetable products. From the stampoint of food b¥giena am food inspection, hOiVever, the perishable foods of animal origin (meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs and milk, fresh as weI! as manUfactured products) are the most important, because of the role pl~ed by these products in the transmission of zoonotic disease and because of the danger of toxic microbiological processes in these animal materials. With the exception of t~ so-called high-protein low-acid vegetables, whidl present microbiological problems similar to those of animal materials, the microbiological processes developing in fruits and vegetables are of a nature which generally is harmless with respect to health. It is true that transmiSSion of disease (amoebic dysentery, enteritic infections) may take place through polluted vegetables and fruits. This, however, is not a problem of food inspection and food control but primarily a problem of sewage disposal and prevention of fecal pollution of soils. Food control and food b¥giene within the field of animal products is a specialized branch of applied biological s dence essentially based upon a competent knowledge of biological sciences such as microbiology, veterinary pathology and epidemiology supplemented by fundamentals of chemistry and technology of foods. Modern food control and food inspection is not only the purely nagative activity of examination, judgment and condemnation of food which for some reasons or other is unfit for human consumption. It is also - and even more important - a positive contribution towards the introduction through inspections, investigations, advice, education and legislation of such methods of harxiling and environmental conditions that foods can be saved from becoming spoiled, contaminated or otherwise deteriorated with regard to hygienic quality and edibility. Examination am judgment of foods as a function therefore is inseparable from other functions within a complete food control system. Therefore it seems logical to organize the hygieniC control of foods of animal origin as a special field keeping all executive functions within one organization and umer one authority. In the (levelopment of an active food b¥giene policy efficient application of hygienic-bacteriological laboratory zoothods plays an essential part. Not tre mere statement and putting on file of findings but practical implementation of results to correct deficiencies am faulty procedures in the field is the key to progress. The organization of the food control s,ystem therefore must allow for the closest possible co-operation between the food hygiene laboratory and the field inspection staff. This requires a sensible decentralization of laboratory work, each local unit consisting of a laboratory equipped for hygienic-bacteriological

-~

~

WFR/VPH/8 page .3

examinations and a field inspection service covering inspection of sanitary conditions and practices as well as examination and judgment of the products at all important points, such as dairy herds, dairy plants, slaughterhouses, food factories, cold storage plants, food markets, food shops, restaurants, fishing ports etc. Control of inedible animal products Establishments dealing with the utilization of inedible animal b,y-products of course always should be kept completely separated from food establishments. This applies equally to premises and personnel. Control and supervision of such establishments should be executed as a special section of veter1D&r.1 publiC health work in accordance with the prinCiples alreaqy outlined for food control work. The activities should include also measures to safeguard the production of certain animal feedstuffs against contamination with pathogens. PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

From experience it is a well established fact that the application of hYgienic-bacteriological methods of laborator,y control has lent ver,y important support to the progress in hYgienic safety o:f water and milk, and lIlUch work has been dedicated to the standardization of the appropriate techniques. B,y deduction from this successful experience food hYgienists naturally have found it expedient to apply similar methods in an effort to improve sanitar,y standards within other fields of food hYgiene. In maqy countries the food trade is rapidly changing from a business of natural raw materials or semi-manufactured :food products into a highly specialized industr,y engaged in centralized mass-production of prepared, ready-to-eat food articles.. B,y this development a large new :field has been opened which presents itself as a logical object for the application of hYgienic-bacteriological control methods.

Generally speaking the purpose of bacteriological examination o:f food products is to control one or more of the following characteristics: state of freshness, keeping qualit,y, hYgienic standards of production and contents of pathogenic organisms. In order to achieve this purpose, the bacteriologist must perform a qualitative analysis of the bacterial flora of the food. His methods must include the application of selective and indicative media which will allow him as :fast as possible to distinguish the important groups of organisms, and as the practical evaluation of findings of microorganisms ver,y often depends upon a quantitative estimation, it is essential that he adopts quantitl'tive or semi-quantitative cultural methods. In water- and milk bacteriology total aerobic counts and coliform tests are the universally applied methods J and no one would dispute the value of such methods in this field, as results usu~ show good correlation to qygienic standards of production, state of freshness and keeping quality respectively. Whother J however J this s\lpposition is valid when the same

WPR/VPH/8 page

4

I

I

methods of examination are applied to foods in general, needs clarification. Food articles, manufactured from different kinds of raw materials and submitted to different types of chemical and physical treatment cannot be conSidered a uniform object for bacteriological analyses to be judged b.Y uniform standards. On the contrary, selection of approp~iate methods of examination and correct interpretation of findings must be based upon a sound knowledge of the microbiological characteristics of each type of product. The food bacteriologist must be familiar with the quantity and quality of the natural contaminat~ng flora of the product as present under normal standards of production, before he can establish findings of undesirable numbers and types of micro-organisms. In this evaluation he must take into account: 1) The natural microbiological status of the raw materials from which the article of food has been made up.. 2) The quantitative and qualitative changes of the composition of the microflora which follow from the normal procedures of manufacture. 3) The ability of the food as a medium to support growth of micro-organisms. Following such criteria prepared foodS-broadly speaking - can be classified into four categories. Ex. Steri l.ze

I

I

I

I

I I

hermetically packed products. canm meat- ish-vegeta e a ml. pro cts. his type of products usually presents a high equilibrium relative humidity, chemical inhibitors are absent, and hence the product allows for unrestricted bacterial growth. The bacteriological examination is based upon the assumption that the purpose of processing is to produce sterility or a condition close to sterility of the contents of the bermetically sealed container. The bacteriological examination of apparently normal cans should therefore be performed as a sterility test. The cans should be preincubated before the bacteriological examination, and the various media should be inoculated with undiluted samples that are transferred directly from the cans to the test tubes and Petri dishe •• The media should provide optimal conditions of growth for aerobes as well as for anaerobes: Glucose-broth tube, blood agar pour plate, Crossley anaerobic milk medium, anaerobic brain broth and deep glucose agar tube. Required standards: Cultures sterile or scanty growth of aerobic sporebearers (Bacillus). Demonstration of viable clostridia, signifioant numbers of bacillus or growth of non-sporogenic organisms should always be regarded as suspicious and further detailed examination including quantitative estimation is necessary.

1.

II

..

o

This type of product usually presents a lOW equilibrium relative humidity, (high ratio of salt to water, salt ~% x 100 %), and contains curing chemicals (nitrite) and so allow om1eFesth~tM growth of salttolerant organisms. The bacteriological examination is based upon the assumption that the purpose of processing is to eliminate all orgam.sms of low thermal reSistance (gramnegative bacteria, non-heat-resistant grampositive bacteria, vegetative cells of sporebearers, mold and yeast) and to decimate those of medium and high thermal resistance (fecal streptOCOCCi, lactobacilli and spores). The bacteriological status of this type of product

Wffi/VPH/8 page 5 in principle is similar to that of pasteurized milk. 1 ml samples of a homogenized 1-10 dilution are transferred to a series of media which should provide conditions of growth for aerophilic, microaerophilic and anaerobic organisms as well: Glucose broth tube, bloodagar pour plate, Niven broth tube (lactobacilli and fecal streptococci), Crossley anaerobic milk medium, anaerobic brain broth and deep glucose agar tube. Required standards: Gramnegative rods, including coliforms, clostridia and hemolytic micrococci should be absent, and total aerobic counts should not exceed 10,000 per gramme (bacillus species, non-hemolytic micrococci with stre~tococci and lactobacilli absent or present in insignificant numbers only). When desirable a special test for salmonella might be included.

3. Low-tern rature heat-treated, non-hermetically or baked pro 11C s. ype 0 pro 11C 1n co ra s wc on 0 e hermetically heated products of categories 1 and 2 - is exposed to recontamination after heat-treatment. They may appear for retail distribution either unpackaged or prepackaged in plastic films (for self-service food markets). With varying degrees of stability according to different levels of equilibrium relative humidity (salt to water ratiO), contents of chemical inhibitors, these food articles are kept cool or frozen. Ex. Liver paste, brawn, meat loaves, cooked luncheon sausage (sliced or in·whc,le pieces), Vienna sausages. Cooked and smoked fish, cooked peeled shrimps, mayonnaise salads with cooked vegetables and mayonnaise from pasteurized liquid egg yolks. Ice~ream. Confectionery (custard and cream). Sandwich· fillings of cooked or fried meat, fish or vegetables (Danish s~rrebr~d). Frozen plastic-packaged prepared meals. Some dehydrated foods such as dried milk, dried soups and egg powder also fits in with this group. The bacteriological examination is based upon the assumption that the purpose of proceSSing is to eliminate organisms of low thermal resistance and to decimate the medium- and high-resistant types. Afterwards the protective hermetic container is supposed to be replaced by hygienic precautions in handling for prevention of recontamination, while storage at controlled temperatures, eventually combined with the inhibitory effect of various preservatives (salt, sugar, smoking, acids, chemical inhibitors), is supposed to prevent excessive bacterial growth and to keep total counts low. Consequently the bacteriological examination should offer information about: 1) Whether the total load of micro-organisms is reasonable, when considering the bacteriological status of the raw materi:~ls and the lethal effect of the heat-treatment employed, and whether numbers have been kept within limits that permit satisfactory standards of freshness and keeping quality. 2) Whether aru undesirable types of micro-organisms, indicating fresh fecal pollution or contamination with pathogenic or toxinogenic organisms, are present. Naturally there is room for different opinions and practices regarding technical details of this examination. A Simple routine procedure may be as follows. From decimal dilutions of a homogenized sample two bloodagar pour plates are inoculated with dilutions 10-3 and 10- 5, while one red violet bile agar pour plate is inoculated with dilution 10-1 • The bloodagar plates are incubated for 24 hours at 37 0 C and counted to estimate at the same time the total aerobic count and the contents of potentially toxinogenic hemolytiC bacteria, (Micrococcus p,yogenes, Bacillus cereus). The red violet bile agar plate is incubated for 24 hours at 44oc.

Wffi/VFH/8 page 6 Minimum standards: Total count less than 100,000 to 1,000,000 depending upon the natural bacteriological status of the product. Hemolytic bacteria should be absent in dilution 10-3. Coliform organisms that will grow at 44 0 c (mainlY E.coli I) should be absent in dilution 10-1 • This method of examination and of interpretation obviously cannot satisfY all special demands which may arise from examination of a diversity of heterogeneous foods such as listed in category 3. Howeve:r, all of the products have been low-temperature heat-treated and the surviving thermo-resistant flora can be expected to be rather uniform and composed of species which will grow well in bloodagar at 37°C. Moreover, as all of the products have been handled after heat-treatment under conditions which do not automatically exclude recontamination, it may not be justified to accept straight away coliform organisms of non-fecal origin as an indication of dangerous contamination. It has to be taken into account whether or not such organisms must be expected to occur universally under standard conditions of manufacture for that particular product. In meatwcrks such infection is almost environmental, in bakeries perhaps not. So in special cases where coliform infection is not eIllTiroIllll€ntal or handling and packaging of the product after heat-treatment approach complete protection, it may be feasible to adopt 37°C - coliform standards, but in most instances there is probably no better w~ of tracing a potentially dangerous fresh fecal contamination than by 44 0 c - E.coli counts. When desirable special tests for salmonella (egg powder), fecal streptococci, clostridia or aqr other topical type of organism may be included.

•

!

I

II

II

II

4. Non-heat-treated, salted or chemically preserved products. This type of product may be packaged in hermetic containers after chemical preservation. Ex. Anchovies, pickled herring fillets,' or may aFpear unpackaged. Ex. Raw salami sausage, certain ~pes of ripened cheese, pickled fish and ve getable s • The micro-population of these products is essentially that of the fresh raw material, but due to the very specific chemico-physical environment certain types ani species will outgrow the others in the microbiological IIfern.entation" libieh normally develops during manufacture and storage. These processes are accompanied by a rapid increase in bacterial contents followed perhaps b.Y a decrease due to autosterilization. Total counts consequently are of limited value as bacterial counts bear no or little relation to the state of freshness and keeping quality of the product. Bacteriological tests designed to trace undesirable t,rpes of micro-organisms indicating fresh fecal pollution or contamination with pathogenic or toxinogenic organisms may be applicable. Attention is drawn to the usefulness of supplementing bactsriological control with microbiological methods for the detection of preservatives (Kluyver yeast fermentation test) as well as with determinations of salt to water ratio. Such information often forms tho basis of correct interpretation of bacteriological results. Finally reference is made to the valuable information with respect to numbers and types of micro-organisms yielded by direct microscopic examination. So this simple examination never should be omitted in t~ bacteriological analysis of foods.

.. "

WPR/VHI/8 page 7 References D.A.A. }jossel. Wiener Tierarztliche Moniitsschrift 1956 World Health Organization Monograph Series No. 33. Meat aygiene. Geneva 195'7. Sununary Principles and techniques of nygienic-bacteriological examination of prepared foods are discussed. Selection of appropriate methods of examination and correct interpretation must be based upon a sound knowledge of the microbiological characteristics of each typ3 of product. Methods of examination and standards of interpretation are given for the following four categories of prepared foods: 1. 2. High-temperature heat-treated, hermetically packed products. Low-temp3rature heat-treated, hermetically packed products. products.

. .;..-

3. Low-temperature heat-treated, non-hermetically packed (cooked and baked)

4.

Non-heat-treated, salted or chemically preserved products.

For routine control of the large group of foods in category 3 bloodagar counts and 44°c- E.coli counts in red-violet-bileagar are proposed. Attention is drawn to the importance of supplementing bacteriological control with microbiological methods for the detection of preservatives as well as with determination of salt to water ratio.

j I

WORLD HEALTH ORGAMIZAnOM .,.

I,'

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PACFIC

SEMINAR ON VETERINARY BUREAU REGIONAL DU PAOAQUE OCCIDENTAL PUBLIC HEAI:IH

•

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

31 March 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

WPR/IlPH/9

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

.

-THE SPOIIJ.GE OF FISH AND THE EXAMINl~TION OF FISH by

l I

A. Jepsen*

I

,.t:..

*Professor,

Royal Veterinary College, Copenhagen

WPR/VPH/9 page 1

The spoil",.::;" 0: fist like the spoilage of meat and meatproducts is effected by the combined effect of bacterial activity and autol;;,tic chemical processes which for fatty fishes i;.icludes also oxidative treakdo.ms of fats. Generally speaking however, bacterial activit~, is by far the nost im:Jorta!""'t ca')oati're factor in t:'e spoilage of fish. The Qhe~istry of Fish Spoilage ,,' 'C;: cabG 0:' ,;sat it i3 ,'.air:l:,' a:reakdovm of the prot8ins with the formation

-

..

I .~

of a;'lInor:ia, h;rdro~'en sulfic(8 "-;/.: o'~;:;r w.locorous and ill flavored compounds which makes spoiled l1S::·.t B. distast.eful and objectionable foodstuff. In the case of fish the spoilage ,!,:c'oceods as a t-:10 staEe rrocess: first a reduction of trimethylamine oxide to triinethyla':ine ti:ich has a stron::; II fish;," o'"or, ane seco:ldly the degradation of proteins. ThC' for:"iati,on of trii'7leth:,"la:-aine accordinr;ly is the predoMinant factor in the first staces of sT,oilage in t'lh:ich the fish develops an unfresh sweetish strengthenin;; or stale odor, i?hereas the decomposition of proteins is the predominant factor in the later nhascs of spoilage in wtich the fish develops an ammonical 01' putrid odor. Trimeth;ylani:Je oxide (C;;3)3;'0 is a characteri' tic cOllstituent of the non-protein fraction of fis!, i:;u,:cle. In mamalian muscle it does Lot occur. Otherwise the nonprotein fraction of fic~h a.nd mamalian muscle has approximatel;? the same composition, and consists of com;;ounds such as urea, gua..'1idin, creatinin and ar:tinoacids. The amolmt of trimethylamine oxide in muscle tissue of different species of fish vary co.,.';sidQrabl~-. It is absent or -"resent only in traces in fresh water fish, but present in cor;:pal'ativel:.' large am01Jllts in marine fishes, varying from 200 to 1500 mg per leo grammcs of muscle. The hi::;hest concentrations are found in selachians like shark and ra;,r. The reduct:LOIl o.,~ tri"lletil:rla,-,ine-oxido is cau sed by 0:octerial enz;ymes produced especially h,·' SIY!cics 1:-elo:J"'~n[ to the ~;eLus Achromo'tacter. The reduction process is a little c07'1plic2.ted, anu goes together Hit~. an ox;,/dation of lactic acid. The reaction is believed to run as follm·JS: CH3CHOHCOOH + 2(CH3)31:0 :~20· , C;'I COOH+23 (CH3)3N+C02+H20. The trimet,,:,"lamic1G oxide is acti'Tated Ly the Achromobacterenz:;m so that it can act as a ;(,:ro".en acccDtor, aCC8'lt· ,n! h:"(-:.ro .8L fl'oa lactic acid under the formation of carbon d,.oxide and vrater, while tlle lact ic acid is oxidized to acetic acid. The reductio:" of trim()th~ la::dne oxide can be follo1-lcd by means of chemical deter, ,ination o:f: tr:·.methylarnlne. The protecl~T"::,S is "ainl:;- caused by bacteria of t:-,c genus Psudomonas, and results in ke i'o).'"ation of a; monia, hYLro[en s'.llfide and vul<:.tile fatty acids. This process can c.:t be follo'lOd ':'Y means of chemical deter;',ination of ammonia.

It thus a "ean:; that che:r,ical tests for trillletL;:damine al'ld aJrJ710nia provide the best objectiYEl r,:caLS 0:.' esti5ating the state of freshness in fish. The temperature of storage greatly iL,fluences the course of spoila~.e processes and deter·;ines how the .;.., two phases of spoila;e, staleness due to tri;:;cth: laLir;e production and putrefaction due to ]Jreteo~-sisfoUow eaeL, other. i;t high temperatures (20-25 0 C) the production ....._ _~. of tri.'11etbyla'i:-.c is follo\i8d very closel: b,v proteolysis. At medium teiiiperatures (lOOe) prot€)o1J-s~,s is lag::in~ co)"'sidera 1..;1'-- 1: chiLd the prcxi'.lCtion of trimet!1~i1am:in e. At 101, te .lp0rc::c~'.res (oOe) both :Jrocesc:es are retarded, ~:ut ,Jhen the;{ bet unQer way, they pro CCEld po,raJ,lel ~:t Si.:iL"l' rates.

• , "

II

WPR/VPrt/9 page 2 (;,;j~: !.

O!o. 1 A

,! OoC I'

6O~ i

25 OC ../ J

-

A

/ i /

~,

l-

50 ~ z 40

'" ~,

30 20

I ,

~ ~

!

/ I I

!I I I

E

I

I/ /

TN

TE

10 f - . > --

~ . _. "--

/ __ L_

~f _----1-- ____

/

.-

,

I

ITI'; 1\

/

/

I

I

I

I

I

.

•. .1 .

,

_ L . ...

I

J .'

_ ..1. ___ . _ _L

--~ I

II I I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11

12

13

JA

15

16

II

II

Time in days

tl

The principles are shown in graph no. 1. Considerable variation however may oc c~U' according to the species of fish under eXamination, and the natural course of the processes vnll have to be investigated for each species separete~-. EspeciallY it must be stressed that ~ost of the knowledge so far has been collected from stl<dies of marine species. In fresh water fish, I-lhere trimsthylar;ine oxi<ie onl;)! occurs in 101</ quantities spoilage may be predo{rd.na."ltly c. ue to proteolysis, the sane as in meat, ;.r.i th trimeth::'la'lline production lJla~-ing only a secondary role. Determination of trimcthylarnins._t:.0,tal volatile r i_trogen bases and arJJllonia. Conl-la;y- microdiffysi_or: metLod. Trimeth lar,line and ar"Jilonia are volatile nitrOGen bases. By adding a strone: base, e.g. potassiurr: carbonate, to an extract of fish muscle the trimeth~rlamine and amnonia will be driven out as a gas which can be absorbed in a measured amount of acid. Part of the acid will be neutr<:Uzed by the volatile nitro.:en bases, and bJ titrating the amount of free acid left, you can deterr.1ine the amount of volatile nitro,-:;en bases. If you want to deter~d_ne tri:lleth~:lal'iine alone you have to add a little formalin to the extract of fish muscle. '~he for~,~alin 't.nll tilen bind arnmonia and any primary or secondar:" amines, leaving or:ly tertiary amines such as trimetl1ylruorine free to be driven out by the base. As the total volatile nitrogen bases largely are trimetl:;,'lamine ani aml.lonia with only cinor quantities of lower amines such as di;!ietlvlamirJe (CH3)21.JH) we consider the balance between total volatile bases and trimeth/lar.li"e as a'11lllonia. Total volati~e bases minus trimethY~aJ.:'ne therefore is ca~led aIJJllonia. The analysis is r-erforr.:ed by means of special double dishes, socalled Con"a,y units, w;,ich cOl'tain tvJO separate comp2rtments one for the fish cxuract plus potassium carbonate, and one for the acid L"lto I-lhich the vol<it'le bases are a'-,sorbed after the dish has been tightly closed by means of a elass -elate. Reagents: 1. n/4O NaOl{ .2.

N/40 HCI Satt~rated "\..rater~'

3.

solution of potassium carbonate.

~iFR/VPH/9 page 3

4.

A.C. Andersens Lldic(;.tor: a) 0, 1 f; ;':wkyLns blue in 80 nl 96 p,::)rcent alcohol. r) ,Cethyl r:.;d 0, I c; in 75 ml 9!J :::c;rce,1t alcohol. 50· ml cf b is rnixed ,;:jt;: :25 ;nl of' <:.. At acid reactior: tl:e colour is violet, at basic reacticn it is green. jet cha:1r;:_n::; PCl:-'; the cclcur is liCht brown-greenish.

Pr_cced1J!..e: L. Jo:!::a.:12.?1,at:~~e_ni~ro_C-~'.,e_baseG. The fish med is minced through a meat griEc~cr. 25 rU,~:1S Of' minc,:~d fi:L r:wd is mixed wit[-, 75 rnl of freshly boiled a.e:cri:.:,lled water 2.';0. left f.or ext::'!.ct~on for 45 nin'ltF;s at room tGmperat1.Te under frequed, stirrinc. .,fterH<;l'ds ti',e l1l:L-v::ture is filtc:::-ed thYot\,h paper filter , and 2 Tnl of t::-,8 fi1t::",te is trans erred to the cutar rin:. of the comn;:," unit. I"tc the il1rl";1' l'-:i,rl' 2 mI. n/40 ~:CI is mC8sured. Then the glass lid is partly closed 1eo:.'!ing cnl~ a s:~a,a cpeniui th::'cL,c,h rr::ich 2 ml cf pctassiuill carbonate soluticn can >,e added to the fis~: extract in the cuter rin:~. After this the lid is quia::l: cloEod and the dish is left for 2 hcurs at 3',cC or overnight at room te~~pel·ature.

Tho ti trC\ticn cf' the rc~,:ainin,: free acid. is perfo rliled b:r means of n/40 }!aOH ane: t:w drops of Andersens Inc:ic2.tor. Two r,unus ml n/40 ;TaDI; used, ,.ives nl n/40 HCl neutrcJ.ized L7 the nitrogene

bases. Computat,on: f' of Hater o.f ;'ncat cor.Ltain. 4 G of solids Clnl; 21 u 25 II g II extrQction 'tVD.tf;!1' for ml 75 75 f.~ ~

JI

The!! the mg vcl[, t :,18 ::

III "ro::,.L<':

bases are solved in 96 g cf watGr.

per 100 r; fis:.

- do !.:. tri1'"t~'yla:t;]i:-.e oj. Th'. procdure is t:,e sa:"e as under A, only that 0, ml of 301.utj,cn formalcleh:,-di ~,1U:::t be added to and mixed witl1 the fist extract potassium carbonate is added.

5

C. J..;~;lo!:..ia _ ammonia.

r.

'l'ctal volat'.le b(;'sGS

miEUS

cJr::.m,;tillla:t;:ine is called

Int"::EI?!~~.~tion: '::>2 i.nterpretaticn of tre, tusto as cc.~pared to organoleptic eV.:luaticr. n::.r ,t :'-c l(:;"-~rned from corr:'~-l&rative c.:~·)~:riments ~lith the vt:.r·:.ous speCies

of' fiS;l. For -~:·Ct.i.cral C;".:_id.e..rlce '.1 0';.-,· ever t:18 fo i.10T;~~"L fi' :u.re.s can ~:C mentioned: AbsolutelY :res:, fis:~ shcw 0 - 6 d', ~ trim-::tly~cl<:mj .. :;e !,! ;mc\ 0 - 10 mg ~~ a.,tonia :,:. Tr~,;'acth;'la,·,,::.r;c valu8s exceed:'Ji, 15 an<i ar'Ir::o:1ia valuiJs e.xceedir.; 20 generally indicae!': f:Lsl1 w"ich have ent<3I'ed iL~C t:-,,) ,'c'Ll1'th phase of s:rJcilave ane. rapidly are becom:in~; unacceptable for h::man cons·'T1rt:~0:1. t!.:,;;·~t::~,-la" ::'..0:18

~

ana.

In bra;:'h ~:o. 2 an illustraticn is gi're!l of the correlation betwee', a.',Lilonia value and cr',~G:,ole:r:,tic claDsii'ication.

W.PH./v.trt/9 page

4 graph No.2

Phase ~ I

IV. _____- · · .~

Ammonia

II

i III I

30

r I 1 - · ·..

20 f..--......

l

:,

i 1

I 10 ~.",......

!

I ' /"/1 ''''r-r-! ' ~' .,[-. ,.. ~.=-..l.. ______ - - -__

.......;--. ,{.:;.:: ./ Y

i//~._~ _

I

./

TN

Organoleptic examination of fish. Freshly cau~"Lt fis!1 ho.s a shinJ.DL iridescent surface, exhi'~i ting briGht characteristic colors and markings. The skin is covered with a nearly water wl'..ite transparent, SID.ooth, thinly spread slime. The eyes are bright, full and prominent with jet black pupil and transparent cornea. The gills are bright to brownish red, dependent upon the species, and free from any cOetin:;; of slime. The texture of the Beat is soft and flabby tendinf; to retain finger indentations, and when cut, it shows a bright translucent sheen, is dry and not readily stripped from the backbone. Ri;;or mortis uS:1ally develops ver;,( soon, 1vithin one or a feu hours var:rlng accordi'lt; to species. The flesh then becomes hard, firm elastic aoo. the body, gill covers and the jaw become rigid and stiff. The odor of tl18 freshl;,; cau,tt fish is a pleasant odor reminding of sea, sea-air or sea-weed, in the case of fatty fishes also l'leasantly oily. If not gutted the powerfl,l diC8stive enzymes, even at 10;': te:nperatures, rapidly attack and perforate the gut uall, an::! along ,lith bacteria from the gut proceed to attack the belly wall ancl the viscera and soon rGnders them pu;'py, so that the belq walls become soft and jellied. This very often is accompar.ied by developnent of gas, which ma.~ cause a burst of the ~ally. Scw"times torn bellies may develop within 24 hours in fish that have plenty of food in the guts, even when the fish is kept in ice. othenvise spoila;:e does not f(et started as long as ricor mortis lasts 'Hhich generally l:leans up till 48 hours. So in the case 0: recently killed ungutted fish, showir;§; only deool~iposition of the belly, :rou must be careful not to mistaice the fCCll odors fro'll t::e decomposing guts and telly for a sisl'l that the whole fis~l has been spoiled. After Zl:,ttj.-"g and wash::nc the fish, except the belly walls, maYCle TErfectly fresh. This condition is qLtite often see~: in carps that die d.urin::; trans[ort in >Tater bassins. 'i'Jhen spoilaGe deve'_'-Ts, the skin or the fis]' looses its bri;~ht sheen and colors a.l'C::. becol:les coverGd ,vi th a thick8:c' sl:L;,e, vlhich grows increasi!1E;;l;r turbid and nnally develops dirty yellow or br01m colors. The eyes gradually sink and shrink, the pupil becomin:~ cloudy and milky and the cornea opaque, the gills discolor first to a bleakish libtt. pink ane, final1_y to a ::reyish ;relloll and they become covered 1.nth a ver/ thick slimo. The :leat becomes softer looses its elastic texture, and I":.c.ains finger intendat::.ons, anc.t when cut, s:,Ql-JS a dull milky, opaque a' ~')(;arance and a very moist condition so tl~at it 0Xudes joice under the lightest pressure. iVloreover, tho soft moist flesh is easily stripped from the backbone. .hlonie; the backbone above th8 gut cavity and spreading back from the kidneys follo,-io'1; thE; card.cr,al vein tOHards tre tail a radish braun discoloration deve lops L.'1. the flosl! due to decQ,:]position and lysis of hemoglol)in. Besides, ther::: is a gradual tran,sition from the original fresh sea-odor to the 'final odor of'-pu'crefaction. Usually t'r:c 3trongeS't'~r :i:e eenneetefrwith the gills anG the slime layer of the skin. In genoral the succession of odors is fresh, sickl;)r sweet, scale, ammoniacal ana f::'nally putrid, the last characterised by sutstances such as hydro·~enG s',:lphicle and ir.dols. In tbhe case of fatty fish also rancid odors may :Je detected. Ver;; fr(sh fist, ]oJ'ben cooked, exhirit their

.~

Wffi/VPH/9 page 5 delicate pLasant sr;ecific odors and flavors, ane. tht:; textili~e of the flesh is firm. As sroil:._c :tl;:'oceods the oc:ors anc, flavors tiOcore first flat and tminterestint;, th.);' stal~ or fish:' ane finall;"; acrid, sour and putrid. The texture of the cookGCl f::' ssl~ L,eco,",: G so.,:t ane unpleasantly "s :"Oppyll • T 1e c>]:Jc:ci:'od c!',cm (.s of spoil.i1cc develop Gradually, ;;.nd it is dii'ficult to say when sic,ch <:. sta~'G of docorrrpos::,tion hc:.s bee::: recched, t',:at k.E: fish must be cc~ic~ercd vll:!ii'. :(Ol' :curnan co::suf.lTjtion. III rna;v continental countries the population far free: t'-,e se£>.s!--,ore nsver Imew reall,- ::resh fish arid conseruently never developed a :-:O;:·J critical attitude tOI-TarG.s deteriorated fish. ;:oevor there is no Ilcurt tr,&,t ~:l,crever -:: he 0;J,'ortu'1i t:; exists for cocom'cng thorollEh~ fa.:,)iliar '''it'.-, fish in a,a cO:-1':.J_tions fror1"rcshly caught to ver:" ste'le t:le consumer as a r,le prefc;rs -(,:113 freshest fis:!, and fish ror.trc:.r:, to meat onl;r loosos in quality throur:r. 2toru 8. Fisl: is not so tough in texture as meat, so that tendorizing is unnecesO"ar7, an~: it i:J dofircicel:.' more p"ris!;,<:.ble. In order to classify fish aCC ordinE; to the 0utc':m18 of' nn o·,~r;;moleptic exarLLnation the follc-i·lin,:; scheme comprisin, four ;:;hases of. spoilaE.;o has b8en set up.

Phase I.

Or~~.oleptic

S:'1ilptoms

TN. annonia

Customers definitc~

ac:~tance

a) l''l'o::::11;/ caught

preferred

b) iii or ,10rtis just passed off c) ?losh softer, eyes 2-3 lost brillianc~' am sli~htl~- sunken, th.-; fresh sea odor absent ar,d replaced by neutral odor.

bj- people acquainted with fis:-t in all

10

stages of spoilage.

--_ ..- - . Phase II.

- --,

..

_- -- ------------- .----------- ----_._---5

a) Flesh softer, surface bloo,. f _ding eyes GrC:~T ancl sU!li~en , sli~·.le grOHl.n milk;i, odor sweetish and stl';. n[, t~er.in·;, but !lot stale.

12

Still regarded as beinr quite good by a majority.

b) ",18si) soft, General a;:'[)o,rance stall1, slime shc;(~, turbi::i, odor de£ini te1;{ :>tale, SLIme redness c:.lonc the bene.

----,----,------- -- -.- ...-Phase III. Flesh ver-J "o-,:t ane:. moi.st v c)l';;' s lira:' , odor bad a;n;:loniacal, red::l;';;'s alone the ~on2;.

...

_------ -.---- ---.-- _-----..

15

20

Distasteful if not unacc:er·ta ble to lilore sensitive ju~ses. Others will still accept the fi she

---------_ ..._------ -,-- --_._--------------Phase IV. Flesh ver',- soft and casU'. stripped from -;.,one, slLle Ci.L col_or,~d :-c:l1.oi!isl'. or 15 broyn, odor : 'u'.:,:'i6, (aL.or;ia, h~'\. trO~~:ell suli'ic.;.n, i!1Qol). i'~uch redne~s cion{;; tLe 'Jcne. 20

All agree that the fish is stale and is fast becoming unacceptable.

page

6

it seems that tho dividing line between passable for cO;1Sum:;Jtion and unpassable lies svi,18where in phase III.

Technique of organoleptic

exru~ination.

The exatLindion should cover the following points: 1. Skin surface (color, sline, odor). Gills (color, slime, odor). mres (pupil, cornea, tension) .• Texture 0:: flesh, back, tail and belly (firm, elastic or soft). In dubious cases makG an incision along sidelir.e into the flesh of the back and the tail and (,otice color, texture, dry or moist condition, adherence to bones, redness alone; the bone and odor. In addition a boiling test could be mad.e. Joil flesh in a small aLount of water and notice odor and flavor.

2.

J. 4. 5.

PH of fish fleSh. PH of the muscle of fish, that were caught and killed withc.ut nuch previous stru'ogli112:, when measured immediately after death, will be 7 - 7, 3. In practice, ho,.-Gver, fish caur,ilt by net or traHl usually are in an exIlausted condition, .(len drawn out of the water. 'nlis means that the glyco[':e:1 of the muscles has diminished, and that PH immediatel~- post mortem will be somewhat lower, usually 6, 5 - 6, 9.

GIJ'cof;enolysis sets in ver~c rapidl,-,. with death, and alop.g with the development of ri"o,-' mortis, pH will drop to its minimum, which usually is not so low as is seen in the mamalian muscle. In fish muscle pH usually does not go below 6 and values between 6, 2 - 6, 6 are the most cornInon mimimum values. The reason why the droy of pH in fish flesh duri.ng gl:rcoeenolysis is small, compared to that of illeat, is simply that fish muscles normallY are low in glycogen, and that the Ylormal mcti".ods of catch involve so lTmch exercise anti sGruggle that the fish come aboard the fishing vessels in a state of fatigue with the small reserves of gljT cogene nearly com;letely exhausted. And when no or only small quantities ot- glycogen are available of course the amount of lactic acid produced remains rather low. The ccmparatively high pH of fish muscle probably is one factor ccn'~ributing to the acknowledged D..igh porichability of fish. There are hoever certa:m species of fish especially halibut, that develop a pH well below 5 (5,50 - 5,60) c;urcn:~ rigor mo:_,tis, w:-ic1: correlate very well wi th t he fact that halibu.t has a higher keep:.ng quality than most other species of fish. After resclution of rigor mortis the alkaline compounds produced during the processes of spoilage, especially trimethylamine and ar.1.Clonia will cause a gradual rise of pH. Determination of pH therefore :nay l:e of interest as an additional method in the jud~'ernent 0: fish. From experience it is lmoWll '10uever that the correlDtion bet.reen pH vnlues anG. oI'[;anoleptic testins is rather poor until the fish has passed into the most advanced phases of s·-·oilage. Spoiled fish usually sho.! pH well above 7,0 (7,2 - 7,8). The bacter:" o.lo~~__ of fis!: spoilase. In freshly caught fish the tissues are sterile \·r!lereas bacteria are present on the SUl"f8Ce of the sLin ane' the :,;il15 and in the intestines. On skin and gills the l-;acterial count varies frcill 100 to 1 mill )x:r cm2 according to . .e~m9Ili1j(3ntal c·)il~Li,tions. IioHevlJr vel'" little is known about the factors determining the bacterial flora on live ffsh;-such aswaterTem:p~ anawater quality. The intestinal flora depends upon the amount and t::pe of food present in the intestinGs. The empt:; intestinal tract usually is sterile as fish do not seem to have a natural constant intestinal flora. The surface flora of fish ~~~~;ct~ ~~;~' oP t~p Po""nwin~ s~ecies (table).

J,i( ,.

...;.'

• Table 1. 'Jac-cerial flc~a of fisl: (aerobic ""lecies) ..-.-~~~ l:::"crococcus Flavobacterium Pseudomonas

~'JPR/vpH/9 page '7

--_._._. -----------,-Acl1ro!Tlobacter fresLl.;:' caught stored

Liacillus

35;& 70-

22,,,

15;; 12-

18% 18-

1L;;,i

15-

3-

..

It S08':::3 t::at AcLroinoooctor, Fla rob2.C'0erilL·1 and Pseudomonas are the most GrOl\pS thee, develop ~.;., fis;1 l.·,'r:.~~;!, spoil8.~;e. Anaerobic sporcbeuring bacter,,-,- ; ca.. 1:-0 l'ound :i.n 'iJhc il'te~:tiEal content3, ut the,'.' ar8 considered of :nir,or blrort<~Ice for ti!e s:'oila;;8 pro cess •. i~'lporta"t

As mm-:tic.,ed earlier ;.chromobactcr is ;;18.inl;;· responsible for the reduction of tr::'.1l;t:1;:·lar,L,El aucc and Psoud.or,lOllC'.S ~or protcol;,/sis, a1thou,:':-i undoubtedl~'l other specic~; :>18':: ~)a~'t:.cipate, ane, celotall,.l~' rro.. eolysis is a conJoined effect of several SPCCi03 acting together. ;"ch1'0r.1obacter a:ce gra.'11!le,.:ative rods c10'iely rese ,jl~.;-" cc ·.lforn'. ~.'acilli but (,iffer~n!: in :co-c :JGinc: lactose fermenters. T},c a::.'c not :;:.~~:c..l?-.o.p'rote,'_~~-tic_.E~_c~eria as theJ are unable to attack native protciw' but tl-;s;,' attac;, . ~i~r0·);;e COir.""OUllds such as peptide:> and arr:"o!lio acids (li.th the forl..atio"! of a!,,"l>nia. Pseudomonas also a:"e cramnef:,ative rods rese,;:,,:'.:L'" colifor;;Js bi·,t like Achromobactcr the:, also are lactosenegative. The7- 1,m-;ovo1' ,po :-eLLlin3 pruteol;{tic bact'.:ria digef'ti:'g native proteins vigorousl;y produci:~"r: h~,'~':. rogen s"~lfide and ar.'nonia.

InnnenC?,0 3.:.._t.::_:.;;~~'~_o.!. 'ot]· :;1'0' ...,r· arc ps;rchro;J:--.::'lic 11 ic 1: rwans tr.':::' tlwy are able to ';ro'\'! at l~w te Ip:Jra.':;urcs a:;out fre",",,;:.;:; poi;,t. O:timum tGmperaturc ::Oor groc·;tl1 is about 300, co01i::(" \,0,:9'181' (OOS ;--,ot $0') r,row-th, 10:, -ce;;l],"-uratures onl:" retard grc ...-th due to a rl-'olc~·<·-:o.t:~OE of -t,>'3 lCI:~ 11-.. 2-8e. T}.!.:~c of CO~~'::ie :-:~a;'J~s tr~e3C "bacteria very imI)ortant 101; te :i'jSrCI,-::"".re S1_ o:i.lc;.;.. J~ buctc:,--'::.a. The ii".. flucncG of t~> ?)eratur:.: upon th,.' d\.l:~[~Vor, o:~' thu l<~ );'::'50, '." LCC. is 'u''': ,'·cr.-.o(: of rest 'lrior to ,'tart 01' active "mlti}:,lic[,tio", Tria::' JC soen 1'0." a l'sG'.;.doacnas and an Acnromo[;acter strain from the fo11o·~L. ta~:'lc: ; Tab~. .(j

2, 0

J.'he _,;:.~·,:~~3enc:.c_.of t.f:.::.!E':!?t,~_e_~~~!..:~..::'.'-'__;--'-:l~at.L0l'! .of _tche ~.J-:]h,,!:3.e_~n ~he gro..rth of PS8udomoY,ilS a.x] j._chrc~,lObacter • _______ . _ . ____ o. ~_. ~ __ • _ _ _ __

30 e PseudOPlOllS ;,Chr01.1Obactel'

0

12°C

6°C 12-2:3 II

oOe

, 3°e 144 hours 125 11

6 ~:.ours 12-24 hours 3-4 II

32 hou.z·s 12(; hours

It is seen iro:" these data t:1at ver" 1itt1G increase in kee"ling l~uality can ';:;c e~"-;ct'lC :{~. Imwri:t the teJ;:PCl'l '0ll:'e of a fisl: otorage from say 12 to 6 or 4°c. 1.:.; a·'r:1'::c:.\... ,:·le effect or,l~' i:, to 'bi; expected wne;:', tr,o te:..·:perature apl1rOac.;-.es frecz:i,L-~ point. For corl fill,ts ttG fol10wiq-; data on keeping quality rolati,<, toce:.;;-:::r['.~\.:l"'; ;-,av," 1'80:, colbcted (tal.le).

1-1/2 days c·

I

2- 3

11 11 11 11

0,5

3

5- 6 .

J-

b

r'

o

11-12

wm/VPH/9 page 8

..

R6utes of bacterial attack. When fish is spoiled bacteria fror,) the surface of the skin anc:. the gills and from the intestines invade the hitherto s-~erile muscular tissues of the body. From the gills bac~eria are supposed to penetrate by route of the bloodvessels ano from the atdomen bacteria invade the belly wall through the peritoneum and through the Jddncy and connected bloodvessels they spread to the muscles of the tial. In spoiled fish generally lar~;e numbera of bacteria are found in the tissues which often can be demonstrated by microscopic examination of stained smears of muscLclar tissue. Invasion of bacteria into the tissues however does not always run parallel to the development of spoilage. It seems tr.at enzymes from bacteria multiplying upon the surface may diffuse through t110 underlyinb tissues.

1r

,

WORLD HEALTH ORGAlGZAnON

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PACIAC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PAOAOUE OCCIDENTAL

•

ORGANISA TlON MONDIALI DE LA SANTi

SEMINAR ON VE'ml.TIiARY PU3LIC HEA~TH

WPR/VPH/lo 30 Barch 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

VETERINARY I'1IIDICINE AND RADIOBIOLOGY

'_.

-

WPR/V?H/lo page 1 The following material has been excerpted from the Radiation Session of the First Institute on Veterinary Public Practice held in October 1958 at the School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan. The role of the veterinary profession, in relation to radiation in peacetime, is rather broad in scope but is defined and quite real in certain areas. For purposes of this report, the activities may be listed in the following manner. Control Activities Contamination of the biosphere with radioactive materials occurs in peacetime as well as in nuclear warfare operations. The weapons testing programs of the various countries of the world contribute fission product radioactivities primar~ in the nature of fallout. This is world-wide in distribution and may be at low levels, or due to atmospheric conditions or proximity to the testing areas, it may be at much higher levels. Fission type reactors for research and power are increasing in number and widely distributed over the earth's surface. The possibility of a reactor accident in which radioactivities are released and deposited O'Ver the immediate surrounding area is ever present. The radiocontamination of livestock with its subsequent health considerations to the human population through the food chain may be one of the IOOre immediate situations which must be evaluated. Certainly the veterinary profession would be involved in assessing the biological damage to livestock, radioactive contamination of meat and milk supplies, and in recommendations for disposition. AIJ long as fission type reactors and weapons are utilized, these hazards will be present and will pose what is certainJar a veterinary public health problem. LevElls of allowable contamination and decontamination procedures must be evaluated in accordance with the existing current conditions. Establishment of hard and fast rules is futile because of the variable 8i tuations that would be encountered. Liaison Activities The veterinary profeSSion, in order to function efficiently in a time of an emergency, must contribute to and be considered in the planning of those organizations that will be in charge of the emergency efforts. This would orient the veterinarian with the relationships involved and the services he might render. In addition, this orientation would be extremely valuable in guiding members of the profession to the areas of the radiation problem in which he will be held responsible.

II

I

1.

~~

It is necessary that an effective means of dissemination of infoI'llEltion regarding radiation hazards or advances in techniques relating to this field be operative at all times. The associated public health agency should provide the veterinarian with this type of information. The practicing veterinarians' relationships in this areA include therapeutic and accidental radiation exposures. These exposures are not limited only to fallout incidences but include also tracer and therapeutic use of radioisotopes as well as use of X-ray equipnent. In all instances, the observance of any radiation hazard or suspicious radiation illness should be reported by the practitioner of veterinary medicine to the public health agency.

WPR/VFH/lO page 2 Public health veterinarians must be concerned with and should assume at least a portion of responsibility for insuring dissemination of information to alleviate hazards confronting most veterinarians. These hazards include the use of radioisotopes in diagnostic and therapeutic practices as well as the widespread use of the X-ray machine and the exceedingly more dangerous fluoroscopic procedures. Cases of latent damage and the shortened life span of the radiologist are mute testimony to the attending hazards. Proper dissemination of the correct data attending undue exposure to ionizing radiations should reduce the number of such cases to a minimum. The public health veterinarian must be able to recognize radiation problems when they are encountered and must know lVhen to call for authoritative assistance in cases that are beyond his technical scope. Research Activities The role of the veterinarian in the field of radiation research may be extremely broad. It is within this sphere that the greatest contribution to the peaceful uses of nuclear energy can be made. The schooling of the veterinarian makes him particularly fitted for biological research. 1'1imy of the basic questions presently unanswered in physiology, pathology, nutrition, pharmacology and other areas will be solved with the use of radioactive materials. In addi tion to assuring that the experiIOOntal anine.ls are in proper state of health for experimention, the veterinarian can be an invaluable member of the research team. His professional contributions, when blended with those of the biochemist, physicist and other team members, result in a broader solution to the research problem. Certainly in the field of radiation research the veterinarian should play a vital role. Effects of radiation on man canmt be studied directly; there must be an extrapolation from aninal observations. Thus the veterinarian is in an excellent position to make important contributions because of his professional knowledge of animal physiology and pathology. Education and Training Activities The veterinarian should be given cognizance of the fundamentals of radioactivity and the biological effects of radiation at the undergraduate level. This can be done by inclusion of appropriate lectures in courses alreaqy offered. The necessary knowledge of mathematics, phySics and chemistry should be gained prior to the professional leVel of instruction - much of the foundation knowledge could be effectively offered at tho pre-college level. Each college should assure that these requirements are met by the veterinary student prior to graduation. The additional schooling and training necessary for a particular veterinarian will vary considerably depending upon his duty requirements. For those in an advisory or responsible administrative capacity in heal th organizations more detailed training would be highly desirable and for those who will be engaged in radiation research or teaching, postgraduate training is essential. Many of the colleges and universities offer classes in the

~ ,

~/

I

-

.. WPR,lvm/lo page 3 radiation biology field at the postgraduate level. At Cornell lhiversity, the Laboratory of Radiation Biology is located within the College of Veterinary Madi.cine and offers degrees in this field. In the future other veterinary colleges should offer similar courses in order to JOOet the expanding requirements for this type and level of training. Short courses are a valuable aid for those veterinarians in the field who are in need of training in radiation biology. The Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies, Oak Ridge, Tennessee has presented a series of courses in veterinary radiological health. This two weeks course consisted of 80 instructional hours and was designed to instruct Armed Forces veterinary officers in the evaluation of problems of radiation, particularly in relation to biological effects and the possible or potential factors involved in radiocontamination of food producing animals and animal food products. Three hundred and sixty veterinarians have attended this course, of which, over three hundred were from the Army and Air Force Veterinary Corps. The remainder were from other goverrunental agencies or representatives of the various veterinary colleges. At the present time, no further classes are scheduled. This type oourse is invaluable and would be a big help in training those who require instruction in veterinary radiological health. For those veterinarians in the field (e.g. most large and small animal practitioners) who would not need detailed knowledge of the radiation field in their routine work except under disaster conditions, the necessary infonnation must be obtained primarily from dissemination of information from various health organizations, profeSSional meetings, publicat ions and articles in the professional journals. It would be advantageous to set as:ide a block of hours at such meetings and utilize them as a training period for this subject. At area or local meetings this could be a series of programs in which the subject material is presented chronologically. The publications and articles in the various journals would then be of more value in keeping current on the subject. It is emphasized that good Haision between the proper health organizations, civil defense agencies, governmental groups and the veterinarian would be of utmost value in orientation and keeping posted and current on existing and pending radiological health problems. Accurate and complete information must be passed on promptly to all concerned i f an efficient and effective functional group is to operate. Veterinarians dealing with problems of radiation might be categorized into three groups: 1. The majority of veterinarians are eligible for short course training for emergenqy disaster service. 2. Veterinarians in health departments and those specializing in all aspects of food hygiene must be trained to keep pace with advanced developments in the use of radiation for food processing and preservation. l~ close working relationship must be developed with agencies maintaining fallout surveillance programs. 3. Special training is required for those veterinarians whose prine mission is in the field of radiation biology. The necessary grasp of radiation chemistzy am nuclear physics is cl.ose~ related to such medical specialities as biochemistzy, physiology and pathology but is not necessarily limited to these disciplines.

r

-

'~-

1

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

SEMINAR ON PUBLIC HEALTH

REGIONAL OFRCE FOR THE WESTERN PACRC VET"'~UREAU REGIONAL OU PAC ROUE OCCOENTAL

•

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTi

WPRfiHI/l1 30 March 1959 ENGI.lSH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 119.y 1959

SPECIFIC CONl'ROL MEASURES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS OTHER THA.N FOR COMSUMPI'ION by

Erik Ho1ager, D. V.l1., 11. P.H *

r

I

*Senior Veterinary Public Health Officer, Hamar, Norway

...

WPR/VPH/ll page 1

The products to be considered include: (a) Live-animal products (hair, wool, milk, urine, manure placentae, effluents and discharges) Slaughtered-animal products (hides and skins, bristles~ blood, stomach and guts with content genitalia, udders and a variety of other organs and tissues-much depending upon local habits-, bones, horns and hooves) Dead c.arcases and their effluents (sldn and hides, dead foetuses) Condemned meat, tissue and organs in meat inspection

(b)

(c)

(d)

Control of hair and wool Hair and wool will always carry microbes and germs, some of which may be pathogenic - deperrling upon the environment in which the animal has been living. If the aninal is diseased, the hair and wool shoulci be treated in such a wa:T that no pathogenic agentis spread. The treatment will depend upon the disee.se. In many countries little attention is paid to this. The general procedure is to soak and wash the hair or wool and then to dry it by hot air. Most hair ano wool products are subjected to dyeing processes that take care of almost any infectious agent. Hair and wool from anit'1lals known to be dead or suffering from a dangerous infection, such as anthrax in many countries is not treated at all, but destroyed, which should be the norKal procedure. The sterilization of hair and wool can, 11011ever, be carried out lvith reasonable success i f the conditions l1arrant this procedure. Cattle hair is separated from the skin by the use of lime or other chemical agen"Cs~ The crude hair is used by plasterers as a binding agent. For other purposes the hair requires purification, this being done by treatment with hyccrochloric acid w,ich neutralizes the lime, removes impurities and sterilizes the hair.. (Pig bristles are treated in a similar way. In the United Ki!1(:sdom infected wool is sterilized according to the method described in an Annex to the second report of the WHO/FAO Expert Committee on Zoonoses distributed to participants at tl:.is Seminar) Control of hides and skins The hides should be salted directly after slau;:;hter. This has a beneficial effect in killing ;lOSt veGetative microorganisms and parasites; drying has ths same effect. In the tanneries the hides are soaked for cleaning and softening, and then treated in lime for 1-4 ''leeks to loosen the hairs. Hairs and flesh are scraped off, the hides treated ",ith 1-leak acid, and then tanned. For this the "natural" method may be employed, utilizing the barks of certain trees, or the chemical chrometanning process. The whole process takes about 3 months.. Hide trimminf;s, such as lips, etc •• , are used for the manufacture of gelatll'.e.

WPR/VPH/ll page 2 Control of pathogenic agents in hides, wool and hair should also be exercised through importation requirements. Only IItreatedll skins and hides (salted and dried) should be imported. Wet salting r;mst be done for a minimum of 14 days. The importation of COH ano. (;oat hair, ano. piG bristles from slaughtered animals ma:'- be alloJ.led i f they originate from hides or skins which have been treated (;1J lime or other chemical products. In the chemical process sulfides and arsenicals are painted on the flesh side of the skin, after which the hair can be removed, washed and dried. Hides should preferably originate in counTTies ~-lithout foot-and-mouth disease or rinderpest, unless they are salted and hard dried. They should wherever possible originate from animals slaW',htered under government controlled conditions and ~;e inspected 'jy the authorities in the country of importation. .Jeclarations should specify that they were obtained from animals found to be free from anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease or rincierpest. Hides and skins can ~-e sterilized by being packed in a solutiol, of salt containing mineral acid and pac]{ed in barrels, casks or ti"ht cases while still wet with such solutior.s. Some countries allow importation of sld.ns w:"ich have been sufficiently treated with lime to remove the hair, and are ready for facbcry use. Restricted entry may be allowed for such material su'ject to compliance with suitable disinfection and transportation specifications. Simi12.r re!;'clations ma;:r be Importation rray also be allO'tred washed and disinfected or dyed. hour, by dyeing or fermentation strength to 5% phenol solution, disinfection. made for the import of l-1001, hair and bristles. if these proo.ucts have been properl:' scoured, Hair ca.". be sterilized. by boilin~ for one ann Hashing in disi,,j'ectant solution equal in or b:' t:1e use of other ap;Jroyed !:1ethods of

Skins together with b01>/el content are '(, ne r:Jo-:;t frequent source of infection in the abattoir, and represent a public health hazard. They sho-lld be removed immediately when the carcase is skir.ned, and not hauled acro.Js the floor of the slaughtering depart~n'3nt. Control of slau:hterhouse b;y-products Slaughterhouse by-products ma:' be ciefined as ever:,rthinc from the abattoir (or butcher's shop) that may not be sold directly as food. In the USJ. it is estimated that about 7% of the carcaSG is by-product. Animal tissues and organs which are not utilized as food in OEe re[',ion may be riZl1ly apyreciated in other places. The need for quick and efficient handlinE; of these bY-products is based on the necessity for their rapid hygienic disposal, thus avoiding decomposition, when they become a serious source of contaminatior. to fresh meat. Efficient processing of abattoir by-products wb~ch are mostly used as a source of protein food for animals, is of Great economic ir'lportance. This material ca,1 be utj,lized raw for feedin. for-animals (runk and fox, etc.) or can be processed into heat-treated products a t destruction plants. If the material is utiliz ed raTtJ, particulz.r precautim:s !:lUst be taken to avoid contamination. The floor of alIr!ost a::y slau':hterhouse will harbour pc.thogenic microbes brou.:;ht there by the animals or abattoir Horkers. Ie know that apparently healthy pork can house samol1ella organisms in the bouels and the mesenteric lymph nodes. These agents have, in several instances, been isolated frOB floorwashin[':s in abattoirs, even with a maximum of hygienic precautions. No tissue should come into contact with tLe floor unless it is intended for destruction. Tissue and organs for raw ani.--,al feed sho"ld be collected in appropriate oontainers issued for the purpose. These must be made of a material that lends itself to thE: maximum degree of cleanliness and satisfactory disinl'ection or sterilizati.on. The ti3suc Bust be hanclled with the same care as food for human consumption, and be placed as soon as possible in cold storage. The fw~ther hailC:~in;; of such r:cl.t€lrl,~:J. 0lltside the slau<!hterhouse

i~"PR/VPH/ll

page 3 ....

l

.~

represents quite a public health problem in that the agencies for collection and distribution of raw meat to feed animals in many instances are not subject to control by the public health authorities. These agencies through frequent visits to slaughterhouses, meat processing plants, butchers shops etc., to collect inedible ofi.'al, probabl;y- represent the greatest public health hazard in the meat industry. Neither their personnel, nor the staff of rendering plants should under any circumstances be given access to the interior of establishments "here meat for human cons"C.mption is handled. Containers for the collection of t: is offal should always remain the property of the slaughterhouse or meat processing plant, and fulfil the public health veterinarian requirements as regarc.s material and cleanliness. No containers from t he animal feeding agency should be allowed in these places. Control of fat Fat is collected partly for eventual human consumption, partly for industrial purposes (techDical fat). The fat is, next to the hide, the most important by-product from the economic standpoint (soap, leather, dressing, glycerine production, etc., and in most instances is melted and sterilized by heat treatment. Control of blood Blood for human consumption is a major public health problem, which can be solved through the use of specially made bleeding knifes or bleeding tubes. Blood for animal feed should be collected under s~lilar hygienic conditions if intended to be used raw. Otherwise blood should be led into the destruction plant and treated as such or together .rith other ani: .al tissue. The production of blood-meal is of economic importance as animal fodder and in the production of artificial manure. Blood albumen has been used in plywood work where glueing is required, and also has certain other uses. Control of bones Bones withuut meat are classed as an inedible by-product in many countries. However, when ground raw they can serve as a valuable nutrient and are extens:cvely used as animal fodder. l3ones, therefore, should be subject to the same hygienic precautions as are ta~en in the case of other animal tissue. A great proportion of bunes go to destruction plants with or without b/-products and offal. Bones are generally subj ected to fat extraction under about 25 lb. pressure, The remainder in the digester is chalkJ- and soft and can easily be tround into bone-meal. Gelatine may be obtained from bones subsequent to the f at extraction and under carefully controlled pressure. The cartilaginous and ten<iinous tissue from veal is the main source from which gelatine is produced. Bone-meal for animal fodder should have less than 8',6 of water and less than 100 000 bacteria per gralnme of meal. Steamed bone-flour with about 18-20% moisture is used as fertilizer, and may be mixed with treated blood. Control of horns and hooves

._---

Hooves are rer:-:oved from the feet b;' steeping in hot water, they are then dried and sold for processing into horn articles (buttons, combs, etc.). White hooves are much sought after by the industry. Hooves are also dried in a stea.r:'. drier and '.'round into hoof-meal fertilizer (for grape vines). Horns are used for similar purposes. Horn-and hoof-meal as well as pig hair have been used to make fire extinguishing fluids of the foam type. Horn from animals known to be diseased sho~ls not te used without prior steriliza-

vlPR/VPH/ll page

4

Control of infected anlmal tissue and organs not destined for human consumption Animal tissue and organs found to be diseased or corrlemned by the meat inspection as unfit· ,.for feeding raw to animals should ;)e sterilized. This includes infected carcases liable to transmit contagious diseases or cause intoxications in man or animals. In some cases the condemned meat, tissue and organs ma~r l:e at a stage (extreme dege[leration, emaciation or starvation) indicating the necessity for destruction, even where ttere is no contagious infection present. Thermal treatment of animal tissue Infected meat and tissue is ster,.lized by heatirl- to c-.bout 80°C in the deepest layers. Infection iviti1 certair; parasites may render the meat uEfit even for animal fodder unless it is heat-treated beforehand. C?tsticercus is killed at about 45-50° SChonberg), Trichina at 62_70 0 C, i.e. at a temperature where protein coagl1ates •. Host vegetative forms of bacteria are killed in 15-30 seconds at aoout 70 0 C. Sporoge:1ous micro-organisms, hOHever, requ.ire considerably higher temperatures. Cl. botulinum may resist boiling for several hours. Certain viruses and Rickettsia may be very resistant to heat-treatment. Rickettsia burneti may survive cu:'tol1'ary pasteurization of milk, and ma;<' have to be treated up to about 8C o C to be eli~linated. Protein in t>ick layers acts as an excellent insulation against the transmission of heat.

..t.

I

CF.

Sterilization through cooking Boiling a piece of meat for half an hour ma,;' still not brin c the temperature in the cent.re much aGave 6C-700 C. It is recoml71ended that meat in thicknesses of about 7 cra should be boiled for ,..,ot less tl.an 2 hours (2h.30min.). The colour of the meat at the centre uay serve to indicate Whether it has been sufficient12'- heated. If i t has los:' all tinc~e of redness, it may be assumed that any parasites or vegetative forms of microbes have been killed. The apooarance of the fluid from the meat should in no case look similar to blood since tLis is an indication tLt i t has not been heated to more than 60-70 0 C (Kiihnau). If the meat is frey and the fluid has a reddish colour, the meat uay have been heated to about 70-80 0 C. If the fluid is without colour, the ter,lperature has been at-ove BOoC. Only in the latter case is i t possible to be certain of full protection a hainst contamination with microbes and parasites such as Trichinae. Heat looses i-lei,;ht during cooking. Schonberg states that fresh meat looses about 37% in weibht when it is placed in cold water and then heated, and 31% if i t is cookeci after being placed in 1:loiling water. This applies to meat with a "normal" fat corrtent. Fifty to sixty per cent soluble proteins are reuoved during the cook-ing process. Sterilization by steam }1eat is considered ster:Lle i-lhen the central parts have been kept for 10 minutes at a ter-:perature of 80 0 C. by the steam heatiIlc: method. This can be ensured by heating meat ,,];ich is not more than 15 cm thick tmder press. ure of 0.5 atm. for 2 hours. The meat shotild be gre~' and the fluid should not be red. PUi'e muscle, extre;'lely fat tissue, and tissue with much bone in it should be cut i;--,to pieces of about 2 kg each. Thin muscle-layers caE be heated in larger pieces up to 5 kg, etc. It is important, during the heating, to ensure that no piece of ueat comes into direct contact "ith anothsr. Loss of weight throur;h steam heatin~ under the old meV'jod is a::;out 6Cf/, in beef and 46% in pork. With the newer technique, where the steam pressure is much lower, ..... 'hp

'r""Ic,s

..;,~ ~"'Jn, .. t, 'Jt:S!1

. ;: ..... ""'pp~

-:- ...... ,.::.

-;-l-,nnt

'2~

.: ...

""')0 ...... 1....

1"1 ... ()r,T_ .....'..... p~~n ..... ~ co:term

WPR/VPH/ll page 5

apparatus of this type the pressure is only one tenth to one fifteenth of the pressure used with the old met;1od.

Disposal by- dry-rendering ,--

The dry-render is a steam-jacketed cylinder inside which a central agitator shaft is mounted. The ste&:1! does not come into contact with the con tents, but the temperature is such that not only is the infected material sterilized an6 disintegrated, but all moisture can be rerr~ved and the liquefied fat drained off. Thus, most of the protein w_ich would. be dissolved in cooking 'ieater is retained. The content of the cylinder is agitated during the heating process, thus assistin~ its diSintegration. After a preliminary heating period, the internal p~essure is released and the process is repeated until the product is dry. The free fat is drained off, leaving the meat or greaves with 15 to 35% of fat. The fat is further eX-Gracted by a hydraulic press or by a steaJlI centr::"-u~,e leaving a content of 8-15% which can again be reduced to 1-3% of fat by a chemical process. The residue wtich is noVl quite dry, can be grou..'1d into meal. The sarne applies to blood and bone where blood.-and bone-meal will be the final products. stale or decomposed bones a)'e treated 3eparatly, being crushed and fed into steel extractors where they are treated by boiling benzine. Grease, known as technical fat, is recovered from the solution by steam distillation. Annex 1 gives the Danish regulations for the operation of destruction plants. Annex 2 gives tables showing the utilization of some inedible byproducts. Control of by-products through incineration In some places dead anldals and condemned carcases and tissue have been dis:osed of by incineration. This has particularly been the case where an incineration. device for the combustion of ruubish and. offal is part of the environmental sanitation installations. Incineration is a very effective but uneconomic l.ay of dis}Josinc; of infected or dead animals and their by-products. Experience has Sc10wn that destruction by dry-renders, fat extractors, meat-" blood-and. bone-meal plant is in general a good economic investment.

Control of aJ1imal by-products through burial Tnis is the met 0 d in long-standing practice in most places. It is obviously uneconomical and has certain hygienic disadvantages, the main one being that the Lurial of a dead carcase sufferin[,:, for instance, from anthrax, introduces a dangerous focus of i -;fection into the soil, Ca;.1able of spread_ ing the agent for the next decade. The ))lace of burial should be Vlell chosen so that tr.e ,,'cent should :~,ot be spread bJ~ water. The burial meklOd should be employed only in places where heat trGatment is not possible or practical. Other met:,ods of ciisposal of dead ani"1als ani infected animal tissue In certain specific environments (on islands or rouf.h mountainsus coasts where the soil is not deep enou.ch to bury an anLal safely) dumping at sea has

- ~-

WPR/VPH/n page

6

been employed, the animal being weighted nth sGones to ensure sinking. This method maybe satisfactory in some places, depending upon local conditions, Sea currents, . depth of the water, etc. The public health importance of destruction plants One of the most significant achievements of public health in the twentieth century has been the disappearance of the great epidemics wtich for centuries have swept the world. Typhoid fever epidemics were once considered almost a normal event in many countries. The introduction of safe watersupplies and organized sewage disposal systems are the main reasons why the disease, as well as cholera and certain others are no longer prevalent. There is still, however, one missing link in the Chain of modern sanitation - namely, destruction plant. This is a very important factor for preventive medicine in all societies. The number of zoonoses, as already indicated, is on the increase in all regions and countries. A number of "new" agents have been added to the list of pathogenic organisms, whose ecology, in quite a number of cases, is still not too well known. For instance, the role played in nature by nematodes and arthropods as a potential source of infection, or as vectors, is still under investigation. t-laterial from diseased anilllals should not, therefore, be exposed to nature so that control over the agent is lost. Preventive medicine, in its modern concept requires full control of animals infected with any contagious disease, whether this affects human beings or animals. Such control can only be exercised through complete sterilization of the infected animal tissues and ~r-products in appropriate destruction plants. Main outlines of the destruction plant The plant can be a separate undertaking or part of a slaughterhouse or of a meat-processing plant. It should always be housed in a separate building or form part of a building which has no direct communication with other sections of the slaughterhouse. Thermal treatment will decompose protein and create certain gases that have a disagreeable and penetrating smell. Attempts to neutralize or eliminate these gases have generally not met with success despite costly and elaborate absorption devises. Destruction plants should therefore be placed in the neighbourhood of the slaughterhouse at sane distance from residential areas of cities, etc. The plant itself should be divided into two main aepartments: the "unclean" section, 'Where dead animals and material for destruction are received, cut up and transferred to sterilizing installations. There should be no contact between this department and the 11 clean" department, independent personnel being maintained for each whenever possible. In addition to these main departments there should be cloak-rooms am wash-rooms, with baths am showers. A separate eating place is also required. The plant authorities should encourage personnel to practise the maximum personal hygiene, and should if possiole have a device for washing and sterilizing working clothes. The latter should be issued by the plant, together with rubber boots, gloves and aprons. First-aid kits with bandages and disinfectants should be obligatory. If an accident occurs, the person involved should stop work immediately and the wound should be properly cared before any kind of work is resumed. Plants should be provided nth the following equipment: (1) (2) (3) hot water installation and steam generator; dry-render; autoclave for sterilizing by-products, manure, urine, waste

11

II II

WPR/VPH/ll (4) steaming chamber or autoclave for sterilizing containers and designed to enable the latter to pass from the "unclean" department through the sterilizer directly to the transport vehicle or store-room; separate sets of containers for collection of raw material and fur sterilized products.

page 7

(5)

The destruction plant should have good fences and gates to prevent unauthorized persons or stra;y animals from entering the area. All windows should be secured against insects or birds, and the premises should be rodent-proof. Vehicles for the transport of dead animals and by-products should be approved by the public health veterinary officers and be subject to thorough routine inspection. All "regular" effluents from the plant (floor washings and waste water from wash-rooms, bath, laundry, etc.) should be sub ject to sedimentation and chlorination at the minimum. The $Tection of destruction plants should be encouraged whenever possible and supported by public health and other authorities in order to create a basis for their souhd economic operation. A central plant cf some size is preferable to a numoer of small, iIldividual plants which may enter into competition and thus tend to lower hygienic standards. In larger cities muniCipal destruction or render1Qg plants should be constructed. Destruction plants should be placed under the supervision of the public health authority, which can, in general, delegate powers of inspection to the public health veterinarian or other personnel with a knowledge of biology and of the ecology of the agents of zoonoses and infectious diseases. On the technical side, as regards the actual plant, machinery and construction of preinises, qualified engineers are needed. Destruction plants should be placed by law under public health supervision. Such plants, so beneficial when properly operated, may well become a threat to public health i f their hygienic aspects are neglected. Detailed hygieniC and operational instructions should be issued for all destruction plants and veterinary legislation should provide for the control of all imported inedible animal by-products, such as skins, hides, and blood-, meat- or bone-meal.

WPR/VPH/ll Annex 1 page 1

DA1'ISH RmULATIONS GOVERNING ffiOCESSING FACTORIES. 1. All products delivered to a destruction plant must be destroyed, i.e., sterilized. Such deliveries involve raw goods (i.e., carcasses, parts of dead or slaughtered animals, fish, fish offal, or other raw material) and coagulated blood, autoclave waste, etc., from slaughterhouses and meat establishments. Blood albumen to be used for fodder must be sterilized. Imported meat-, bone-, and blood-meal must be sterilized. The veterinary inspector for meat control will advise the establishments and the controlling officers when such imported goods will arrive for sterilization. On arrival at the destruction establishment, products such as those mertj ned must be taken to the "unclean" department and may not be placed elsewhere; nor me;v they be removed before sterilization has taken place without special permission from the Veterinary Directorate. Neat- and bone-meal, etc., sent for sterilization in larger quantities than can be kept in the "unclean" department without interfering with the other work of this department, may not be received. 2. Sterilization of raw materials must be carried out in a gry-render in which they are heated under constant stirring to at least 125 0 C, corresponding to a manometer pressure of 1.37 atm. (kg/cm2 ) in the boiler for at least 15 minutes after the air has been driven out. The material is then dried until it reaches a temperature of about 105 0 C in the absence of pressure. This method assumes that the material has a considerable water content (at least 15%), and it should not be used for that with a low water content such as meat- and bone-meal, blood-meal, blood albumen, etc.,

When steriliZing products which do not contain considerable amounts of water, the material must be pulverized. No more than about 800 kg. may be charged into a boiler holding 4000 litres. The sterilization must take place in saturated steam in a dry-render so fitted as to lead steam direct into the centre of the boiler. The air is carefully blown out of the boiler, and the material is treated with saturated steam under constant stirring. In 15 minutes the saturated steam is brought ug to at least 1.37 atm. (kg/cm2 ) corresponding to a temperature of 125 C. This minimal pressure and temperature must be maintained for at least 45 minutes • ..t

3.

4. Sterilization of manure and waste water from the "unclean" department of the establishment must take place in an autoclave. The material must be fluid when treated (i.e., manure must be mixed with waste water). Treatment takes place by leadlng steam into the bottom of the autoclave and heatirg to a temperature of at least 115°C (0.7 atm.) for at least one hour.

5. No other methods of sterilization than those mentioned may be used unless written permission has been given by the Veterinary Doctorate. 6. Hides and skins must be salted for at least 14 days before being delivered irom the destruction plants. Hides and skins of animals from districts closed as a result of foot and mouth disease must be washed thoroughly with a J.% soda solution both on the hairY side and on the meat side before being salted down.

WIRjvPH/ll Annex 1

page 2 7. Horse-tail hair, cow-tail hair, horseshoes, tethers, rope, sacks, etc., must be placed in a 1% solution of formaldehyde (made by adding 30 g of formalin to one litre of water) for at least 24 hours; when the tail hairs have been cut off, the tail must be destroyed as described in section 2.

8.

Hoofs and horns must be sterilized as described in section 2.

Products received for destruction must normally arrive in approved trucks or in approved packing belonging to the plants (generally metal drums). The trucks and packing must be carefully cleaned with hot water and then thorough~ disinfected with 5% creolin solution. If goods are delivered in other trucks or in other kinds of packing, cleaning and disinfection takes place in the same way. Packing which cannot be cleaned and disinfected effectively (e.g., paper or cardboard, or defective wooden packing) and packing material which normally would be re-used for foodstuffs (e.g., ordinary fish boxes) may not be returned but must be destroyed by burning, if the plant has facilities for it, or must be broken up and placed in a creolin solution (at least 5% for at least 24 hours), and subsequently removed for burning. 10. The destruction a~paratus mentioned in sections 2 and J must be fitted with manometers giving the pressure both in the steam-jacket and in the boiler, and a thermometer giving the temperature in the boiler. The destruction apparatus mentioned in section 4 must be fitted with a manometer and a therr~ometer giving the pressure and temperature in the boiler. Manometers and thermo83ters must be checked to ensure that they function correctly and synchronize. il.

9.

If a carcass from an animal suffering from anthrax is delivered to a destruction plant, treatment must be carried out in as isolated a place as possible. All parts of the carcass, including the hide, contents of stomach and intestines, blood, etc., must be sterilized as described in section 2. The place of slaughter must be cleaned and disinfected carefully according to the instructions of the veterinary officer. Tris also applies to trucks ani implements which have been in contact with the carcass. Persons who have dealt with the carcass must wash careful~ and change their clothes immediately after finishing the work, and the clothes must be disinfected as described in section 7, before·being washed. Footwear must be washed thoroughly in 5% creolin water. Meat- and bone-meal, blood-meal etc., steriliZed at one destruction plant be delivered direct to the" cleanl! department of another destruction plant. This also applies to vegetable feedj~-stuffs and other compounds (chemicals etc.,) used for the production of feeding-stuff mixtures at the plant.

12.

may

13. Meat- and bone-meal, blood-meal and similiT imported end-products received for sterilization must be subjected to an examination when treated before the goods are delivered from the plant. The samples for examination are taken·according to the following rules: vJhen the material has been treated it must be filled into clean sacks immediately. A sample is taken from each consignment (or - for larger consignments _ from every 25 tons). The consignment in question (or the 25 ~ons) must be kept separetely, and marked with a special number for identification. A small teaspoonful, from 100 sacks chosen at random, is taken, and the total quantity is filled into one bag (for example, a clean, thick paper bag) ahd given the identification number of the consignment. Sampling is done by a worker employed in the "clean" department of the establishment under the supervision of the chief

wm/VPH/ll .Annex 1 page' veterinary officer or the attendant. The veterinary officer or the attendant (in the latter case the name and address of the veterinary officer must be given) sends the sample to the 3tate Veterinary Serum Laboratory, together with a completed form supplied by the veterinary inspector. The consignment must not be delivered by the plant before the Serum Laboratory has given written permission. The costs of the laboratory test, 20 kroner (approximately ~3) per sample, are paid by the destruction plant. The last point of the regulations needs, perhaps, some explanation. As stated, it concerns imported meat- and bane-meal, blood-meal, and similar products. All products of this kind imported into Denmark have to be re-sterilized at a destruction plant because it has been found that many such imported goods had not been treat.ed carefully enough, and were still infectious when offered for sale as animal fodder. Among bacteria found which are pathogenic to animals were different types of salmonella.

b.-

...

>,"

WPR/VPH/ll Annex page TABLES SHOW-1m UTILIZATION OF INEDIBLE BY-ffiODUCTS

2 1

(1) Cattle PRIMIill.Y ffiODUCTS HIDE AND SKIN

and Calves

SECONDARY IRODUCTS

Leather for machinery belting, saddles, harness, dog collars and leads, boots and shoes, upholsterJ, trunks, suitcases, handbags, gloves and parchment. Neatsfoot oil, glue. Fertilizer, pigment (Prussian blue), fire extinguisher. Buttons, cutlery handles, combs, hairpins, fertilizer, pigment (Prussion blue), ornaments, fire extinguisher. Binding agent for plaster and mortar, paint brushes (ear hair), upholstery stuffing (tail hair), felt. Grease, glue, bone charcoal, calcined bone steamed bone meal and flour (fertilizer), sterilized feeding bone flour (feedingstuff for pigs, poultry and cattle). Tallow, grease, soap, candles, glycerine, ointments, cosmetics, lubricants. Albumen, animal feeding-stuffs, blood manure, bacteriological culture media. 1Iennet. Goldbeater's skin. Glue and gelatine. Casing for lard, fishing floats. CleanSing agent, carpet soap, pigment (sepia). Therapeutic substances (thyroid extract, adrenalin, etc.) Therapeutic substances (lecithin, cephalin).

FEET HOOFS HORNS

HAIR

BONES

ROUGH FAT

BID<ll STOI1ACH (CALF) CAECUM

TAIL, HIDE TRINMINGS, UTERUS, TRACHEA BIADDER

BILE GLANDS (thyroid, adrenal, thymus, pineal, pituitar,y, ovary, testis, pancreas, prostate)

BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

WPR/VPH/ll Annex 2 page 2 PRIMARY PRODUCTS

(2) Sheep SECONDARY PRODUCTS

SKIN WOOL WOOL FAT HOOFS, ROUGH FAT, BLOOD, BONES INTESTINES (small)

Leather coats and jackets, slippers, hat bands, gloves, ch~~ois leather. Rugs, blankets, carpets, dresses, suits, underwear, children's clothing. Lanolin. As for cattle. Catgut for violin and tennis racquet strings, surgical ligatures. Therapeutic substances.

rI

/I

GLJJIDS ( as in cattle )

(3) Pigs PRIMARY mODUCTS SECO~whRY

FRODUCTS

SKIN BRISTIES A:N1) HAIR HOOFS, ROUGH nT, BLOOD, BONES STOMACH GLANDS (Thyroid, thymus, pancreas, ovary)

Leather for saddles, handbags, gloves, bookbinding and wallets. :::rushes, upholstery stuffing. 1,.s for cattle. Pepsin. Therapeutic substances.

1' I

:4

WORLD HEALTH OI.GANIZATIOM

SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HFAL'lR REGIONAL OFACE FOR THE WESTERN PAORC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PAORQUE OCCIDENTAL

•

ORGANISAnON MONDIALE DE LA SANTi

WffifiHI/12 31 l'1arch 1959 ENGLJSH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

EDUCATION IN VETERJ:N&RY PUBLIC HEALTH

by

, i

11. Abdussalam

1 I

II *Professor of Pathology and Bacteriology, College of Animal Husbandr,y, Lahore, Pakistan.

I' I I

HP} t/VPH/12 , j(-

pagel Milk and meat hygiene is traditionally a field of veterinary activity, and, in many countries, is still the main - often the only -- contribution of veterinarians to public health work. With the recent progress o~ health sCiences, it is being increasingly realised that most disease agents may attack or reside in several host species and may even adapt themselves to new hosts. This makes it impracticable to separate human and veterinary medicine into water-tight compartments. It is, therefore, being increasingly felt that veterinary participation is essential in many other fields of public health activity, such as, control and eradication of zoonoses, laboratory and research work, production of biologicals and various aspects of comparative pathology. A recent definition of veterinary public health has aptly called it lithe field of activity which protects and advances human well-being Qy utilizing the combined knowledge and resources of all those concerned with human and animal health and their inter-relationships". (Report, 1956) The conventional degree or diploma courses being currently given in the veterinary colleges of the world (catalogued by Breuer, 1957) vary according to local conditions, but, in general, they do not enable the young veterinarian to take up veterinary public health work, in the modern sense, without further specialized training. Many countries, in which veterinarians are participating more and more in"public health work, have instituted post-graduate courses in this subject. Brief outlines of such courses in some countries are given in the Appendix. Functions of Public Health Veterinarians 1. The principal function of a veterinarian in a public health programme is the prevention, control and eradication of zoonoses -- diseases naturally transmitted between animals and man. This involves the development of activitles in many fields which link human and animal health problems. Even the emergence of new zoonoses resulting from the changing pattern of virulence of disease agents or new human-animal relationships has also to be kept in view. 2. The development of food hygiene activities with special reference to the prevention of food-borne infection of animal origin is a traditional function of public health veterinarians. They also endeavour to ensure that the consumer receives a nutritious, wholesome and otherwise acceptable product. The acceptability of foods of animal origin is particularly liable to be regulated by religious and cultural factors in many countries.

3. In recent years, the participation of veterinarians is being found increasingly useful in the detection and definition of radiation hazards and dangers of air and water pollution. 4. Planning and participation in diagnostic laboratory and research activities in the field of public health and comparative medicil1t ;:orm important duties of the veterinarian and his activities in these fields need not be restricted to the zoonoses. He also manufactures or controls the manufacture of biological products.

.. i1-

WPR/VPH/12 page 2 In most countries, there are several agencies, official and private, which have interests in the relationship of human and animal health and in foods of animal origin. It is one of the important functions of the public health veterinarian to coordinate their activities to prevent wasteful duplication of effort and responsibility. Even at the international level such coordination has been found to be essential (Kaplan, 1953). 6. Organization of educational programmes in the field of veterinary public health for qualified and auxiliary personnel is a natural result of the growing realization of the importance of the foregoing functions. Aim and Scope of Veterinary Public Health Education In order to equip a veterinarian to perform the foregoing functions efficiently, he has to be given suitable post-graduate courses, to supplement the training he has already received for his graduation. It is even more important that he should be imbued with the spirit of social and public service. To ensure this, it has been suggested that he should be required to gain supervised practical field experience before commencing the public health course. An alternative would be to introduce psychological aptitude tests. The post-graduate courses in veterina~ public health should be formulated to suit the special needs of the country and in relation to the training already received by the entrants. In general, the following should be included. (1) General principles of public health, such as, public health administration and practice, the legal and economic basis of public health and its relationship to religious and cultural factors. (The importance of the latter in public health work in some parts of the world has been defined and stressed by May, 1950). These general subjects will enable the veterinarian to understand the philosopy of his work and will enable him to orientate it in relation to the activities of other professional groups in the public health organization. (2) Specialized subjects in which instruction may be given are: microbiology, parasitology , immunology, epidemiology, environmental hygiene, food hygiene, vital statistics and radiobiology. Separate courses mqy be given in special problems of the area, such as, hydatidosis, schistosomiasis, rabies, tuberculosis, etc.

5.

(3) Adequate practical instruction in the laboratory, the slaughterhouse and the field. The length of present courses in veterina~ public health or state medicine varies from six months to one academic year. It is, however, generally agreed that adequate coverage of such courses requires at least one academic year.

~

'.

Wffi/VHI/12

page 3 In some countries, the post-graduate course in public health leads to a master's degree and in others a diploma in public health is conferred. This difference of nomenclature generally arises from the nomenclature used in other branches of knowledge and does not matter as long as adequate training is imparted. For persons wishing to undertake research and teaching in specialized fields of veterinary public health, research degrees should be instituted where adequate facilities can be provided. Administration The location of veterim',ry public health courses in a particular institution is determined b,y local conditions. They may be given in special health institutes, veterinary colleges, medical colleges and the univer&ities. The ideal place would be a university institute of public health in close proximity to a Veterinary and possibl¥, a medical college. This will enable the trainees to come in contact with public health workers from allied professions and will facilitate the partiCipation of teachers from various disciplines in giving the courses. These contacts will help the trainee to develop confidence in his own ability and to gain the confidence and respect of others. They will also stimulate cooperative effort which is so vital for success in public health work. In a university, it is also easier to develop facilities for research training than in an isolated veterinary college. Control of educational standards is an important part of the administration of professional education. In some countries, there are powerful professional associations or councils of elected representatives of the profeSSion to do this job. In others, the universities or the governments perform this function. In a few, there is no outside control over standards. It is necessary that some sort of effective accrediting system should be ensured. In order to attract the right type of persons to the field of veterinary public health and for promoting team-spirit within the organization, it is necessary that veterinarians should, in all respects, be considered at par with medical men, engineers and other professional men participating in public health programmes. Training of Auxiliary Personnel In many countries, there is a shortage of qualified veterinarians which can be partly mitigated by employing subordinate personnel, trained for a short period, to carr,r out simple duties under supervision. The training of such persons should be mainly practical. The entrance qualification and the duration of training is a matter for local decision but six to nine months should generally be sufficient for most types of work. The standards of training of such personnel should also be regulated.

WPR/VPH/12 page 4 Summary 1. In its modern concept, veterinary public health is much more than food hygiene and covers all aspects of linkage between human and animal health. 2. The functions of public health veterinarians cover activities relating to zoonoses, food hygiene, radiation and pullution hazards, laboratory, research and educational work and coordination of the activities of all groups interested in these matters. 3. In order to equip him for these tasks, the qualified veterinarian should receive special post-graduate instruction in general aspects of public health work and in special branches of knowledge having a bearing on it. The course should extend over one academic year and should include adequate amount of practical training in the laboratory, the slaughterhouse and the field •

"

. 4.

Such training is better imparted in a public health school in a university rather than a veterinary college.

5. Veterinary public health workers shOUld, in all respects, be treated at par with members of other professional groups in the public health organization in order to attract suitable men and to ensure a team spirit in the organization. 6. Auxiliary personnel should be given practical training for six to nine months and employed to carr,r out simple tasks under supervision. References Breuer, D. (1957). Weltkatalog der veterinarmedizinischen Lebranstalten. Hannover Kaplan, M. (1953). Froc. XV. into Vet. Congr., May, J. M. (1950). Geogr. Rev., 40. 9-4J.

!, 1124-32. ... Wld Hlth Org.

Report (1956). Advisory Group on Veterinary Public Health. Techn. Rep. Sere Ill. Geneva.

Vuillaume, R. (1957). The Trainin of Veterina Public Health Personnel. Wld Hlth Org. Document No. EUR0-85.2 11.

.. Appendix Outline of Courses in Veterinary Public Health in some Countries (Condensed from Vuillaume, 1957) JAPAN -

WPR/VPH/12 page 5

Qualified veterinarians are given a year's training in veterinary public health along with nutritionists and chemists at the Institute of Public Health. The curriculum includes: outline of public health, administration and administrative practice, clinical aspects, vital statistics epidemiology, microbiology, medical zoology, analytical chemistry, physiology, biochemistry, nutrition, nuclear industry (six.), social diseases, drinking and waste water, anti-waste measures, housing, industrial hygiene, maternal and child health, family policy, SChool health, dental health, mental health, health education, food hygiene and pharmaceutical hygiene. Supplementary subjects inClude social studies, field practice, seminars and discussions.

A short course, extending over two months is also given. It covers: outline of public health, public health administration, vital statistics, control of communicable and parasitic diseases, environmental sanitation, food hygiene, meat inspection, inspection of fish and crustacea, milk inspection, rabies control, field practice, and seminars. UNITED STATES

The well-known Harvard University School of Public Health admits two or three veterinarians every year for the course in public health. There is no special veterinary course but a program of studies is arranged far each student. The veterinary students mostly take courses provided for other students and pay particular attention to problems connected with diseases of animal origin. The school of Public Health, University of Minnesota trains public heal th veterinarians, health officers, public health engineers, public' health nurses, health educators, biostatisticians and hospital administrators. Emphasis is laid in the training on the need for coordination between the various groups. The curriculum covers a year and includes basic courses which all students are required to take, plus elective courses of interest to each student and in line with his previous field of study. Courses of interest to veterinarians include: elements of preventive medicine and public health, environmental sanitation, public health bacteriology, epidemiology, public health administration, food hygiene, community health education, vital statistics, public health nursing, immunology, virology, milk

wm/VPH/l2 page 6 production and secretion, dairy bacteriology, municipal functions, veterinary public health practice, animal bacteriology, poultry pathology, and general as well as veterinary parasitology. The degree of Master of Public Health is awarded to successful candidates. CANlIDA

4'

.

The universities of Toronto and Montreal train veterinarians for the Diploma in Veterinary Public Health in their Schools of Public Health. The course extends over one academic year and includes instruction in the following subjects: microbiology and immunology, epidemiology and biostatistics, environmental hygiene, administration of public health and social medicine, veterinary bacteriology, aFPlied immunology, veterinary epidemiology and animal nutrition. The course in Toronto University includes one month's practical work under supervision. UNITED KINGDOM A six months' course of training leading to the Diploma in Veterinary State Medicine is conducted at some of the veterinary colleges. It includes instruction in bacteriology and immunity as app+ied to veterinary state medicine, veterinary hygiene and preventive medicine, and food nygiene including meat and milk inspection. A period of 12 weeks is spent in supervised practical training. FRANCE

II "

"

11

A four months' special course in veterinary administration and public health is being given at the veterinary colleges since the academic year 1955-56. The curriculum includes: public administration laws, administrative organization, veterinary organization, rural economy, control of zoonoses, food hygiene and the working of classified establishments (slaughterhouses, dairies, piggeries, cold-storage depots, etc.)

• WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZAnON SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PtIBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan

REGIONAL OFACE FOR THE WESTERN PAORC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PAOAQUE OCODENTAL

•

ORGANISAnON MONDIALE DE LA SANTi

31 March 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

WPR/VPH/13

20 April - 1 May 1959

SIGNIFICf.NCE OF ECOLOGICJ..L STUDlES ON THE WIlJ) ANIMAL RESERVOms OF ZOONOSES by

M. Abdussalam

*Professor

of Pathology

azxi

Bacteriology,

College at

Animal

Husbandr,y,

Lahore, Pakist.an.

WPR/VPH/l3 page 1 Introduction The validity of an ecological approach to the study of intectioUB disease is now generally recognized but its application to the animal reservoirs of human disease has been slow in most countries. With few exceptions, ecological methods, comparable to those applied to problems of agriculture, fisheries and other fields of economic biology have not been employed in studying or controlling zoonoses in most areas of the world. This attitude is sometL~es defended on the plea that most of the human infection in zoonoses is contracted from domestic animals and from wild animals" living in or around human habitations (II domiciliated" animals Hoare, 1955). While this is largely true in so far as immediate transfer of infection is concerned, the domestic animals themselves derive their infection from wild hosts in many cases. Furthermore, increase of human populations and other economic factors are increasingly making it necessary to colonize uninhabited areas of the world thus exposing man and his domestic animals to the usually masked or sub-clinical infections existing among wild animals in nature. Hunters, trappers, foresters, explorers" soldiers, farmers, refugees and others who go into the wilderness are also EllCposed to similar dangers. What is more, they may bring back the infection into settlements and pass it on to other human beings, domestic animals or to local arthropod vectors. The absence of accurate knowledge concerning the ecology of wild reservoir hosts has been the most important reason for failures or hesitation to deal effectively with such important diseases as rabies, plague, tularaemia" yellow fever, and many other arthropod-borne diseases. In some cases the elimination of what appeared to be the principal host was followed by another local species taking over this role (Meyer, 1947). In contrast to this, zoonoses like bovine tuberculosis and glanders, with no wild reservoirs, have been eradicated from large areas with relatively simple procedures. In a few instances, where the ecological method has been applied, the efforts have been rewarded with success in eradication or control of the disease, e.g. plague in southern Russia (Meyer, 1957) and cutaneous leishmaniasis in Turkmenia (Hoare, 1955). It is reasonable to expect that the over-all geographical distribution of a zoonosi s, with wild reservoirs or vectors, will be found to correspond with the particular zoogeo-graphical region in which it occurs, unless interfered with by man. This is, however, not always the case with recorded distributions. Recent findings of the widespread occurrence of arthropodborne encephalitides in Europe (Bardos, 1957 and others) Lind possibly also of tularaemia (Neri, 1957)] which had hitherto been considered to be restricted to a few localities, show that further work may bridge the gap between the distribution of the reservoir and vector on the one hand and of the zoonosis on the other, or provide an explanation for the divergence.

!-

--

II II

WlR/VPH/13 page 2 Another incidental advantage of ecological studies on wild-anilnal reservoirs will be the possibility of finding more suitable experimental animals than are available at present. Most of the experimental animals in use in epidemiological work are domestic animals or pets that were available in Europe at the t:ime of the growth of bacteriology. Hamsters, cotton rat~ and a few others have been added recently. Van der Hoeden (1954) found Merionas crassus sacramenti, a rodent Common in Israel, to be particularly suitable for leptospiral investigations. The Egyptian gerbil (Gerbillus pyramidum)' shows promise of being useful in work on brucellosis (Floyd & Hoogstraal, 1954). Several more experimental animals may be discovered which will make biotesting easier and more reliable. There is little doubt, therefore, that accurate and fuller information about reservoirs and vectors in many areas of the world is needed, before Bome of the major zoonoses (vide Appendix), can be successfully controlled and eradicated. It may be mentioned that there is a cammon tendency to regard the domestic-animal reservoirs as a somewhat uniform group in different parts of the world. But, looked at from the ecological point of view, they differ in different areas in certain important respects, such as population densities, movements and migrations, food, breeding and other seasonal cycles ana in their parasite burden. These and other environmental factors materially affect their reserves and donorship of human pathogens. In this note, the principal general characters of zoonoses with wild vertebrate hosts are briefly enumerated and extended ecological studies have been suggested. Some recent inquiries which warrant more extensive application of the ecological method to zoonoses have also been cited. Some Recent Inquiries Most of the ecological studies so far carried out on zoonoses concern diseases with arthropod or snail vectors. During the last two decades, extensive investigations have been carried out in the U.S.S.R. on the ecology of zoonoses under the leadership of AcademLcian E.N. Pavlovsky (see Pavlovsky et al., 1955), who has evolved what bas been called thel\doctrine of naturalIlidility of disease". (The word nidality ., oChagavost bas been used to mean focal localization.) This concept means that wild enzootic foci of many diseases, particularly zoonoses, exist in nature independently of man and domestic animals. These foci present well defined ecological peculiarities wherein the pathogens and natural hosts are associated, often through the intermediation of a vector. The most important environmental factors determining these associations are climate, soil, vegetation am other topographical features (hence the term IIlandscape epidemiology"). These peculiarities can serve as reliable indicators of the existence of certain diseases. For example, areas at the edge of a desert, inhabited by burrowing rodents such as Rhombomys opimus) may harbour cutaneous leishamaniasis and areas at the junction of mountain forests and steppe grasslands may be expected to harbour tick-borne encephalitis and spotted fever. These natural foci (II silent zones of diseaselt - May, 1950) may remain undetected until susceptible human beiIlfos COOle in contact with them directly or indirectly

I I

~I

.,.... ..

•

I

,

I I

!I

II

wm/VPH/13 and beco~c infocted. With accurate ecological knowledge, similar foci in othe.: . 'a, iilay be detected before human infection takes place. In. West

page 3

Pakistan foci of fascioliasis (F. gigantica) have been found assocl.ated with easily detectable indicators, such as, clay soil, fresh oxygenated water and characteristic aquatic vegetation (Sarwar, 1956). In the U.S.S.R., natural nidality has been established for tick-borne spirochaetoses, tick-borne and Japanese B encephalitides, plague, tularaemia, tick-borne rickettsioses, leishmaniases, listeriasis, haemorrhagic fevers (I1nephroso-nephritisll ) , opisthorchosis, diphyllobothriasis, trichinellosis, bilharziasis, and possibly, also for psittacosis (ornithosis) and brucellosis. Natural nidi may be localised to small areas, such as, rodent burrows, ponds, etc., or mqy be diffuse and extensive as in a big forest. As has been point out by Audy (1958), this'concept, in a simple form, had been recognized by many previous workers (e.g. by Parker for Roc~ Mountain spotted fever, Meyer for plague and Swynnerton for African trypanosomiasis). But, the credit for its generalization and large-scale application in field studies rightly belongs to Pavlovs~ and his co-workers. In America, the ecological method has been applied to extensive studies on the arthropod-borne encephalitides (reviewed by Eklund, 1953; Hess and Holden, 1958). Several important points in the epidemiology of these diseases have been Clarified. Birds serve as natural hosts, and mosquitoes as vectors of these diseases. Man and horse are accidental and I1dead-end" hosts in so far as they are not likely to pass the infection to other hosts or vectors. Mammals as well as birds have been suggested as possible reservoirs. Either mosquito vectors or birds appear to be possible OVerwintering reservoirs. The possibility of infection being re-introduced each season by migratory birds needs further investigation. There are some basic similarities in the ecology of the American mosquitoe-borne encephalitides and the Murray Valley encephalitis of Australia (B~rnet, 1953a) as·well as West-Nile virus infection of the Nile Valley (Taylor et ~., 1956). The Australian as well as the Egyptian disease is transmitted by mosquitoes and has birds as natural hosts. Man gets involved incidentally. Studies on ether arthropod-borne viruses especially yellow fever, have lead to a clearer understanding of their epidemiology and also to the discovery of new viruses and zoonoses (Smithburn, 1952; Dick, 1953; Taylor ~ ~., 1955; Work ~t al., 1957, and others). Even so, a great deal more information on the ecology of reservoirs and vectors is needed before these diseases can be successful~ tackled in the field. Extensive stUdies on the ecology of sylvatic plague in western United States have been carried out over many years (Meyer, 1947; Kartman et al., 1958). At first the large colonial rodents, such as ground squirrel-S were considered to be important as reservoirs, but, recently emphasis has shifted to the smaller speCies, Kicrotus and Pero~scus. The foci of infection are delimited and the disease is transferred from wild rodents to rats. Although

WPR/VPH/13

page 4

human. infection of sylvatic origin is infrequent, it is likely to increase 'With l.ncreasing suburbanization in the future. In Malaya, Audy has studied for over a decade, the "parasi te-patterns" of different animal populations with special reference to chiggers or harvest mites. The origin and development of these patterns has been studied in relation to the topographical localization of disease. It has been shown that a great deal can be learnt from the parasite-pattern alone about the habitat and habits of the host which have largely determined that pattern. In an important recent paper, Audy (1958) has discussed t his work along with ·the important basic concepts and current hypotheses on the subject. Apart from the foregoing ecological investigations of zoonoses may be mentioned the studies of May (1950 et ~.) on the geography of human disease which take into consideration not only environmental, but social and cultural factors also. The forthcoming publication of a treatise on medical ecology by May has been announced (Audy, 1958). Rodenwaldt1s (1954 ~ ~.) "Atlas of Epidemic Diseaseslt also describes the world distribution of various communicable diseases. General Characteristics of Zoonoses with Wild-Animal Reservoirs 1. Usually, one or more vertebrate species in an area act as reservoirs of infection, the maintenance of which requires a particular density of population,

2. Very often a vector (mosquito, flea, louse, bug, accarine, snail or worm) is con::erned in circulating infection in the animal population. Where the infective agent is capable of multiplying in the vector, the latter becomes an additional reservoir. Generally, the infections vectored by ticks and mites are also transmitted transovarially in these hosts. The most characteristic feature of zoonoses in their wild hosts is the sub-clinical or mild and chronic syndrome they present. This respressnts a long standing reCiprocal evolution with mutual adjustments between the host and the parasite. It benefits the parasite by perpetuating infection and may be of help to the vertebrate host in warding off enemies like man. Rabies may appear to be a prominent exception when it occurs in canines but the existence of asymptomatic infection in desmodid and insectivorous bats is now established (see Enright, 1956). The mild and sub-CliniCal diseases usuallY escape detection and biotests as well as antibody surveys are generally necessary. The necessary conditions of transmission exist in the infective process, e.g. the causative agent circulates in sufficient concentration in the blood to be taken up by the blood-sucking arthropod vector, or, is present in body tissues, secretions and excretions to be piCked up by other hosts or vectors. Sometimes, it is transmitted to the next generation via the placenta or is passed on to the offspring. Even minor alternations of conditions may cut

3.

4.

WPR/VPH/13 page the chain of infe~ion. Accurate information on transmission and the transmitting agents is there£ore of great importance. Some vectors are confined to a'single host, while others atta!ik..~:W0 or more hosts including man. The elimination or disappearance of the principal host and/or vector from a focus may not necessarily mean the disappearance of infeotion. Alternative hosts or vectors may take it up and maintain it. It is this ability of the infective agent to multiply in alternative hosts which makes it communicable to man Who is an accidental or secondary host • 'C'

5

5.

" ..

'"., '-. '

6. After man has picked up infection from a wild focus the following courses may be followed: (a) The infection may remain limited to the persons who picked it up from the natural- focus and may disappear from the community when this connexion ceases. (b) The infection may pass on from person to person by direct contact as in psittacosis and rabies. This is, however, very rare. (c) The vector in the sylvan focus may get imported along with the infection into a human settlement and circulate it in the susceptible population (oriental sore and Gambian trypanosomiasis). Alternatively, one of the urban vectors may start disseminating the infection (yellow fever). (d) In some cases, the domestic animals or those living in houses (rats) may take up the infection and replace wild animals as reservoirs (plague, Q fever, Mediterranean kala-azar, Chagas' diseases, etc). Q fever in its natural foci is circulated among rodents by ticks but in domestic animal reservoirs contact infection assumes much greater importance ~Stoker, 1955; Kaplan and Bertagna, 1955). 7. In same zoonoses for which both wild and domestic or domiciliated animal reservoirs exist, the clinical features of the disease contracted from the two sources differ,apparently due to modification of the virulence of the causal agent representing different degrees of adaptation. Sometimes the disease derived from different species of wild-animal reservoirs also differs in its severity for man. A few examples of the foregoing modifications may be cited as follows:

1

l .....

(a) Of'the African trypanosomiases, the more acute Rhodesian type occurs in thinly populated bush country abounding in wild ruminants and is transmitted by the game tsetse-fly (Glossina morsitans) from antelopes to man.' This trypanosome appears to be so far ill-adapted to the human host. The Gambian trypanosomiasis, on the other hand, is less acute and has a greater tendency to invade the nervous system. It occurs in relatively well populated localities with few wild animals and man to man infection transmitted by the tsetse-fly (G. palpalis) appears to be the rule (Hoare, 1955).

WPR/VPH/13 page 6 (b) Two types of oriental sore have been observed in Central Asia. A "moist" type occurs in the people of rural areas on the fringe of deserts and is contracted from gerbils (Rhombomys opimus) through the agency of sand-flies. The other is a chronic "dry" type, characterized by late ulceration. It occurs in urban areas and represents man to man infection through sand-flies with better adaptation to the human subject. The two types are also immunologically distinct\(Kojevnikov and others cited by Hoare, 1955). (c) The classical type of rabies, prevalent in most countries is caused by a virus adapted to canines (dogs, jackals, wolves and foxes). However, in South Africa, the disease has become so adapted to members of the mongoose family (Viverridae) that it remains restricted to areas inhabited by these animals, although it may be contracted from rodents and other mammals in the same area (Henning, 1956). The paralytic character of rabies derived from vampire bats (Desmodidae) in Central and South America is well known. Strains of the virus recently isolated from insectivorous bats have been found to be immunologically identical with the classical virus, but enough is not yet known about their ather biological properties (Enright, 1956). (d) The tick-borne encephalitis of the Far East and Siberia is attended with a higher mortality rate than this disease in Central Europe. Another clinical form of the disease described under the name "biphasic meningoencephalitis" (Smordintsiev, 1958) is transmitted through drinking infected goat1s milk in addition to the usual mode of transmission through ticks. The Rocky Mountain spotted fever of the Bitter Root Valley is distinctly more fatal than that occuring in the neighbouring state of Idaho. This difference has been attri:)uted to the presence of a greater variety of small mammals, in the former area, which keeps its adaptability stronger than in Idaho, where only one or two small rodent species are available for holding the infection (Burnet, 1953b). 8. The original source of infection of the natural enzootic foci is to be looked for, in the reciprocal evolution of the reservoir host in relation to its parasites and other animals in the environment. In certain diseases such as plague, Q fever, rabies and certain parasitic infestations, the infection transported by man and domestic animals may get established in a previously "clean" local fauna. Sometimes human agency brings about such changes in the fauna of a locality as favour the maintenance and spread of zoonoses. For example, the introduction of the Javan mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) into the Caribbean islands and ferrets into Cuba, for the biological control of rats, was followed by a greatly increased incidence of rabies. Occasionally, man deliberately spreads infection among wild animals which pass it back to him. The use of bacterial rodenticides containing Salmonella enteritidia may be cited as an example (Jordan, 1925; Brown & Parker, 1957). ;i

,

.

.. II

JI

II

II

9. Vertebrate reservoirs of some diseases, especially birds, migrate over long distances, and may carry the causal organism from one area to another. "

,.,

page 7 In some cases, they may carry such "reservoir" parasites as ticks !':rom one country to the other. The Animal Groups Concerned The vertebrate animals concerned in the maintenance and spread of zoonoses are numerous. As many as 372 species of reservoir hosts have been listed for plague alone (Machiavello, 1955) and a large number of species have been found to carry rabies, psittacosis (ornithosis), arthropo~ borne encephalitides, etc. UsualJ,y, however, a few species play a predominant role in maintaining infection in a focus and the others get infected from them incidentallY. The largest number of reservoir species are found among mammals particularlY rodents, carnivores, monkeyy, ungulates and bats. The birds are concerned mainq with virus infections of the nervous and respiratory infections. The reptiles and fishes are of minor importance; they act as intermediate hosts for some animal parasites. Specialized literature on animal reservoirs is scanty. A few faunal lists of reservoirs of particular diseases have been putlished but information on their biology is widely scattered, except for certain groups such as rats. Information given in scme medical, pu~~lic health and veterinary text-books is generallY inadequate, is often inaccurate, and shows disregard of the rules of nomenclature. Many of the treatises on zoonoses also are contented with using such general terms' as "wild mammals", "birds", umonkeys" etc., no douLt, for the sake of brevity. It will help to create interest in animal reservoirs if available information on their biology is collected together and published. It wi:Q. also lead to a better coverage in text-books. The ecology of m.arv of the animals concerned has Leen studied for reasons other than their implication in carrying human disease. This information is scattered in·scientific literature and may not l e easily availatle to puLlic health liorkers, though it is of great interest to them. It should 1:e included in .the proposed publication, preferably on regional b~sis. The Factors to be Studied In this note, the factors which should receive attention in ecological studies of enzootic foci at'e stated only broadly. The usual starting point is provided ty the existence of a zoonosis in the human population. The animal reservoirs are looked for l..y the usual methods of epidemiological investigation. When an animal carrying the causal organism or the specific antibody has teen found, ecological studies are started, though the decision as to which is the prinCipal reservoir has to be deferred till other animal species in the area have been examined. After one such focus has been studied to a reasonable extent .. the disease can te looked for in other areas with similar biotic and physical features.

WPR/VPH/13

I~

._..iI<'-

WPR/VPH/13 page 8 The ecological study will generally include the following itemss 1. Careful identification of the animal co~erned and of all other animals in its immediate environment, including its parasites. For this purpose, the help of taxonomic experts in a museum or other such institution is generally necessary until a named reference collection for comparison has been built up locally. A very important part of this work is the proper preservation and preparation of the material required for identification. 2. Life-history studies with special reference to the relative susceptibilitf and capability of each stage to support and pass on infection. The rearing tecbniques developed will also 1:e useful i f the animal is found suitable for experimental work.

~-'

·0

3.

The statistics and qynamics of the population of the reservoir host and vector are of great importance. The biotic, climatic and physical characteristics of the environment.

4. 5.

Animal inter-relationships with special attention to enemies, predators

and parasites. In this respect, the role of man and domestic animals is not to ue overlooked. 6. FJod, and host predilections in case of fLrasitic animals.

7. Survey of the tissues of hosts and parasites for the presence and concentration of the causal organism and for morbid changes, if any. 8. Serological surveys of vertebrate animals for antibodies.

9. Ecological study of the vector, i f <ny, and capability of the infective agent to multiply in its tissues. Someti.rnes minor changes of environment may throw the vector out of gear and treak the chain of infection, thus indicating a simple method of control. At times, only particular races of the vector are capable of disseminating infection, and the same species mqy act as a vector in one locality but not in the other. 10. The recent large-scale use of insecticides against arthropod vectors has imderlined the necessity of ecological studies l efore undertaking such expensive operations (Goodwin, 1958). In some cases, resistance to insecticides has been found to be due to changes in resting habits, dispersal proclivity and other aspects of t'ehaviour (11 behavioural resistance") (Hess, 1952;1953). Organization of Ecological Surveys Team-work is nowhere as essential investigating enzootic foci in complex banks, swamps, ponds, deserts, fields, necessary to secure the cooperation of as in ecological surveys. In environments such as forests, riv~ and outskirts of villages, it is epidemiologists, microbiologists,

'-

WPR/vPH/13 taxonomists, ecologists and parasitologists. A botanist may look at the vegetation and the help of a geologist and a climatologist may be needed on occasion. In actual practice, a very elaborate and expensive organization is not necessary. A few trained and, what is more important, interested field workers with proper equipment and the backing of a museum and efficient laboratory service, can accomplish a lot. The large amount of work done by the Ameri can Namru-3 in Egypt and neighbouring countries can be cited as an example (Hoogstraal, 1958). general~

page 9

Many countries have a number'of naturalists who take interest and pleasure in the study of wildlife. During the last two hundred years, they have made important contriLutions to several fields in biology. MaIv of them may be induced to take' up the study of vertebrates am vectors of importance in public health. They could be organized to form a club or society of public health ecologists and assisted with loan of literature and equipment.

I

Apart from the compilation of information on the biology and ecology of animal reservoirs already suggested, illustrated field guides to collection and preliminary field i1enti£ication of var:,.ous groups of animals stimulate and facilitate the study of wild-life. Their production in areas where they are not available needs to ce encouraged.

Swnmary 1. Information on the ecology of wild-animal reservoirs of zoonoses in most areas of the world is meagre. Appraisals made during the last two decades have further stressed that lack of this information has led to hesitation and failure in controlling and eradicating these diseases from many areas.

2. In a few instances, e ecological studies and methods have provided a basis for successful eradication. In some diseases, it has been possible to recognize the existence of enzootic foci in nature, from the character of soil, vegetation, topography and other environmental peculiarities (II landscape epidemiology" - PavlovskY).

,-

3. Obvious~ there is need for the extensive application of the ecological method to the study and control of zoonoses with wild reservoir hosts, particularly in vectored diseases am in areas in which this method has not been applied. 4~ Apart from their avplication in control and eradication work, other expected results of such studies are the discovery of new zoonoses and acquisition of fundamental knowledge capable of ueing utilized in other fHeds of biology. The finding of new experimental animals for laboratory studies of disease, etc. can also be expected.

i

WPR/VPH/13 page 10

5. The main general characters of zoonoses having wild reservoir hosts have been enumerated with a view to underline the importance of the items proposed for study. A list of the principal diseases in this group has been appended. 6. Ecological studies of an enzootic focus would include taxonomy of all vertebrates and their parasites, population and life"-history studies on reservoir hosts, food and anir.al inter-relationships. A similar study of vectors, if any, would also 'Je carried out.

I

I

7.

The tissues and excretions of the reservoirs and vectors would te surveyed for the causal organism and other evidences of infection like morbid changes and antitodies.

8. This work demands the cooperation of epidemiologists, microbiologists, ecologists, paraSitologists, botanists and occasionally of geologists and climatologists. In practice, a few interested and well equipped field workers backed by a good museum and laboratory service can accomplish a lot. Such teams should form an essential part of a public health organization.

II I I

II

9. Naturalists should be encouraged to study wild reservoirs and vectors, if feasible, by loan of literature and equipment and may be organized to form clubs or societies of public health ecologists. Available information on the biology and ecology of reservoir hosts needs to be compiled, preferably on regional basis, and made available to workers in the area. Production of field guides containing instructions on col~ction, preservation and preliminary identification of animals should be encouraged, particularly for areas in which they are not availacle. 10. 11.

" II

II

" "

"

Instances are known where introduction of new hosts for biological control of vermin has led to an increase in the incidence of zoonoses (e.g. rabies in the Caribbean area). Careful ecological studies are warranted before the introduction of new animals in an area. Also, the' use of bacterial vermin killers like rat baits containing Salmonella. which are likely to infect man, should be prohibited. Appendix List of Principal Zoonoses with Wild Animal Reservoirs 1. 2.

Arthropod-borne encephalitides and related virus infections Rabies Yellow fever ~phocytic

3. 4. 5.

choriomeningitis

,.,.. ,

Encephalo~ocarditis

wm/VPH/13 page 11

6. Rift Valley fever

7. Wasselsbron fever 8. Psittacosis (ornithosis) Murine typhus 10. 11. 12. 13. Tick-borne typhus fevers Tsutsugamushi fever Q fever

Rickettsialpox

14. Leptospiroses 15. Relapsing ft~er

16. Salmonellosis 17. 18. /

Plague Tularaemia Pseudotuberculosis Rat-bite f6ver Toxoplasmosis Leishmaniases - Kala-azar, espundia and oriental sore Typanosomiases - African and South American Far Eastern schistosomiasis Fasciolopsis infestation

19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

26. Hydatid disease 27. 28. 29. Hymenolepsi s infestation Strongyloides infestation Trichinellosis

30. Extoparasites (ticks, mites, fleas, flies and bugs) 31. ~asis

WPR/VPH/13 page 12

"

II REFERENCES Audy, J.R. (1958). Trans. Roy. Soc. troPe Med. Hyg., 52, 308--334 Bardos,

v.

(1957) Ceskoslov E idemiol. Mikrobiol. Immunol. ~ 381-391 ~,

Brown, C. M. & Parker, MrT. (1957) Lancet,

1277-1279

Burnet, F.M. (1953a) Brit, mad. Bull. 9, 17J..176 n

(1953b) The Natural History of Infectious Disease. Cambridgel The University Press

Dick, G.W.A. (1953) Brit, med. Bull. 9, 215-220 Eldund, C. M. (1953) Ann. Rev. Microbiol.

1z.

339-360

Enright, J.B. (1956) Ann. Rev. ¥ucrobio1. 10, 369-392 F1qyd, T.M. & Hoogstraal, H. (1954) J. Hyg. (Lond.) 52, Goodwin, M. H. (1958). Ecology, 39, 162-165 Henning, M. W. (1956) Animal Diseases in South Africa, Cape Town Hess, A.D. (1952). Amer. J. troPe Med. Hyg., !L 371-388; (1953), ~ 311-317 n

516..~

and Holden, P. (1958).

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 70, 294-0311

Hoare, C. A. (1955) Vet. Rev. 1, 62-68 Hoeden, J. van der (1954). J. info Dis., ~

213 Artr~0pod-borne

Hoogstraa1, H. (1958) Re§earch on Arthropods, of Ectoparasites. Cairo Jordan, E.O. (1925) J. infect. Dis. 36, 309

Diseases

Kaplan, M. M. & Bertagna, P. (1955) Bull. WId HUh Org. 13. S29-860 Kartman, L., Prince, F. M., Quan, S.F. and stark, H.E. (1958). Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 70, 668-711. Machiave110, A. (1955) J. troPe Med. Hyg. M~,

2ZL 12 parts

J. M. (1950). Geogr. Rev., 40, 9-41

Mayer, K. F. (1947) Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 48, 429-468

wm/vpH/J3 page J3 Mayer, K. F. (1954) Bull. Wld Hlth Org., 10, 845-866 n

(1957) Amer. J. publ. HUh., 47, 1003-1092

Neri, W. (1956) Igiene mod., 49, 1059-1092 Pavlovsky, E. N., Petrishcheva, P.A., Zasushkin, D. N. and 01suf t eve N.G. (Eds.) (1955). Natural Nidi of human Diseases and re ional Epidemiology In Russian. 532 pp. Leol,ngrad: Medgiz. Abstracts in Rev. Appl. Ent., B, 44, 145-158; and Trop. Dis. Bull. 52, 1266. Sarwar, M.M. (1956) Final Report of the Scheme for the Control of Liverfluke Infestation, etc. Lahore Smithburn, K. C. (1952) J. Immunol., 68, 441-460 Smordintsiev, A. (1958) Note communicated to the Study Group on the Control of Neurotropic Virus Diseases. Copenhagen stoker, M. G. P. & Marmion, B. P. (1955) Bull. W'ld. Hlth Org., 13, 7Sl-~ Taylor, R. M., Hurlbut, H. S., Work, T. H. Kingston, J. R. & Forthingan, T.E. (1955) Amer. J. trop. Med. Hyg., ~ 844-862 II

, Work, T. H., Hurlbut, H. S. and Rizk, F. (1956). Ibid.,

2L

579-620

Rodenwaldt, E. (Ed.) (1954 et seq.). Welt-Seuchen Atlas. Atals of Epidemic Diseases. Hamburg Work, T. H. & Trapido, H. (1957) Indian J. med. Sci., il, 341-342.

,

"

WORLD HEALTH OIGANIZATlON SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PACIRC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACIAQUE OCCIDENTAL

•

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANti

WPR/VPH/l4 31 March 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

--

THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF LEPTOSpmOOIS IN THE UNITED STATES

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO WIll) f..NIM".1 RESERVOmS by

James H. Steele, D.V.l'!., M.P.H.

*

*Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Heal. th Service, Bureau of State Services, Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, Georgia.

WPR/VPH/14 page 1 INTRODUCTION Our current knowledge strongly indicates a rather marked increase in the prevalence of leptospirosis in both humans and animals over the past decade. This increase may be accounted for, in part, by a greater awareness of the disease but not entire~. It has been established that the epidemiology of the leptospiroses will follow a characteristic pattern based primarily upon the fact that they are zoonoses, diseases transmitted from animal to animal and from animal to human. Although this basic pattern has not changed, what are the conditions that have favored this increase in the spread of leptospirosis? Certain evidence is being accumulated which suggests the occurrence of changing conditions.

For many years rats and dogs were considered to be the primary animal carriers of leptospires but as the search for these organisms continues 1 the host range broadens not only among domestic animals but in a variety of wild mammals. Leptospirosis now constitutes a major problem in cattle and swine, and in serne areas sheep, goats and horses become infected. The rat is one'of_~any rodent carriers including many species 0f mice, ~oles and shrews. In addition bats, mongoo~es, bandicoots, 4 jackals; foxes, OppOSUMS 1 raccoons, skunks and wildcats have been found infected. In these host animals, leptospires become localized in the kidneys and may be founn in the lumina of the convoluted tubules. After acute or even inapparent infection, these animal carriers may become urinary shedders and serve as important foci. Infections of humans and other animals may result from direct or indirect contact with infected urine of these chedders. Each leptospiral serotype usual~ is thought to have a primary animal host but they may infect other animals, and a so-called primary host far one serotype may become infected with other serotypes or even harbor two types at one time.? A classic example of this is L. canicola found principally in dogs; it has been isolated from cattle, 8,9 swine, 10 jackals,5 and hedgehogs, II and serologic evidence suggests it may infect raccoons, 12 while dogs have been found to harbor at least nine other serotypes including ~. pomona. 13,l4 In the U.S. extensive studies on leptospirosis in domestic animals during the past decade have shown that it is a serious problem in cattle,15 swine, 16 and dogs. 17 However, until recently investigations on potential wildlife reservoirs have been limited to rodents, particularly the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). 18,19 In 1953, Yager et al 20 conducted an epidemiological investigation of possible wildlife carriers of ~. pomona in an endemic area of bovine leptospirosis in Virginia. L. ballum was recovered from one of two opossums (Didelphia virginiana) and-from 9 of 27 house mice (~musculus). This represented the first reported isolation of k. ballum from the opossum. They concluded that the failure to detect ~. pomona in the rodent and other wildlife population in the area provided ancillary

WPR/VPH/14 page 2

evidence that the natural hosts of this serotype were primarily in the livestock population. Investigations concerning possitle wildlife reservoirs of leptospires were initiated t),f the Communicable Disease Center in 1953 at Newton, Georgia. During the first two years these studies were confined to rats and mice. ~l L. ba11um was found frequent~ in house mice and occasionally in the roof rat \Rattus rattus), cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) and the old-field mouse (Peromyscus polionotus), but no other serotypes were encountered. During a 6-month period ending in March 1956, 6 820 marrmals including 14 speCies were trapped in different areas of six southwest Georgia counties and suspensions of the kidneys were cultured. Leptospires·were isolated from 44 (5.4%). Of these, 16 proved to be ~. hallum, 14 were ~. pomona, two were ~. australis A, two were ~. grippotyphosa, two proved to be a new serotype of the mitis-byos serogroup tentatively designated as~. bakeri 22 and two belonged to the hebdomadia eerogroup. Two additional cultures were found to belong to the mitis-byos group but are not identical with L. mitis, ~. ~, .!!. bakeri or with each other. Of the remaining four, two were lost prior to serotyphin and the identification of two has not been completed. In this series, opossums, raccoons, striped skunks, foxes and·wildcats were found to harbor one or more of these leptospiral serotypes. These five species represented 79 percent of the individuals examined. None of the infected animals showed ar~ clinical signs of leptospirosis and no gross kidney lesions were observed. Only four of the 44 infected animals were determined to be less than one year old. The highest incidence of infection appeared in striped skunks, with isolations from 18 (14%) of 132 animals. It is notable that 11 (61%) of these cultures proved to be f. pomona. On one farm in Peach County, Georgia, 67% of a herd of 96 beef cattle showed high agglutinin titers to ~. pomona and five of the cows had aborted. Eighteen wild animals were trapped on this farm and f. pomona was isolated from two striped skunks. It is interesting that cultures of f. grippot~yhosa were isolated from raccoons trapped within 50 miles of a Florida farm on which cattle showed antibodies to L. grippotyphosa in 1952.23 The areas studies represented three groups of predOminant vegetative cover: pine, pine and hardwoods, and pastures and cultivated fields. There was no great difference among the vegetative types in incidence of infection of the animals cultured. Subsequent studies at this Station during the next 18 months snowed the highest frequency of infection in the opossum, striped skunk and raccoon, although occasional isolations have been obtained from the spotted skunk, the gray fox, the wildcat and the cottontail rabbit. It is interesting that six of seven isolations of the hebdomadis serogroup strain were from raccoons.

wmjlJPH/14 page :3 These studies 24 have also yielded seven isolations of b. autumnalia from raccoons trapped within a two mile area and one from an opossum.· This represented the first reported animal host for this serotype in the U.S. although it has been isolated from rodents in Japan 25 and dogs 26 and bandicoots in Malaya. L. autumnalis was first identified in this country by Gochenour et al 27 in 1950 as the cause of outbreaks of a febrile illness that occurred among troops at Ft. Bragg, North Carolina during the summers of 1942~ 1943 and 1944. The agent was isolated from one of the acutely i l l patients by Tatlock 28 and maintained by passage in guinea pigs and hamsters for seven years. This possibility of an animal host of this serotype was not investigated during the Ft. Bragg outbreaks or after the causative agent was established. However, in October 1957 a limited study 29 yielded leptospires from the kidneys of 10 (11.7%) of 84 wild animals trapped in this area. The infected animals included five raccoons, three gr~ foxes and two red faxes. Three of the leptospiral strains isolated belong the the australis A (Ballico) serogroup and seven are members of the grippotyphosa serogroup. While an animal host of L. autumnalis was not established during this limited study, leptospiral infection among the wild animal population appeared more prevalent than in the southwest Georgia area. More recently, cultural and serological studies 300n 131 wild mammals and rodents of 13 different species in Oregon yielded no isolations and only six in which leptospiral antibodies were demonstrated. Certain~, these results suggest a low prevalence of leptospirosis in the wild animals of that particular area. However, it should ce noted that leptospiral antibodies against b. seiroe were detected in 20 of 173 bovine serums obtained from the same area. In January 1958, the Division of Wildlife and the Division of Animal Industry of the Ohio Department of Agriculture, reported on the progress of their cooperative serological survey 31 to detect the prevalence of leptospirosis in wild animals in the state. The microscopic agglutination test with live antigens of b. pomona and f. icterohemorrhagiae was used to examine 932 serums from 14 animal species. The samples were obtained from 39 different counties. Leptospiral antibodies of 1;100 or greater for f. pomona were detected in 43 (19%) of 224 samples from deer; 16 (22%) of 70 serums from raCcoons; 14 (25%) of 55 serums from foxes; 6 (54%) of 11 serums from skunks; 1 (0.7%) of 142 serums from mice and 1(2.3%) of 43 serums from opossums. Bohl and Ferguson 32 in 1952 presented serological evidence suggesting that infection with~. pomona is widespread among cattle, swine and horses in Ohio. With the increase in the deer population observed in recent years in many areas of the U.S. and a lack of knowledge concerning prevalence of leptospirosis in deer, other states have directed their attention toward this possible wildlife reservoir. In Illinois, 33 serum samples from 243 deer collected in 13 counties were examined by the microscopic agglutination test with live antigens of b. canicola, ,begrinpotyphosa, ~. ic~erohemorrhagiae, L.~omona and L. seiroe. Of these, 10.2% were positive of~. pomona and to L. grippotyphosa in titers of 1,100 or greater. In a~dition t~ese serums were tested for Brucella antibodies and all were negat~ve. Dur1ng

t

9.

WlR/VPH/14 page 4 1957 in Illinois, 26,)76 cattle and 1~,746 swine were tested against several serotypes of leptospires and 18.5% and 9.2% respectively were found to contain antibodies. The majority of positive reactions were to ~. pomona but a number of the cattle serums from widely separated areas of the state showed titers above 1:100 to f. grippotyphosa and ~. sejroe and low titers were observed with h. canicola and~. icterohemorrbagiae ru1tigens. Similar experience with deer serum samples has been reported from Minnesota by Wedman and Driver. 34 Sixteen percent of 187 serums from deer showed titers to l:!. pomona (the only leptospiral antigen used). Since the presence of diseases of domestic animals in wildlife concerns both agricultural and conservation and game manabement groups, it is important to consider the relationship of deer to domestic animals. With this in mined, a joint state project supported by the Southeastern ~ssociation of Game and Fish Commissioners and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, to study deer diseases in 11 southeastern states was initiated recently in the School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. Emphasis was placed first upon a serological survey to detect the prevalence of antibodies to brucella and leptospires in deer serums. A preliminarJ report 35 on the examination of 403 serum samples from white-tailed deer in 10 states revealed leptospiral antibodies inl.7J% and 0.25% to brucella. During these studies a commercially prepared h. pomona plate ar~igen was used, later microscopic slide antigens for 11 other leptospiral serotypes were included. Shortly after testing with additional antigens started, the serum from one deer was found positive to L. australis A (Ballico antigen. Microscopic agglutination test with live L. australis A antigen in t he Leptospira Research Baboratory, COC, Chamblee,-Ga. revealed a titer of 1:512. As mentioned previous~, members of this serogroup have been isolated from raccoons, opossums and gray faxeg in the U. S. and serological evidence has suggested infection in humans. 3 Concern among cattlemen in Washington regarding the possibility of wild waterfowl serving as a source of leptospiral infection in cattle stimulated workers at the State College of Washington, College of Veterinary Medicine to study the problem. Gillespie et a1 37 demonstrated ~. pomona antibodies in serums from chickens on a ranch where active bovine leptospirosis was diagnosed. Antibodies for f. pomona developed when water contaminated with urine from a cow with leptospiruria was fed to ch:"c,;ens and ducks but they were unable to i~Qlate leptospires from the excreta of these birds. 38 Similarly, Chalquest j~ Was able to produce f. pomona antibodies in 4 of 6 white leghorn cockerels; 2 of 3 nungarian partridges; 1 of 8 Pekin ducks; and 2 ringnecked pheasants followiP€ the administration in drinking water of urine from a heifer .vi th leptospiruria. Again, leptospires were not demonstrated in the EOCcreta of these birds. It should be mentioned however, that recently Babudieri40 has reported the isolation of L. bataviae from 5 wading birds captured in the ricefields of Italy. Lepto~:.~ires were observed in cultures from 12 of 100 birds but contaminating organisms prevented isolation from 7 of these cultures.

. I

II

,

,

, ,

, I

,I

II

II , , II

II

?

'

WiR/VPH/U. page

5

Fositive cultures were obtained from the kidneys, liver, heart and intestines of the birds eX8nined. The following species were incriminated as carriers: Ardea cinerea, a heron; Ardetta minuta, little bittern (Ixobrychus minutus*)c Herodies yazzetta. little egret (Egretta garzetta) Hidrochelidon nigra, black tern Childonias nigra) and GallinulA chloropus, moorhen. These are all migratory birds and leave It~ in the fall for South and Central Africa. Thus, the author suzgests that if they can remain carriers of leptospires for long periods they may serve nat on~ as local sources of infection but also possibl¥ trans,;dt leptospirosis between distant countries. DISCUSSION Recent surveys to determine the prevalence of leptospires· and leptospiral antibodies in wild animals in widely separated areas of the U. S. have established the existence of leptospirosis in a variety of species. Little is known of the nature of leptospiral. infection in these wild animals, the duration of the carrier state or their role in the possible transmission of the disease to humans and to domestic animals. ObviousJ;y, further re-search is needed to clarify these facts. Certain environnental factors such as temperature of 22 C., moist neutral or slightly alkaline soils and water are known to favor the spread of le"tospires. This lends credence to our belief that the apparent existence of an epizootic or panzootic period of the leptospiroses may be attributed largely to changing environmental conditions lotlich are more favorable to the survival of the leptospires. Parnas in Poland 4L has observed that leptospirosis belongs to the group of diseases in which development and outbreaks depend largeJ;y on atmospheric conditions and frequency with which these corrlitions appear. He explained the high frequency of swamp fever (!!. grippotyphosa infection) in one local area in 1955 compared to its rare occurrence in 1956 and 1957 by climatic conditions prevailip-g at that period. Optimum meteorological conditions for the survival of leptospires occurred in the spring and summer of 1955 but in 1956 and 1957 he noted considerable variations which apparently created unfavorable conditions for the leptospires. Cultural and/or serological studies on humans and cattle in the U. S. have indicated that infection occurs in both with most all of the serotypes that have been found in wild na.amm.als. Further, it has been firmly established that the transmission of leptospirosis is dependent upon an animal carrier that is shedding leptospires in the urine; contamination of an environment suitable for the survival of the organisms by the infected urine and direct or indirect contact with these organisms b,y a susceptible human or animal. What part do these wild ani.mal reservoirs play in the chain of transmission? Are they an important link? As recently pointed out b,y Ferris,33 the complex.ities of the problem in deer extend into conservation, agriculture, vaterinary medicine and public health. Hasty action for control not based upon ade-quate research may result in loss or : injustice to one or more of the groups concerned. Certainly, the same ms.v be said of other wild animal species until more information has been obtained.

J

WPR/VPH/14 Page 6

It may be concluded that the wide distribution of leptospires in the wild animal population throughout the world presents a real problem in our efforts to control the disease in both humans and domestic animals. Therefore, in spite of recent somewhat encouraging results with ~&ccines, leptospiresis may be expected to continue to occur for many years to come.

II II

"

'. REFERENCES 1. 2. Gsell, 0., & Weismann, E.: Leptospirosis, med. Wchnschr., 78:503, 1948. ~.

WPR/VPH/14 page 7

Mitis. Schweiz.

Krasilnikov, A. P.,: Natural reservoirs of infection of leptospirosis in the Beloroussian S.S.R. J. }acrobiol., Epidemiol. & Immunobiol., 28:50, 1957. Kmety, E.: Lcptospirosenherde in der Slowakei. Bakt., 163:464, 1955. ZentraJ.bl.

3.

4. Alexander, A.D., Wetmore, P.W., Evans, L.B., Jeffries, H. and Gleiser, C.A.: Classification of leptospiral isolates from Malqya, Thailand and North Borneo. Am. J. Trop. Med., 4:492, 1955. 5. Van Der Hoeden, J.: Epizootiology of leptospirosis (Canicola) in the bovine and other species in Israel. J. Am. Vet. M. A., 126: 207, 1955. McKeever, S., Gorman, G.W., Chapman, J. F., Galton, M.M. and Powers, D. K.: Incidence of leptospirosis in wild mammals from southwestern Georgia with a report of new hosts for six serotypes of Leptospirae. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. November 1958, 7:646-655. Yager, R. H.: Epidemiology of the leptospiroses. N. Y. Acad. Med., 29:650-651, 1953. Bull.

6.

7. 8.

Turner, L. W., Roberts, C. S., Wiggins, A. M., Alexander, A. D. and Murphy, L. C.: Leptospira canicola infection in anewborn calf. Am. J. vet. Res., 19:780_784, 1958. Van Der Hoeden, J.: Leptospira canicola in cattle. Camp. Path., 65:278, 1955.

9. 10.

J. of

".'

Ward, M. K., McDaniel, M.B., Tatum, H. W., Starr, L. E., and Williams, H. It. t An epidemic of canicola fever in man with the demonstration of Leptospira canicola iruection in dogs, swine and cattle. II. LEcoratory studied. Am. J. Hyg., 64:59, 1956. Van der Hoeden, J. : Never knowledge of Leptospira serotypes and their vectors in Israel. Bull. of the Res. Council of Israel, Section E. Exp.Med. 6E: No.3, December 1957.

11.

12. Reil]y, J .R.: The raccoon as a wildlife reservoir of Leptospira canicola. N. Y. Fish and Fame J. 1:220, 1954.

WPR/VPH/14 Page 8

13. Alexander, A. D., Gleiser, C. A., Malnati, P. and Yoder, H.: Observations of the prevalence of leptospirosis in canine populations of the United States. Am. J. Hyg., 65:43-56, 1957. 14. Murphy, L. C., Cardeilhac, P. T., i.lexander, .b..D., Evans, L. B. am Marchwicki, R. H.: Prevalence of aggultinins in canine serums to serotypes other than Leptospira canicola and Leptospira icterohemorrhagiae. Report of isolation of Leptospira" pomona from a dog. Am. J. Vet. Res., 19,

145-151, 1958. 15. United States ilepartment of Lgriculture, Agricultural Research Service.: Losses in agriculture. A preliminary appraisal for review. 129, 1954.

16. Bryan, H. S.: Leptospirosis of domestic livestock. Vet. Med., 52:535-536, 1957. 17. Mosier, J.E.: Leptospirosis of pet animals. 537-539, 1957. 18. Davis, David E.: Vet. Med., 52:

The relation between level of population and prevalence of leptospira, salmonella and capillaries in Norway rats. Ecology. 32:465-46S, 1951.

19. 20.

stoenner, H.G.: The sylvatic and ecological aspects of leptospirosis. Vet. Med., 52:553-555, 1957. Yager, RoH., Gochenour, I'J.S., Jr., Alexander, A.D. and Wetmore, p.-d.: Natural occurrence of Leptospira baLlum in rural mice and in an opossum. Froc. Soc. Exptl. BioI. Med., 84:589-590, 1953. Brown, R.Z., and Gorman, G.W.: The occurrence of leptospirosis in feral rodents in southwestern Georgia. £.m. J. Publ. Health. In press, 1958 Galton, M.M., Powers, D. K., McKeever, S. and Gorman, G.W.I The identification of two leptospiral serotypes neW to the United States. Public Health Repts. U. S., 72:431-

21.

22.

435, 1957. 23. Galton, M. M., Acree, J. A., Lewis, A. and Frather, E.G.: Leptospirosis in domestic anin~s in Florida"with referenc e to cat tIe. J. Am. Vet. i1ed. lis so c., 128: 87-91

1956. 24. McKeever, S., Gorman, G.W., Galton, M.H. and Hall, A.D.: The raccoon PyrosYon ~ as a natural host of Leptospira autumnalis. Am. J. Hyg., 66:13, 1958.

,

. WPR/VPH/14 page 25. 26. Van Thiel, P. H. 1948. The Leptospiroses. Pers Leiden. Netherlands. Universitaire 9

'. Fletcher, William. Recent work on Leptospirosis, Tsutsuga.mushi disease, and Tropical Typhus in the Federated Malay States. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. l\Yg. 21: 265-287, 1928.

27.

Gochenour, W. S., Jr., J. E. Smadel, E. B. Jackson, L. B. Evans and R. H. Yager. 1952. Leptospiral etiology of Fort Bragg Fever. Public Health Rep. U. s. 67: 811.-814. Tatlock, H. 1947. Studies on a virus from a patient'with Fort Bragg Fe.ver (Pretibial Fever). J. Clin. Invest. 26:2~-297.

28.

29.

Galton, M. M., N. Hicrchberg, R. W. Menges, M. Hines and R. Habermann. An Investigation of Possible Wild Animal Hosts of Leptospires in the area of the nFort Bragg Feverll outbreaks. Presented before Laboratory Section, American Public Health Assoc. 86th Annual Meeting, Oct. 29, 1958, St. Louis, Mo. Menges, R. W. and Galton, M. M. An Investigation of Wild Animals for Leptospirosis in Klamath County, Oregon. Microtus Studies. 1957-1958. Oregon State College Bulletin. In Press - 1958. Animal Disease Trends, Leptospirosis Surve,r. Ohio Dept. of Agri. Ohio Dept. of Health. Vol. 6, No.1, Januar,y 1958. Bohl, E. H. and Ferguson, L. C. Leptospirosis in Domestic Animals. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assn. ~:421-428, 1958. FerriS, D. H_, Hanson, L. E., Alberts, J. O. Calhoun, J. C. and Marlowe, R. Epizootiological Studies on Leptospira in Illinois. I. Serological tests on Illinois deer in 1957. Presented at t he Conference for Teachers of Veterinar,r Public Health and Preventive Medicine and Public Health Workers, Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, Ga., June 18, 1958. Wadman, E. E., and Driver, F. C. Leptospirosis and brucellosis titers in deer blood. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assn. 130:513--514, 1957.

30.

31. 32. 33.

34.

,

,

wm/VPH/14 page 10

35.

llJ.otts, E. B., Greer, W. E. and Hayes, F. A. A preliminary survey of the incidence of brucellosis and leptospirosis m ong white-tailed deer (Odocoileusvirginianus) of the Southeast. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assn. 133:359-361, 1958. Starr, L. E., Galton, i'i. N., Ammons, J., LeMaistre, C. and Menges, R. W. Leptospira australis infection in the U. S. with serologic evidence of a human case. Presented before Biology Section, Southern Branch, American PuLlic Health Association, May 8, 1958, Little Rock, l~k. . F. K. Studies on bovine leptospirosis. III. Isolation of Leptospira ~mona from surface waters. Amer. Jour. Vet. Res. 18:7 80, 1957.

36.

37. Gillespie, R.W.H., Kenzy, S. G., Ringen, L. M. & Bracken,

38.

Kenzy, S. G. and Gillespie, R.W.H. Failure of Infected ducks to tran31lit Leptospira pomona to c~ves. Vet. Med. 31

310-311, 1957. 39. Chalquest, R. R. Experimental infection of birds with Leptospira pomona present in bovine urine and preliminary studies on their role in transmission of leptospirosis. Poultry Sci. 36:110-113, 1957.

40.

Babudieri, B. Wild t1rd8 as carri8rs of pathogenic leptospires. S,vrnposium on Leptospirae and Leptospirosis of Man and Animals. Ministry of Health, Lublin, Poland, December 5-7,

1958.

41. Parnas, Jozef, Leptospirosis and climatic and meterological factors. Symposium on Leptospirae and Leptospirosis of Man and Animals. Minist:r.r of Health, Lublin, Poland, December 5-7, 1958.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

SEI1INl'.. R ON VETERINl'.RY PUBLIC HEALTH REGIONAL OFACE FOR THE WESTERN PACIAC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL

•

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANti

WPR/V'HI/15 3 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 11pril - 1 Hay 1959

JAPANESE VETERINii.RY PUBLIC HEALTH LEGISLit.TION The Law Relating to the Processing Plant of Dead Animals and others

WPR/VHf/15 page 1 The law Relating to the Processing Plant of Dead Animals and Others (law No. 140 of July 12, 1948) Amendments I 1st 2nd 3rd 4th ...... 1£1w Inw Law law No. No. No. No. 26 of March 28, 1950, 114 of August 1, 1953, 163 of June 8, 1954, 131 of June 6, 1956.

Article 1. "Domestic animals" in this law shall be construed to mean cows, horses, pigs, sheep and goats. 2. "Dead animals" in this law shall be construed to mean the domestic animals Which have died. 3. "Processing plant of dead animals" in this law shall be construed to means the plant dealing with dead animals and the rendering plant. 4. "Plant dealing with dead animals" in this Law shall be construed to mean the faCility or the area established for the purpose of dissecting, burying, or burning out of the dead animals and Which is approved by the governor of urban or local prefecture as the plant dealing with dead animals. 5. "Rendering plant" in this Law shall be constw.ed to mean the facility established tor the purpose ot manufacturing leather, oil and fats, glue, fertilizer, feed and other things out of the flesh, skin, bone or intestines etc. of domestic animals and ~ich is approved by the governor of urban or local prefecture as the renderiDg plant. A.rticle 2. The dissection, burial or burning out ot dead animals, shall not be carried out in the facility or area other than the plant dealing with dead anim..lls~ However, this shall not apply to the case when the dissection is done for es ting purpose and when the governor of urban or local prefecture has given the approval. 2. The manufacturing of leather, oil and fats, glue, fertilizer, feed and other things out of flesh, skin, bone or intestines of domestic animals shall not be carried out in the facility other than the rendering plant. Article 3. Those who are going to establish the plant dealing with dead animals or the rendering plant shall obtain the approval of the governor of urban or local prefecture, in accordance with the proVisions of the Ministerial Ordinance. 2. The same shall apply to those ~o are going to change the facility or area of the processing plant of dead animals established under the provision of the preceding paragraph.

WPR/VH!/15 page 2 Artiole 4. The goveroor of urban or local prefecture may not give the approval under the preceding Article, in case the place of the establishment of the processing plant of dead animals comes under anyone of the following items, or in case he recognizes its structure or equipment does not meet the requirements necessary for public health, \ilioh are to be fixed by the Cabinet Order; ho~ver, in this case, the goveroor of urban or local prefecture shall send a written notice on this fact with necessary reasonss (1) (2) Places crowded with houses; Plaoes Where the drinking water is liable to be polluted;

(3) Places to be designated by the governor of urban or local prefecture as the places liable to cause hazard to public health. Article 5. The manager of the processing plant of dead animals shall take the following measures I (1) The surroundings and the interior of the processing plant of dead animals shall al'otlys be kept clean, and the disposal of filth shall be executed adequatelYJ (2) The prevention of insect breeding and its control shall be executed adequa tely;

(3)

The disposition of offensive odor shall be executed adequately;

(4) Measures necessary for sanitation to be fixed by the governor of urban or local prefecture. Article 6. The governor of urban or local prefecture (the mayor, in case of the city designated by the Cabinet Order based upon the provision of Artiole 1 of the Heal th Center Law (Law No. 101 of 1947»)., in case he recognizes it necessary from the public health view-point, may claim the necessary report from the establisher or the manager of the processing plant of doad animals, or have the competent officials step into the processing plant of dead animals and have examine its structure and equipment and the actual condition of the execution of those measures provided for in the preceding Article. 2. In oase the competent offiCials step into and examine according to the provision of the preceding paragraph, they shall carry with them their identification cards, and, shall produce them in case the request is made by those concerned. Artiole 6-2. The governor of urban or local prefecture, in case he recognizes that the structure and equipment of the processing plant of dead an:il!lals have not come to meet the requirements fixed by the Cabinet Order based on the provision of Article 4, or in case he recognizes thn t the manager of the processing plant of dead animals has not ~en the measures provided for in Article 5, may order the establisher of the same processing plant of dead animals to take the necessary measures for making its structure and equipment confirm to the requirements fixed by the Cabinet Order based on the provision of" Article 4, or order the manager thereof to take the measures provided for in Article 5, by fixing the period.

'",

WPR/VPH/15 page 3

Article 7. The goi;-arncr' of urban or local prefecture, in caSe' the establisher or manage::, of the p~cessbg plant of dead animals has acted contrary to the order based en t:~e pro-.rision of the preceding Article, may cancel the apprc.·'rul U'lQ.u!' A::,ticle 3, or order ·G..~e esta-Jlisher or the manager thereof t.1-J.e r8s·'j:..':;'ction or prohibUi.on of '\;he use of the same faCility, by fixir.g ~le period o 2. In case 'lihe governol' of urban or local prefecture is going to execute the disposition undel' the prcccdbg paragraph, he shall give a previous notice in 'iri t:i::1[; to ths esta"Jlisher or the manager concerned on the ofrance recotmizsd as the :"::'eason for such dispos! tion, and thus gives him the oppo:r.t1.t:li ty to explain him;::e:Lf ar.d to p!'cduco evidence favorable to h:i:mself •

Article 8. ':'hoso pl'ov:i.ci'):~1J of Al't:tcle 2 paragraph 2, and Article 3 to the preceding Artic~e inclusi\;~ shall apply mutatis Dutandis to the manufacturing and '1;;10 ];,fl:1tcfactul':!.ng facility of oil and fat, glue, fertilizer, i'oed".nd oU.or t:1ines out of flesh, ski..'1, bone, intestines etc. of fishery products or fow:'., and to the storage and the storage faCility for flesh and meat, skin, bone, intestines etc. of domestic an:i:ma13) fishery ?roducts, or rowl for the purpose of supplying them to the rendering plent or the facility similar thereto. Article 9. 1<!ithin the limited area, designated by the governor of urban or local prefecture in accordance wi th t.~e requirementa rUed by the Cabinet Order, in the special cleaning areas provided for in Article 4 of the Waste Disposal Law (Law No. 72 of 1954), in case one, who is going to raise or accot'.ll'odate any of' the animals specified in the following items in the nt~ber.3 oxceedL'lg thoee prescribed in each item concerned, has establ::'sD.c"_!i:;he fa cHi ty for their raising or accommodation, or in case the one, who has the f:IC::'J.~_J.;;r for raising or accommodating sheep, goats, dogs, dO::;'0si.ic i'o'dls or demostic ducks, has come to raise or accommodate in the S&1'18 fcciH.t:l '~he e,n:.nnls spEicifi'Jc' in tile following items 4 to 8 inclusive 111 the nu.."lbers exceeding t.~ose prescribed in each item concerned~ shall sE'nd :L: ·hr.e report as to the site of the facility and the kind of JG.~e aninal :'c::, each kil::1 of animals concerned to the respective governor of ll:·i1an or 100-:11 prefcctur0, in which '.;he site of the facility exists, wi -!":11n 3') c5..)~"~' ir.. n ccorG~nce 0. th the pro"--ision of the Ministry of Heul t.h &:-.1 Helfal's '.)::<~inar.ce; however, the case, wi thin the same reporting period, .men the sa~e facility is abandoned or the number of the animals prescribed in the :'oIl0w:!.ngi'..'!''l'!.;. to 8 inclusive to be raised or accommodated in.thc samE) facilit:r- :':1'.;:) Gomo ':;0 ~)C 'oe~ow ':;.'w m:mber prescribed in each item concerned: sha II b0 excepted from 1;:1is rule 0 (1)

IL

Ox or cow: Horse:

·• 0

(2) (3) (4) ,~

,

Pig: • • • • • Sheep $ • • Goat:

• • • • • ·• ·, ·· . • ·• ·• • • • ·• • • • • • • • • • • · • • • • • · · • • · • ?

•

I

"

• 1 • I 4 4

J

··, ~

• • • •

(5)

• • •

•

·,

>

·····• ···• • • • · • · , ·• • ·• • • • ·• >

WPR/VHI/l.5 page .4 (6) Dog. (7) (8) 2.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

10

Domestic fowl (excluding less-than-3O-day chicken). Domestic duck (excluding less-than-30-day chicken).

• • 100

• •

50

In the case when the area mentioned in the preceding paragraph has been newly designated, the one, who actually has the facility, at the time of the designation, to raise or accommodate the an~ls specified in each item of the same paragraph in s~ch na~bers exceeding those prescribed in each item concerned, shall send in tho report, within {:IJ days counting from the date of the designation and following the example of reporting under the same paragraph, as to the site of the facility and the kind of the animal to the governor of urban or local prefocture. case he abandoned the respective facility concerned or in case the number of the an:imals specified in paragraph 11.... 4. to 8 inclusive to be raised or accommodated in the same fa cili ty has como to be below the number prescribed in each item concerned, shall send in the report to that effect to the goveroor of urban or local prefecture within 30 days; however, the case, within the same reporting period, when the respective facility is re-established or the number of the animals specified in paragraph 1 items 4 to 8 inclusive to be raisod or accommodatod in the same facility has come to exceed the nUl!lber prescribed in each itec concerned, shall be excepted from this rule.

3. One, who has sent in the report under the preceding tl«l paragraphs, in

4. In the case where the reporting under the preceding paragraph is not required because of coming under the provision of the proviso to the same paragraph, the reporting under paragraph 1, \ilen it refers to tho reason as provided for in the proviso to the preceding paragraph, is not also required. 5. The structure and equipI:lent of the facility, in the limited area prescribed under paragraph 1, for raising or accoll!lllOdating the animals specified in each item of tho sace paragraph in the numbers exceeding those prescribed in each itec concerned, shall be the one to meet the requirements necessary for public health, \bieb are to be fixed by the Cabinet Order.

6. The provisions of Articles 5 to 7 in~usive shall be applied mutatis mutandis to the facility provided for in the preceding paragraph. In this case, of Article 6-2, "the requirements fixed by the Cabinet Order based on the provision of Article 4" shall read as "the requirements fixed by the Cabinet Order based on the provision of Article 9 paragraph and, of Article 7 paragraph 1, "order ••••• the restriction or prohibition of the use of the same facility" shall read "order •••• the restriction or prohibition of tho usc as the facility for raising or accommodating the animals specified in each item of Article 9 paragraph 1 in the numbers exceeding those prescribed in each itec concerned."

5,"

7.

The provisions of items 1 to 5 inclusive shall not apply to the domestic animal markets and other facilities fixed by the Cabinet Order.

WPR/VHi/15 page 5

Article 10. One..me c8mes under anyone of the following items shall be punished with the penal servitude of not more than one year or a f'ine of not more than 30,000 yenl (1) One who has offended against the provisions of' Artiole ,3 (inoluding the case of the applioation under Article 8); (2) One who has offended against the provisions of Artiole 7 (including the cases of the application under Article 8 and paragraph 6 01' the preceding Article). Article 11. One..me comes under anyone of the following items shall be punished with a fine of' not more than 10,000 yen, or the penalty of detention, or a minor finel (1) One \bo has offeniied against the proviSions of Artiole 2 (including the case of' the appUca tien under Article 8); (2) One who has not submitted the report, or has submitted a false report.. or has denied, interfered with or evaded with the competent officials' steEPing in and examination, under the provision of' Article 6 paragraph I (including the cases of application under Article 8 am Article 9 paragraph 6 );

(,3) One who has not submitted the report, or has submitted a false report, under the provisions of paragraph 1 or 2 of Artiole 9. Artiole 12. In case a representativo of a juridical person or 3uridical person, or an agent of' the individual, employee or other w:>rker has done the offence under the preceding two Artioles in relation to the business of the same juridical l'erson or an individual, the fines or minor fines under each Artiole shall be imposed on the juridical person or the individual, besides the punishment of the doer.

-..:....JP ...._ .......rf". ~ 1,... 1 ..7.7...5.5 ..... · ............

«.

t;.,

'IIIIIr ............• •

,10

WORLD HEALTH OffiANIZATION REGIONAL OFFlDE BUREAU REGIONAL

OffiANISATION MONDIALE DE LA. S mE FOR TIlE WESTERN PACIFE DU PACIFIQUE OOCIDENl'AL

SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEA.LTH

vrPBfr;U/16 15 April 1959 ENGLlSlI ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

r i i~ 'Lj:

JAPANESE VETERINARY PUBLE HEALTH LEGISLATION

The Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Law

\

(

WPR/VPH/16,"'\?') page 1 ··0:, (

.

Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Law (Law No. 166 of 1951) Contents Chapter Chapter I II General ~rovisions

(Article 1 -3)

Prevention of Outbreak of Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases (Article 4 - 12-2) Control of the Spread of Official Diseases (Article 13 - 35) Animal Quarantine Inspection on Export and Import (Article 36 -46)

Chapter III Chapter Chapter Chapter IV

V Miscellaneous Provisions (Article 47 - 62) VI Penal ~rovisions

(Article 63 - 66)

Supplementary Provisions

Chapter (~urpose )

I

General provisions

•

Article 1. The purpose of this Law is to promote the livestOck industry by preventing the outbreak.and controlingthe spread of domestic animal infectious diseases (including parasitisms; hereinl:lfter the same) . (Definitions) . Article 2. In this Law, an "official disease" means one of the infectious diseases mentioned in the left column of the following table and contracted by the domestic animal mentioned in the corresponding line of the right column. .. Kind of infectious disease ~erpest

Species of domestic animals Cattle, sheep, goat, swine. Cattle. Cattle, sheep, goat, swine. Cattle. Cattle, horse, sheep, goat, swine.

Contagiou3 pleuro-pneumonia of cattle 3. 4. 5.

Foot-and-mouth disease Cattle influenza Enzootic encephalitis

wpR/VPH/t6' ' :,-if' ,,-,::7;,' pagel 2 ':i d

J Cattle, -horse, sheep, goat, swine. Cattle, horse, sheep, goat, swine. Cattle, sheep, goat, swine. Cattle, sheep, goat, swine. I I I

6.

Rabies Anthrax Blackleg Haemorrhagic septicaemia -Bruce llos is Tub(;rculosis Piroplasmosis ( only piroplasmosis caused by the causative agent pre scr ibed by Ministerial Ordinance) Trypanosomiasis (only trypanosomiasis caused by causative agent prescribed by Ministerial Ordinance) Anaplasmosis Trichomoniasis Glanders 'Pseudo-fary Equine infectious anaemia Equine paratyphus Sheep pox Scabies Hog cholera SWineE:ry-sipelas Fowl cholera Fowl pest N.ewcastle disease 'Pullorum Foul-brood

J!,

, I

7. 8.

II

9. 10.

Cattle, sheep, goat, swine. Cattle, goat. Cattle, horse. , " 1

'

ll. 12.

I

I

J

I

13.

Cattle, horse.

14.

Cattle. Cattle. Horse. Horse. Horse. Horse. II ,~

15.

16. 17. 18.

II II

19. 20.

Sheep Sheep. SWine. Swine ._ Chicken, duck. Chicken, duck. Chicken, duck. Chicken, duck. Honey-bees. II

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

... -

, I

II "

26. 27. 28.

11

e.,

II

)i /

WPR/vPH/16' /. page')

2, In this Law, a "disEased animal" means a domestic animal whioh has ":':'edntracted an'officio.l disease (except foul-brood) ,and a Itpse:udo'" ~diseased animal" means a domestic animal which is suspected to be a diseased animal or which is liltely to become a diseased animal on ~ccount of its contact, or its being suspected of contact, with the 'causative agent of rinderpest, contagious pleura-pneumOnia of Cattle, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies, glanders or sheep pox. (Applicat'ion t'o Administrator) Article 3. In this Law, eny provision concerning the owners of domestic animals, articles or establishments (except the provisions of Articles 56, 58 and 59) shall apply to those other than owners who take care of the domestic animals, articles or establishments ooncerned (except agents of forwarding by railway, tramway, motor car, ship or aircraft to whom the transport of domestic animals, articles or establishments is consigned), if there are such persons.

Chapter II ~revention of Outbreak of Domestic Animal Infectious Disease (Suty to Re~ort Death) Article 4. The ovmer of a cattle, horse; sheep, goat or swine shull, in case the animal has died of disease, so report without delay to the mayor of City, town or village having jurisdiction over the locality of its carcass according to the procedure provided for by Ministerial Ordinance. However, as for'the domestic animals in transit by a forwarding agent by railway, tramway, motor car, ship or aircraft, the report to be made by the OWner of the respect'ive animals shall be made by the forwarding agent, except in the case where the owner bhnmake such report without delay. 2 The report mentioned in the preceding paragraph concerning the domestic animals mentioned in the provlslo to the same paragraph may, if it causee obstruction to transportation, be made to the mayor of city" town or gillage having jurisdiction over the final destination of the cargo concerned. The provision of paragraph 1 Shall not apply in cases where a report has already been medeas provided for in 'Article 13 paragraph 1 concerningthe respective domestic animal 0," where a domestic ,animal has died in the course of the insepction under the provisions of Article 40 or 45 or other cases provided for by Ministerial Ordinance. The mayor of city, town or village shell, -upon receipt of the report mentioned in paragraph 1, so notify the prefectural veterinary ir:.spector (hereinafter referred to as "the prefectural inspect.ortl) and also report to the governor of urban or local prefeoture acoording to the precedure provided 'for by Ministerial Ordinance. The mayor of city, town or village shall, i f requested by those 'who have made the report under the provision of paragraph 1, issue to them as provided for by Ministerial Ordinance a certifida~e that 'such report has bee n rece ived .

3

4

5 ,~

~,

, I

(Carrying of Certificate for Moving animals) Article 5. No owner Of cattle (except specified by Ministerial Ordinance), horse or swine shall move it beyond the ~rea specified by 'Cabinet Order without a certificate that they are free from brucel.losis and tuberculosis for cattle, equine infectious anaemia for horse and .hog cholera for swine. However, this shall not apply in the following cases: (1) In the case of domestic animnls going bact and :flortfu;6e.,dinlfit the boundaries of the,area concerned within a short fixed term~ (2) In the case of domestic enimals in transit accompanied with a certificate, issued by the governor of urban or local prefecture, that they are being transported directly to slaughter-house for the purpose of slaughter: (3) In the case of domestic animals being moved with the permission of the governor of urban or local prefecture for purposed of experiment and study or for other special causes provided for by MinisteriIII Ordinance, accompanied with a relevant permit; , (4) In the case of domestic animals being moved within 30 days from the date of receipt of the import quarantine certificate under the provision of Article 44 paragraph 1 or the export quarantine certificate under the proviSion of Article 45 paragraph 3~ accompanied with such certificate. 2 3 The area specified by Cabinet Order of the preceding paragraph shall be the area of urban or local prefecture or wider than that area. The certificate referred to in the main clause of paragraph 1 shall be issued by the governor of urban or local prefecture or veterinarian in accordance with the stDndard specified by Ministerial Ordinance, ' and the term of validity thereof, shall be 30 d8.ys. .

..

4 . The. form of the certificate referred to in the main clause of paragraph 1 and item (2) Df the same pnragraph and the fixedpE:riod of item (1) and the form of permit of item (3) of the same paragraph shull be provided for by Minj,sterial Ordinance. 5 As for the trensportLltion o:f domestic snimels referred to ir.l paragraph 11, the forwarding agent shall take care not to violate the prOVision of the S9me p8.ragraph.

(Inspection, Injection, Dipping or Administration) Article 6. The governor of urban or local prefecture may order the owner of domestic animels to get their domestic animals inspected, injected, dipped or administered by the prefectural inspector, if it is mecessary to do so for preventing the outbreak of domestic animal infectious disease. jreferred 2 . The order, to in the preceding peregraph shall be made in accordance with the procedure provided for by Ministerial Ordinance after the following matters are noticed publicly ten days before the date of its enforcement. However, in the case of urgency this period may be shortened to 3 days;

wpR/VPH/16 ... -.~ , (1) ~urpose

page "

of enforcement;

, (2) , Area of enforcement; (3),

Species and scope of animals as objects of enforcements; Date of enforcement;

(4 )

(5) Kind and method of inspection, injection, dipping or ad!Jlinistation. (Indication of Inspection, Injection, Dipping or Administration) Article? :r'he governor of urban or local prefecture may cause the prefe~t~ral inspector in cccordance with the provisions of Ministerial O~dinance to indentify with brand, tattoo or other marks such domestic animals as have undergone the inspection, injection,' dipping or administration under the provision of paragraph 1 of the pre ceding Article. (Issue of Certificate) Article 8. The governor of urban or local prefecture shall, if requested by the owner of domestic animal which has been inspected, injected, ,dipped or ad!Jlinistered in compliance with the provision ¢'if Article 6'paragraph 1, deliver to him the certificate that the inspection, injection, dipping or odministration have been made in accordance with~he provisions of Ministerial Ordiaance. (EAforcement of Disinfection and Others) Article 9. The governor of urban or local prefecture may order the owners of domestic animals to carry out the disinfection, cleaning or extermination of rat, insect and other~ by limiting an area in accordanc! with the proviatfta;ot' : J/Ii nJt:B te:Cial,;(!)'rdi1ll606l- ; i f . ',it." is "neeeM,8v,hl tID~' de,se for preventing the outbreak of domestic animal infectius dis-, ease. (Restrictions on Plant Dealing with Dead Animals) Article 10., No carcass of cattle, horse, sheep, goat and swine which died because of disease shall be dissected, buried or burnt up at any plant dealing with dead animals unless it carnes under one of the following items: (1), In case there are the certificates referred to in Article 4 paragraph 5; ,up or bury ing, (2) In the case 'o.f-SiiriIng''t1ie carcass under the direction of . the pref'ectural'inspector specified in the main clause of Article '21 paragraph 1, in the case as provided f'or in the proviso~l to the SDm8 paragraph or in the case of the d isse ction approved under the pr.ovision of' paragraph 3 of' the same Article. (Restrictions on Rendering Plant) Article 11. As for such bone, illeat, hide, hair and others as may be designated by the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry who deemed it necessary to do SQ f'or preventing the out'break of any domestic animal inf'ectious disease, no person shall render them us raw materials unless the rendering is made through the facilities and method meeting the ste.ndard specif'ied by Ministerial Ordinance.

•

WPR/VPH/1.6-, plga 6 (Restrictions on Domestic Animal Ge.thering Institution) Article 12. The promoter of those meetings where the domestic animals are gathered, such as horse-races, livestock market, cattle show and others, and which are designated by the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry shall prepare accomodations necessary for preventing the outbreak of domestic animal infectious disease, such as animal clinic, isolation place, lift sink and the tike, in accordance with the provisions' of Ministerial Ordinance during the period of such meeting. ' 2 The promoter of the meeting who shall SE::,t up the animal clinic in accordance with the provision of the preced ing paragraph, shall not keep any domestic animel other then the domestic animals diagnosed a,s being free -from Gny domest:bc animal infectious disease at· the ari.imal clinic" at the pl:-::CE:Ol' meeting during tiJIre period of the meeting. However, in the CQse of keeping domestic animals at the isolat ion pla ce, of the_preceding paragraph, this shall not apply.

(Obligation of Report and Information) Article 12-2. The governor of urbsn or local prefecture shall, as 1'or ' t h e measures taken for the purpose of prt:venting outbreak of domestic animiH infectious diseases in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter, make Ci report on enforcing situetions end their results to tihe,Minister of Agriculture and Forestry and also shall inform the interested governors of urbc'n or local prefectures thereof in accordance with the provisions of Ministerial Ordinance.

Chapter III

Control of The Spread of Official Dis€ases

(Duty of Report of Dis€8.sed Animal and Others) Article 13. When the domestic animal is found to have b8come a diseased or pseudo-diseased animcll, the veterinarian whc has diagno'sed antemortem the said animal or has made post-mortem the carcass thereof (as to the domest ic anim:;l not disgnosed by a veterinarian Or thE carcass thereof whioh has not yet received the post-mortem examination by the same, the owner) shall make a report theron without delsy in accordance with the procedure specified by Ministerial Ordinance to the mQyor of city, town or village hflving jurisdiction over the locality of the dcmestic animal of carcass concerned. However, as for the domestic animal in transit by a forwarding , agent by railwoy, trC:Jllway, motor car, ship or amrcraft, he shall make the report which must be done by thE owner of the animal concerned, except in the cases where the owner can make the report without delay. \ /

--

2

As for the-report refer~Ed to in the preceding paragraph, the provision of Article 4 paragraphs 2 and 3 shall apply with necessary modifications. The mayor of city, town or village shall, when he has received the report of paragr~ph 1, publicly notify the fact, inform the fact to the prefecturel inspector Bnd mayor of neighbouring city, town or village and report th8 governor of urban or local pr"fecture thereof, in accordance with the procedure specified by Ministerial Ordinance without delay.

3

4.

The governor of urban or local prefecture shall, when he has receivej 'Uheil'~p-qrtof the preceding paragraph, make the public notice thereof, report the fact to t he Minister of Agriculture and Forestry and inform the Bovernors of urban or local prefectures concerned thereof in accordance with the procedure specified by Ministerial Ordinace.

(Duty of Segregation) Article 14. The owner of diseased or pseudo-diseased animal shall without delny segreg8te the animal concErnEd. However, the same shall not apply in the cases where the said animal is set free from segregation under the direc~ion as may be given by the prefectural inspector in accordance with the provision of the following paragraph. 2 The prefectural inspector shall, when he dee~s Lt no longer necessary to continue the segregation of the domestic animal which has been segr~g3ted under the provision of the preceding par~graph. direct the owner thereof that th~ said animal may be set free from segregation or additionally direct, to the extent necessary for the prevention of the spread of official diseases, that necessary Measnnes .;:'I'suchdLsrtethering ,'" res t;ri c tldJiJ.' af ,:_ Qi'!Y9nd's ~, " ,hoc t certain area and other should be taken. movement The prefectural inspector may sirect the owner of such animal (except the pseudo-diseased animal) as may be feared to become a diseased animal for the reason that it has been kept with the diseased or pseudo-diseased animal or for other reason not to move the domestic animal concerned hTeyond a certaIn area by setting a time limit not exceeding 10 days when it is deemed necessary to do so for controling the spread of official disease.

3

(Cutting off the CC:lDlffiunication) Article 15. The governor of urban or local prefecture or mayor of c1 ty, town or village mey cut off the communication at the place where exists any diseased animal or any pseudo-d iseased animal of· rinderpest, contagious pleura-pneumonia of'cattle, foot-and-mouth disease. glanders or sheEp pox (inclusive of any neighboring place Which has been~stained or is suspected to have been stained with the causative agent of officitll disease) from other places by . setting a time limit not exceeding 48 hours when it is deemed urgently necessary to do .so for apntro.u~ tliQ s-ph:ad of official disease. in compliance w!ith thE procedure prescribed by Ministerial Ordinance. (Obligation of Killing) . , Article 16. The owner of the following domestic animal shall immediately kill it under the direction of the prefecturalinspector~ However, in the cas(;;s as provided for by Ministerial Ordinance, this shall not apply; (1) Diseased animal of' rinderpest, contagious plel,lro-pneup.o nia of ~attle.:root-and-mouth diseaSE, glanders or. sheep pox; (2) "Pseudo-diseased animal of rinderpest or foot-end-mouth disease.

WPB/vPWl(;i\ •-: ' page,S

2

The owner of the domestic animal undt;r the preceding paragraph shall not kill the said 3n1mal before the direction under the same paragraph is given, except in the cases under the proviso.: to the same paragraph.

(Order of Killing) Article 17. The governor of urban or local pr~fecture may order the owner of the foHownS domestic aniInGl to kill i t by fixing a time limit, if it is nscesssry to do so for controling the spread of official disease:

(1) Diseased animal of enzootic encephalitis, rabies, anthrax, blackleg, haemorrhagic septicaemia, brucellosis, tuberculosis, piroplasmos is, try panosomiEtSis, anaplasmosis, pseud'o -far cy , equine infectious anaemia, equine para typhus , Bcabie s, hog cholera, swine erysipelas, fowl cholera, fowl pest, Newcastle disease or pullorum; (2)

I

I

'Pseudo-diseased anirJal cf contagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle.

2

The governor of urban or local preI'ecture may ceUSE the prefectural to kill the domestic animal concerned when it is urgently necessary to do so in caseS where he CAnnot give the order of thE preceding paragraph for· the reason that the cwner of the said animal or his whereabouts is unknown. inspect~or

(Report of Killing) Article 18. The owner of any diseased or pseudo-diseased animal shall, when he intends to kill it, make the report thereof in advance to the prefectural inspector except in the cases of killing under the proviSions of the preceding two Articles and other caSes prescribed by Ministerial Ordinance. ' (Direction on Killing) Article 19. The prefectural inspector may give directions on the place or method of killing the domestic animal mentioned in the oreter referred to in Article 17 or the report r~erred to in the preceding Article whEn it is necessary to do so for controling the spread of Official diseases. (Disposition for Discerning the Kind of Disease) Article 20. The governor of urban or local prefecture may. cause the prefectural inspector to examine the carcass of animal by autopsy or' to kill the pseudo-discasred animal for the purpose of autopsy i f i t is ne cessary to do so for discerning .the kind of disease. 2

'1-"'

II

The prefectural inspector may direct thE owner of pseudo-diSEasEd animal by setting a time limit not eXCEeding 7 days not to kill the animai concerned if it is deemed necessary to do so for discerning , the kind of disease.

1

(Duty to Burn Up Carcass and Others) Article 21.. The, owner of ~ny of the carcasses Or the diseased or pseudod,i$&,~~-,,an7nt<1.1$da'$:1.1&1ltEtd '~'? low shaJ,lbmtl1ll1"'WP --0-1" b~ the ~eif$lS'" ?:G!i¢:e,r.necLwq.ho;ut <lelayunaer tlle Jii~~~icri. ~;D3 gi van "'o,r.ttJle' ,pth"~t' ~ lns pee t or _.r U", ... _

WPR/VPH/16 page

9

in accordance with the standard specified by Ministerial Ordinance. However, in the cases where the Q€,rm:L3s['.oo of the govennor of urban or local prefecture has been obtaineEl for discerning the kind of the disease or presenting the scientific researches, or in other cases as provided for by Cabinet Order, this shall not apply; (1) Carcasses of the diseased or paeudo~diseased animals of rinderpest, contagiouspleuro-pneumonia of cattle, foot-and-mouth disE::ase, cattle influenza, rabies, anthrax, blakleg, haemorrhagic septicaemia, glanders, pseudo-farcy, sheep pox, hog cholera, swine erysipelas, fowl cholera, fowl pest or Newcastle disease; (2) CarcaSses (except the carcaSses slaughtered in the slaughterhouse) of the diseased or pseudo-diseased .animals of enzootic encephalitis, brucellosis, tuberculosiS, equine infectio.s anaemia, equine paratyphu8, scabies or pullorum. 2 The owner of the carcass under the precGding paragraph shall not burn up or bury it except in the cases of the proviso to the same paragraph untill thE; direction of the same paragraph is given. The carcaSS which shall be burnt up or bur:ied in acoordanCe with the provision of paragraph 1 shall not be moved to other place, stained or dissected without the permission of the prefectural inspector.

3

(Special·Exceptions to the Law relating to "Processing "Plant of Dead Animals, and Others) Article 22. When the carcasses of the domestic animals are di.ssected for the purpose of autopsy in accordanct with the provision of Article 20 paragraph 1 and when they ar" burnt up or buried in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1 of the preceding Article, the provision of Article 2 paragraph 1 (prohibition of dealing in the place other than the plant dealing with dead animals) of the Law relating to Processing "Plant of Dead Animals, and OtheEs (Law No. 140 of 1948) shall not apply. (Duty to Burn up the Articles Stained and Others) . Article 23. The owner of the articles which have stained or are suspected to have been stained with oausative agent of any official disease (in oase the articles concerned are in transit by railway, tramway, motor car, ship or aircraft, the owner or the forwarding agent therof; the same in the following paragraph), shall burn up, bury or disinfect the articles concerned without delay under the direction as given by the prefeotural inspector in accordance with the standard provided for by Ministerial Ordinace. However, as for the article stained or suspected to have been stained with the causative agEnt of pullorurn or any other article provided for by Ministerial Ordinance, the owner may burn up, bury or disinfect it without the direction of the pr€fe¢tUB1'e.iI.· inspector. 2 The owner of the articles of the pr€cedingparagraph (except the article under the proviso to the same paragraph) shall n0.t>.burn up,

, WPR/VPH/16 page 10

II

bury or disinfect the articles concerned until the direction of the samE; paragraph isgi ven and shall not transfer to another place, use or wash out the s~me without the permission of. the prefectural inspector. 3 The prefectural inspector ,aay burn up, bury or disinfect by himself thE articles spEcifiEd in paragraph 1 (except the article s')ecified in the proviso to the same paragraph) instead of giving the direction of the same paragraph when it is necessary to do so for controling the spread cf official disease.

.

(~rohibitio~ of Digging Up) Article 24. No person shall dig up within the period specified by Ministelt'ial OrdinanCE the land in_whiph any carcass of domestic animal.o~ article stained or suspected to have been stained with c!,;lusative agent of any Official disease has been buried in accordance with the provisions of Article 21 para[:raph 1, paragrEph 1 or 3 of the preceding ArticlE;. -:Jowever, in case the permission of the :overnor of urban or local prefefture has been obtained, .this Shall not apply.

(bbligation of Disinfection of Stable and Others) Article 25. The owner of ·he stable, ship, car and other facilities of similar nature in which any diseased or pseudo-diseased animal or its carcass existed shall disinfect t~Em under the direction, given by the prefectural inspector in accordance with the standard specified ty ::inisterial OrdinanCe. --J:owever, the facilities where the diseased or pseudo-diseased aninals of pul» lorum existed or other facilities specified by I'IinistErial Ordinance shall not be 'Jrecluded from being disinfectEd not awaiting the direction of the prefectural inspector. 2 The owner of thE stable, ship, car and other' facilities of similar nature specified in the preceding paragraph shall not disinfect th'em, excepting. the csse :If proviso to the same paragraph, till the prefectural inspEctor gives direction. The prefectural t!lspector w~y disinfect by himself the, facilities specified in paraGraph 1 (except thE facilities specified in thE proviso to the same pa:::agraph) instead of giving the direction of the same paragraph when it is necessary to do so for 'controling the spread of official disease.

3·

(Special Exception during Yavigation) Article 26.' In case any diseaSed or pseudo-diseasEd animal has died ,or any article, st&tle or ctilEr facility or similar nature has been stained or is suspEcted to have teen s.tained with the causative 'agent of any official disease on the ship keeping the SEa, the owner of the domestlc animal, article or facility concerned or th.e captain of the ship concerned (if there is any 'person who acts for the captain, that person) shall disinfect it or take other nec~ssarY measures in accordance ~i~h. the prov~sions of llinisterial~ Ordlnc:nce, regardless of the provlslons of ,Artlcle 21, ?c or thE ' preceding ArticlE. (Obligation of DisinfEction of Causative Agent) ~Erson~ho

Come in Contact with

Article"2?~

Any person who has come in contact or' is suspected to have come' in contact with the causati'lZe agent of any official sisease shallwitnoutdelay disinfect his body by himself.

(Indicating Diseased Animal and Others) Article 28. The prefectural inspector may identify the diseased or pseudo-diseased animal with the brand, tattoo or other mark in accordance with the provisions of Ministerial Ordinance. (Enforcement of Disinfection and Others) Article 29. The governor of urban or local prefecture may order the owners of domestic animals to carry out the disinfection, cleaning or extermination of rat, insect and others by limiting an area in accordance with the provisions of Ministerial Ordinance, if it is necessary to do so for controling the spread of official disease. (Inspection, Injection or Dipping) Article 30. The governor of urban or local prefecture may cause the prefectural inspector to carry out the inspection, injection or dipping for animals through the methods specified by Ministerial Ordinance if it is necessary to do so for controling the spsead of any official disease. 2 The provisions of Article ? and 8 shall apply with necessary modifications to the inspection, injection or dipping referred to in the preceding paragraph.

,-

Article 31. The owner of the cattle or horse specified by Ministerial Ordinance shall submit has animal to the inspection for ~rucellosis, tuberculosis or equine infectious anaemia as ca~ried out by the governor of urban or local prefecture through the methods specified in Ministerial Ordinance. 2 The governor of urban or local prefefture shall carry out the inspection referre'd to in the preceding paragraph at least once a year. The provisions of Article 6 paragraph 2, Article 7 and 8 shall apply with necessarymoiifications to the inspection referred to in paragraph 1.

3

-

~

(Restrictions on ¥oving of Domestic Animals and Others)' Article 32. The governor.of urban or local prefecture may, by establishing by-laws, prohibit or restrict the moving of the certain species of domestic animals or their carcasses or articles having the danger of disseminating causative agent of any official.dia. ease within the area of urban or local prefecture concerned or carr~ng bhemuinto, 0):' out of'll!.rpan or 10caL,,'pl'ef.e,ct1fr~fcGncel'n6d vifj.:t; t~ .. decessary tQ~do~so~pot controllng~the spread41f official diseases. 2 The Minister [)f Agriculture and Forestry may, by designating an area, prohibit or restrict the transpottation of certain Specie$ of domestic animal or their carcasses, or articles ha~ing the danger of disseminating causative agent of any official disease from the area concerned in accordance with the provisions of Ministerial Ordinace if it is neee~sary to do so for controling the spread of official dise3se.

ilPR/lTPB/l6 page

12

(Restrictions on Opening Animal Gathering Institutions and Others) Article 33. The· governor of urban or local prefecture may, by establishing by-laws, suspend or restrict the openingof~uch m:etings where domestic anlllials are to be gathered as horse rac~ng, l~~estock markEt, cattle show and others, or the operating of slaughter.. house or rendering plant, if it is necessary to do so for controll.ng the apread of official disease. (Restrictions on ~asturage and Others) Article 34. The governor of urbcn or local preflectur e may, by establish:ing by-laws, suspend or restrict pasturage, copulation, slaughtering in the other place than the sl3.ughter-hou.se or hatching of certain species of domestic anlinals it it is necessary to do so for controling the spread of 0fficio.l disease. (Obligation of Report and Information) Article 35. The governor of urbcn or local prefecture shall,ns for the preventive measures taken for the purpose of controling the spread of official disease in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter, make a rep~nt on enforcing situations and their results to the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry and also shall inform thE interested governors of urban or local prefectures thereOf in accordance with the provisions of Ministerial Ord inance.

•

( Articles 35 to 46 are omitted)

Chapter V Miscellaneous Provisions (The Direct ion of the Minister of AgriculturE and Forestry to Governor of urban or local ~rEfEcture) Article 47. The Minister of Agriculture and ForEstry ma~, in case the outbreak or spreqd of any domestic animal infectious dise'aseis apt to have grave influence upon animal industry, direct the· governor of urban or loco.l prefecture to enforce the preventive measures specified in the provisions of Article 6,9,17, Articles 29 to 31 inclusive, Article 32 paragraph 1, Article 33 or 34. (Co-operation o'f the State with urban or local Prefecture) Article 48. ThE Minister of Agriculture and Forestry may, in the case where he issues the'direction in aocordance with the provision of the preceding Article or is requested by the gOVErnor of urban or local lrefectureand if it is necessary, cause the state inspector designated 'by him to attend to the duties to be carried out by the p'refectural inspector in accordance with the provisions of Chapter II or III under the directio~ of the governor of urban or local prefecture. 2 In the case of the preceding paragraph, "the prefectural inspector" in the pro~isions of Chapter II or III shall rEad "the prefectural inspector ar the state inspector designated in accordance with the provish1n of Article 48 paragraph! 'L".

*.

'!VPR/VPH/16

page 13

(Transfer or Lend ing of Animal Biological Products and Others) Article 49. The Hinister of Agriculture end Forestry may transfer the animal biological products or lend the appliances for animal disease control free or charge or at lower cost that the. current price to urban or local prefecture; if he deems it necessary to do so for preventing domestic animal infectious disease. (Restriction on Use of the Animal Biological Products) Article 50. No person shall u;3e the animal biological products designated by the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry unless he has received the permit of the governor of urban or lo.cal prefecture concerned. (Inspection Visit and Others) Article 51. The state inspector or prefectural inspector may inspect animals end other articles, inquire of the person, concerned, collect the blood of animal, milk and others or gather the carcasses of enimals and other articles up to the extent necessary for inspection, intering such. premises where domestic animals.are to be gathered as race-courses, livestock markets, cattle shows '3nc others, or stables, plants dealing with deed animals, slaughter-houses, ware-houses, ships, cars .or aircraft, . or other places which have been ste.ined or are suspected to .\lave been stoined witn the caqsative ae,ent of any domestic animal infectious disease, if it is necessary to . do so for preventine domestic anifLlal infectio._,_s disease. 2 l'To riLnt of inspection vlsit, inquirinG, collectinG or gathering prescribed in the preceding peragraph shall be construed eS havine been granted for the seurch-of crimes.

~

(Reports) Article 52. The Hinister of Agriculture and Forestry or the governor of urban or local prefecture may request tile ownE:r of E;lnimals, veterinarian, the owner of causative asent of any domestic an~al infectious disease, promotE:r of such meeting where domestic animals are to Le gcthered as race-course, livestock market, cattle show and other, or the owner of plant dealine, 'Ilith dead animals or slaughtE:r-housefor the report on necess2ry matters in accordanc~ with the procedures fixed by Ministerial Ordinance in case it is necessary to do so for preventing domestic animal infectious disease. (The State Inspector and the Prefectural Inspector) Article 53. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry shall have the state inspector and the government of urban or local prefecture shall have the nrefectural inspector in' order to make them attend to the Gut ies provided for by; tJ:;tfs'L~~~. 2

t

The state inspector and the prefectural inspector referred to in the pl'eced inc paragraph shall be appo inted from among veterinErians. ~owever, if specially necessary, t~ey Shall be . appointed from among persons of learninf and Expsrlence conc~rn~~ domE:stic ar,imal infectious disc8.s\:;s control other than veter~nar ans.

WPR/VPH/16 page 14 (Bringing of Id~ntity Card and Others) Article 54. The state of prefectural inspector shall, when he attends to the duties under this Law, always bring with himself the identity r.card indicating his status in accordance with the provisions of Ministerial Ordinance, and 2.hall show that card i f requested by the persofr concerned. (Dress Regulations) Article 55. The Minister of Agriculture and Forestry shall establish dress regulations of the state inspector. (Effect of Disposition to SucCessor) Article 56. Any of directions and other dispositions under the provisions of this Law or OrdeEs issued thereunder shall be effective also to • any person who becomes the new administrator of the domestic animal and other articles concerned by.succeediug to the right of the creati~g the right from the owner or administrator of the animals and other articles. cOncerned which shall be disposed. 2

.#.

•

The owner or administrator of domestic animals or other articles referred to in the preceding paragraph shall, ~n case he transfers the domestic animals or articles concerned to other person or causes the latter to care for th8m, inform that person of the fact that the d isp6sit ion has been made and of the content of tha t disposition.

(Application of the Provisions for Special Ward and Others) Art icle 57. In this Law, the provisions con-arurmng ci ty, town or village or mayan of city, town or village shall apply to the special wqrd or the headman of special ward in the district whE.re the special ward is organized, and shall apply to the association or the administrator of association in the district where the whole-affairsassociation or office-affairs-association is organized. (Allowances) Article 58. The state shall deliver as allowances the amount determined in each of the following items (the anlOunt obtained by dedll.ct ing the appraised value of carcass from the amount determined in the item concerned, . in case the carcass of cnimal concerned has a use value) to the owner of animal or article prescriged in the follwing it",ms (th", owner of the domestic animal concerned at the time of order in case the dCJmestic anfumal was ordered to Kill his domestic animal under the provisions of Art-icle 17): (1) For diseased animal kill~d i4 accordance with the provisions of Article 16 or 17 (excepting the domestic animal coming under the follwing item); one-thirds of the appraised value of the domestic animal before becoming diseased animal (in ccse the amount exceeds 43,300 yeh per cattle, 26,600 yen per horSE. 5,000 yen per sheep or gnat, 10,000 yen per swine or 300 yen per chicktln or duck, each sumas fixed above for each domestic animal) ; ;.

I

WPR/VPIV'l6 !,

.j*[\!,{ ','I ~. -I .•

,i. ':;'

<

page 15

(2;)' Fin diseased animal of brucellosis, tuberculosis or equine infectious amaemia lUlled in accordance with the provision of, Article 17; four-fifths of the appraised value of the animal concerned when ordered in accordance with the provisions of the same Article (in case the amount exceeds 104, 000 yen per cattle, 12, 000 yen per goat, or 64,000 yen per horse, each Sum as fixed above for each domestic animal); ( 3) provis~on

For pseudo -d iseased animal killed in accordance with the of Article-16 1 1? or Article 20 paragragph 1; fourfifths of the appraised value of the domestic animal concerned before becoming pseudo-diseased animal;

(4) For animal died or fetus given still-birth or aborted by inspection, injection, dipping or administration in accordance with the provision at Article 6 paragraph 1, Article 30 paragraph 1, Article 31 paragraph 1 or Article 46 paragraph 2; full amount of the appraised value of the Il1nmmal.~ odlnll:erned at the time of the inspection, injection, dipping or administration concerned or of the appraised value of the fetus concerned before its stillbirth or abortion; (5 ) For article burnt up or, buried in of Article 23 (excluding the case of of the same Article); four-fifths of article concerned before its burning 2 accordance with the prOVision the proviso to paragraph 1 the appraised value of the up or burying.

In the case prescribed in Article 46 paragraph 1, the provisions of the preceding paragraph shall not apply except for the cal;le'of anima.l and fetus refer:eed to in item (4) of the same paragraph. ' The Minister of Agricultlire and Forestry shall hear the opinion of the governor of urban' or local prefectu,re concerned to fix the appraised value of animal, its carcass, fetus or article prescribed in paragraph 1. . The governor of urban or local prefecture shall hear the opinions of the appraisers not less than three in number he selected previously in accordance with the provisions of Ministerial Ordinance in case he reports his opinion referred to in the preceding paragraph to the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry.

3

4

(Share of Expenses) Article 59. The State shall deliver one half of the expenses necessary r: for burning up or burying to the owner of carcass of the domestic animal or article which has been burnt up or buried,in accordance with the provision of Article 21 paragraph 1 or Article 23 paragraph 1. Article 60. The State shall bear. the following amount of the expenses which the governor of urban or local prefecture or the prefectural inspect?r requires for the execution of this Law: (1) All of travelling expenses of the prefectural inspector;

(.2) All of the allowan-ces and travelling expenses fOr the appraisers referred to in Article 58 paragraph 4; ( 3)

One half 01'1 ~ll()vVanqes for veterinarian employed; .

(4) All of the purch~lsing or manufacturing expenses' of antirinderpest serum; (5) One half of the purchasing or manufacturing expenses of animal biological products excepting a~ti-rinderpest serum; (6) All of the purcha~ing expenses of the drugs designated by the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry. (Delegation of Business to the Chief of Livestock Hygiene Service Center) . Article 61. The governor of urban or local prefecture may delegate to the chEef of Livestock HygieneSerbice Center a part of the business which is under his jurisdiction in accordance with the provisions o:f Article 4 paragraph 4, Article 5 paragraph 1 item (2) and (3) J paragraph 3 o:f the. same Article, Article 8 (including the case where this applies with necessary mod i:fications in Article '30 paragraph 2" .ll.rticle 31 paragraph'..3)" Article 13 paragraph 3, Articles 15 and 50. (Application ,with Necessary Modi:fications of This Law to Animal Diseases Other than Of:ficial Diseases) Article 62. In case any animal in:fectious disease other than the official diseases is deemed to outbreak or spread among the domestic animals and other animals and show signs to have grave influence upon maintenance of productivity or hygiene o:fdomestic animals, the whole or part of the proviSions of Chapter III and other Chapters based thereupon may be applied within one year with necessary modifications by designating the species o:fanimal, kind o:f disease and area by Cabinet Order. '

.

Chapter

VI

Penal '_ P,rovisions

Article 63. Any person who :falls under any o:f the :following items shall be punished with penal servitude for a term not more than three-years or a :fine not exceeding 100,000 yen; '(1) Any veterinarian who contravenes the provision of Article 13 paragraph 1 (includ ing the case where this: applies with necessary modifications in Article 62);

(2) Any person who contravenes the provisions o:f A.rticle 16 paragraph 1, Article 36 paragraph 1, Articles 37, 38 or Article 45 pa.ra,3raph 1; (3) Any person who contravenes the order under the provision of Artie-le 17; (4) Any person who contravenes under the provision of Article 36 paragraph 3; .a..

•

J

,,';

WFR/VPH/16 page

17

(5)

Any person who does not received the inspection under 'li he provision of f~ticle 40 paragraph 1 or who acts irre~ularities on receiving the, inspection.

Article 64. Any person who falls under any of the following items shall be punished with penal 5ervitude for a term not more than one year .or a flbne not exceeding 50,000 yen: (1.1 Any person who contravenes the 'provisions of Article ti paragraph 1, Articles 11, 12, Article 14 paragraph 1, Article 16 paragraph 2, Article 21 paragraph 1 or 3, Article 50 or Article 56 paragraph 2, (as for Article 14 paragraph 1 and Article 56 paragraph 2, there shall be included the case where those provisions apply with necessary modifications in .Article 62); (2)

Any owner who contravenes the provision of iirticle 13 paragraph 1 (including the case where this applies with necessary modifications in Article 62);

(3) Any person who contravenes the prohibition, suspension Or restriction under the provisions ::;f Article 32 or 33 (as for Articles 32 and 33, there shall be included the case whe~e those provisions apply with necessary modifications in Article 62). Article 65. Any person who falls under any of the following items shall be punished with a fine not exceeding 50,000 yen: (1) Any person who contravenes the provision of Article 4 paragraph 1, Article 10, 18, Article 21 paragraph 2, Article 23 paragraph 1, Article 24, Article' 25 paragraph 1 or Article 31 paragraph: 1 (as for Art icle 18, Article 23 paragraph 1:" i',rticle 84 and Article 25 paragraph 1, there shall be included the case.where those provisions apply with necessary modifioations in Article 62) ;

(2) Any person who contravenes the order under the provision of Article 6 paragraph 1, Article' 9 or 29 (:incluG~ng the case where this applies with neoessary modifications i~ Article 62); (3) Any person who contravenes the dir~ction: under the provision of the latter part of paragraph 2 or paragraph 3 of Article 14, Article 19 or Article 40 paragraph 4 (as for tM. latter part of paragraph 2 or panagraph 3 of Article 14 and Arti:t!le 19, there shall be included the case where those prbvisions apply with necesso.ry modifications in Article 62); (4) Any person who contravnes the quarantine under the provision of At:ticle 15 (including the case where this applies with necessary modifications in. Article (2);

(5)

Any person who refuses, obstructs or evades the autopsy or killing under the provision of Article 20 paragraph 1 (including the case where this applies with necessary modifications in Article 62);

,

'-

WFR/VpH/16 page

18

UH

Any person who refuses, obtructs or evades to identify under the provison of Article 28 (inclusing the case where this applies with necessary modifications in Article 62);

(7) Any person who refuses, obstructs or e~ades the inspection, injection or dipping under the provision of Article 30 paragraph 1 {including the case where this applies with necessary modifications in Article 62); (8) Any person who contravenes the suspension or restriction under the provision of Article 34 (including the case where this applies with necessary modifications in Article 62); (9) Any person who refuses, obstructs or evades the inspection under the provision of Article 40 paratgraph 2; (10) Any person who does not receive the inspection under the provision of Article 42 paragraph 2 or Article 43 paragraph 5 or who acts irregularities on receiving the inspection; (11) Any person who contravenes the order issued unear the prpvision of Article 46 paragraph 2 or refuses, obstructs or evades the iSQlation, injection, dipping or disinfection under the same paragraph; (12) Any parson who refuses, obstructs or evades the inspection, collecting or gathering under the provision of Article 51 paragraph 1 (including the case where this applies with nece ssary modifications in Article 62) or makes any false reply to the inquiry under the provision of the same para~raph; (13)· Any person who does not make a report or who makes. false report to the in~iry under the provision of Article 52 (including in case where this applies with necessary modifications in Article 62). Article 66. In case any representative of a juridical person or proxy, employee or other worker of a juridical person or of a natural person commits the violation mentioned in the preceding three Articles in connection with the business of the juridical person or the natural person, not only the offender shall be punished, but the juridecalperson or the natural person concerned shall be liable to a fine under each Article in the penal provisions, unless it is proved that due care and superv~sion has been exercised over the business in order to prevent the aforesaid violation committed by his proxy, employee or the other worker.

,

,

~

1,

----~.--------------~.----WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL I

SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

.WPR/VPH/17 16 April 1959

ENGLISH ONLI

I~

JAPANESE VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH IEGISLATION The Food Sanitation Law

\

L

..

~

,

(

,

. WPIVVPH/17 .page 1

I Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter I II III

The Food Sanitation law

(law No. 23:3 of 1947) Contents 8 Gener~l

Provlsions

Food and Additional Things Apparatus and Containers (and Package) label for Foo", Business

IV V VI VII

Ch{)pter VIII Chapter IX

Hiscollaneous Pro-;io:i.ons Penal Provisions Food Sanitation Chapter I

un-,

General Provisions

Article. 1. This lLw is to aim for contl'ibuting to thf' tmpro"reI:l.Cll';:· 9nc" promotion of puhl.ic health by pr3venting ocCtU'rence of hea!.th hazards caused by eating aoo.'drinkinge Article 2. Ix; this law, the term Ilfood" shall mean all sorts of articles used for food or drirJt (by human..-beings) ~ However, it shall not includ.e anything which is taken as medioine. . In this Law, Iladditional thingsll shall mean anything lohich is used by means of addition, mi:dng or permeation, etc., during the stage, of maIlllfacturing of food, or for. the purpose of process or preservation of food. In this Law, II chemically synthetiC .ooln,ound" shall mean a substance obtained through chemical reaction other than the deco;uposition given for the chemical elements or compounds: by chemical method. In this Law, "apparatus" shall mean the utensils used for food aM beverage, cooking utensils, am suen machine r equipment and any other articles used in oollection, manufacture, processing, preparing, storage, transpor...ation, displaying, giving and receh"ing or eating and drink1ng of food or additional things, and 'ti.'lich come into direct contact with. 1'ood or additional things. However, it shall no-; include machine, equipment or any other articles used for collection of food in agriculture and fishery.

.

. .. "

~

"

·wP~/17

. .page 2

~

In t.l-J.is law~ " containe'r/packageIi shall mean any articles to keep or wrap in the food or additional-;things, ¥hich will be delivered in such container/package as it is, ¥hen offerl1d. In this Im~, the term Dlabel ll shall mean any letters or graphic matters, written or printed on or accompanying with food, additional things, apparatus or contniner/package. ' .. . In this ual) Dfood sanitationr. shall mean the hygiene or sanitation regarding eating and drinking dealing with food, ~dditional things, apparatus and containers/package 0 IIi this law, "business" shall mGan any undortak:Ln& as a Pl'Ofes.8ion, of collection, manufactu:<ing, importing, procGssing$ preparing, storing or selling food or additional t.'1ings and of manufac';'uring, importing or selling of appara1.;us or containe!'jpackage. However, business for collection of food in the agriculture and f::'I::1er;,- indus'.. ry ehan not be included in this law. In this 'law, "business nang8rll sh"l11 moan a porson or a juridical person who manages the bt'.Siness~ Chapter II Food and Add:.:.ionRI 'I;hingr

II

•

I I

II

II

Article 3. Oo11cc/;ion, manui'act-clring, processiilg, use~ p:rcpflrntion, s'ooring, transportation, display and del::'very~of food or additional things for sale (including distribution except the sale 'loo unspocific or many persona; the same shall apply hereinaf'tar) shall be done in the clean and sanitary condition. Article 4. The following food 01' add:.tional -i;1lings shall not be sold (including case of distribution, except the sale, to unspecific or many ?Brsons; the same shall apply hereinafter), nor be collected, manufactured, processed, used,prepared-, stored or displayed for salet r, ~

.:

1. T!1at which is rotten, deco!!!posed or imInaturo; provided that such articles as are deemed generally not injurious m human health and fit for food, shall'. be, exempted fro!!! the application of this provision; 2. ThatVlhi~h co~tains or has beon contaoir,s-:;ed \lith a poisonous or detrimental substance, except such case when the Minister of Health and Welfare has determined that it is pe:i:'lD.issiiJlo for food; "3.- That which is or is suspected to ce contaminated by pathogenic r.licroorgar..isms ahdI:ll3:yinj~ -human health; ,,'" ·.C

''.4. :.Thatwhich moy injure human heolt:l bp: such cause as uncleanliness, ingredient 'or others 6 ~ ~-~

.,

~d()radded {".

Ai'ti"cJ.e.-5. 'Tbenieat,boJ:lo, rlllk, viscera or blood of an:ir!J.als (inclu4ing cattle, )librses, :p:igs,she.ep, goats.and other unimslsdesignatod by Ordel').that are . s.UM'etingl:or -arest',spact.:Jd to be s-uffering from diseases designat~d by the iU.1dster.ial,Oi'dinan!'lEl.orhave falll?!l dead,shall not be sold as fOQd, or

L •

WPl\fVPH/l7 -pap 3 .

collected,. processed, used, .prepared"stored or displayed for sale as food; that suchmeat,bO~, orv:Lscera of the dead animal has, been recognized by the of'flciaLco!).oorned.llOt injurious to hllllBn nealth nor unfit for food, shall be exempted .from the application of this provision. ' . , . p~vlded ,

~'

.

.

. '.

.'

The meat and viscera ofarrlmals shall not be imported as food for sale, except loben they are accompalliled ldth a certificate or its copy issued by the gowrnment agency of the export count~, indicating they are not the meat or viscera of animal suffering, or is suspected to be suffer1ngfrom diseases designated by the Ministerial Ordinance or haw fallen dead and also wi'llh tb.~ inf'omations on deteof slaughter and other matters speoif'ledby thE! Ministerial Ordi1'¥lnce _ .. , Article 6. The chemical synthetic compound intended to be used sssn add! t1cI!1l1 thing, or the product or food that contains such chemical synthetio compound, shall rot be sold, nor manufac~, imported, processed, used, stored or displayed for sale, except loben the Minister of Health and Welfare has determined that it is not llable to be inju;rious to hwnan health. Artiole 7. From the view-point of publlo health, the Minister· of Health and Welfare is authorized to set the standards concerning the methods of manufaoturing, processing, using, preparing and preserving of food or additional thingBfor sale, or to set the. specificationa concerning the ingredient of such food or additiou:t.l things -for sale. . . When the standards or the speCifications have been once .t'ixed according to 1;he provision of the preceding paragraph, it shall be forbidden to manufacture, pro<;:ess, use,prepare or preserve by the methods not according with:the said standards, to sell or import, food or additional things contrary to such standards t or to manufacture, import, process, use, prepare, preserve or sell food or additional things that do not accord with the said specit.tcations. Chapter III Apparatus aOO Containers/Package Article 8. Apparatus and containers/package used in business shall be clean and sanitary. Article 9. Apparatus or containers/package that by I'E)Sson of containing, or being contaminated Ylith, poisonous or detrimental substance, that may , injure human health, or that by reason of being in contact with food or additional things that may giw the injurious influence to human health, shall oot bl'Jsold, and nanufactured or imported for sale, nor be used in business •. Article 10. From the view-point of public health, the MiniSter of Health aOO Welf'are is authorized to set. the specifications concerning an apparatus or a container/package intend.ed .to be Sold or used in business, or materials . thereaf" am to set the standard for the method of manufacture thereof.'; "

. WPB;VPIi,li7 '-page 4

,

: ...... ,Whe~~es1;anciai-ds or the. speeit'1Jcations have been once fixed 8.CCQ.idwg.to lfhe'pMrlsion of, he.· proc9d1ngpat'agraph,it shall be forbidden to seli,manutacture or ::.::ipOr'U for sale. or for use in business any apparatus, or container/package which does not accOrd with the specifications, cir to tl.

'Wle raw JD,3.terials"lrilich does not accord with the specification, or to -··inalll,lfactUre such articles by the method that does not accord \lith 'specification. . . .. . Chapter IV Label

the

Art1riieli. From the'view-point: of public health, the Minister of Heal~ and Welfare is authorized to set necessary standard as to label for food or .st;'l.<UtiO;nal things for sale, or apparatus or containers/pacJtage of lhicb ·'sPecit'!catfons orstandards . as prescribed in tho preceding' ·Article~ . . TOOse food; additional things, apparatus, or containers/pac}{&ge of lohich standarq for label has Qeon fixed according to the provision of preceding 'paragraphs , shall not be sold, displayed for sale, or used in· business, if their label does not meet the standard. .. -. .. . -

Article IZ.1Mith respect to food, ndditionnl t.~ings, apparatus or containers/ . . package, 5uch labels Dsmay, by reason of being false, misleading or otherwise, injure public hea l-i;h, sha 11 be prohibited. . Chapter IV-2 Official Book for Additional Things for Food Article 13. The Y.d.nistei' cif Health and Welfare· shall. preparetl1~ 6fficial· Book 1'9'1' Additional Thi~ for Food, and shall list the respective staruiardsa~ S:\leQifications for ad'dltionalthings for which the, standards or specifications hs:Ve been fixed. in ~c'cordance .wi t,~the proviSion of Article 7 paragraph I and .;'. for thoseaddi tional things tor Oihich the standards haize been fixed in accordance with the provision of ArUcle 11 paragraph 1. Chaj:iter

.

V Inspection

Article 14 •. The Minist~r of Heal til and Welfare, or the urban or local pre.fectural governor may, from the view-point of public health, conduct t..~e inspection fo:r products of food, additio)181 things, apparatus, or containers/package for sale.. .... .i ' . . . .., ....• . .. . ";.. The cias~lficatioD. of 'food, additional. things,apparatus" ~ntainers/ package to receive the product-inspection under the provision of the preceding paragraph shall be fixed by the Cabinet Order and the methods, procedures and fee of such product-inspection and other necessary details shall.be provided for by the Ministerial Ordinance • ., ~

Arlicle :)..'5 •• In case the ptod~ct-Jii.~pec'tion has been done for food, addi~ional thing::;, apparatus, and contairie'rs/package under the provision of paragraph I of' the preceding Article 'the<labe·n1ngshall be done, for 'I;b(lse rt:cd,· . addi tional thing, apparatus or ~r.atainer/Package which passed the' inspection to the t effect, as fixed by the Ministerial Ordinance.

I '

'" ..,

'WPR/VPH/17 .page

5

ArUdle 'i6~ rood, add1tion,althings, apparatus or containers/package liIhich is da,signated ,to r€\ceive :th,e product-inspection according to the provision ot Article 14 paragraph 1, shall-not be sold, displayed for sale or for use in business, without the label indicating that it has passed the said inspection. Art;Scle 16-(2). 'Those liIho wish to import food,additional things, apparatus or containers/packa~ for salsor for use in buEinsss, shall report to the Minister of Health andWe1i'are:for each case, in accordance with the provisions 'of Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance. Axticle 17. When deemed necessary, the Minister of H\.-alth and Welfare, a governor of urban or local prefecture, or a mayor of the city designated by the Cabinet Order based upon the provision of Art. 1 of the Health Center Law (law No. Wl of 1947) (hereinafter referred to as "the city whioh established a health center") is authorized to give orders to those who manage business or other persons concerned to present necessary reports, and to make the officials concerned enter into the p18cesfor business, officell, warehouses c:, other places for inspection to inspect food, additional things, apparatus or containers/package intended to be sold or used in business, establishments for bUSiness, records,' books and other matters, or to make them collect samples :01' food, additional things, apparatus, containers/package intended tobs sold or us'ed in bUsiness without charge within the limit necessary for, testing and aDO.lysis. ' . The officials concerned shnllbring with them the certificates showing their status lolhon they exercise the entry, inspection or cOllection according to the provision of the preclding paragraph. ' . Article 18. The State and each of the urban or local prefecture shall have nec;l6ssary ~boratory facilities sufficient to Carry out the produc:t;,-inspect1on aceording to the provision or Art. 14, Par. 1 and to test and analyzeth,e collected samples of food, odditionalthings, apparatu.a or containers/paCkage apcording to the provision of the preceding Article, Par. 1. ~e city liIhich established a health center shall set up necessary laboratory facilities to carry out the business concerning the test t\'I:Id analysis of food, additional tlligs, apparatus or containers/package taken offin accordarll~e ,;wi. th thil pronaio!}' of. par ."·1 '6f -tn9 'prac(;1ding Artiole.

Necessary details about the lllboratory :ra~ility for food sanitation of eaoh urban or local prefe'cture and the city which established a health center shall be provided for by the Ministerial Ordinance.

c

WPI1/VPH/17 .page 6

Article 19. The food sam:lia tion inspectors shall be placed in the State, urban or local prefecture and the city which established a health center in order to exercise thei:' authorities provided for in Art. 17 Par. 1 and to e~ the duty for gnidance on food sanitation. The food sanitntion inspectors shall be appointed by the Minister of Health and Welfare or a govermor of urban or local prefecture or a mayor of the city which established a health center, from among the officials of the State or urban or local pref8cture or the city which established a health center. The urban or local prefectural governor and a mayolP' of the city which established a health center shall have the food sanitation inspectors to make inspection or guidance for those facilities for the respective business, in accordance with the Cabinet Order. The qualification or other necessary details concerning food sanitation inspectors shall be provided for by the Cabinet Order, in addition for those provided for in the preceding three paragraphs. Article 19-(2). The business managers -who manufacture or process the milk products, chemically synthetic additional things, or other food or additional things, as fixod ~ the Cabinet Order, which requires special consideration from the view-point of public healt'::! in the process of manufacture or process, shall place a full-time food sanita~ion administrator at each facilities in order to have sanitary management on manufact-Ilring or processing. HO\oll3ver, this shall not apply to such es'.;ublishment •.here the business manager himself manages it as a food sanitation administrator. In case t.'le btlSi.'1eSS manager performs manufacturing or processing business at more than tYKl establish.'llen'b3., whore he is required to have a food sanitation administrator, in accordance with the provisions of preceding paragraph, .,hen such establishment is adjacent each other, only one food sanitation administrator i$ sufficient for the t~ or more establishments, irrespective of the same provision. T'ne food sanitation administrator shall supervise those engaged in maIIllf'acturing or processing of food or additional things in order that no violations ag3inst this !all or aga1lt:jt ol!oer or LEapod tion based 01'l' thfs law shall be made as roge.rds the food 0:' additional things coming under his administration at the respective establishment. (Tne qualifications for food sanitation administrat<Jrs are omitted in this English t.e:Kt) Chapter VI Business Article 20. Concerning the establishments for business for eating and drinking and such business that may give conspicuous influence to public health, ~lich are designa ted by the Cabinet Ordor, the governor of urban or local prefecture shall provide for the necessary standards for each business according to the classification thereof, from the view-point of public health. Article 21. Any person vila desires to carry on the business designated in the preceding Art1cle l shall obtain the permission of the governor of urban or local prefecture in accordance with the provisions of the Ministerial Ordinance. i,

~

WP~VPH/17

page 7

In the- ca~e of the p~cedingparagraph; the governor of urban or local prefecture must issue the permission when he deems that tbeestablishment of ~~ssmeets t~i'fih the standard provided fo~ in the preceding Article • . ' ,.' .-.-' . " .. . -

. - The urban o~ local prefectural governor is authorized tol1m1t tbe Wl'lll of validity of the permission menidoned in Par. 1 for not lells than 2 ~ars and . to attaohsQme other necossary06ndit1ens. . .- '.-. . -

-

.

~-

;',

Article 22. In case a business manager has violated the provisions of Aris • .4 1Ic 6, Art. 7 Par. 2, Art. 9, Art. 10 Par. 2 or Art. 12, the goverJlOr of uioban or local prefecture is authorized to have stich manager or the officials concerned discard such food, additional things, apparatus or containers/ package I and to erder the 'business manager to ta:ke adequate 11188~IJW· elJioinatothe food sanitation hazards andtooanoel the permission mentiOJlEId in Par. 1 of the preceding Article or to forbid the Wale or a pa~t of his operation of business or SUSpend it by fixing the term thereof. ,-,

-

il.rticle23. Incase a business manager bas Violated the prov:lsio~6f Art.ll Par. 2, Art. 16, or Art. 19-2 Par., 1, or thecondltions specified by the provision of Art, 21 Par. 3, the urban or local prefectural governor is authorized to cancel the permissi-on. mentioned in Art. 21 Par. lor: to forbid the . l e or a part of his operation of' business or suspend it by f'iJdDg the term thereof. Article

24.

In case a business manager has violated the standards concerning

the establl\sbment of busines.s, mentioned in Art. ~; the urban or local

prefectural governor is authorized to order the manager to improve and re-arrange the conditions of his establishment; to ~cel the permission mentioned ·in Art. 21 Par. lor to forbid' the 'tilole or a part of his .operation of bUSiness or suspend it by fixing the term thereof • Chapter VII Food Sanitation Investigation Council

.

Article 25. Th~ food. SQnita:tion: Invest1ga.tion Co.Uncil under thesuperv1s1on . of' the Minister of' Health and Welfare shall be established to investigate and deliberate on the matters o.n foed peiso.ning preventio.n, matters on preparatio.n 0.1' Official Book fer Foo.d Additional Things, and ether: inIPo,r:tant matters o.n f'oo.d sanitation, in response to the inquirler$from the Miriister of Health and Welfare. The Fo.od Sanitatien Investigation COuncil shall be o.rganized 1I.1ththe members not more than 50 persons... . .. . If necessary to investigate o.r deliberate upon special'matters,the temporary membel'Jl: may be appointed in the Food Sanitation Investigation Council.. ' The members OT 'lll:le ~mp6rliry members of the Food SaI'd:til1aon' Investigation Council shall be appointed by the Minister o.f' Health and Welfa~, f'romamong officials er employees of the related administrative . orttces,'personsca~g::on the business concerning food, addj,tienal things, appara1ns qr oo.ntainers/paokage or learnod andexperiencedpersoris, .,

•

.. WPR/VPH/l7 page"S

The Food Sanitation Investigation Council shall have a chairman appointed by the mutual election of the members. } .y, .-.... ,.. " ~-

,

,

'. , ' , ~ :membe'r~' oi·'tempo~ry members'of -the Food Sanitation Investigation CouncH s~ll 'receive his reCompense' or travelling e:xpenses within tM.,,),:ilnit _:.~:,~of);!-ff~~t. _'; , ' :'S'

,In addition to -those prescribed in the p~~ding six parag!'8phs, necessary details about the Food sanitation Investigation Counci1;BhaP. proVided for by the Ministerial Ordinance. '. " • I ". -. _. ,:

~

','

,~

, '

",

.'~

.'

"

Article'~.'1'he Nat1()nal Treaslll'Y shallbear:one half on the following expen-, , dit\tres6i"'urbanor,local prefecture or the city..mich established a health Ceri1ie'raccOrding to'. the provisidns'of the,Cabinet Orders " ':. , ' -!.. ... I '.

.'

Chapter NIH " Miscella.neousPl»visions,

, 1. The expend1.turefor, dollecting samples according to ' thei;: pr!Jv:U!ionof Art. 17 Par. 1 (including the case ohere the same provision' app~esmii~~~s"tmitalldis in Art~' 29 Pars. 1 and 2); ., C',U', '

-":

_;,

.:' ',"

-,"

__ ,

" ..

.'.

. ' . : .. _ , -

-.

-.

':

,-.-:_ . .

, . : '··:2'~" The expenditure tor ins1;itut:ing Food ItlBpectol'q aceordi.n.lt :to ,', 'tlieI!~vision~bf Arto.19 Par. 1 (including the case where the sallle,p'l'o,"'!" ,'" 'VisfOri.' appliE1I3 mutatis mutandis iIi Art. 29 Para. land 2); " : : ' , ,'; . , ,

'~'-' -t':-,-,~'

, 3. The expenditure for granting the permission of business ~'~~;aing to' ~ij':prov1sionof Al't. 21 Par~l (inolud1.ng the case 1<bere :the~a!ll.e\ , proVision'Eipplies nnitatis tail"tandis in Art. 29 Par. 1); .' ,~ " -\;-... ': .~

...

:~~l"

"!.

··r·,

.,

'.--....

.

;";4. Theexpeilditure tOl' disoarding aceording to the pro,Vision.:ot,. Art. 22 (izl<::ludingtlle case where 'the Same provision appl;i,es mu:tatiBlBUtandis in Art. 29'Pars~ 1 and 2); • ' " . , . , '",' ',:;.", 5. The eXpenditure fel- ope,ratihgthe post-oortem ·e:xaIllina tion aocorting,.to the provision of Art. 28 Pars. 1 and 2 (inO'lluding the· OOSO lilere the~l'rovisionapplies; in: Art. 29 Par. 1); ; " . :'

..

'.

,.'

:

:-.

::

)

,"

...

6.~eBxpenditurEl for managing'the judicial case in 'oonn~n with the enforcement of thls'LaiI and 'for making Co!Dp€'~ation as: the result thereof. . '.' . "' '-, .~ 1; ", . Aa-ticle 27. Any physician ..mo has diagnosed a patient poisoned, or "suspected of bei~g poisoned, by food, an additional thing, an apparatus, or a container/ •, ' package 'Or 'wo has made an autopsy oVer ;such Oorpae, 'shall i.lmoodiately report it to the head of the health center near the place where such an accid~nt has happened. ' . ~"-,

"', ','

t,'-"r

','. ,:{

.

.

'

:

, ..

; The head of, the health centar,Yherthe recei-veda :l'tlport Underp~ceding paragraph, shall investigate and send in a report to the governor, oi",qrblln or local prefeoture in accordance 'With the decision of the Cabinet Order. t,~

. :-:- : -",

<,

: :-

.~

-

~er

of. UrQari, or lo~l 'prefecture T when he rece~:'ledl:\ report preOOdirig paragraph,'shallsendin a repo:rt to the Minis.ter. of Health al'id Welfare, in; accordance 'With ~e d~cisioh of the Cabinet Order:~

~""

. !he ,governor

t.

. ,:

"

WPR/VP!I/17 -paglil 9

Article ~'. A governor of urban or local prefecture or: a maypr of the City which established a health center is authorized" ~en hecO;ns'iders it necessa~ for investigation, to put a eorpse of a personwilose death was caused, or .. suspected to be caused, by food, an additional thing, an apparatUs or' a ' (lOntainer/package to a post-mortem exa¢llation v4th the ocmsent of the bereaved i'aInily. ... "In the' tiase'Of the preceding paragraph, if it is deemed that the cause of po!Sc;iriing cannot be identified without the post-mortem elXMination, and that,as, a ~sult, a serious hazard may be caused to publio health, he is authorized to·' put-the corpse to the post-mortem eJl1lmination, even without the oOnsentof 'the bereaved family, upon reporting it thereto. The provisions of the preceding two paragraphs shall not 'preclude compulsory disposition under the provisions of the Code of Criminal ProcedUre. . ' th~ <

~

In case the corpse is dissected under the provisions of Pars • 1 and any one in charge shall take care not to be indecorous to the corpse .. -: ,- . ~

Arli~le '29.. ' The' provisions of Art. 4, Art. 6, Art. 7, Arts. 9, to 12, Arts. 14 to 25~ Art. ,27 and the preceding Article Shall apply mutatis mutandiS-to such toys designated by the Minister of Health and Wel1'are aa mayinj'lU'e the health of infants througl). the closecontaot with the .l.a:tter. '

..

The provisions of Arts. 8to 10, Arts. 16, Arts. 17 to 19, Art. 20 and Arts. 22 to 24 shall apply mutatis mutandis to the non-profit-makingundertaking ~atf'urnishes food consecutively to unspecific or many persons in s~ch:' es~blishments as dormitories, schools orhospi tals. Article 29-(2). In Art .. 19.,.2 and Arts. 21 to 24 incluSive,' il1;he gOvernor ~f , urban or local prefecture" shall read "a mayor" in case of the city which established a health center;provideqtPat this shall not apply to the disposal determined by the Cabinet Ol'C1.er regarding the bus ines a designated by the" Cabinet Order. ' , Aa-tiole 29~(3)~ In the'd~signa ted city under Article '252-19 paragr,aph 1, of the ,local Autonomy law (IawNo. 67 of 1947) (hereinafter referred td as the designated city) ,besides those provided for in the lPrecedingArticle, those business affairs to be managed by, '!ilie urban or local prefectUre, or those business affairs coming under the authority of a governor of urban or local prefecture and to be fixed by the Cabinet Order, shall be managed by th,S designated City, or carried on by the head of the designated city. In'. this case, the proviSions regarding urban or local prefecture or a governor,of urban or local prefecture in this Lawsha;U apply to the designated city or the head of the designated oity as',1;he proviSions regarding the designate'd city 9r. the ;head of the designated city. . .

, -J

...

:

.....

WPFVvPfi/l? , page 10 Chapter IX Penal Provisions Article. 30. Any person W.ho has. viola. ted the p:ovisions of Art. 4 (includin~ the ·'ae.se where.,the same A.rticle applies mutatis mutandis in Art. 29 Par. 1), "'Ar'h. ' 5· Par;. :1 or Art. 6 (including the case where the same Article applies mutatis. mtttall1isin Art. 29 Par. 1) shall be liable toflnprisonment for not more than.3 year/? or ~ fine of not more than 50,000 yen. Any person \410 ha~ committed any offences mentioned in the preceding paragraph shall be liable to both imprisonment and a fine under circumstances. Article 30':"(2). Arly person \410 has violated the provisions of Art. 7 Par. 2 (inclusing the ,oose 'tb.ere the same Article appl:!.Js mutatis mutandis in '. ,. Art. 29 Par. 1), Art. 9 (including the case where the same Article applies mutatis mutandis, in Art. 29 Pars. 1 and 2) or Art. 21 Par. 1 (including the case where the same ArticlEi applies mutatis mutandis in Art. 29 Par.l) shall be liable to imprllsonment for no,t more than one year or a fine of not more . than 30,000 yen. Article 31. Any person wo comes under any of the following items shall be liable to imprisonment fOr :not more than 6 months or a fine of not more than 5,000 yen •

•

.c 1. Any person who has violai;ed the provision of Art. 5 Par. 2,' Art. 10 Par. 2 (including the case \/pere the same Article applies in Art~ :29. Peril; l'and 2), Art.-ll Par. 2 (includfngthe case where the sa!Jl6 Articl~: applies in Ar"!;. 29 Par. 1), Art. 12 (including the case where the same ." Article applies in Art. 29 Par. 1), Art. 16 (including the case ¥here the same Article applies in Art. 29 Pars. 1 and 2), or lirt. 27 Pau 1 (including the' ca'ae:where the same Art:lcle applies in Art • 29 Par. 1); . 2. Aw person who has violated the standard under the provision of Art. 20 (including the case where the same Article applies in Art. 29, Pars. land 2hor tho:condition under the provision of Art. 21 Par. 3 (including the case where the same ,Al'ticle applies in Art. 29, Par. 1);

3. Any bUSiness mana~r (including the persons ¥ho furnish food under the provision of Art. 29 Par. 2) \bo does not obey the order of tho Minister of Health and Welfare or a governor of urban or local'prefecture (a mayor in case it shall read mayor in accordance with the proviSion of Art. 29-(2» according :to the provision of Art. 22 (including tho c a s e , It/here 'the same Article applies 'in Art. 29 Pars. 1 and 2 ar.d hereinafte~, the same) or Art. 24 (including the. caso where the same Article applies in Art. 2:). Parso"l and 2 hereinafter tlle sallo), or any person who has operated business violati,ng the disposition under the proviSion of ';'rt. 22, Art. 23 (including the case whete the samo Article applies in Art. 29 Pars. 1 and 2) or Article 24.,.i ." . Article 32. Any person ;who COIllf3S ,under any one of the following items shall be liable to a fino of riot oore than. 5,000 yem ,, ., .. 1. Any person who has refused, disturbed or ovaded the spot inspection or collection of sample by the officials or employees concerned according to the provision of Art. 17 Par. 1 (including the case where the same Article applies in il.rt. 29 Pars. 1 and 2);

~,

...

-, WP~VFH/17

~.

page.ll

2. Any person mo does not present a report or has presented a false report according to the provision of Art. 17 Par. 1. 3. Any person me does not present a report or has presented a false report according to the provision of Art. 16-(2) or Art. 19-(2) item 6. Article 32-(2). In case the food sanitation administrator neglected his duty provided for in Art. 19-(2) Par. 3, a penalty of fine under each Article according to the condition of act of conduct shall be imposed when the conduct coming under the viola tion in Art. 30 to Art. 31 regarding the foodstuff or additional things under his management at the respective facility. However, this shall not apply to the case when the food sanitation administrator hinself acted such conduct. Article 33. When a representative of a juridical person or a juridical person, or a proxy, employee or other Y«:>rker of a person has cozmnitted violation in Art. 30 to Art. 32 concerning the bUSiness of the said juridical person or the person, such a juridical person or person shall, in addition to the punishment of the actor, be liable to a penalty of fine under each Article. However, in case such a person is to receive penalty of fine under preceding Article as the food sanitation administrator, this rule shall not apply to such person.

1

(Supplementary proviSions are omitted)

..

~.

r,}

~_~ _ _ _ _ ~

1_ _ _ _ _ _ - - - . . : - ..

~ ____

'

41

-iL.

, t

WORLD HEALTH OmAllIZATIOi

ORGANISATION mmIALE DE IA S8'lE

1IlB'I000L OFFICE FOR mE WESTiUti PACIFIC BUREAU IiX}IONAL DU PACIFIQUE OOOIDENTAL SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC REALm 'l'ODO, Japan ~

WP1VVPH/lS 16 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

April - 1 May 1959

•

I i JAPANESE VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH IEGISLATION

I

The SlaughterHouse Law and Ilee,uJ.ations

..

•

.... '!he Slaughter-House Law (Law No. 114, 1953'-

WPJV'VPH/18 -page 1

(Purpose) . '. ... ." Article 1. The purpose of this law is to get adequate management of the slaughter animals for use as food, in order to promote public health and welfare of the. ,.people • - . ,J

(Def1l:ti ticn) Article 2. The term "Domestic animals" in this Law shall mean the cattle, sheep, goats, swine and borses.

2

The. term "Slaughter-.house" in,this Law shall mean the establishment incl~J;lg all premises where domestic animals are slaughtered or dissected for food purpose. The term "Standard slaughter-house" in this Law shall mean a slaughterhouse which has the capacity of slaughtering or dissecting seattle, horse (over one ,ear old) or over 10 animals in a day. . The term "Simple slaughter-house"' in this Law shall mean a slaughterhouse other than a standard slaughter-house. The term "slaughterer" in this Law shall mean a person 1Ii10 manages the business of slaughtering or dissecting the domestic animals. .

3

4 5

(License) Article 3. Standard slaughter-house or simple slaughter-house shall not be established unless such establishment is licensed by the urban or local, prefectural governor. ' 2 Any person desiring to ootain the license under preceding paragraph, shall apply to the urban or looalprefectural governor. Such application shaU describe the structure, equipment and others which are provided for. by the Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance. In case of any change in structure, equipment and others which are provided for by the Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance, the owner of slaughter-house shall repOrt in .advance to .the urban or local prefectural governor. '. ,

3

Article 4.

The governor of ur'ban or .local prefecture, when he received the for theestablis~nt of a. slaughter-houseand if he deems that the place of sUch establishmentf'alls under, one of the following items or its structUre and equipment is unsuitable !Ie the standard, may refuse the license provided for by Article 3 paragraph 2. writtenapp1i~tion f·

! -

...

WPR/VPH/IB .page 2 I',';. .

oJ'

(1)

Place is crowded by house:r~, ~

-.

(2) .

. ,-

Drinking water for public use is suspected to be contaminated •

t~) - P:l,aces imtbh. are deemed by the urban o~ local prefectural governor te injure human :heaclth.· .' 2 The governor ofurb~ri. or 10001 prefecture, from the publio h~tIi v1e~~t, . may restrict ~e kind of animals and the number of slaughter:lng'anbla18 per d,ay. , ,i_.

(Sani ta ry requirelljen t) Article 5. Theown~'r .or manager of a slaughter-house shall keep clean the inside and outsids'of's slaughter-house, shali CQn'~l flies, rats and the other vermines. An adequate and acceptable sewage disposal system shall be provided. Also,he shall provide the necessary disposition for the public health. . (Sanitation for slaughterer) Article-6. Slaughterer or others "'ho concern the 'slaughter of animals shall use the clean equipment and S11\'],,:), Ufje .enough water. Also they shall',:.,: provide the necessary dispos.it.:ion~9r the pu1:tlic health. ., i, (Restriction for use of slaughter-house) Article 7. Any owner or manager of a sl!,\ughter-hotise shalL not ~eruse to use the slaughter-house for the slaughter or dissection of animals} 'Without any J,egaLreasons. 2 Any slaughtl3rer'shall not refuse .the slaughter or dissec,tion of animals,; without any legal reasons. ," ;j'.

.t.' .

,(Rate of charges' for use of a slaughter~l).ouse and fa; the slaughtering)' A:rticle8. The,Qwner OX' manager-of as18ughter-house OJ,'the slaughterer shall get the aut"horizatiorrof .rirbal;l. or local prefecturaJ governor uPon the rates of charges for the use .of the"s..iaughter-house.~~~ for .the slaughtering ...niah sl'l!! previously decided; "the'sariieshall be applied to the case of alt!,ratiqri :LtisuOh" rates." '

2 The o'<l!ler or mariager;:ofa slaugh'ter""house and t..'l-Jos,latigh:terer shall not receive the payments more than the fixed Charges ,wh.i~h a~ authQrized •aCCording. "to ,the provision of the preceding par~graph.· , -,>.: •

..

_

'_'

." . . ',

,.

I:n ...

The owner nlanager of sipughteri'houses~llnotice the rates of cMr~J w4~cit~1:'o auth6l.'ize.d.'!lccOrd~!lg~;totl1ep:rl)visipn ofpara~}Jh 1; ..":' .' '~nthe.place :whieh is ,bl!mspJ,wous to'thd~ple.,. '" :3 " ';; .. \ :" .' ," ..... "., .' .. r-.'- :_~;; • ','

or

'-'I,'r

.:" .

(Slaughter and dissection of ani.ni.als) " : ".' , ,,". Article 9. Anyone shall not slaughter the animals for food'purpose 'in any place other than the slaughter-house, except the next cases.

• I

~

WPR/VPH/18 page .3 (1) When domestic animals except cattle and horses (over one year old) are intended for family use by the persons who are not . in. the business authorized by the Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance. In such cas~ he shall report in advanCe to the Gove:r:'J?,or of urban or . local prefecture' pl'Qv:ided' for by the Minist17' of. Beal1ih and Welfare Ordinance ~ (2) When emergency slaughter is deemed necessary for animals injured or fallen into a helpless condition on account of an accident.

,

(.3) When emergency slaughter is deemed necessary fo.r animals suffering from difficult delivery, puerperal paralysis, acute tympanites or other diseases which are designated by the. Ministry.of Health and Wel_ fare Ordinance.

(4)

When domestic. animals are slaughtered and dissecte~ for crew and passengers fCil' 'rood 'P'1L-"o1te On board :Sl.lillng an ocean.

(5) When .domestic an:mals are slaughtered and dissected in the cases which are provided for by the Oabinet Order. 2 Anyone shall not dissect the animals for food purpose at any place other than a slaughter-house; except the cases according to the ~te_ (1) ;(4) and . :(5) of preceding paragraph. . .'.

.3 Governor of urban or loealprefecture, if he deems it necessary f'looJD, the viewpoint of public health, may indicate to the person who des irs to slaughter the animals according to the preceding paragraph, upon the place of slaughter and dissection of animals, treatment of carcass and viscera, and waste diSposal. (Inspection of slaughter or dissection of animals) Article 10. No animal shall be slaughtered for food purpose in the slaughterhouse unless they are ihspected by the urban or lOClllprefectural govel'1lOr. 2 In the slaughter-house no animal shall be dissected Unless they are inspected' by the Ul"banor local. prefectural goverIXlr •

.3 No carcass, viscera, blood, bone and hide shall be car1'1ed out j!);ooom the slaugtitezo;..bouse unles;s they are passed the inspection of urlillJhOr prefectural governor. :"". lo~

4 The provision of preceding .3 paragraphs shall.

~f)ply upon .the animals which are slaughtered and dissected at the outside of slaughter-house in accordance. with the provision of preceding Article, paragraph 1 i'llem' (5) .. or related paragraph, except the cases which are deemed by the udan. or local prefectural governor to ba unnecessary to perform the inspection. In' this case the term of outside of slaughter-house in .the. p~ced1ng.p81'6graph means the outside ot :the -place 'for animal. d:Las~o:tlOn. , .

5 Inspectionaethod, proceeding and other necessary items which are performed by the UrQaDl or localprofectural governor, shall be provided by the Oabinet Orda!'".

·~WVPIi/18 - >.page 4 ..

'

.

)I

,

·(~kt~ictionof trading) . Artig1.e,¥E }il~ one,. shall not buy the meat or viscera which are dissec.ted at .1W~:\9)-1~side: orsla:~~~:.:-ho~8e in viol§lij;ion with .the provision of Article 9 paragraph2,orcarl'~ed 0Uit· from the slaughter-house in viela~ion \oI1'1:ih ..theproVision of Dreceding Article, paragraph 3, to sell them for., food

PurPose.: -, . .

.

jI

(Prohibition ,of slaughter and dissectien) Article 12. Whentne governor of urban or .lo~l prefecture deems that the ~niInal is suffering from disease and is .unfi t fOj; food purpose er that infection \li11 eccur by slaughter and dissectiOl;,may adopt fellowing dispositien \oIithin the necessary l~it ef the public heal~ view-point. (1)

II

II

Shall prohibit the slaUghter or dissectien. . . ~

'.

(2) Shall order ' .. the ower er nanagor ef anilnai, and ewer or manager ef slaughter-heuse·~.md others who. arecencerning to the matter, ;to separate the animal from 'others arid to. disinfect the slaughter.-hciU:se . .. and to. enferce ether disposition.

·0)· Shall erder

the ower er mnnager ef carcass and visc.era to destroy the carcass, viscOl"a and ether matters which are deemed·~it for use ef feod purpose. Also., sha 11 erder the eff1'6iald to ldarry eut those .disposition.,

. (Subjlli tting of reports ) Article 13. When it is deemed neepssary, in erder to safeguard,thepubllc health, the gov8rner efurbr.ri er 'local prDfecture or J:1.(l.YQr 0L?ity 'Which have established a health center mny erder to submit necessary reports fer the ewer er ·manager ef slaughter-house er sloughter\3r. Also., he order, the officials in charge to enter into. the slaughter-house and inspect the conditioriof disposition \oIhich are provided in ,Article 5, and 6, or items (2) or (3)· of" proceding Article. ,.

The officials in charge shall bring ':with the .cer.tificateshowing their at<'\tus apd, shAH shew it on denand of !'lOn who -are cencerning to the matter. . [; . . ...):; 3nte right-aEll prescribed in paragraph ,1 shall not be Cc:mstry:e'p as i .bav1ng been granted fer the search of crmo s • ~

2

\1

(Revocation of Licence) .. ... Articf8 14 •. In case of next items, the prefectural governer mti1.)'8voke any ...1;i~nce of provision or may restrict or suspend the owner or manager of slaug~ter-house to use the establishment. (1) Wheri'the·constructien and eqUipment of slaughter-housebel'ome unfit for the stahdard mentioned in Article 4 peregraph 1.·

(;2) When the slaUghtering and dissecting are enforced in vielation of the provision~: . ." ".' , 2 Tho governor of ur1:ian,-ar l.ocalprefecture nay susperii:l tho busine::s of slaughterer er ether persons in charge fixing the tern thereof or may prehibit to. slaughter and disaect the animals, regardless of the official's remonstrance.

• WPR/VPH/18· .page 5

3

The governor ofurban or l~cai profecture,.11 he desires to enforce the disposition provided in the preceqing2-paragl'ElI2lut" shall notify the reason of disposition and give a chance of explana tion and submi~ting of the profitable proof to the person lIhom the cJil!lpUi1d.on will be made.

(InspectO~) . . Articlei5.1'he gowrnor' Of~:orBoal PllElfecture shall have .the meat inspector to exercise their authorities provided for in article 17, and to exercise their authorities provided for in A.rticle 12, Art. 13 paragraph 1, and. paragraph 2' .of. pre'Coding A.rticle.

2 Meat inspectoll shall be apPointed by the governor of urban il" local . Prefecture.· . 3 Qualification of meat inspector and standard.of fixed nwnber or other . necessary details shall be provided by CabiOet OIc!er.

;

,

~, ~'J

'r

•

-,

• ~RfVPH71a --pa'ge 6

The Enforcement .O.rder for the . . ::,._I.::,C::~ ::_.:~ ~ I;:;:

~laughter~ouse . .' ....).' •.. ·',i ",

:.~;.

_.(Cabttie'fOrder "

No. .

216, 1953)

(Standard of general slaughter-house) Article 1. Standardization of construction, equipment on slaughter-house, in acoqrdance With the provision or Article· 4 paragraph 1 of Slaughter..:Hous.e IBw~shall be fixed as follqwSJ -

(I)

There shall be installed in the slaughter-house, a room to keep up, a live animal inspection room, a slaughter room, a v'is6eralftspection room, a sterilization room, a detention room and a sewage disposal system, and if the meat trading is enforced in the slaughter-house and governor of urban or local prefecture deems it necessary, the trading room shall be installed. . animalschl;lt~ed

(2) The room to keep animals chained shall be provided with partition for every cattle (over one year old) and horses, and proper sections shall be prepared for other animals. Floor of those shall be made from impermeable materials (stone concrete andcdh&l"ar which are impermeable of blood or dirty water) with adequate slope and drainage. (3) The live body inspection room shall be equipped so as to measure the weight and size of animals and to keep animal still and the floor of it shall be made from impermeable materials.

(4)

The slaughter room shall be constructed as follows;

(a) It shall be divided into section for slaughter, section for dissection, section for viscera treatment and section for hide treatment. Each room shall have the door through which one goes out directly. (b) The floor of those room shall be made from impermeable material with adequate slope and groove to drain out dirty water. (c) The inside wall shall be wainscotted with impermeable materials more than 1.2 meters high, except the wall of the room made out from impermeable materials. (d) The room shall be provided with window for ventilation and lighting.

(e) The room shall be equipped with table on which inspection of viscera are made, table on which viscera are treated, water tank for washing water, hangers to hold meat and scale to measure the weight of meat. (f) The room shall be provided with plentiful water supply.

WPR/VPH/18 .page 7

(5)

The v1."~~l'P, inspection room shall be provided with the tqble for test ana eqquiped ',Ii th wa ter supply.

(6) The sterilization room shall be provided with equipment neoesaar.y for sterilization and the floor of the room shall be made from impermeable materials. (7) The detention room shall be provided with the equipment for sterilization of dirt and dirty water from isolated animal, and the floor of it shall be made from impermeable materials. (8) Sewage disposal system shall be provided as follows~

(a) It shall be provided with tank to keep dirt and eqUipment for blood and dirty water treatment, except the case of those blood and dirty water may discharge into public sewage line. (b) The tank to keep dirt shall be situated in proper diatanoe iTom slaughter room and trado roo~ and ahall bo made from impermeable materials and provided YJith adequa"i;;e cover. .

(c) The eqUipment of blood and dirty ~</8ter treatment shall .be situated in proper "<;listance from slaughter room and trade roo~ and shall be provided proper eqUipment for purification of blood and dirty 'l£ter. (9) The trade room shall be provided as folloWf:

(a) The floor shall be made from impermeable materials with adequate slope and groove to drain out dirty 'l£ter. . _ ' . ·}C·' ..

(b) "The inside wall shall be wainscotted with impermeable materials more than 1.2 meters high, except the wall of the room made oui. from impermeable materials. (c) (d) (e) The room shall be provided 1ILth"w:Lnoow·;fo:r:"~~tilat:1.o'me.nd lighting. The room shall be provided YJith hoist and lfo'lger rail.' The room shall be provided with proper watel' supply.

..

(10) Moreover, slaughter-house shall be provided with construction and eqUipment .nich are fixed by the governor orurban: or •. local· prefecture when he deeIIS': it necessary. .

.

;:.:J:'i

(Stand~'ro of simple slaughter,:.h6use). Article 2. Standardization of construction and equipment on simple slaughterhouse in accordance with the provision of A.rticle 1, paragraph 1 of Slaughter-House LaYJ, shall be fixed as follo"Wss (1) . There shall be installed in the slaughter-house a slaugtiter room, a v:!:scera. i~p&ction room, a sterilization room and shall have the necessary space for li'veb'6dy ,:lnspectionanddetention ~Q£~rl~l. .

WPR/VPH/lS

-page S

-"_

J

I

(2)

The slaughter room shallbo provided as followse

·;'(a)····!tShall be divided ·into division so ail to treat the viscera and hide sepe·rately. (b) The floor of slaughter room shall be made from impermeable materi, als ....with adequat,e slope and drainage. ",

(0) The slaughter room shall have the windo\. for ventilation and lighting. (d) The slaughter room shall be providod with the table for viscera mspection,tank for washing water, ranger to hold meat and scale to measur~ the weight of meat. (eL. The slaughte~-room shall be providc.d with plentiful lolIter supply. ,.. • "f'" •.

(3)

The ro6in for viscera inspectlonshall be provided with the table for -v;iscera inspection ~nd with the water supply.

(4) The sterilization room shall bo provided \lith the equipment for , st.eriUzationJand the floor of it shall be made from impermeable . materials. ' (5) The eqUipment for dirt treatment shall be provided as follown (arIt shall have the tank for dirt and tank for dirty .ater. (b) rhe tank for dirt and tank for dirty .ater shall be situated in proper: .' distance from the slaughter room, and shall be made from ':i:lnpermeable materials and provided with adequate cover. (Q~ses ,of anirlal may bu slaughtored in the outside of slaughter-house) Article 3. Cases of ani."1al.may be slaughtered in the other place than slaughter-house according to tho proviSion of Artiole 9 paragraph l.item. 5 ~f Iaw, shall be as follows: !

(1) In O£lS~the_ slaughter-house or it1s eqll:l..pment are damaged by .. calamity or accident,and animals are slaughte:red unavoidably in the ,,: other place than slaughter-house. '.-,.' "

(2) In case the <lnirlals are slaughter()d at the island, ~th the tel)son of " no slaughter-hoUSer": . ". and aniInals are slaughtered unavoidably in the other place than slaughter-houso. In that case, designation of the place and permission of slaughtoring" by governor of ur1;Jan or local prefecture must be received. (ApPf~cation for inspection) ArU'cle 4. Any oho who wants to got tho inspection of aninnl according to the provision of A.rticle 10 of J..'3'W shull be present the application stating tho items which are provided by the Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinanca~. to the governor of ~n.,or ·-10 cal prefecture.

..

• WPR/VPH/18 -page 9

(Method of inspe~t'ionr Article 5. Inspection of animal according to the provision of Article 10 of -Iaw"shal;L be performed by "!ilie examination of: general conditions of health by looking, th.e measurement of body temperature, the body examination by touching, the anatomical examination and the mic:roscopic examination, to determine the diseases which are provided by the Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinlln.ce. . ;<

(Stamp) Article 6. Governor of ~no.r lo~lprefecture, when he completed the inspection of the provision of .A.rticlo 10 paragrqph-:";9i't7Jl\w,. shall afiar the seal of approval on the flGsh, viscera and hide according'to the provision of Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance. (Qualifioo,tion of meat inspector) Article 7. ·Meat inspector according to the provision of Article 15, paragraph 1 of· !.aw, shall be the veterinarian. (Standard for the establishment of meat inspector) Article.8. Standard for the establishment of meat inspector in the urbnil or local prefecture according to the provision of article 15. uaragr<\ph 1 of L,w, shall be over one person perone Slaughter-house. (The City having health cepter) Article 9. In the city having the health center, governor of urban or local prefecture provided in the A.L'ticle 4 and, 6oflr.iw, shall be read' . j , the I"lByor of the c1 ty •

..

,',

.

•

WPlVvPH/18 page l.D

'!he Enforcement Regulations for Slaughter-House Law (Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance No. 44, 1953) The Enforcement Regulations for Slaughter-House Law (Law No. 114, 1953) and Sl~ughter-House Law Enforcement Order (Cabinet Order No. 216, 1953) . shall be f'ixed as follows I

.: Minister of Health & Welfare Katsumi Yamagata (State items on the application of slaughter-houseestabHshment) .. Article 1. State items according to the provision of Article 3 paragraph 2 of Law, shall be as follows, beside the items provided in same article and .paragraph. . . (1) Address, name and birth-da te of applicant (in the case of jurigieal person; its name, address, name oTitIs representative and a copy of company contract or contribution). (2) . Name of"cslaughter-house and it IS address. (3) Kind of slaughter-house.

(4) Kind of animals slaughtered and the number of animal slaughtered per day. (5) Outline of meat trading, i f the moat trading is enforced in the slaugh ter-house. 2 Prescription of the business which include the outline of the mangement of the slaughter-house, shall be added in the application which is provided in the preceding paragraph.

(Items to be reported in the case of change on slaughter-house) Article 2. Reporting items according to the provision of Article 3 paragraph 3 of Law, shall be the items which are provided in the preceding Article, paragraph 1, each item, and the main items which are provided in the same article, paragraph 2. (Limitation of business) Article 3. Irusiness ..tJ.ich is concerning to the meat treatment provided in the Article 9 paragraph 1 item (1) of Law shall be fixed as follows, besides the business which is fixed in the above mentioned nrovision; (1) (2) Manufacturing business of meat products. Eating and drinking house business. "

• WPIVVPH/IB page.ll

(Report of the family use) Article 4. Report according to the provision of J..rticle 9, paragraph 1 iton -(1), . @8J,l bepI'Ovi~Eld ()r:t_.~.~ following items through the health center chief; .. ..... -. "_ ... - . .~ '

.~.

(1) (2)

Address, name, birth-dateand profession of reporter. Date and tbe of slaughter'•....

(3) :Place of slaughter and its surroundfDgconditions.

(4) (5)

Kind, sex, age,·charac~erand weight of animal to be slaughtered. Scope of the person to use the mea t.

(6) When desired to use for other perso~s· who are not family or living in other house·, the reaS0ns and the quantity of meat. (Items to be stated in the application of inspection) Article 5. Items to be stated in the application according to the proviSion o~ Jrticl-e 40f flabinet Order.: shalll:ie as followE'r

(1) Address, name, birth-date (in the case of juridical person, its name, address, . name of it's representative) of applicant. , . ' (2) Date of slaughter or dissection.

(3) Kind, sex, age, character and birth place of animal which is intended to receive the inspection.

(4)

Reason of slaughtering in the other place than the slaughter-house, date and place of slaughter, when the animal is slaughtered according to the provision of Article 9. paragraph 1 items:2 or 3 of Law, and intended to dissect. .' shall

(Scope of diseases for inspection) Article 6. Diseases provided in the Article 5 of crabinet ordeJr, be fixed as in the '.I!able 1.

,.

(Stamp) Article 7. Whentl;le stamp which is provided.in the proVision of article 6 orC:lbinet Grdlr',. iS'put upon the .animal, the stamp of form No. 1 shall be pU'\ in accordance with the kind of animal by the 'fable 2. ~"

(Certificate card of moat inspector) Article B. Certificate card 1olb.ich shall be ~rried by the officials concerned accordirig to the provision of !.rticl~13paragraph 2 of Law, shall be based on rorm .' No.2. Table 1. ..

.

***

Rinderpest, Contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle, Foot and MouthD1sease, Enzootic encophalitis, Rabies, Anthrax, Blackleg, Pasteurellosis, Glanders, Pseudo-farcy, Sheep pox, Hog cholera, Swine·erysipelas, Swine paratyphus, TuberculOSiS, Brucellosis, Tetanus, Pyemia, Septicaemia, Uraemia, Icteurs, Oedem, ~or, Trichinosis and other paraSitic disease, Toxemia, Actinomycosis, Diseases with fover, Traumata, Inflamation, RegreSSive chango atrophy and malformation·o (-lHH~ 6 ,.t,~ noQaci.:J,!QIl:i,/3)

, WPlVVPH/le . page-12 J.. -

.. ,.i

.

Kind of aniIDal

Part \iliere stamp shall be put on Carcass Neck, Sho~der, Breast (inside and outside), Trunk (outside of front and back) I Fore legs (inside and outsidehHind legs (inside, outside and back) Abdomen (inside and outside), Head, 'Dlngue and Tail Viscera Heart, Lungs, Live:r; Kidneys, StOmach and . Intestine Hide Toil-neck (inside) Carcass . Neck, Shoulder, Breast (inside and outside), Fore and Hind legs (inside and outside) Trunk (outside), Abdomen (inside and outside), Head and . 'lb nguc • -;

Ca ttle and Horse

Calves (under one year old)

Viscera Heart, Lungs, Liver, Kidneys, Stomach and . Intestine Hide Tail-neck (inside) In the case of calves which have not their skin taken off, stamp shall be put on proper spot,aftel' taking off the piece of skin at the spot. Car~ss

Swine

Neck, Show.der, Trunk (outsi,de) Abdomen (inside and outside), Fore and Hind legs (outside), Head and Tengue ·Viscel'O . Heart,Liver, Stomach and Intestine Hide Tail-neck (inside)

WPR/VPH/1S page 13

Carcass Neck, Shouldor'ii!(['runk (outside) '. Abdomen (iW3ide' and outside ~Fore and Hind.legs(out~.ide), Head arid'lD.ngua Viscera :r

Sheep and Goa t

"

Liver HIde Tail-neck (inside)

A

. WPlV'VPH/1S

page. 14

..

.- ..

~

.. ,

'.. . ~.'.~ ~'... Prescription for the Inspection. of Domestic.. Animals (Ministry of Health & Welfare Instruction No. 11, 1953) ~ \

~',

',(Ante-mortem inspection) Article 1 •.. EEm1natiori by the provision of Slaughter-aouse La", article 10 paragraph 1, shall be performed as show in following items. (1) Inspection shall be made on the day of slaughter •. '.

(2) An ante-mortem inspection of cattle (over one year old) and horse shall be made in pens Which have equipment for keeping them still. (3) Animals to undergo inspection shall be made clean and chained rightly without unnecessary ropes' or cords. (4) Animals shall be weighed with scale installed in the slaughterhouse.

(5) Inspectors, shall first examin~ the general conditions of health by look, shall measure the temperatures at the base of horns or ears, and then shall e)tl2mine eyelids by turning them up, and then nostrils and IOOUth by making them wide open. After that, they shall e)tl2mine the neck, body and the fore legs by touching from one side and going round, e:xamine the hind legs and sexual organ, repeating the same way on other side. If they find something extraordinary, the body shall be put to a minute e:xamination according to the degree. (Treatment of anilllals after the ante-lOOrtem ins,ection) Article 2. After the preceding e:xamination an inspector shall treat the animals under following each disposition, according to the results of e~mina tien. (1) When an inspector deemed that the animals are affected \lith any diseases and all of them are unfit for food purpose he shall prohibit the slaughter of the animal. (2) When the animals are affected with infectious diseases and may infect the disease to the other, inspector shall order to separate the animals immediately and to disinfoct and to clean the place, materials and others ",hich are contaminated with organisms. () Animals "'hich are affected with disease, shall be slaughtered and dissected in the section for diseased animal at the standard slaughterhouse, and shall be slaughtered and dissected after the slaughter and dissection of other animals are finished completely at the simple slaughter-house.

WPR/VPH/18 page;lS' (Inspection of animals before dissecting) Article 3. The inspection as provided by Article 10 paragraph 2 of Law shall be performed as shown in the following items I '

.

"

(l)

Blood shall be examined.

(2) , On the animals which are slaghtered by the provision of Article 9 paragraph 1 items (2) or (3) of the Law, the inspector shall examine at first the general conditions of body by looking, after that shall examine the eyelids by turning the,m up, and then nostrils and mouth by making them \lido open. Then the", shall examine the nock, todyand fore legs by tou.ching from one side and going round, examine the hind legs and sexual organ, ropea ting the same way on other side. If thoy find something extraordinary, the body shall be put to a minute exaI!lination according to the degree •. (Dispos'al of carcass after the 'aody examina,tion before dissection)' Article 4. After the preceding examination, inspector shall dispose of the ca.r~ss unde.r the following each disposition according to the resnlts

of eXSlld.ria "\i~(:m. '

'

(1) When an inspector deemed ~at the animal is affected wi~ ~ny q:tseases and all of them are unfit for food purpose, he shall prohibit to d£ssect .:th,filibody a~d shall order to make adequate sanitary disposition. . -_.' '., .'. . "

;' ,'~"

....,

(:a)

. '

When GIn animal is affected with infe'ctious diseases and may infect the disease to tho'other,inspector, shall order to disinfect ~nd to clean the place; materials end others which are contaminated with organisms •

(J) . Aniinalsiahich are slaughtered under the provision of Article 9 paragraph 1 items (2) or (3) of" shall be diss.ected a:t the section for diseased animal in tho standard slaughter-house, and, shall be dissected after' the slaughter and dissection of other animals are finished completely in the simple slaughter"':house.

Law

(4)

Tallies for viscera and meat shall be given when the examination are finished.

Article 5. Inspection' under the provision of Article 10 paragl'8ph :3 of Law~ shall be conducted as foll01lls I '

(1)

Inspectors;

or diseased materials. .. .

>Ii th him and shall sterilize the knife, 1iIhen it is touched '>Ii th

in

their'inspecti9x:t, shall always carry t1rKl or more knives or~I4sms

.

.

.

. .

(2) (a) (b) (c)

Inspe,ctors shall ,examine tho bodies of animals in the follow.tng order. Blood and hide. Head, tongue, throat, neck and}.. ymp}l-nodes near them.

Lungs, pulnionary lymph-nodes and' media stinum.

(d) Heart, pericardium (be sure toct.it open the bo'th ventricle.!! along to the arteries.) .,

• WPrv~I;1I,llt ~¢e~l.6'

,

A..-

.. II

,

(e)

Diaphragm. Liver-portal and "adjaoont lymph-~des. Stomach, Intestines, mesentric lymph-nodes and omentum. Spleen.

(f) (g) (h)

(i) 'Pancreas.

(j) (k) (1)

Kidney, adjacent lymph-nodes and bladder. Testicle, penis or ovary, uterus vagina, and pubes. Meat.

(3) Special examination for respective kind of aniIllal shall be conducted as follows I (a) Cattle: Roth of internal and external massesters (especially enernal 0_) shall be cut parallel to 10\olElr jaw. Liver shall be cut across the large, bile duct and spigel leaf. Kidney shall be get rid of fat. Uterine shall 'be cut open. (b) Calf (under one year old) I The navel and .joints shall be .exoDinQd. • '" '," L ;,'" -, 1', ;,

"i,:i

~,

••

(0) Morsea: The head shall be severed vertically, and cut off the septum nose, and then septum nose and its membrane shall be examined. (d) Pigs Abdominal muscles, diaphragm, neck, heart, tongue, throat and , head shall be cut. A bit of meat of those parts shall be cut off for • , miscrosaopical'e:xamma tion. (e) Sheep and Goat: The liver, lungs and heart shall be cut, and if necessary the skull shall be cut open for examination.

(4)

Inspectors, if they find it necessary, when practiced the examinations as specified in the two preceding paragraphs, shall cut off piece of meat and viscera for a minute e~mination. In this ense they shall take care not to do beyond necessity. j ..

"

(5) When there is found anything extraordinary and it is deemed necessary, , they shall be ready to give timely examination. (Disposition after the post-mortem inspection) Articie 6. 'Inspectors, -when they examined, the aniIllals under the proviSion of preceding article, shall treat the animals as follows according to the results of examination; (1) When the animals are affected with infectious diseases and may infeot the disease to the others, inspector shall order to disinfect and to_ clean the treatment room and other places which are suspected to be contJ:Iminated with organisms, or materials and others.

. 4 "

.",

WPR/VPH/18 .,(2)l~bto:r;Shall0rd"r , others for, :the whOle • -• > ••

pagel?

0'1' 'pe. rti.i

the disposition of aestrOY, disinfection or of animals which are unti t for food purpose •

(Dlsease~ by vbich, wh()le bo<;ly of animal is condemned for food purpose)

Arti'cle

, ..:-

Anima+s affe,cted with following dls~ases shall not be used ror; food Rindar, pest 1 foot and mouth disease, arthropod-born virus, ' encephalitides;:rabies, anthrl'lx, blackleg, pal'lteurellosis, glanders, pseudo-farcy, slleep 'pox, hog ch61era, swine erysipelas, swine paratyphus, mammary tuberculoSis,far advanced pulmonaly tuberculpsis, generalized tuberculosis, tuberculosis which became causative agent of rel118rkahle malmitrition, 'lruberculosis locali.zed in tioKl or nore organs and its lymph-nodes, acute tUberculosis, tetanus, pyemia,. septicaemia, uraemia,' heavy icterus, heavy oedem, tumor (when it oCClirs abundantly in muscle, borns or lymph-nodes), trichinosis, poisoning (cases in which the utilization of its meat may cause the danger o£food,poisoning) or diseases 'With high fever. purpos~.

7~,

(Pa:rtot';.aniJ;l81 body which shall nO,t be used for food purpose) , , Article 8.' ' Part of animal body which shall not be used for food purpose i'6 as follows;' , Parts aff,ected with suppurative or necrotic dermatitis. Parts .wi th trauma ta. ' ,, Parts affected with infla!ll,!:18tion in the connective tissu~, muscle and viscera. Parts with marked malfo~tion. Partslitfedted with tumor. , ." Pa~ts ~ffected with calca.reous de,genera tiona Parts affected with actinomYCosis and actinobacillosis • Parts where there is atrophy in muscles or organs by disease. Parasi te and part from vbich the para si tes cannot be get rid of. Affected region and its surrounding tissue, when ,the animal affected with ,tubQrculosis and the lesion is .localized in one organ and i1ls lymphnode, or if lesion is present in tioKl or three organs but the lesion is localized and there is no sign of aaute tuberculosis. (Disinfection of destroyed carcass and part) Article 9. Destroyed carcass and part unfit for food purpose shall be out in pieces, heated mqre than 60 minutes at more than 100 degrees C. or shall be sterilized with sterilizing preparation or with coarse acid preparation. ;,I

..

(Method of disinfection) Article 10. DiSinfection under the provisions of Article 2 item (2), Article 4 item (2) and Article 6 items (1) and (2) shall be conducted as followsl (1) More than one hour after 'cresol solution (consisting of 3% cresol soap solutioniand 97% water) or solution of carbolic acid (3% carboliC acid for epidemic prevention and 97% water) ,being dispersed, to infiltrate into the slaughter ±-oom, the slaughter room shall be v.esp.ed 'Well by water.

(2) The room to kE;Jell animals chained, l~ye body inspectio:p. room, passage way and other places ahall be sprinkled with plentiful amoUnt of cresol solution" (cOnsisting of 3% cresol sOl,jp solution and 97% water) or solution of carbolic aCid, or quicklime chloric limeo~ chloric lime water (chloric lime 5%, water 95%). (3) Material~ or equipl'lent and others used in earring out busines~ shall be hea ted more than 100 degree C. for ovcr one hour. If such measure

• WPlV'VPH/l:S , page. IS ~,...

...

.

is impracticable, the equipment shall be Wilshedlllith hot 1II8ter and soap arter:be:1ng piltinto and infiltrated with cresol solution (cresol soap aolu:tfon 3%, 1II8ter 97%) or carbolic acid solution, or shall be put into and infiltrated lII~th quarternary ammonia compounds solution. ·(4) 'Hide, after washed repeat~dly with a piece of cloth or a brush '£t with cresol solution, carbolic acid solution or formalin solution (ff>rmalin 1 part, water 34 parts), shall be exposed to the sun wile being hung up if possible, or shall be dipped into and infiltrated with salt solution containing hydrochloric acid or quarternary ammonia compounds solution. (5) Meat, viscera, blood, bone~ horn and hoof shall be placed together in a fixed place, and only moat, viscera and bone shall be chopped in. proper size, then all of those shall be boiled in water at more than 100 degrees C. for·over one hour, or shall be sprinkled lIIith or dipped with plentiful disinfectants or coarse acid preparations provided in the separate table. ,(6) The contents of the stom!lcb and intestine shall be put toga,thErr jn a fixed place and shall be '£11 stirred with plentiful cresol solution or carbolic acid sol~tion. (7) Hand and foot of any person performed slaughtering and dissecting of . animal shall be washed '£11 with brush liIbile dipping in corrosive subl:iJ!l.ate solution (corrosive sublimate 1 part, salt 1 part, 1II8OOr 1000 parts), cresol solutior( crosol soap solution 3 parts, water '17 pa:bts) or carbolic. acid solution, and then shall be washed with hot water and soap, or shall be washed '£ll with quarternary aIElOnia compounds solution. . (Recording book) Article 11. Inspector shall have 11 recording book and shall record the detailed . notes on the kind and number of animals slaughtored, and the reason of prohibition of slaughter or dissection, if these disposition had performed.

Table {soparate table for Article 10) I Carbolic acid solution (preventive· carblic acid 3 parts, water 97 parts) Formaldehide • Formalin water (foi'malin I part, ~ter 34 parts) , Cresol solution (cresol soap solu1!ion 3 parts, water '17 parts) Cresol.sulphuliC acid solution (coarse cresol 2 parts, coarse sulphlic acid 1 part, Wilter '17 parts) G'reo1in orCresinsolution (creolin or c'resin 3 parts , water '17 parts) Quarternary ~nia coI!IpOWld solut;ton· ,(quarternary ammonia compound 3 parts, water '17 parts) CQarse, hydrochloric!rcid. Coarse sulphuric acid.

1

tn't

WORLD HEALTH OFGANIZATION

ORGANISATION MONDIAIE DE IA SANTE

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC BUREAU REGIONllL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL SEMINlIR ON VETERINARY PUBIJC HEALTH

WPR/VPH/19 16 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

, ... '-

JAPANESE VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH LEGISIATION

The R9bies Provention law and Regulations

(law No. 247 of 1950)

l \

WP!VVPH!19 ,page 1

'lmI RABIES PREVENTION lAW

(Law No. 247 of 1950)

.,

Oontents Chapter I. General Provisions (Articles 1 - 3) Chapter II. Ordinary Dis£<,sition (Articles 4 - 7) Chapter I!!.. Disposition When Rabies Occurred (Articles 8 - 19) Chapter IV • Additional Provisions (Articles 20 - 25) Chapter V. Penal Provisions (Articles 26 - 28) CHAPTER I Goneral Provisions

(Purpose) Article 1. The purpose of this Law is to provent and control the outbreak and spread of rabies, and to eradicate the disease, in order to protect and promote the public health and welfare of the people. ,. (Scope 'of Application) Article 2. This Law shall apply to rabies of dogs only, among rabies of animals • However, the Minister of Health and Welfare mny, in case rabies breaks out among any other anilnBls than dogs, cattle, horses, sheep, goats, Swine, chicken and ducks , and if 1 t 1s deor.lod to affect seriously upon the public' health, deSignate the species of anir.lal, period and areB, and apply mutatis Iinltandis one part of this Law. In t.loJ.is case, this period shall not exceed one year. 2. GovernOr ofuiban or local prefecture shall, i f he deems it necessary tQ apply mutatis mutandis a part of this Inw under tho proviso to tho preceding paragraph, report the fact to the Minister of Health and Welfare in accordance with the Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance. <'

(ft:lbies Prevention Officer) Article 3. Govern:>r of urban or local prefecture shall appoint the rabies prevention officer (hereinafter referrod to as "prevention officer") from among the veterinarians who are the staff of urban or local prefecture. conceri'ied. . 2. In performing his duties, the prevention officer shall carry With him a certificate t.o show his: status and sholl it at- ·the request of the persons concerned.

'

..........

Wl'IVVPH/19

.,page 2

CHAP~R

II

Ordinary Disposition

(Registra tion) Article 4. O~ner of a dog shall apply for the registration of the dogs as Day be determined by the Ministry of Health anl'. Welfare Ordinance once a year to the governor of urban or locnl profocturo, wo has the jurisdiotion over the place where the dog is kept, through the mayor of city, town or village (incase of Tokyo, where .ards exist, "through the chief of the .ard"; hereinafter the same). 2. When application for the registrution mentioned in th~ preceding paragraph is made, the governor of urbi'ln or local prefecture shalf .. register it on the ledger and sh!l,llissuethe licence for the dog through ,the mayor of city, town or village mentioned in the preceding paragraph to. the o~ner of the dog. The owner of a dog shall keep the licence nentioned iil. the preceding paragraph to the dog. _~

,

3. 4.

Goveroor of urban or local prefecture may, with respect to the registration of a dog, collect thp. registration fee not exceedi'if{ three hundred . ;yl3n a yea.r:,per one .dog. Besides the provis,ions of the preceding four paragraphs, ~tle necessary matters concerning tho registration and the delivery of the ',icence of a dog shall be provided for by the Cabinet Order. _f'l

5.

(Immuniza tion) Articlf3 5. The o'WI1O;r of a dog (incasG auy pe.reon othErr than tho ower ke~ps ; thl1l dog, sllch a person; horoinaf.ter the same) shall haye the Jog receive l"f\bie.s ir.mruniza,tion every six months, as ':lay be determiner'! hy the Ministry .of Health and Welfare OrdinancE:!. 2. The Chief of Health Center shall issue a certificate medal of irncunization, as m&y be provided for by the Cabinet Order, to the owner of. the dog which re·cei'VCd~:l.mI:wnization mentioned in tho preceding paragraph. .

3. The owner of a dog 1l.hall attach the certificate medal of il:mlunizatlon mentioned in the preceding paraeraph to the dog. (Reception of Dog) . Article 5'- 2~ In case the pl'even-&ion.officer has be on requested to receiye a dog by, the owner of the dog, he shall receive and dispose of it. In this case, the prevention officer may designato the place where he wil~ receive the dog. (Detention) Article 6. In case the prevention officer has found the existence of a dog which is not registered as provided for in Article 4, or has Do license attached to it, or is not L~izod or woars no certificnte medal of immunization as provided for in Article 5, he shall detain such a dog.

WPR/VPH/19 . page .3

2. The prevention offi,ce,r. may. employ the dog catchers previously designated by the governor of urban or local prefecture to catch the dog in order to carry out such detention as mentioned in the preceding pt1ragraph •

.3.

., 4. 5.

The preven,tion, offic~r may, in case a dog $ich he chases for catching has run into 1aIidor 'building of the owner, ot: the dog or of any other' person or into ships or cars, and if he deema it inevitable for the pUrpose of catching it~ enter the place (except a person IS residence), so far as it. is deemed reasonably necessary to do so. However, in the cases where a keepe;r of the place or any other person acting for him refuses it, this shall not apply. . . A.ny person shall not refuse the entry nentioned in the preceding paragraph, without good reasons.

The provisions of paragraph are designated by governor of special necessity,. except the a one which bit a person or a

.3 shall apply within a perio<l. and area which urban or local prefecture, admitting the cases where the dog concerned in chase is dOI:lestic animal.

6.

In case the dog catchcr nentioned in paragraph 2, engages incatch1ng the dogs, the provision of Article J paragraph 2 shall apply mutatis mutandis.

"

7. In. CI'Ise ,the prevention officer hils detained a dog in accordance with the •. , provision of paragraph 1, he shall notify the owner of the dog, in cu'se the . ower is known, to receive the dog or he shall notify to that effect, in case the owner is unknown, to the mayor of City, town or villagehaV'ing jurisdiction over the place where the dog is caught. 8. When the mayor of city, to1ro or village has received the report under the proviSions of the preceding paragraph, he shall give public notice thereof for two days.

9.

In cases where the owner did not recoive the dog,with;in one day after. the o.merreceived the notico cited in paragraph 7 or lapse of public . notification period undor the precoding paragraph, the prevention officer may, as may be provided for by tho Cabinot Order, dispose of the dog. However, if the owner of tho dog who cannot receive the dog in that period for some inevitable reason: notifies to thllt eiffect and proposes .that he will receive ~twithin a .;reasonablq period, th~dog shall. not be disposed of befo.re lapse of that proposodpe.riod. '. Urban or local prefecture shUll, in the case of the preceding paragraph compensate f9rt~e damage Which is raised usually to the person Who sufferred damage by the disposit~on.

10.

(Quarantine for Exportation and Impo$tion) Article 7. No person shall import or export dogs unlcs s they have passed quarantine. • 2. The affairs cOncerning the qutll'!,lntinc under the preceding paragraph .shall be under .thejurisd:J,ction of,thcMinister of Agriculture and . ForestrY, and IDf1:titers· qoncerning ~hoquaraJ;ltine shall. be provided for· by the Ministrycif Agriculturo and Fore~try ,Otdinancf). " ,: '.'.""':,' "

'

-,.

wpR/vmr/iej . page 4

CHAPTER III

Dispesitien When Rabies Occurred

I II

(Duty to, !Wport) Article 8 •..The veterinarian whO' has diagnosl;ld the deg which suffers Q.r is suspected to be suffering from rabies, or .tho dog bitten by such dog, or 'tiho has examined the corpse of such dog shall, as may be determined by the Ministry. of Health and Welfare Ordinance, report. without delay to that effect ,to the .mayor of city, town or village having jurisdiction over the place \<here the dog is kept. However, in case diagnosis or exanination has not been done by a veterinarian on the dog or the corpse thereof, the owner of such dog shall report i t p 2. When the report mentioned in the preceding paragraph has bee!l made, th'e mayor of city, tGrwn or village shall report without delay to the govCH'IlOr of urban 01' local prefecture to that effect. When the governor of urban or local prefecture h,'lS received the report as cited in the preceding parngrnph, he shall make report to that effect to the Minister of Health and Welfare as well as to the governors of neighboring urban or local prefectures.

II

3.

(Duty ~. Isolation) Article 9. The veterinarian who has diagnosed the dog as cited in paragraph r ',' of the preceding Article or the owner thereof shall confine the dog without delay. However, i!l UnE!VO,idable case where there is a danger for human life , killing the dog shal~ not be precluded. 2. Prevention officer may give necessary instruction concerning the isolation as cited in the preceding paragraph.

.

... ,

(Public Notice and Chaining Ordor, etc.) ft.rticlelO. When the governor of urban 01' local prefecture deems that rabies (including suspected case of rabies; hereinafter the same from this . Chapter to' Chapter V) h,as occurred, he shall immediately give public notice thereof and shall give an order, defining the arcla and period to have all dogs in the area muzzled 01' loashed. (Prohibition of Killing) , Article 11. No dog isolated under the provision of Article 9 paragraph 1 sha.ll be killed without the permission of prevention officer. (Handing OY<lr of Carcass) Article 12. When the dog under the proVision of Article 8 paragraph 1 has died, the owner of the dog shall hand over the carcass to the prevention officer, for the purpose of examination or autopsy. However, in cases \ihere the prevention officer has permitted or wh}re the handing over is unnecessary, the same shall not apply. (Examination and Immuni.zation) Article 13. In case rabies occurs, the governor of urban or local prefecture· may, if he:deems it necessary for control Ilnd eradication of the spread thereof, stipula to tho :period and a reo. , and cause tho prevontioJ'} officer to eJ!11mine all dogs simultaneously or to onforce temporary immunization.

.-', , '-

WPR/VPH/19 ,~ge 5

(Measures to be Taken for, the Confirmation of the Disease) Article 14. Prevention officer may, as may be proVided for by the Cabinet Order, if 'hedeems±t,necessary: f{)r the confirma ticm of, '\lhe disease, execute the autopsyof'the ;Carcasses of dogs or Ull the dogs infectedlolith rabies upon the permission of the governor of,urban.or local prefecture. 2. In the case of tho preceding paragraph, the provision of Article 6 paragraph 10 shall apply mutatis nutandis.

...

(Restriction of MOvement) Article 15. Governor of urban or local pre,fecture ma~ if he deems it necessary for preventing and eradicating the spread of ra.bies, restrict or prohibit, fixing the .period and dis.trict, the movement of 'dogs or CIlrcasses of dogs within the area. of urban or local prefecture concerned or carrying thereof into or out of urban or local prefecture concerned. (Cutting Off or Restriction of ColllIUunication) Article 16 •. Governor of urban or local prefecture I:lDy, if he deems it urgently· necessary, .in case of outbreak of rabies, cut off or restrict the communication at the place where the dog suffering fron rabies is kept an<l in the neighborinG area, fixing the period, as may be determined by the Ministry of Heal th and Welfare Ordinance. However, the period shall not exceed sevontytYK; hours. (Prohibi tion of Institution Where Dogs ore to be gathered) Articlo 17. Governor of urban or local prefecturo may, if he deems i t neoessary for prevention and eradication of the spread of rabies, prohibit exhibi tio'ns" of dogs and any other institutions loIhere dogs' are to be gathere'd. (Detention of Unleashed Dog) Article 18. Governor of urban or local prefecture may, if he deems it necessary for preventing and exterminating the spi-ead of rabies, have thepr.evenUon officer detain the dogs unleasp,ed, despite of the leash~ngorder,issued under the provision of Article 1 0 . ' 2. In the case of the preceding pa~agraph, ~~e proviSions of Article 6 paragraph 6 ~ paragraph 10 inclusive shall apply mutatis mutandis. :,.

.. '.:..-

(Poisoning of Unleashed Dog) , .' Article 18-2. Governor of urban or local prefeoture may, i f he finds a marked difficulty for detaining dogs under the proviSions of paragraph 1 of'the preceding Article in tho caselolhere he deems it necessary to d6so for emE:)rgency in order to prevent and eradicate' the sprea'dof rabie'S, Q?us,e the prevention officers, defining the area and pdriod,' to poison the unleashed dogs despite of the leashing order :i,~aued under the prov:i.aions of Article 10. In this case, governor of urban or localprefocture shall, so as not to injure persons or other domestioa:qimals, notify the j,nhabitants in the area qoncerned and the neightl6rhood· that the unleashed dogs sha~ be poisoned • 2. The ways of pois~ning and ~f' then~titicati(;n tor the inhabitants. under the proVisions of the preceding paragraph . be providGd for by the 'Cabinet Order. ".,;" .. '

-

shall

WPR/VPH/19 .pago 6

(Enforcement Order of the Minister of Health and W e l f a r e ) , Article 19. When the Minister of Health and Welfare deems it necessary for prevention and extermination of the spread of rabies, he may order, fixing the ,area and period, the governor of urban or local prefecture to enforce the measures under the provisions of Article 13 and Article 15 to the preceding Article inclusive. ' CHAPTER IV Additional Provisions (Cooperation of Public Officials, etc.) Article 20.' If publie officials or veterinarians engaging in maintenance of 'the public health or public peace are requested for cooperation in order to prevent rabies by the prevention officer, they shall not refuse it. (Establishment of the. Detention House for Dogs) ." Article 21 •. Governor of urban or local prefecture shall establish detention ~ouses for dogs in the area of urban or local prefecture concerned f'or the purpose of housing the dogs detained in accordance with the provisions of Article 6 and Article 18, and shall have the prevention officer take charge thereof. (Use of Fee collected) ArM,.cle '22. All the fees collected under the proVision of Article 4 paragraph 4 shall be used to attain the purpose of this Law. (Classification of Responsibility for Expenses) Article 23. Expenses necessary for the enforcement of the provisions of this Law eXCluding those specified as follows shall be borne by the urban or local prefectures J '(I) Expenses borne by the states Expenses for the quarantine for import and export, under the provision of Article 7 (excluding the expenses for feeding and housing of the dogs during the quarantine for import and export); (2) Expenses borne by owners of dogs.

i i

!i

)I

II t'

II

10 Expenses necessary for the procedure of registration under the pro~sion of Article 4; 11. Expenses for immunization for the dogs in accordance with the . provisions of Article ·5 and 13; , iii. Expenses· for feeding and housing of the dogs during their detention and their returning under the provisions of Articles 6 and 18; iv. Expenses- for feeding and housing of tho dogs during the quarantine for import and export under the· provision of Artj,cle 7; 'v. Expenses for making reports under the provisions of Article 8; vi. Expenses for isolation under the provision of Article 9, and for the disposition taken undor the instruction. '-'::1' .:

('!be Effect of the Action of Disposition etc. on the Successors) Article 24. Disposition and procedure or any other actions under this Law or orders issued under this Law shall have the effect on any successors of those \>ho have property right or nny other right to tho dogs which are the subjects of such action.

,d\ ,

WPR/VPH/19 .page 7

(City designated by the Cabinet Order) Articl~ 25.' "Urban or local prefecture" or "governor 9f urban or local prefecture"mentioned in this·law shall read "oi ty" or "mayor of city" as to city provided for by the Cabinet Order, bt1sedY~ upon the provision of ~ticle 1 of the Health, Center Iaw'.(Law No. 101 of 1947). However, the same shall not apply to the provisions of Article 8 paragraph 2 am. paragraph 3. CHAPTER V Penal Provisions . ~

Article 26. Any person ..mo falls under any of the following items shall be punished with a fine not exceeding 50,000 yen: (1) Any person case ..mere . of Article 2) provisions of (2~

..mo imported or exported a dog (including animals in the this law has applied mutatis mutandis under the provisions which failed to pass quarantine in contravention of the Article 7;

Any person who failed to make report in contravention of the provision of Article 8 paragraph 1;

(3) Any person who failed to isolate a dog in contravention of the provision of Article 9 paragraph 1. Article 27. Any person ..ho falls under any of the following items shall be punished with a fine not exceeding 30,000 yenl .v

(1)

Any person who has failed to apply for the registration of a dog or

to attach the license to a dog in contravention of the provision of Article 4; (2) Any person Vlho has failed to have the dog undergo immunization or to attach the certificate medal of immunization in contravention of the provision of Article 5;

(3)

Any person Vlho has not obeyed the instruction concerning isolation of dogs provided for in Article 9 paragraph 2;

...,

(4) Any person Vlho has not obeyed the order to have the dog muzzled or leashed, in contravention of the provision of Article 10;

(5)

Any person who has killed a dog in contravention of the proviSion of Article 11;

(6) Any person who has not handed over a carcass of a dog in contravention of the proviSion of Article 12; (7) Any person who has failed to have the dog undergo the examination or immunization as provided for in Article 13; (8) Any person who has not obeyed the prohibition or restriction of movement or carrying in or out of the dog or its carcass as provided for in Article 15;

WPR/VPH/19 .page 8

(9) rAny p~rson lilo has not observed the outtiIig off or restriction of COJ!IIllUllication ciwing to rabies of dogs as provided for in Article 16; (10) Any person -Who has not obeyed the prohibition order on institution , ..nere dogs are to be . gathered, as provided for in Article 17. Article 28. Any person ..no contravenes the provisions of Article 6 paragraph 4 applied mutatis mutandis in Article 18 paragraph 2 shall be punished with detention or. a minor fine.

..!'" '

..

WPR/VPH/19 .page 9

The Enf~rcemen.t, ~_~tions for the Rabies Prevention law . . . (Min1st~ of Health & Welfare Ordinapce No. 52) September 22, 1950. (Report under Article 2 paragraph 2) Article 1. Tho report in accordance with the proviSion of the Rabies Prevention law (law No. 247 of 1950; hereinafter referred to as "the law") shall contain the record concerning the kind of animal to be designated under the provision of the same Article paragraph 2, situation of outbreak of rabies and other necessary matters. (Identification card of prevention officer) Article 2. The identification card of the rabies prevention officer (hereinafter referred to as the "prevention officertl) under Article .3 paragraph 2 of the law shall be inconformity with the appendix form No. 1.(Application for registration) Articl.s .3. -The owner of a dog more than 91 days old on the first of April . oreach year, shall submit the written application with the following -. items by the end of April, according to the provision of Article 4 paragraph 1 of the Law. ' (1)

, ..."

Address and ,full name of the owner Address of the dog Kind of the dog Date of birth of the dog Color of hair of the dog Sex_of the dog Name of the dog Size of the dog " '

(2)

(.3) (4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9) 2.

SpeciBl featUl'Q of the dog exceptingpr.aced1ng.. ~ (6).,(. '.' ;:.

One who, froin April 2 to March 31 of the following year, has obtained the, ~wnership of a dog (more thl'1n 91 days old) which has not ye~' bElen registered, or i f the lawful registration is not certain, shall submit the witten application with 'tho reason, within .30 days, _accOrding to the preceding paragraph. '.'

'-

WPR{VPH/19 _page 10

3.

The registration 'according to the provisions of the preceding two paragraphs shall be effective from the date of that registration until next 31 March to come. .

(forms .6fledgerand licence) Article 4. The ledger UI¥ier Article 4 paragraph 2 of the law shali conform to the appendix form No.2. 2. The licence ofa dog under Article 4 paragraph 2 shall be in oOnformity with.appendix form No.3.' ' .c'

(He-issue of licence) Article 5. The owner of a dog, when he has lo&t or 'damaged the licence, shall apply for its re-issue within )J days, in writing with the reason, and in the case of damaged licence such licence to be accotnpanied, to the governor of urban or local' prefecture through thema;v.or of the city, ~wn or village in which the subject dog 'lives ( in case of Tokyo, where wards exist, "thro~h. the chief of the ward"; hereinafter the same). 2. The owner of a dog, when he finds the lost licence, after he had applied fbi' re-issue .imder the preceding paragraph, sball submit it withih five days to the governor of urban or Ideal prefecture t..~rough"themaYor ':;' U.", city, town or village in which tho dog lives.

(Changes of residence, etc. of the owner) Article 6. The owner of a dog, when he moves his dog's living place or changes his dog's lY;ime, shall report to the governor of urban or local prefecture through the mayor of the City, town or village in which the dog lives at the present time. , . (Change of the living place of the dog) Article 7. The owner of a dog, when he moves his dog's living place, shall report to the governor of urban or local prefecture through the ma~rof the City, town or village in which the dog now lives, within )J days. 2. When the governor of urban or local prefecture who received the report under the preceding paragraph is different from the governor of urban or local prefecture of the dog's former living place, the governor of urban or local prefecture who received the report shall notify the -oresent address of the dog to the governor of urban or local prefecture of the dog's former livin!5 place and shall issue a neVI liconce throu¢1 the mayor of the City, town or vitia'go in oXcMnge for the old licence issued by the governor of urban or local prefecture of the dog's former living place to the owner.

3.

The governor of urban 10001 prefectUre 'who received the notifica.tion under the precedizig paragraph'shall simd the ledger of the dog to the 'governor of urban or local' prefecture who notified.

or

• WPlV'VPH/19 page ,11

I ~ _

(Death of the d.og and abandorunent of ownerships). , , Article ·S. The <Twer of a dog, when the dog has died or when he is going to abandon his ownership, shall report it and enclose the licence of the dog .and the certificate medal of immunizatcfon.1;o the governor of urban or local prefecture through the mayor of the city, t'l«l11 or village in 1rbich the dog lives. H01o'Over, when there is a justifiable reason for not beingable to submit the licence and the certificate medal of :iImnunization, i t shall not be necessary to wbmit both of them. , 4" (Change of the Owner) Article· 9. "When the owner of a dog changes, the latter ower shall report it with the addresses and names of the former and latter owners, and the new and old addresses of the dog, through the mayor of the City, town or village in which the dog lives, to the governor of urban or local prefecture within 30 days.

2.

The provisions of paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 7 shall be applied mutatis mutandis to the case of the preceding paragraph.

(Time of.Ihinitini~1lion)

Article 10 The owner of !l dog (in case that any person other than the owner keeps it, the said person; hereinafter the same) shall have tqesame dog receiVed the immunizations against rabies, according to the provislit:ns of Article 5 paragraph 1 of the law, once in the period from April to June and once in the period from October to December. 2.

One who has obtained, outside of the period stated in the preceding paragraph, the ownership of or has come to keep the old, dog for lllOrethan 91 days that has not yet been given the immuni~tion against ril'bies witbinsix months or is uncertain in this respect, shall have the same dog received the immunization against rabies within 30 days fron the said ~te.,

:'

(Delivery Clf':certificate medal of rmInunization) Article 11. The veterinarian shall, loIhen heperfol!'lI1ed immunization against "rabies, deliver the certificate card of immunization which shall be in conformity with appendix form No.4, to the owner of the dog. _ 2. The owner of a dog shall show the cerUficate card prescribed in the preceding paragraph, to the chief of the health center, ahd must be issued the certificate medal of immunization. pendix form No.5. (Re-issue of certificate medal of :ilJlmunization) Article 12. The owner of a dog, when he has damaged or has lost the certificate medal of immunization, shall apply for its re-issue to the chief of the health center, presenting this: certificate with the written rea$on, and, in case of a damaged medal, with that certificate medal of immunization •

3. The certificate medal of immunization shall be in conformity with ap-

.-

.. J'2, , ,

2.

The provision of Article 5 paragrqph 2 shall be applied mutatis mutandis

to the preceding paragraph. (Certificate of the eatcher) Article 13. The identification card of the catcher under article 6 paragraph 6 of the Law sha::p.beill conforinity with appendix form No.9. (Notification tGthe owner) Article 14. The prevention officer, when he notifies the owner of a dog according to the provision of Article 6 paragraph 4 of the Law (including the case that is applied mutatis mutarxlis according to the provision of Article 18 paragraph 2 of the law) shall use the delivery certification mail or the measenger. (Appraisal before disposal) Article 15. The prevention officer, when he disposes of a dog according to the provision of Article 6 paragraph 6 of the law, or when he kills a dog according to the proviSion of Article 14 paragraph 2 of the Law, shall make a suitable appraiser appraise the price of the dog j.n Ilciivanc,. (Items for reporting on the dog attacked by rabies) Article 16. The items for reporting, which the veterinarian or owner of a dog shall report to the mayor of the city, town or village according to the provision of Article e paragraph 1 of the Law, shall be the kind, birthday, color of hair, sex, name and size of the dog, the address and name of the owner of the dog and the address of the dog. ~.

-c .

(Kind of Drugs used for PCisoning foods) Article 17. Drugs .as speCified by Article 6 paragraph 2 of the Cabinet Order shall be nitrate strychinine. (City designated by the Cabinet Order) Article 18 •. "U:t1!an or local prefecture" or "the governor of uriJan or local prefecture" mentioned in this Ministerial Ordinance shall read "the City" or "'the mayor of the city" for those cities dosigw. ted by the Cabinet Order, as provided for in Article 1 of the Health Center Law (Law No. 101 of 1947).

.'

.o.ot

WORj:.D HEALTH ORGANIZATION

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

WPR/VPH/20 16 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

\

JAPANESE VETERINiLRY PUBLIC HEALTH LEGISLATION The Ministerial Ordinance regarding the Ingredient Standards etc. of Milk and Dairy Products

.WPR/VPH/20 , .page 1 The Ministerial Ordinance regarding the Ingredient StandarClf{(:rtc~:; of . ;'".'

Milk And Dairy Prodticts '. (Vdnistry of Health .and '~l~lf~'re Ordinance No. 52) DeeOIll3sr 27,1951 Articlel. In regard to the mUk and p,airy product::: (heroinafter referred ta as umi1k etc.I~), diseases as provided for hi Ar.'·~cle 5 of t.tie Food Sanitation Law (ww.No. 233 of 1947;. hereinllfte;: referred to as 1It..~ Law'I), t.l:le ingredient standards and the standards of manufacturing method etc. as provided for in Article 7 pa.ragraph I of the Iaw,' the speCifications ·of apparatus or container/pac!cage, and .... '1\3 standaros of mam'.facw.ring method 'as provided for in Article 10 pal'9gra,h 1 of tho L'lw: food which must be.' labeled and the points of indica tionas provIded for in .\,rtic1e II of'· t.he Law, shall be those fixed by '~is r.an5.s-!;;;)r:i.al O::dir,.8nce.P~:'ovided, the ,ingredle'nt I;ltandards of addj.t:;'onal 'C:lings and t1:c s·~andards of method for 'manufac'imring etc~, t';le standards of apparatus or contalner/paclcage and t..'1e • standards of r.tatlt1i'actUring' tlothod sha),lbe pased on those fiXed by the . Enforcoment Reg"J.Il'ltions of Food Sa!'.itat:Lon Law (HiniDtry of Hearth and ~!elfare Ordinance No., 23 'Jj: 19l$) r.ndt!:.o spocific':) tioc13 a~d Standards of Food, Additional Things, ApP'lratusos:Oo)lt'lin,.e.rshacl:ago1l tK1..1ustrYof . ' Healt..'1 and Welfare Notifica·:;:'..oh No o 5!t of 1948)~in addi~ion to t:1.'Sse fixed by this Ministerial Ordina~coo Article 20 In thir !1inister:'..al Ord:.nanc3, .~l.milk.!' sh311 be .coristrued to meail raw milk, d1k; E:peciul milk~ ra'..! goat's mnk, p:lstourizodgoat's milk, skim milk.' .' . , . and processed ru:llk. .. '

2.. ,In,this J.finisterial Ordinanc('l, been procossed aft,er rniiking.

llNW lI'.i11;:1

moans' t:"le

Cow

milk \-!1.:tdJ. has l1o·~

3. In this Ministe:dal Ordinance, "milk ll means the cow milk ,~hich is sold (including ~aS9S for giving~t to unopec:'..fic person or ~'lny persons ot:1er than;'\;he

purpose of' selJ:tp.g),for tile pUl"pOS~

of drinking

direcUy~

..

4. . In this tiiniste:rial Ordinance t. " special milkll means Jl1e milk "hieh is sold as the ,special milk.

50, In this Ministerial Ordina.ncer, "raw. goat's milk:! mea;w the goat's milk . j.ust- produceq" after 'in:i...Pdng.~ .

6. In this Ministerial Ordinance'; n~stetU:1:z;;d goa'uls m.5,lk" means t'le goat's mil.\!: which is sold for tho purpose of drinking dJroc·~ly.

7.

In this Ministerial Ordinance, ilskim milkllmeans t..'1e one obtained by removing milk fat portion fl"Om ra.w Iliillc, !nilk or special milk 8i1d issc)1.d for the purpose of drinking directly. ' In this Vdn-i.sterial Ordinance, "processed Dilk" means the one l!lfIde from raw milk, mlk orspec~al milk,. or proc3ssed from foodstuff ma:mlfac·Gurod by using 8hem as 'the raw material, or tho one USing . them'. as the. ohlef ingredient, .,' ... . .j. - ~I

'-~

8.

-

~

"

"

"

>wPR/VPH/3>

.page 2 and its external appearance resemblos to the milk and, moreover, it is to (skim milk, yogurt and lacticaeid bacilli drinks are exCluded) . In this Ministerial Ordinance, "dairy products"J:l6ans the cream, evaporated milk, sweetened condensed milk, sweetened skim corxlensed milk, whole po~er milk, skim po~er milk, sweetened powder milk, special fomulae powder milk and milk drinks.

be sold for the purpose of drinkiIJ.g directly.

10. 11.

In this Ministerial Ordinance, "crean" means the one obilained by relOOving the ingredient bther than milk fat from the raw nilk, milk or special milk. In this Ministerial Ordinance, "evaporated milk" means the one ob:bained by concentrating the raw milk, milk, or special milk.

12. In this'Ministerial Ordinance, "sweetened condensed milk" means the milk obtained by concentrating the raw milk, Dilk or special milk after adding cane sugar thereto.

13 •. In this Ministerial Ordinance, "sweetened skim corxlensed milk" means the milk obtained by concentrating the raw milk, milk or special milk after relOOviIJ.g milk fat portion therefrom .and then addiilg cane sugar thereto.

14.

In this Ministerial Ordinance, "whole po~er milk n means the powder milk obtained from the raw milk, milk or special milk by relOOving almost all of its water content. . po.~ermilk

15.. In this Ministerial Ordinance, "skim powder Dilk"' means the

obtained from the raw milk, milk or special milk by removing allnost all of its water content after removing milk fat portion therefrom.

16. In this Ministerial Ordinance, "sweetened

po~ernilk" means the po~er milk .. obtained from the raw milk, Dilk or special milk by removing almost all of its water content therefrom after adding cane sugar thereto or the milk obtained by adding cane sugar to whole po~er' milk.

17.

In this Ministerial Ordinance, II special formulae po~ermilk"means the pOwer milk produced by mixiIJ.g the milk (excluding raw goat's milk and pasteurized goat1s milk) or dairy products with those nutritious in~di­ ents 'o41ich are necessary for baby nursiIJ.g and arc approved by the Minister . of Health .and Welfare as 'Go the kind and method of manufacturing thereof. In this Ministerial Ordinance, "milk drinks" means such drinks made from raw milk, milk or special nilk, or processed from foodstuff manufactured by using themas.t.he raw naterj,al,ol' drinks using them as the Chief, ingredient, except those mentioned in items 2 to 8 and items 10 to the preceding item, and those other than yogurt and lactic-acid bacilli drinks.

...

18.

Article 3. As regards the milk, etc., the diseases provided for in Article 5 of the raw, the starxlards of ingredient and manufacturiIJ.g method etc. provided for in Article 7 par. 1 of the Low shall be fixed in the Annexed Table. Article 4. The containers to be used for selling theniilk, special milk, pasteurized goat's rJ1lk, and skin milk shall be clean, uncoloured and transparent glass bottle, "Ihich should have more than 26 mn lOOuth.

-a '

2.

The., containers to be used for selling the milk drinks shall be clean, uncoloured and transparent glass bottles. Those who want to use the oontainers other than those provided for in the preceding t"l0 paragraphs shall obtain the approval of the Minister of Health and Welfare.

3.

I

I

....

Artiole 5. Those who are to manuf'acmre the paper-cover for the containers mentioned in the preceding Article shall pasteurize such paper-cover mioh they prepared. Artiole 6. The containers to be used direotly for selling eveporated milk, S'<leetened condensed milk, sYlEletened skim condensed milk,· whole power milk, skim powder milk, sYlEletened po1Huer milk and special formulae power milk . shall be the m.etal cans ~ch can be closed in air-tight condi~on., , 2.·Those 'who 'Iotlnt to use the containers other than those provided for in the preoeding paragraph shall obtain the approval of the Minister ,of Health and Welfare • • .i"_;. \

Ar¥c:le 7. Milk etc. ,shall be treated, in aocordance. with the provision 'of· Arti.cle 11 of the raw, as the food-stuff for litlich label indication lIDlst :Be made. HO'<lever,in case of those to be eJ,CPOrted, this shall notS.p:r>li. 2. The label indiCation mentioned in the preceding paragraph shall be clearly indicated on suoh part of containers and packages whioh one can easily'· notice in Japanese as to the following ma ttet;s. ,

(1)

Raw milk and raw goa,tls milk To indicate as "the raw milk" or "the raw goat's milk", and in case it is produced fron Jersey cow, indicate to that effeot.

(2)

Milk (raw milk and raw goat's milk are excluded) (a) Classification Tel!lperature and hour of pasteurization (in case i t is unpast,Gu;r:1zedspecial nilk, indicate ti::l:that ertact'.) .'.

\"

,(~)'

Day of -;-

~e~ek fox selling ,~;-.

. :;. ~

t"

(d)

loCation of milk processing plant (in.case or: spec'1al'Dli.lk, :"the . nilking and proceSSing plant for speoial milk) and name of milk plani;il'Opresentatives (in case of specfal md.1k, the representativoo of milking and processing plant for specj,almilk) (In case it is a juridical person, indicate the name thereof)

(3)

Dairy products (a) Classification

WPR/VPH/~"

page~:

(b)

In case of milk drinks, sweetened condensed milk, sweetened skim condensed milk, sweetened power milk or special formulae power Iidlk, tOO name of main materials to be !llixed am weight percentage thereof ' Date· of manufacture (dl,l:'<lf the week for selling, in case of the cream and such milk drinks other than those pasteurized with heat for not less than 15 minutes at not less than 150 degree O. in such preservative container) Iocation of ~nufacturing place of dairy products (in case of imported articles,. the business place of the importers) am the name of the manufacturer of dairy products (in case of imported articles, importers) (In case i-t is a juridical person, indicate the name thereof.)

II II

. (c)

(d)

3.

The labellrldication for those 'matters proscribed in the preceding paragraph 2: (2) (a) shall be made ::'n such a type not smaller than No.5 type, am as 110 the matters in the same paragraph (3) (a) in !JUch a type not smaller than No.4 type. In spite of the provisio:ls of paragraph 2, in case of the evaporated milk, swetened coildensedmilk', SHeetened skim condensed milk, w.ole power milk, skim power milk, sweetened power milk and ,special formulae power milk, the label indication for the date of manufact'.lre and location ofmanufac.turing, place of dairy products (:tn case of imported articleS', the bUsiness place'p! the importers) .may· be dona by symbols with an ap'proval of the Minister of Health and Welfare., ' with the proVision of tho 'l!esting Method on Food Sanitation (Ministry of Health alld Welfare No. 106 of 191.8). . .. . Notification .

4.

~ticle 8. The testing of the L~gj;'edient of'milk etc. shall be done iD:accardance

• • • • • • • • • • Amlexed Table

• • • • • • • • • • , ,

I.

Diseases in accordance with the provisions of Art.icle 5 'of the Lawl'

C'attle-plague, pleuro;meumonia of cattle, anthrax, black-leg,foot:and mouth disease, rabies, tuberculosis, brucellosis, influenza, collpOx, icterus, actinomycosis, inflammation of stomach and bowels" mastitis" septicseug.a, pyaemia, Ul'a!3miI'l,V'!lrious diseases of poiSOning, septio innammation of'uterus, and var;i.oUS feverish diseuses. ' II. 1. Ingredient standards and standards for .method ·of manufacturing and preservation for milk etc. ' General standards for the method of manufacturing for milk etc. (1) The milk shall not be taken from cows or goats \bioh come under anY one of the following items I (i) Those which are wi thin the period of less than five days attar delivery;

WPF/VPH/a:>

;page 5

(11) Those 'tbich are wi ""..h5n the period of less than ~ree days after taking meclicine t:rl"t affe.cts milking or injection; (iii) Those 1Iilich have been shoy-ring the strong .reaotipn· after reoeiving tho,inject:'ons of biological products.

(2) , A

In case the milk, speciul milk and pasteurized goatls milk and skim milk are m':\nll:t·act'.;,red~ nnd the processed milk and the da:l,ry products (excluding sweetenGd condensed !1ilk) using raw milk are manufactured, the re.w milk or ra'4 goatls milk '4:·lich.mern:s the fO;::'owing items shall be used. a. Ril-w milk

1.028 - 1.0.34 Aoid! ~y (as l"lc'~ic acid) Those take~

i'l'Om 0+..h13l" theIl. jersey cow ••• Less than 0 ~18% • • • • • • ,..e.efl ...

Tnose J.;a;<:en fron jerf!ey cow

Less than 0.2>%

Microoes (pe:' :c': :.;~ ,~,'.r"ct. ,n.i.cro=copiC indiv:.dUf.: CQ\L."l,-:; I:!3tr..od)

n,

4,000,000

1.0.30 - 1.0.34

" Microc9s (p8:::' 1 co by direct m:1.croscopic ~_

~·ndJ.· '.... v.'~d·'e.l • 1..-. _.

C""·'·'"

.....1..:,."... \J

ll'~"'lOd) _• ..;J...... '

"

4,000,000

(.3)

In case -!i'l3 mUk, 'speoial miDc~ y3stsurized goatls 'milk, skim milk, . prooossed mi1k~ ('::'Cam and mi:.k drinks are !llD.nuf'ao~d, suoh operations as filtration, pas':;eU:1ization~ dividing and tight enclosure shall be clone (here; '~[;f·~E.;:' l'efGl."!'ed to as I1procGssing"). Ho~ver~'in case of special }'1jJ.k, '.;he ope:'::'.tion of p'l~'yeuriSc"\tl":n may be omitted. Prooesaing shall he !'9spectively dono consistently, in case of the milk, pasteurized goat1s milk, sk'JC. milk and processed milk at the facilities approved as the placeo ,tl9ro rrd.::'l~ ior;:,'occl'!sed r -1.'1 case o£ special milk at t'le faoiH'i:::'e;:; e.r:p!'c7'3d as j,,~1e placa N~1e:t'o special milk is milked and processod, a;l( In ('369 of Cl'9"CU a~d milk drinks at the facilities approved as the pll~ces 1<Ih01'e dai:';" Pl.'Oc:ucts arc rr.3nuf'aotured.

(4)

2~

s'!;3ndards rind st9.ndardo fo:' m:l',,11oc.s of manufacturing and preservation for milk, speoial milk, PE.,s~.;eur:!.zsd. goat's milk, skim milk and processed milk. -~

Ingr'3d~_ent

'«<, ,., '1-"

(1)

Milk· (i) Ingredient standardsr Solidmatters'ldthout tatMilk

lbre than 8.0% MOre than 3.0%

rat -

Speoific gl'f'.vity (at 1~0) Acidity (as lactic acid) -

1.028 - 1.034

Other than those using milk from Jersey cow only as the raw material lasa than O.l~ Those using min: ':1'0." material ~erseJ' .](),,~

only as the ~w was than O.~%

Microbes (PeT 1 co by standard plate count meth0d) WSS than 50,000 Coliforms (per 1 cc) Nega";ive

(ii) 'Sta:ldards of ms tlloC .:"'. "IaIltU'acturing:

To be past")-;n';,zed ,,:i>;;lJ. heat at 6~ - 65 00 for 3J minutes or to be pasteurized wi'\ih heat at more than 71j00 for 15 mil1UtaS. Howver, in case t..~e method of pastouriza.tJ.:~on with heat for a short. time is t.o be taken it may be done by obtaining the approval of the Ministc~ of Health and Welfare. (iii) Standards of method for p!'eservationa To be cooled to below 100 0 immediately after pasteurization and to be presel."V'Gd .as it is. However, this shall not apply in case the approval of '.the governor of urban or local prefecture, 'Whore the milk processbg plant or milk selling place is situated, is obtained.

r,

(2)

Special milk (i) Ingredient sioandards~ More than 8~5%

Milk

rat -

Il

Specific gravity (at 1500) Acidi ty (as J.Bctic acid) Other than those USing -nil" fro!:. ·IBrs6:1' co~·! 0n1~7 raw mat&ria1 wss than 0.17% Those using milk from Jersey material C01-l

8.R

the

only as the raw wss than 0 0 19%

'-

WPR/VPH/IO

page 7

Microbes (perl co by standard plateooUnt method)Less tnan 30.000 Coliforms (per 1 cc) Negative

(ii) ....

Standards of method for manufacturingl a. To be manufactured by processing the raw milk mil.lced at the facilities which ~s approved to operate the milking and processing business for special milk. b.'

30 minutes at 62"C - 65"C. (11i)

In case of pasteurization, to be pasteurized with heat for

Standards of method for preservationl To be cooled to below lOOC immediately after processi~ (in case of pasteurization, immediately after pasteUl'ization) and to be preserved as it is.

(3)

Pasteurized goatts:milkl '.(1)

Ingredient standards. Solid matters without fat • Milk fat Specific gravity (at 15"C) Aeidity (as lactic acid) Microbes (per 1 cc b1 standard plate count method) Coii£orms (per 1 cc) More than 8.0% II ,

-

3.6%

1.030 - lr.034 Less than 0.20%

" Negative

50,000

(11)

Standards of method for manufacturing and preservatioIli To follow the eJG;lmple of the milk.

(4)

Skim milk.

(1)

Ingredient standardsl Solid mil tters

without fa t - .

More than 8.0%

Specific gravity (at 15"C) Acidity (as lactic acid) Microbes (per 1 cc bl standas plate count method) Coliforms (per 1 ce) -

1.032-

1.0,38

Lass than 0 .18% II

50,000

Negative

II , ,

WPR/VPH/21

page 8

(ii)

Standards of met..bods for processing and preservation. To follow the example of the city milk.

~

I

(5)

Processed milkl (i) Ingredient standardsl To follow the example of the milk.

(ii)

Standards of met.~6d for n:::.nufacturing : a. To mix.~w ma'::;erial before pc steuri7Mtion except material which will be tr.:.'Jb'm during t::e p:-:'ocass of heating or pasteurization •

II

II 11

. 1-.

The method of ?eating or pasteurization: To follo':1 tne ey.il:nple of. "iir.e milk.

(iii)

S·t;andRrd o~ me"':.hod fo'" ::r~ ~r:+,T') -l;:.cn: To follo.~ '~:~a

eXC·r.··ple of the milk • p,.·od..:.~+'s

.3.

Ingredient standarqs of dai:7 preservation:

and stu:1dpx: of me.nufacturing and

it(

:11

(1)

Creams (i) Ingredien'~

standqrc s; ivlDl'u than

•• 18.0% 0.21% lI.or8 than

Milk fatAoidity (as lactic acid) -. Microbes (per 1 cc by st'lndnrd plate count I'lethoti) CoUforms -

Less than 100,000'

(ii) Standards of mElthod of processingl To follow the example 'of ~he

tilk. .

(iii)

Standards of me-:;hod for prese::O-:!8ti('!u To be 'cooled to below 10C'C :1mmed5aooly after pasteurization .. and to be p~served as . it is. . .". . .

(2)

Evaporated milk: . ingredient standards ~

..

Solid me. tters with milk Milk fat contained -

More than 25.5%

."

7.5% 0

Miorobes (per 1 gm. by . standard plate count method) -

,

.

Sweetened condensed milk. Ingredient standardSI Solid ma tters with milk "Milk fat contained Water Sugar (including laotose) Microbes (per 1 gm. by standard plate count methOd) Coliforms More than 28.0%

" " "

8.0%

less than 27.0%

58.0% 50,000

Negative

(4)

Sweetened skim condensed milk. Ingredient standards. SOlid matters with milk Water Sugar (inoluding laotose) More than 25.0%

" less than 58.0% It

Microbes (per'l gm'. by standard plate count method) _ Coliforms -

50,000

Negative

(5)

Whole power milk. Ingredient standards. Solid ma tters with milk Milk fa t contained - . More than 95.0%

" less than "

25.0% 5.0% 50,000

.

'Water -

-~

Microbes (per 1 gm. by standard plate count method) Coliforms -

Negative

Wfll/VPH/~ -page 10

(6)

Skim P<lwder milkl ~ngredient

.

standardSI ' More than 95.0%

Solid ma tters with 'milk - . Water Microbes (per I gm. by standard plate count method) CoUforms'(7) S~etened powder milkl ~ngredient

Less than

5.0%

50,000 Negati-ve

...

'

standards! More than 70 .0%

Solid matters, with milkMilk fat conta:i,ned - , Water Sugar (cxcludin!" IRctosc) Microbes (per 1 gIn. by st..andard plate count method) CoUforms

" Less than

18.0% 5.0% 25.0%

" " Negative

50,000

(8)

Specia~

formulae pow1er milks standardSI ~th

I~dient

SoUd ma ttars

milk -

, More than 66.5% II

'Milk fat contair.ed Nutritive element approved by the Minister of Health and Welfare Water "Microbes (per I gm. by standard plate count method) Coliforms ,, . ,;.:-

Ra tio approved by the Minister of Health and Welfare.

\

Less than 1.'

5.0% 50,000

II

Negative .

..

.'

~,

,

WPlV'VPH/20 page II

Milk dx'inks I (1) 'Ingredientstaridardsl.

.' '

,

Miorobes(per 1 oeby standard plater oo'tlrit method) ",

,

less than 30,000' Negative

Co1iformS

...

(ii)

Standards of method for manufaoturingl (a) To mix the r5W material before pasteurization exoept the material whioh will be broken during the process of heating or pasteurization. '

{b) Fa steuri zation shall be by such method to pasteurize With heat at62'lC ·for 30 minutes or the method 'Which has equal or superior pasteurization effe,cts as this. . . '

(iii)

Standards of method forprese;rvationl To follow the exmaple of the milk, exoept those pasteurized with heat at 115<'0 in the preservative containers for more than 15 minutes.

I

4. other standards relating to the of milk etc. (1)

~d

for mantU'aoturing or preservation

In case of milk other than the processed milk, other substance shall DOt be mixed in, and in case of the processed milk, any substance other than the water and a bit of nutritive element, or any food, OIhich is manufactured by using the raw milk, milk or special milk as raw material and contains other substance (excluding special formulae power milk containing a bit of nutritive element), shall not be used in. No antiseptics shall be used in the cream and milk drinka.

(2)

(2)-2. The use of, other substanoo in case of the evaporated milk, libole power milk and skim power milk, or any substance other than the cane sugar in case of the sweetened condensed milk, sweetened skim condensed milk and S\>Ieetened power milk, or any substance, other than the nutritive element necessary for infants which shall be used with the approval of the Minister of Health and Welfare as to it. kind and mixing ratio, in case of the special formulae power milk, is prohibited. However, this shall not apply to the additional things (excluding antiseptics) of 'Which kind and mixing ratio was approved by the Minister of Health and Welfare. (3) The mouth of the containers of the special milk shall be covered with the papers or metal covers. In case the milk, cream or milk drinks is bottled dividedlyand capped tightly, it shall be done by oapping maohine.

(4)

., I. . .~WVm/2J

page ·12

(5)

In case the milk and dairy products are to be pasteurized at the time of processing the milk art'i manufacturing dairy products; those shall be done with the pasteurizer equipped with self-recording thermometer, and the charts obtained fl'Om the· said salf-recording thermometer shall be kept for a period of threEimonths. H()~ver, in case the governor of urban or local p!.'ofecture i·~horo the milk processing plant, the milking and processing plant of special milk or the manufacturing plant of' dair:' prodt:cts is located, approved it, the pasteurizer without self-!'ecording :t11el~mete~1 may be used.

(6) '. The appal'S tp.s, contai.ners or ~cka.ges t-mich directly contact with milk etc. sha;!.1 be past.euclzed pefore thl3'Y are usedo Ho~ver: regarding the paper-covel's pas'to'lrized in accordance with the proVision of Article 5, +11is shall not apply. The meaSU1'OS shull be taken so :that the milk etc. mil not be contaminated" o'l':the tGln!,Je-raturl3''<ioe's not exceed its standard, such as by putting covers or equipping the refrigeration faCilities, whenever necessa.,ry,forthe VGhi·clesor trr'lnsportat:l.on tools which are used for carr:.~.Jlg miL"<: etc.

11 II

.. :! .

··r:

'.

-.

.,

..

~.

, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL SEMINAR ON VETERINARY

PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

WPR/VPH/21 20 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

...

IEPTOSPIRDSIS by

Dr. S. Yamamoto Professer of V~t3rinary'Patho1ogy Tokyo. University

(

"

...... , LEPTOSPIROSIS by

WPR/VPHj~ Page 1

Dr, S. Yazn8moto

.

'

Professor of Veterinary Pathology, Tokyo University . The causal organism of WEIL I., disease, Spirccha.eta icter()haemor:r:hagiae, was first r'lported in 1915 by n!ADA and 100 in Japan. The SamG microorganism was described in 1916 by UHLENHUTH ::-:::'l FRaMi'iE in Ge:":lanYe II). 1916 rats were discovered to serve as carriers of ~E' icterohaemorrhagiae by MIYAZ:rnA ,in Japan. Then, i!l 1918, the specific cause of Nanukayami, or 5e,'eh day fever, St. hebdomadis, was d~scribed by IDO and his co-workers. In 1917,NOGUCHI c assified such organisms in a new genus, leptospira;, The specif~c cause of Spirochaetosis febrilis, Z~rtosp}:sa p:zrozene!l, was named in 1923 by VERVOORT in SUlnatra. Then, in 1925, the, cause of Japanese, Akiyami. or autu.'llIl fever, was discover<1 by INADAI s fellow workers, KOSHIN.il, SHIOZJ-i.~JA, and KITAYAMA bl Japan. These authors were the ;:>ioneers i!'! studies on leptospirosis in the world 0 Nowadays leptospirosis affer.ts "lnL'!'! and animals in all peTts of the world. In the early studio'] oil1eptcs~:,:'.rC!sis, r[1t.s 2:1d fielr' ".ice. ;.l.nd later dogs wer.e considered as the most commO!l carriers among animals, but;, as in:7Gstigation ,. prooeeced, a wider hos1? range w!'.suncc":.:.red, no':, only among dor::estic animals but in a variety of Wild, mamnals. Th'Js,leptosp:iTosis is now one of theimportant problems of veterinary med:tcine • • 1. LABOR\TORY DIAGNOSIS

J

).

Laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis may be attajne:i thro'lgr. culturing, animal inoculations, and serological tests, which will be deScribed ip turn. Culture: Blood specimens fr:1m early stage of illness~ during t~. first few days,. is added to KORTHOF' s or oth~r suitf'bJe culture medil:ir.l, ('.nd is incubated at 25 0 - 30 0 c. The cuUure should be examined every 4 to 7 days for one month. After 8 days of illness, cerebrospinal fluid or uriqe taken asol)t.;.G:U.l;:;' can be cultured in the same mannel'. Animal inocublt'ion13! Animlll·inocuJ_ation is pref''lrable to isolate the organisms when Materials are cO:ltaminated e Urine or other body 'fluid should be centrifuged for 30 minutes' at ·lQ,OOO.,r..p."m.· and 2 ml of tho? cQncentrated material shopld be Jinjected int~ap8ritoneally to yOQ~g guinea-pigs, weighing about 200 gm. A 10% tissue er.ulsion ShOl,ld be jnjected in tha same manner. The blood of the guinea-pigs on the 5th day following inocule.tion should be taken by hoart-Pl.lIlcture and cultivated in suitRble· culture media. Serological tests: Serol.ogical tests eire most widely employed for laboratory work on leptospirosis. !g~l~t.!n~t.!o.::-g~i~ ~e~t_-..F0r serologicl1.2. tests the teohnics of agglutination-lysis test of SCHUFFNER n~1d M0CHTAR or it~ modifice,tion with living organisms as antigen are most widely used. The details of the technic are described in WOLFF's monograph and YAMUill~TO's article. For dropping the

)

,-

WPR/VPH/2l Page 2 antigen YAMAMOTO modified Pastour pipette, putting a cotton plug to serve as a filter, which is us·:;ful to r8tain sediments of culture media or spontaneous clusters of leptospiras. For the description of the results of these tests YAMAMOTO adopted: a new notation system. Undor a dark-field microscope at a low-power magnification (objective x 10, ocular x 12),the number of free, motile leptospires is counted in a square area set up in thd field by an ocular scale 2.4 x 2.4 mm. In the control mixture,lOO or :nore of free, motile leptospiras may be counted in this area, and the rasult may be expressed by the notation. For example,lOO- or l40-. The records given by such notation will help to know the viability of the living antigen. In tm positively reacted mixture at the end-titer, the number of frae, motile leptospiras is 90, and small masses of about 10 organisms are observed, to which the notation 90+ is used. In .lowar serum dilutioI} masses of mora organisms appear, and free, motile leptospires decrease in number. When a mass consists of more than 20 organisms, tho sign ++ is employed. The sign 5 +++ indicates a reaction where numerous organisms ag'>lutinate in the center of a large mass forming a shining ball and 5 free, motile leptospires ara in tho \~ole area. In a much lower serum dilution, the masses beco!Tl3 smaller and often sho.v moniliform arrangemant. Such a picture is expressed by the sign ++++ Free, motile leptospires in tho area increase in number. In the lOWJst serum dilution, there are many free, motile organisms and non-motile leptospires fom a laro:e network. The appearance is expressed by th; sign +++++. 1>lith this notation system, a series of reactions is demonstrable in a Single line, as is the case With WIDAL reaction. Therefore, reactions of one immune serum against many strains are compared clearly. , ~g~l:!:t!nin-abs£I"£t2:0!! ~e~t - Tha details of this tachnic arc also described in woD'r,s monograph and Y'L"L,,"10TO' s articlG. This test is necessary to show the identity of given two strains. These contributioDs are believed to have facilitated serological studies on leptospires almost to the same extent as certain specios of bacteria. 2. 2.1. EPIDEPIOLOGY Human infections

.;

.r

leptospirosiS has been diagnosed amonG miners, farm~rs, cooks, fish handlers, CoIJleJ.' workers, vet3rim!rians, slaught.:;rhouse workers, poultry handlers, k'mnelmcn, swinch~rds, packing plant employeas,md soldiers.

In man, WEIL's disease caused by L. icterohaemorrhagiae is the most dangerous among leptospiral infections, but other serotypes of leptosir.s, L.bataviae, L.australis A, L.grippotyphosa, L. pyrog.:mes also C,'lUS..) serious iiifections. In WEIL's diS-3D.SC, individuals being in contact with water contaminated with urine from infected rats are at special risk~ In Japan, WElL's disease has been known for 100 years as so-called "Sobaya byo", 'th? disease of buckwheat-noodle shop, as rats likG buckwheat an::l c;a.ther to bUCkwheat-noodle shops ,and cooks of the shops ;;.re inf 3cted in thG cookeries by water contaminated with rats' urine. Swimming and fishing in ponds or stagnant streams, workin~ in irrigated rice fields, ~nd accidental immersion are associated with leptospirosis in humans. Farmers handling infect2d live stocks, and owners of dogs suffering from the diseas:3 often become infected. Epidemic canicola fever was observ~din Japan in 1952 by IUSAO

..

wm/VPH/21 Page

3

and his co-workers in Kyushu district and 12 strains of L. canicola were isolated fram 43 human caS3S. The symptoms of human leptospirosis may be classified into following 3 types. a. b. c. Leptosirosis gravis. Infections with L. icterohaemorrhagiae, L.babaviaa. and L. australis A etc. Leptospirosis intermedius. and L. grippotyphosa eta. Leptospirosis levis. L.canicola etc. Cattle and swine Infection with L. autumnalis, L.pyrogenes,

Infection with L.hebdamadis, L.pomona, and

t i

2.2.

In Russia SEMSKOW named the causative organism of bovine hemoglobinuria as L•. icterohaemoglobi!!.uriae in 1941. In 1946 ,BERNKOPF in Israel isolated leptospira from cattle with Similar symptoms. In Israel;leptospires were demonstrated also in sheep and goats with icterus and haemoglobinuria. In U.S.A.~BAKER and LITTLE in New Jersey isolated leptospira in 1948 from cattle with ~ymptoms of hemoglobinuria and bloody milk. In Australia, in 1949, SUTHERLAND and his co-workers demonstrated leptospira in cattle suffering from icterus and hemoglobinuria. fu Japan, in Hyogo prefecture, t.re middle part of the main island, cattle han sUffered from C·n enzootic disease so-ealled hematuria or hemoglobinuria with 30% mortality for many years. The causative agent had been unidentified until the autumn of 1949, when YAMAMOTO and his QO-workers examined 26 bovine sera of hemoglobinuria in this prefecture. Twenty-four of these sera showed positive reaction with high titer against leptospiral strains, tested, of whioh 15 reacted positively with the type strain of L.autumnaiis, 6 with that of L.australis A, and the remaining 3 with L.hebdomadis. The presence of the bovine hemoglobinuria caused by leptospires was thus serologically demonstrated for the first time in Japan. In the autumn of 1950, two strains of L.hebdomadis were isolated by WATANABE ~nd his co-workers. In the autumn of 1953, two strains of L.autumnalis were isolated by YANAGAWA and his co-workers from the urine of diseased cattle in the same prefecture. In the autumn of 1955, TAKAMURA and his co-workers isolated one strain of L.australis A from the urine of cl:i.seased cattle in the same area. These were the first isolation of L.hebdomadis, L.autumnalis, and L.australis A from cattle. The' postmortem findings of the cows, from which the leptospiral strains were isolated, were dissociation and necrosis of liver cells and degeneration of tubular epithelium with cellural and bloody casts and early focal interstitial nonsuppurative nephritis. In many countries swirle are found to serve as carriers of leptospires or are occasionally affected by them. In Japan research is now proceeding, and it suggests that infection of swine is comparatively rare in this country as pigs are slaJ.ghtered before om year old.

Horse

.-

For many years pe.riodic ophthalmia of hors-.ls has bG-.ln known as an enzootic disease in J<'J.pan especially in Kyushu district. YllMAl"iOTO testJd 34 sara of Qorses with moonblindncss from Kyushu and 2 sera from near of Tokyo for leptospir'al antibodies. All of thesJ 36 S0ra contained antibodies of high titre against one or two of test strains. In Kyushu district, there were

WPR/VPH/21 Page 4 ' numerous affected horses With L. hebdomadis. One cP.se from near 'of Tokyo reacted with L. icterohaemorrhagiae with the titre 1:10,000,and the other case reacted with L. canico1a with the titre 1:10,000. Seven casas from Kyushu district ware found to r3act with 2 serolo~ically unrel:1.t3d strains of L. hebdomadis and L. austrilis A, apparently indicated a possible, 'double infection. In this area about 13% of apparently'healthy horses r"acted serologically positive a~ainst leptospires.

•

II

II

In 1939, YAUA,HOTO tsolated 14 strains of leptospires from dogs in Tokyo. Three of these wereL. icterohaemorrhagiae and the other 11 were L. canicola. Including these 14 strains, from 2 casas of jaundice, '1 strain ofL. icterohaemorrhagiae and 1 strain of L. canico1a, from 4 cases of dog typhus, 4 strains of L. canicola, from 27 cases of apparently healthy dogs,2 strains of L. icterohaemorrhagiae and 25 strains of L. cffilicola 'fl ~re isolated in Tokyo by nM,';MCTO. In Tokyo from May, 1940 to ilpril, 1942, 15 stray dogs were examined monthly by serological t3stS, darkfield microscopy on kidney emulsions, and pat~ologica1 observation of kidneys. 161 'of 360 nogs (44%) reacted serologically positive, of which 23 carried leptospiras in kidneys. Six point three per cent of all dogs carried leptospires in kidneys. The kidneys of serological reactors showed interstitial non-suppurative nephritis. As the etiological agent of canine interstitial non-suppurative nephritis, which are very common in every country, leptospira is very important. In Tokyo, 3 strains of L. icterohaemorrhagiae and 30 strains of J •• canicola were cultivated' from dogs. The dogs in Shizuoka pref::Jcture, the endemic area ?f human leptospiroSiS autumnalis, were investigated and infections with L. autumnalis or L. hebdomadis 1-rere observed. In 1954, 12 dogs in Hokkaido ;, were examined. Three of thes3 r3acted serplogically positive with L. canicola and from one of them a strain of L. canicola 'flas isolated. There had been no report in Hokkaido about leptosp-irosis of man or animals' before. In 1954 and 1955, one strain of L. icterohaemorrhagiae and 11 strains of'I... canicola, were isolated from 107 stray dogs in Kyushu, the percentage of carriers (11%) is higher than that in Tokyo or Shizuoka. In th" autumn of 1955, ? strains were isolat"d from dogs in Ehime prefecture, 3 of thclse Ivere identified as L. australis A by absorption test. Therefore, the distribution of L. australis A in this district was ascertained. ;\11 serotypes of leptospires recognized in Japan has been recovered from dogs. So, dogs may indicate the seTotypes of leptospires distributed in a certain area.

~

~'

2.5.

Other wild animals

In Ueno Zoo, Tokyo, in the autumn of 1958, 2 fur-sealS, 1 sea-lion, and 1 galago were infected with L. ict3rohaemorrhagiayafter an attack of a typhoon and one case of i-lEaL I s disease was observed in a gardener who was concerned with these animals.

3.

CLASSIFIC,.TION, TYPING_ND NOMENCL.,TURE

Differentiation and classification of pathogenic leptospires by means of serological tests are relatJd directly to diagnosis, vaCCination, and serotherapy of leptospirosis. Before the Horld War II, spec~al laboratories for identification of leptospiral strains were set up in SCHUFF~~'s Laboratory in Amsterdam and in MOCHT:lR's in Batavia. Nowadays, sixWHO/FAO Leptospirosis Reference Laboratories serve for classification and typing of

WPR/VPH/2l Page 5 strains, the fostering of uniform methods for diagnosis and surveys, and in research t9 improve laboratory procedures. 3.1. HistoriCal as ects of serot stud~es on eptospirosis. es which were found

(1) L. icterohaemorrh'agiae- was reported in 1915 by INADA and roo in Japan as the causal organism of WEIL'I s disease. The same' organism was reported by UHLENHUTH and FROMME in Germany in 1916 who gave the lIame, L•. ict~rogenes. (2) L. hebdomadis was reported in 191B by IDO', ITO and WANI as the causal organism of seven day fever in Japan. (J) L. pyrogenes was described by VERVOORT in 1923 as the causal organism of the dengue-like fevers in the tropics, spirochaetosis febrilis in Sumatra.

(4) L. hebdomadis A and L. hebdomadis B were described by KOSHINA~ SHIOZAWA And KITAYAMA in 1925 as t.he causal organisms of autumn fever in Shizuoka prefecture, Japan. L. hebdomadis B .ras identified as L. hebdomadis by them. Afterwards, in 192B, STEFANOPOULO and HOSOYA named Sp. autumnalis A and ~ autumnalis B as these were the causative agents of so-called autumnal fever of Japan. In 1933, ABE and his co-workers carried out research on Hasami fever in Japan and isolated strains of L. hebdomadis A from this autumnal endemic fever in the villa~e of Hasami, Nagasaki prefecture, Japan. At that time, they proposed simple L. autumna:1is for this leptospira to elim±nate taxonomical confUSion. , -,

(5) L. grippotyphosa was discovered in 19~B by TARASSOFF from cases of socalled water fever in Russia, (6) L. andaman A and L. andaman B were reported in 1931 by TAYLOR and GOYLE as the causative agents of endemic fever in Andaman islands. The' name imdaman A group was given by these authors at that tilne, and L, andaman B was given bv BCHUFFNER jn~193S. (7) L. canicola was named in 1934 by found principally in degs~

scHiiFFNEB..· This organism has been

(8) L. australis A and L. australis B were named by LUMLEY in 1937 as the pathogenic agents of so-called cane fever in Australia~ (9) L. hebdomadis C was reported by SBIOZA~vA and KUBO in 1938. It Vias isolated from a comparatively severe human case of so-called autumn fever in a area along the Tenryu River in Shizuoka prefecture in Japan. In 1943 YAMAMOTO found that this strain was serologically distinct from L. hebdomadis and other Japanese strains of leptospires and named it L. tenry~.n6is. 'After that he received from HOCHTAR the Ballico strain, the type strain of L.· australis A, and demonstrated by agglutinin~absorption t0st that these, 2.strains were serologically identical with each other. YllMAMOTO claimad in 1944 that L. australis A LUMLEY 1937 be the 1egitilnate name of this type.

.-

(10) L. bataviaewas named by ESSEVELDand COLLIER in 1938 to the serotype which was identical with Swart strain. The strain Swart was isolated by WALCH in 1925 from a h~an case of so-called Indonesian Weil •

• VfPR/VPH/21 Page 6 ell) L. javanica was named by ESSEVELD and MOCHT"ffi for tha type which was isolated by S.\RDJITO, MOCHT.ill, and WIRASMO from a field rat in Java.

(12) In 1939 and after that, a large number of new serotypes from Indonesia we re reported, such as; 1.. dj as iman, L. sarmin, L. naam, L. benjamin, L. sentot , L. cynopteri, L. schueffneri, t. wolffii, L. mochtarii, t. kasman etc. . (13) In Australia raportad were L. mitis JOHNSON~

L. celledonii etc.

(14) In Europe L. sejroe, L. saxkoebing, L. ballum, L. poi and others were reported. (15) In Americas L. hyos and others, in Africa many strains from Belgian Congo were reported. The newest list of serotypes of leptospiras contains 52 serotypes and 8 sub-serotypes as shown in document loJHO/ZOON/61 Armexe. 3.2. 4. Classification and typing (see 'fIHO/ZOON/61) PREVENTION ,Hm I'RSi~TMENT

OF LEPTOSr'IROSIS

4.1. .Prevention of leptospirosis In the prevention of leptospirosis, the animal carrier, the contaminated environment, and the exposed individual or anilnal will be considered. 4.1.1. The animal carrier

Small rodents, particularly rats and mice, are the principal spreaders of leptospirosis contracted in fields (Weil's disease, autumnal fever, seven day faver, cane fever, etc.) or from bathing pools, although large animal reservoirs are sometimes concerned in the latter. Cattle and swine infected with L. australis A, L autumnalis, L. hebdomadis, or L. pomona, and dogs with L. icterohaemorrhagiae, L. australis .'.., L. autumnalis or L. hebdomadis, also can be dangerous sources of infection. These domestic animals must be protected from infection of leptospirosis and rodent spreaders can be combated only by rodent control. 4.1.2. Contaminated environments ). '

Leptospires are very sensitive to disinfectants. The disinfection of contaminated environments can be accomplished with connnon disinfectants. In Japan, disinfection of rice-fields with calcium ~anamide has been successfully tried.

4.1.). Vacoination Vaccination with polyvalent antigen of killed organisms is successful in Japan. A well-grown leptospira culture is killed with 0.5% formalin which, after one day, is centrifuged for 30 minutes at 10,000 r.p.m. The sediment is resuspended in buffer saline solut~on and centrifuged again. Such washing procedure is carried. out 3 times;. The sediments of each type are mixed and resuspended in a buffer saline solution for 1 ml of the antigen to contain

e.

• WPR/VPH/2l Pags 7 5 x 108 organisms of each type. Potency test of antigen. Ono ml of this antigen is inoculated subcutaneously. 2 times with interval of I week into guinea-pigs of 300-400 gm. After two weeks, challenge inoculation with I ml culture of a virulent strain is carried out. All control animals must be killed with.typiehl pathological changes and 80% of vaccinated animals must survive. For an adult person, 1 ml of this antigen is used subcutaneously 2 times with interval of I week. For a big dog the same procedure may be used. 4.2. Treatment

Early serotherapy of leptospirosis in manand animals gives exellent results. The polyvalent immune serum is pref crable. Yf\~L.MOTO and his co-workers designed a method to prepare polyvalent immue serum With horse. With intravenous inoculations of 5 ml of well-grown living cultUre of each type of leptospirns, the i.'1II1Iunization of horse can be accomplished in 3 weeks. A sample of blood serum is taken and twted with the homologous strain. When the titer reaches higher than 1:30,000, the animal is bled and the serum is stored in rafrigarator. Partial purification of immune serum is made if necessary. Penicillin, Streptomycin and other antibiotiOs are employed in treatment of acutJ leptospirosis in man or animals. Streptomycin is preferable for the treatment as leptospires excreted in urine are almost killed. In the rJsults of experimental trJatment of bovine leptospirosis, it was recognized that penicillin treatment does not disturb the serological diagnosis when it was carried out after thJ onset of fever. h slightly higher mortality rate of the cases treated with antibiotics only was observed than those with the combination of immune serum and antibiotics.

,-

WORLD

HEALTH

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

ORGANIZATION REGlOi'iAL OFFICE FOR TllE,:ESTZRN Pl\CIFIC :RTTliEAU REGIONAL DU FACIFIQUE OOCIDEIJTAL

srxIlflR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan

WPR/VPH/22

18 April 1959

ENGLISH ONLY

20 April - 1 May 1959 ARTlffiOPOD-BORNE VIF..AL INF1lIlTIONS

by R.B. GRIFFITlS

FAO Veterinary Consultant

/

WPR/VFH/22 page 1

ARTHROPOD-BORNE VIRAL INFECTIONS by

R.B. GRIFFITHS FAD Veterinary Consultant

...

Within the region, most oountries that have carried out investigations have found evidence of infection of man and animals with arthropod-borne viruses. Unquestionably the most important and the most widespread of those that have been incriminated as a cause of human disease in the region is Japanese B virus. The endemicity of Japanese B encephalitis in a large number of countries of the Orient and the frequency of epidemics in man singles it out for special consideration. Although Murray Valley encephalitis has a more restricted distribution, nevertheless it should also be included in our discussion. Of the tick-borne viruses, we might consider those of the Russian spring-summer-louping ill group. Sincethe first objective of this Seminar is the identification of problems in the field of veterinary public health and exchange of information about the present practices dealing with these problems in the various countries and territories of the region, we should review the present status of our knowledge with regard to the distribution of these viruses and determine the magnitude of the public health problem they present. In dOing so, we should discuss the extent of investigations in the various countries. It is important also to discuss availability of diagnostic facilities to both the physician and the veterinarian, and to consider how these might be improved, where n3cessary. We Should also review reporting systems, keeping in mind the importance of ensuring that the health, veterinary and all other interestad agencies are kept fully informed of both human and animal morbidity and mortality from these infections. Where control programmes which involve animal husbandry practices are possible, as in tick control in dealing with the tick-borne encephalitides, several government agencies may be concerned, and it is important with regard to -rational planning that close collaboration shall exist. At the investigational level, the need for close teamwork among scientists of various disciplines is obvious, yet in some countries there may not be sufficient collaboration between medical and veterinary authorities, especia.l.ly in epidemiological investigations. In studies on the animal source of virus, the veterinarian through his knowledge of, and contact with, a number of species of livestock is often in a unique position to playa la"ading part in research of this kind. We might therefore review the present position regarding veterinary research and the extent to which veterinarians are called upon to collaborate in national programmes.

WORLD HEaLTH . ORGANIZATION RIDIOl'iAL OFFICE FOR TlIE,,'ESTERN PACIFIC :RTTliEAU REGIONAL DU P,lCIFIQUE OOCIDENTAL SDlINIR ON VETERINARY

ORGaNISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

PUBLIC HEALTH

wPR/VPU/22 18 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan

20 April - 1 May 1959 ARTlmOPOD-BORNE VIF..AL INFIOC:TIONS

by R.B. GRIFFITHS FaO Veterinary Consultant

,.

• •

WPR/VFH/22 ., ,> ..

page 1

ARTHROPOD-BORNE VIRAL INFECTIONS by

R.B. GRIFFITHS FAD Veterinary Consultant

,"

Within the region, most oountries that have carried out investigations have found evidence of infection of man and animals with arthropod-borne viruses. Unquestionably the most important and the most widespread of those that have been incriminated as a cause of human disease in the region is Japanese B virus. The endemicity of Japanese B encephalitis in a large number of countries of the Orient and the frequency of epidemics in man singles it out for special consideration. Although Murray Valley encephalitis has a more restricted distribution, nevertheless it should also be included in our discussion. Of the tick-borne viruses, we might consider those of the Russian spring-summer-louping ill group. Sincethe first objective of this Seminar is the identification of problems in the field of veterinary public health and exchange of information about the present practices dealing with these problems in the various countries and territories of the region, we should review the present status of our knowledge with regard to the distribution of these viruses and determine the magnitude of the public health problem they present. In dOing so, we should discuss the extent of investigations in the various countries. It is important also to discuss availability of diagnostic facilities to both the physician and the veterinarian, and to consider how these might be improved, where mcessary. We should also review reporting systems, keeping in mind the importance of ensuring that the health, veterinary and all other interested agencies are kept fully informed of both human and animal morbidity and mortality from these infections. Where control programmes which involve animal husbandry practices are possible, as in tick control in dealing with the tick-borne encephalitides, several government agencies may be concerned, and it is important with regard to rational planning that close collaboration shall exist.

'<

r

At the investigational level, the need for close teamwork among scientists of various disciplines is obvious, yet in some countries there may not be sufficient collaboration between medical and veterinary authorities, especialJy in epidemiological investigations. In studies on the animal source of virus, the veterinarian through his knowledge of, and contact with, a number of species of livestock is often in a unique position to play a leading part in research of this kind. We might therefore r~view the present position regarding veterinary research and the extent to which veterinarians are called upon to collaborate in national programmes.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZA.TION REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE .$STERl'! PACIFIC :RTlliEAU REGIONAL DU P,\CIFIQm!: CX::CIDENTAL

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

SEMDtR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan

WPR/VPH/22 18 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

20 April - 1 May 1959 ARTlffiOPOD-BORNE VIRAL INFECTIONS

by R.B. GRIFFITHS FAO Veterin8ry Consultant

. <-

•

,

-'

. ARTHROPOD-BORNE VIRAL INFECTIONS by R.B. GRIFFITHS FAO Veterinary Consultant

WPR/VFH/22 page 1

, ...

, I

Within the region, most oountries that have carried out investigations have found evidence of infection of man and animals with arthropod-borne viruses. Unquestionably the most important and the most widespread of those that have been incriminated as a cause of human disease in the region is Japanese B virus. The endemicity of Japanese B encephalitis in a large number of countries of the Orient and the frequency of epidemiCS in man singles it out for special consideration. Although Murray Valley encephalitis has a more restricted distribution, nevertheless it should also be included in our discussion. Of the tick-borne viruses, we might consider those of the Russian spring-summer-louping ill group. Sincethe first objective of this Seminar is the identification of problems in the field of veterinary public health and exchange of information about the present practices dealing with these problems in the various countries and territories of the region, we should review the present status of our knowledge with regard to the distribution of these viruses and determine the magnitude of the public health problem they present. In dOing so, we should discuss the extent of investigations in the various countries. It is important also to discuss availability of diagnostic facilities to both the physician and the veterinarian, and to consider how these might be improved, where mcessary. We should also review reporting systems, keeping in mind the importance of ensuring that the health, veterinary and all other interested a~ncies are kept fully informed of both human and animal morbidity and mortality from these infections. Where control programmes which involve animal husbandry practices are possible, as in tick control in dealing with the tick-borne encephalitides, several government agencies may be concerned, and it is important with regard to rational planning that close collaboration shall exist. At the investigational level, the nded for close teamwork among scientists of various disciplines is obvious, yet in some countries there may not be sufficient collaboration between medical and veterinary authorities, especi~ in epidemiological investigations. In studies on the animal source of virus, the veterinarian through his knowledge of, and contact with, a number of species of livestock is often in a unique position to playa leading part in research of this kind. We might therefore review the present position regarding veterinary research and the ·extent to which veterinarians are called upon to collaborate in national programmes.

_'..--.4..;..'_ _ _

......;4

,.IL .. ' _"___e_t.__ _.-.

WOR LD

ORGIl.HIZATIm~

HEA LTH REGIONAL OFFICE ?OR THE,\'E3TERiii PACIFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACI.icI~UE OCCIDENTAL

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTI!:

SDu::rp.R ON V3F..":RINARY PUBLIC n.t:"\LTH

18 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

WPR/VPU/23

Tokyo , Japan

20 April - 1 May 1959

REPORTING OF ANIiIIAL DISEASES, IM::LUDING ZOONOSES

by

R. B. Griff Hhs FAO Veter inary Consu ltant

,

,.."~

,

"

WPR/trPH/2'

page 1

Reporting of Animal Diseasesj including Zoonoses by R. B, Griffiths FAO Veterinary Consultant

The Food and Agricuiture.Organ:1.iation of ttie Unit.ed Nations with the full collaboration of the International office of Epizootics, Paris, and with the support of the majority of the member goverrunents of bot h of these bodias has initiated the FAO/OIE World Livestock Disease Reporting Service. Annually, FAO issues to its member countries, and OIE issues to those of its member countries that are not ~mbers of FAO. a reporting form which oalls for information by animal groups on the incidence and control of the major diseases of livestock throughout the world~ On the basis of the replies recJived from cooperating countries, a World Livestock Disease Report (Animal Health Year Book) which reviews the world livestock disease situation is compiled o

\j

The first Report covered the year 1956 and met with a most encouraging response not only from governments but also from independent bodies interested in animal produotion and trade. Encouragement was therefore given to continue the reporting system and to make improvemen!;s in the reports themselves. AccordingJ..v, the Report for 1957 which has now been issued was widened in scope and is divided into two sections, The first provides articles on current topical subjects and includes information on the establishment and functions of the World Reference Laboratory for foot-and-mouth disease, infertility in cattle, brucellosis in goats and sheep, the control of haemorrhagic septicaemia, and the control of rinderpest. The second section which is a review of the world livestock disease situation is widened in scope to include not only more diseases than the 1956 Report but methods of control as welL Naturally, as is stated in the Reportt more frequent reference has been made to the control of highly infectious diseases, especially those which may assume an epizootic character; nevertheless, some valuable information on the control of other types of disease in included. It is felt that by including information on control measures it w:i.ll eventually be possible to examine and analyse the uffects of the different control measures on the incidence 0f diseascls. These anaqses will be published in the cotn'se of tiJ1le by FAO in subsequent numi:lers of the Report.

L

• wPR/VPH/23 page 2

The success or otherwise of the reports depends upon two main factors: the comprehensiveness of the reporting form and the care w:Lth which'it is completed by oooperating countries. During the few years over which the fom has been issued, it has been subject to constructive amendment and ~8uggestions whioh member countries may wish kJ·/IBke for alterations or amendments'laildirtg \ci improvements in the present reporting form are greatly appreciated. At this point, trerefore, le might begin our dis -ussion. To keep within the terms of references of this meeting we should examine particularly the reporting of zoonoses and ask ourselves how far too nomenclature, animal group codes, and incidence and Control codes satisfy requirem3nts.

11

JI

.-

~

--:ORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

ORGANISATION MO:IDlAIE Dc, LA SANTE

REClIONAL OFFICE FOR THE ~rlLSTERN PACIFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU F~CIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL SENINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

WPR/VPH/24 21 April 1959

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

ENGLISH ONLY

..

0cNTHRAX by

R. B. Griffiths FAO V3t8rinary Consultant

r

t...

WPR/VPH/24 Pagel ! '"

ANTHRAX by R. B. Griffiths FAO Veterinary Con$ultan:t. ... , Using the FAO/DIE 1,vorld Livestock Diseasa R3port

1957 as an index, it woulo appear th2.t 'within this Re~ion,

the situation with re~ard to 'the incidence and control of this diseas] is as follows:

~nimal Group/Incidence

Control Infected farms are ..placed on permanent quarantine and animals on them are vaccinated each year; thera are only 15 farms infected in the whole country; last new outbreak,

New Zealand

Bovine:

unlikely to be pNsent

1956. Other stock (see note (1) ):, not Ncorded: no evidenoe·, Australia Bovina ,r.;quine Dvine Swine ) confined to certain regions as ) under: ) Bovine in two stat3s, Equine, ) Ovine and Swine in ona state only. not r"corded: no evidence Quarantine

..,Vaccination'

Caprine : Fiji r

Not recorded: no evidence Bovine:

Hong Kong

law incidence: sporadic cases occurs mainly in quarantine

Other stock: not' :Nlc0rdod: no (lvidcnco Japan Dovine: low incidence: spor' •.dic cases (19 cases in 13 Prefectures) Other stock: No evidence in' goats' since 1954. No evidence in sheep since 1950. No evidence in pigs since 1956. Two cases in horse,s in 1956.

Vaccination: hygienic disposal of carcasses •. , Only cattle in Hong Kong Dairy Farm vaccinated.

Vaccination

(1) Note:

The term "other stock" is used in this table to cover caprine, ovine, equine and swine animal group of the FAO/OlE classification.

NPR/VPH/24, Page 2 Country North Borneo Netherlands New Guinea Indonesia Animal Group/Incidence Bovine & other stock: Suspdcted but not confirmed Bovine & other stock: not recorded: no evidence Bovine· ) disease much reduced but still Caprine ) exists: confined to certain Equine ) regions Control Quarantine Quarantine and other urecautions to ensure innocuity (not specified) Quarantine, vaccination Serum traatment in sev~re

cases:

quarantine in stations ofex:portod and importod animals Ovine: Philippines Bovine: Not recorded: no evidence low incidence: sporadic cases Vaccination, therap2utic treatnent Quarantire

Other stock: Singapore Bovine:

not r2cordod: no evidence Quar ant ire

unlikely to be present in the country - last case, 1952,:in an imported animal not recorded: no evidence

Other stock: Federation of Malaya Cambodia Laos Vietnam

No information listed Bovine: low incidence: sporadic cases Vaccir..atlf.c,n Vaccination

) Seasonal occurrence, Bovine: Other stock: ) Bovine: low inCidence, sporadic cases confined to certain regions The deseasG is noted as "rar..;" ) ) ) ) confined to certain r~~ions

Voluntary vaccination

Thailand

Bovine Equine Swine ElePhant s

Quarantine & other precautions to ensure innocuity (in bovine animals and elephants. annual vaccination)

'10'

•

"

•

• WPR/VPH/24 Page 3 The table shows that the problem of anthrax in anilllals in the Region is chiefly confined to the bovine anilllal group. This is tre usual pattern. A notable feature, however, is the number of countries that have reported no evidence of anthrax in 'other stock'. Bearing in mind that the first objective for the seminar is to identify problems in the field of veterinary public health and to exchange information about the present practices dealing with th0se problems in the various countries and territories of the Region, we should begin by considering the magnitude of the problem of anthrax in anilllals and in man in the Region. Although most countries have reported a low incidence in bovine animals, the most susceptible group, we have no indication of the extent of livestock mortality, nor of the extent to which vaccination programmes are being pursued and their effect in reducing incidence. We have very little information on the pres·:.mt status of human infections in the countries of the Region. There are many questions which must be answered before we can fulfil the objectives of this seminar. I would suggest, therefore, that we examine the subject carefully, considering first the epidemiology and control of anthrax in anilllals, and, secondly, its epidemiology and control in man. We might start by considering the problem under the following heads: 1.

&

Animal infections

Reported incidence in livestock by classes; reporting systems and their reliability having regard to diagnostiC procedures. Sources of infection. Control with reference to education of the rural population in the recognition of early signs, diagnosis, disposal of carcasses, quarantine, vaccination programmes. The special problem of infected anilllals in abattoirs; ante-mortem inspection and the disposal of opened infected carcasses and carcasses possibly contaminated through contact. The disinfeotion of premises. The management of anthrax in dairy herds. Therapy in livestock. 2. Human infections

Reported incidence in rural populations; reporting s.ystems. Cooperation between medical and veterinary authorities in tracing the source of human infections in rural populations. Occupational hazards, infections in veterinarians, butchers etc. Reported incidence in industrial workers; reporting systems. of infection; hair and wool; hides and skins. Other sources of human infection - bristles. Disinfection of anilllal by-products. Sources

i

I

I.

WORLD HE.~L.TII OIGANIZATION REGIONAL OFFICE FOR BUREAU REGIONAL DU SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC IlEAL TH TH!!: I'mSTERN PACIFI'~UE

ORG~JISATION

MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

PACIFIC CCCIDEJ.'l'TAL

WPR/VPH/25 19 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan

20 April - 1 May 1959

ANIMAL

TUBEICULOOIS by

R. B. Griffiths FAO Veterinary Consultant

• Animal Tuberculosis. by R•. B. Griffiths

I1PR/VPH/25 page 1

FAa Veterinary Consul tant

A perusal of the 1957 issue of the Animal Health Year Book published b1 the FAa/OlE Vlorld Livestock Disease Reporting Service showstbat within the Pacific Region the problem of animal tuberculosis varies oonsiderably in its magnitude from country to country. Thus tuberculosis in birds is classed as widespread in New Zealand. There is a low incidence with sporadic cases in Australia, Hong Kong and Netherlands NeVI Guinea. It has not been recorded in Japan, the Philippines, North Borneo or Singapore. Its presence is unlikely in Fiji. Tuberculosis in bovine animals is widespread in New Zealand and Fij i. There is a low incidence in Australia, Japan, Hong Kong, Indonesia and the Philippines. In Singapore, Malaya and Laos the disease is mainly seen in imported animals. . Tuberculosis in swine is widespread in New Zealand and Fiji, but Australia, Hong Kong, Japan and the Philippines have a low· incidence. There is no evidence of its occurrence in pigs in Singapore or North Borneo, while it is unlikely to be present in Netherlands NeVI Guinea. Among other animals there is a loVi incidence in the canine animal group in New Zealand, Australia, Hong Kong and Japan. In Laos i t is suspocted but not ,confirmed. Elsewhere i t has not been recorded. New Zealand, \vith a low .i,ncidence is tho only country to roport tuberculosis in horsos~ Control measures vary from country to country • According to the, report under referc)Uce, tuberculosis in all classes of stock in Now 'Zealand is notifiable. All bovine clinical cases are compulsorily slaughtered and all cattlo on farms registered for the supply of milk for human consumption areUAder compulsory tuberculin t0sting with destruction of re2ctors, and compensation is paid. In Australia, tuberculosis in all classes. of stock is notifiable and asIa ughter policy exis ts • In Fij i, the disease is·' not classified . as p.otifiable but all imported animals must be negative to the tuberculin test ~n the country of export. In Japan the disease in cattle, goats and pigs ie notifiable and a slaughter policy for tuberculosis in cattle e~ists. In Indo~3ia the disease in cattle is notifiable ,and control rests on quarantine, slaughter policy ! and testing and disposal of r?actors (other than by slaughter). .; . . From the review of incidence givon above, it is likely that our discussion will centre chiefly on the problem of tuberculosis i~ cattle. While the desirable aim is <3radication, the speed \'lith uhich this can be effected will vary from country to country. In countries in which there is initi~lly a ·low in- . cidence of tuberculosis in the cattle population, \1here veterinary services are

iPB/VPH/25 page 2 adequate, and where the economic resources permit compensation for the slaughter of reactors, it may be possible to start oompulsory eradication at the outset and achieve the desired goal in a relatively short time. On the other hand, where there is a high incidence of infection it may not be possible at the start to put into operation ~ nation-wide eradication scheme wi th slaughter of, and compensation for, all reactors. It may be neoessary, therefore, to begin with voluntary schemes until the overall incidence is reduced to a lavel which would allow the introduction of compulsory sohemes. The success of voluntary schemes depends upon a number of factors, including not only educational programmes but financial rewards as well. Clearly , the end-result of the voluntary sohemes, i.e., a significant reduction in the overall incidence of tuberculosis in the oountry will beacbieved more rapidly if the slaughter of reaotors can be carried out as part of the scheme for the outset. This, however, is not always posSible, and a procedure recently recommended in New Zealand* is given in an annex attachod to this report. Tbis might be considered during the oourse of our discussion.

There are also other problems to ivhich we might pay special attention. For example, in the less developed countries of the region where several herds may use a common grazing ground, the problem of the provision of clean grazing ground for tuberculosis-free hords must bo considered. It is most desirable to croate a completely free area as soon as possible. This is not only psychologically sound, it also provides a reliable source of stock for purchase as replacements by farlIl0rs vlho have embarked on voluntary eradication. Identification of roactors is also worthy of manti on. Where cattle are Clearly identified Qy ear tattoos or other permanent marks as in milk-recording and other livestock schemes, an accurate record of reactors can be kept. In the herds of some countries, hovlevor, cattle may not normally carry identification marks. In such cases it is essential that all reactors be clearly identifiable. A permanent brand on a part of the body "hero the value of the hide will not be seriously affected will suffice. We might usefully begin our discussion Qy revie,ling in each country represented at this meeting:,(8) . the incidence of tuoorculosis of animal origin in tho human popula-

tion; (b) the inc ide nco of the dis case in the various countries of the region Qy

classos of livestock, considering, if possible, the types of tuberculosis encountered. Under this general heading, the disease in buffaloes should receive special consideration since there is some evidence that tuberculosis in these animals may be a problem in some countries;

*N.Z. Jour. Agric.

(19~8)

21., 229.

wPR/VPn/25 page (c) the measure teken to coat.rol the diseaso':'in animal populations as under:(i) (ii) Imported livestock. Eradication schemes. 3

(iii) Tuberculin testing; tuberculins used; non-specific reactors; disposal of reactors; compensation. '-. ... , , ' ~

(iv)

W.aat hygiene cansideratiim::N'<

'.

Ii

..

":

:"

J.' .

."

,; 0 R L D H E A L T H ORGANIZATION REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE dESTERN PACIFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACIFIQUE OOCIDENTAL SEMINAR ON VElERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANlE

,1PR/VPH/26 21 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tol<;,yo, J span

20 April - 1 May 1959

HUMAN ll-lF&:TIONS:iITII PARASITES OF AL'lJIMAIS :nTH SPElJ IAL REFERENCE TO THOSE a::CURRING IN THE ORIEi:JTAL Icr.GION

By M. Abdussalam College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore, Pakistan

,'" IIlThjAN PlFEDTIONS ~lITH PARASITES OF ANIMALS ':HTH SPEDIAL REFERENCE TO THOSE OOC1lRRING IN THE ORIEHTAL REGION

WPR/VPll/26 Page 1

By M. Abdussalam Collage of Animal Husbandry, Lahore, Pakistan A large majority of the animal parasites are host specific and are not interchangeable oou.veen animals and man. A. few are, hOilever, not so rigid in their physiological requirements and can flourish in more than one host speci~s including man. This s~all group includes such important causes of human disease as trypanoso~es, blood flukes, intestinal flukes, tapeworms, trichinae, strongylOidesand others. Some parasites of animals spend their larval period in human tissues and cause such serious diseases as hydatidosis and myiasis. In other cases, the larvae that enter human tissues fail to develop normally and perfo~ errlltic migrations causing serious damage as in creeping eruption, visceral larva migrans, etc. The ectoparasi tes acquired fror:: animals not only cause annoyance and painful skin lesions but in many cases transmit pathogenic rr,icroorganisms • The bio-ecological aspects of the relationships involved have been recently reviewed by Ca~eron (1958) and Wright (1947n). Faust (1953) briefly surveyed the infections resulting from invasion by parasites of animls, and Shikhobalova (1955) published a popular account of the helminthic zoonoses of the Soviet Union. In the present article, the parasitic infections interchangeable bet\veen man and vertebrate animals havo been listed and brief notes on impor~nt epidemiological features added. Emphasis is laid on recent uork and on infections roported from the oriental region nnd the neighbouring areas of the Far East; those thot are unimportant in this region hove been omitted or dealt with briefly.

PROTOZOA

Most of the protozoan parcsites of meen, and of the animals in his environment, are so strictly host specific that interchanges of infection are infrequent even where close morphological Similarity bet,1een the parasites of man ond animals suggests SUC:1 a possibility. It is mainly among the haemoflagellates tho.t host specificity is not so rigid 2nd a nilil!il Is assUll18 the role of reservoirs of human infection.

(6 tropica, h donovani and b brazHj&.lli?is ) have animal hosts in nature.

Leishraaniasis.

All the three species of Leishmania pathogenic for man

Leishmania. tropics, the cause of oriental sore, is\/idely but focally distributed in the dry zones of the tropics and sub-tropia's. Endemic areas exist in the countries around the Mediterranean, Middle East, Indo-Pakistan, Central Asia and Chine especially Hunan. Dogs have been found naturally infected in many of the endemic areas but their exact role in the endemiology of the . .. disease is not clear. Recent .Jork in Central Asia (Hoare, 1955) has ravea1eli . the existence of two types of the disease. A. "moist" ulcero.ting type occurs in the people of rural areas on the fr~nge of deserts and is contracted from gerbils (Rhombom.Y[ opimus, Pal1asiolDYs 2!Z:t}~r.QJg~., ~ !!!eridianus and others)

WPR/VPU/26 Page 2 through the agency of sandflies. The other is a chronic "dry" type, characterised by late ulceration. It occurs in urban areas and represents man to man infection, through sandflies, of the !&i!?hmania t1hich is better adapted to the human subject. The t;10 types are also immunologic['.lly distinct. The "moist" variety has a1.so been found in Iran in association -;/ith lU!?mbomYj! opiL1~. It is likely that natural enzootic fOCi in gerbils and other desert rodents exist in the other infected areas. This might elso explain the endemicity of the disease in dry areas. Visceral loishmaniasis (kala azar) is ·.~idely di3tributed in northern and western China, central Asia, eastern Indo-pakistan, the Middle !nst, countries around Mediterranean, .East Africa and in a feu localities in West Africa and South America. Dogs have long been considered to be an important reservoir of the infection in China, the Middle Ens t and the M3diterranean oren, where the disease occurs more commonly in children. In India and Kenya; dogs have not been found to be, infected though the epidemiological picture suggests the existence of an anim!11 reservoir (Heisch, 1954) which may be a rodent. In China also, recent ,studies (Li, 1957) indicate the possibility of the simultaneous existence of the Indian type disease in which adults are attacked rJore frequently and dogs do not appear to be implicated. Latyshev et al. (1951) reported the occurrence of Kala azar among reclamation ':iorkers in the previously unihabi ted areas of the Vakhsh valley in Tajikistan. A search for local reservoirs revealed that jackals, <1l!nis(Thos) .aureus, uere naturally infected. These authors suggest that fOldensaly populated towns of central ASia, the dog has taken over the role of a reservoir from the jaCkal, and Hoare, (1955) has postulated a similar transfer from the fox to the dog, in ancient tiroles, in the ledi terranean area.' " , Muco-cutaneousleishmaniasis (espundia) causod by ~ brazi1ienais is confined to central and south America. Dogs have boen found naturally irifected and have been. considered to be reservoirs. No 'iJild animal reservoir has been identified but the prevalence of the disease in forest workers suggests such a possibility (Davey and Lightbody, 1956). African trypanosomiases. Tho less acute Gaobian trypanosomiasis (~ gambiensf!)'isrestricted to i1est Africa between latitudes 15 0 N. and 15 0 S. of the equator,the'·eastern limits being Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika. The more serious Rhodesian type (T ". rhodesiense) is restricted to eastern Ugondu, Tanganyika, Portuguese East Africa, the Rhodesias and the northeastern portion of Mozambique. Although there is no direct evidence that a resorvoir of either of these trypanosomes exists in wild animals, there is strong indirect and circumstantial evidence that such reservoirs do occur particularly for ~ rhodesie~ (Davey, 1958). The latter occurs in thinly populcted bush country abounding in wild ruminants and is transmitted chiefly by the game tsetse fly, ~sina morsi tans, supposedly from antelopes to TJan. Infection is contracted,. when the uninhabited areas abounding in game are visited for hunting, fishing, gathering beesuax or travelling. Experimentally, it has been shcmn too t ~ rhodesienSe, serially transmitted in sheep, with secondary lines in antelope and monkeys, has maintained its infectivity and virulence for man over 18 years (liillet arid Fairbairn, 1955)~ . The Gacbian trypanosomiasis is less acute and hus a groater tendency to invade the nervous system. It occurs' in relatively \tell populated localities wi th few \1 ild anir.Il:lls·. The benignity of the early stages of the disease meana

"

¥lPR/VPH/26 Page :3 that man himself can infect tsetse flies (th :Q.nlP9.li..[ and g.:. tachinoi~.§I~ 'Ihen going along shaded paths along the streams and across the fords. This man to man transmission through the fly roy be the reason for the greater adaptation and consequent mildness of this infection. It has also been shown that ~ gambien§.& is easily transmitted to the domestic pig, producing a sub-clinical infection which may persist for a yoar or more (Van Hoof, Henrard and Peel," 1942). Other domestic animals, such as, cattle, sheep and goats n~y alsocarr,y this infection without apparent symptoms for long periods of time and probably act as reservoir hosts (Craig and Faust, 1953). American, trypllnosomia;3es. Chagas' disease, caused by L. ~ is the better known of tho t.IO' American infections of this group. It is prevalent in Mexico, Argentina and the Brazilian highlands, but smaller foci of infection' are ryidespread in the rest of central ~erican and northern part of South America. In the United States, the infection has been detected in wild hosts as far north as Maryland (Walton, et al., 1958) but human cases are rare or absent. Trypanosomes closely related to ~ ~ have been found in monkeys in 1Mlaya and Indonesia but human infection has not been recorded in these c<?untrias (Davey and Lightbody, 1956). The domestic reservoirs in America are dogs, cats and children. The ':1ild reservoir hosts include monkeys, J;'odents, bat~, annadillos and opossums. The vectors are triatomid bugs in which the trypanosomes multiply, making them additional reservoirs. In Venezuela, Colombia and Guatemala, there occurs another try"pnnosOIne '~. rangeH) in the blood of man, dog and opossum. It is apparently non- . pathogenic or only mildly virulent for man. Triatomid bugs (Rhodnius prolixus) are natural vectors. Experimentally, the infection is transmissible to ~_W!~ monkeys and mice (Pifano, 1954). . (~

,

,

Intestinal protozoa. Entamoe1!~ hlliolytica is the principal parasite of this group ;'Iith a cosmopolitan distribution. Its pc~thogenic effects ore l"wre commonly observed in the tropical :md sub-tropical countries. Amoebne morphologically rasembling ~ ~lytica have been observed in a variety of mammals including dogs, cats, pig~, rats and Asian monkeys. In the latter, it is usually non-p<:Ithogenic and saprozoic but in South ArJerican monkeys, it causes severe morbidity. It is generally believed that the anir.Jal hosts do not play an important part in the epidemiology of this infection, with the possible exception of monkeys in India. These animals live ncar human habitations 3nd probably constitute an important reservoir of hUman infection (Cameron, 1958). The flagellate parasitG Giardia is also a universal and comoon parasite of pigs. In man and monkeys it prodv.ces pro1;tinent ulceration of the large bowel. Human infection is generally believed to have been derived from pigs as most patients give a history of associ(.1t:ion \lith pigs. The relatively low incidenoe of human infection cOI:lpared witb. . the amount of exposure suggests that man is quite resistant (Faust, 1953). Highly r.Jsistant cystic fOrms, which are produced in the bowel of the pig, are not ahJcys formed in the human host. M:ln is obviously an abncirmal·host,for this parasite (Caneron, 1956). Tffiillik'r om I Trematodo infections of man are nowhere as important as in the Oriental region. This is because of the vast ore~s s¥itable for the propagation of molluse intermediate hos't;s and the existence of certain food'habits and occupations which exposeioo.n to infec;tion. Because of certain specific requirements

WPR/VPH/26 Page 4

.~.

of the snail intermediate hosts, the trematode infections remain endemic in \1ell defined areas, often ,:lith recognizable topographic characters. Some trematodes use a second intermediate host, which may be a food animal (fish, crustacean, etc.) or the infective cercaria may encyst on a food plant (water chestnut, water caltrops). Such infections are limited to populations oating these animals or pla:nts raw or undercooked. The following infections may be mentioned: Gastrodis~~. h2-minis ie a CODDon pcrasito of nen in Assam and also occurs in Indo-China. It causes oild colitis and diarrhoea. In Aseam and other parts of eastern Indic, it is common in domestic pigs and has been recorded from the Napu mouse-deer in Mnlaya (Khalil, 1923). It does not appear to be an important parasite of man except in eastern India.

Schistomqmiasis. The blood-flukes are among the most ioportent porosi tes of man which infect nearly ono-fifth of the whole human race (Gameron, 1958). In tho ~estern Pacific region, ~~hist~ jp~~ic~ infection is easily the most important parasitic disease and is considered to attack over 46 million people (stoll, 1947). (~1right, 1950, has estimnted the number of infectod persons to be over 33 million). The infection is rlidely distributod in Chinn, Japan, Taiwan, Philippines and the Celebes. The infected localities have been listed by fi"right (1947b and 1950) and Iilore arC) being added by recent workers (Pesigan et_ a1., 1958; Okoshi, 1952, and others). Four or more species of the anphibious snail gonus Oncomolanic act as intermediate hosts. It is known since long that a number of domestic and ,1ild Lllll!llllllls in the endeud.c aroas are infected with ~ japonicum and are capable of passing viable eggs which can infect clean snails. These animals include cattle, buffeloes, goats, horses, dogs, rats, moles and weasols. Although the true relative importance of the various hosts in maintaining infection is not fully known, it is clear that it varies from bne loc::!li ty to the other. It has been suggested (lIbMullen and Harry , 1958) that in' Japan and China, Ci ttle are nore important than man in maintaining the infection, i7hile in Taimm a strain of purely zoophilic type shows an incidence in snails comparable to that found in other areas. It has been shown experimentally by Hsiiao:;llIsii (1956) that this strain has become so specialized for animals that' inoon it develops in the viscera for a tiroo but does not attain maturity. 'In the Philippines, recent studies on egg production, hatchability of eggs produced in different hosts, and the populction densities of the vcrious hosts indicate that, in Leyete, man is probebly the greatest contributor to the infection· in snails. As the Oncomelania snails which are amphibious discharge cercariae only ;7hen in water, it is the vertobrate hosts \lhich go into \"later that are more commonly infected. Thus, cettle which TIork in rice fields and dogs which roam about unleashed are frequently infected (Okoshi, 1958) •. Adult water buffaloes are reSistant, though the young ones are easily infected. In general, i t nay be stated that vertebrate reservoir hosts other than man appear to play an ioportant role in the epidemiology of S. japonicUlil infection, though the relative importance of differsnt species in nnintaining the infection remains to be studied in many localities. SchistosOCQ mansoni infection is Nidely distributed over Africc and South America. It is the-mOSt dispersed of the three hUIlllln schistosomcs end Stoll (1947) has estimated that 29 million people are infected. Until recently, the infection was considered to be largely confined to man, the only recorded animal hosts. being two African monkeys, Gercopi thecus sobCl.eUS and ~ aetheops cynosllrus. In ~he last fell years, a nur"oor of \7ild mammds of the order Rodentia and sone

liPIV'WII/26

Page

5

of Inse_ctivora and MClrsupialia have been found to be infected in Africa and South Amarice (Kunt?i, 195?; Martins, 1958). It a.ppe~rs that many of theI:! play an important part as -reservoirs of this infection, but further work is needed to elucidate their Prec~se epidemiological significance. Schistosom::l haem2~obium of Africa ::Ind the Middle East, with isolated foci in Portugal and western-India, appears to be highly specialized for parasitism in man. The only record of a wild malDLlal being naturally infected is that of Q9~ebus torquatus ~ b.y Cobbold in 1869. As pointed out by Mertins (1958), the identification of the parasite in this record is doubtful as, at that early date, no other species of the hn.!3matobium - complex rlere known, and so a misidentification was possible. A fevi species of this complex are described from animals in Africa and Asia (S •. bqvi4 ~. ma thei, ~ intercalfl tum and ~ indi£~) and are common among domestic rumin8nts. In Africa, hUI:lQn infections with all theso speCies, except S •. ~ndicQB, have been recorded on the basis of eggs detected in tho faeces. La Roux (1949) and Varma (1955) have both suspected that the .:lutochthonous cases of human schistosomiasis in Indo-Pakistan IIl!lY be due to §.:. in~ which is -,lidely prevalent among rurlinants and equines in this sub-continent. Further stUdies are needed to elucidato the role of these species in human infection and their biological relationship to the morphologically siniler §.:. haem..~tobillll!. Schistosome dermat~. Tho blood flukes of several vertebrates, such as, birds, rodents, monkeys and other r.mnT,lnls Cr.!,;i.~1-ll.fl.ll'ia, Pseudo bilharzia , Schistosomatium, ~19~2~, etc.) are capable of penetrating the human skin as cercariae but fail to attain ~~turity in this host. After first exposure to such cercariae, there is little observable reaction and Olivier (1953), on the basis of experiments in ~onkeys, believes that they rench the lungs and produce small haemorrhages but ere killed \7i thin five days. After repeated exposures, however, the human skin shows an allergic response ond the cercariae are killed and retained in the epidermis. They cause severe itching, oedema and h!lemorrhages. Schistosooe dermnti tis (S\-limr:,ors I itch, cercaria dermatitis, etc.) has been observed in several countries including J3pan. In ~blayn, Buckley (1938) found that the cercariae of ~ spi~dc~~, e blood fluke of domestic ruminants, produces an itching dermatitis on the feet end halrlS of rice field ~orkers. It is probable that schistosome dermatitis is cosmopolitan in distribution. In any case, it is much more widely distributed than the blood flukes uhich attain tJa turi ty in man. Clonor.chL-isis. The Chinese livorfluko Clonorchis Rincnsis, like other members of tho family Opisthorchidae and the closolyailied -IfutOrOphidao, uses fish as the second intermediate host. Tho infective metacel'cariae are encysted in the flesh, gills and tho skin of the fish. The adult fluke therefore occurs in the fish eating mammals, such as, dog, cat, hog, vild cat, martin, badger and mink. Human beings get infected through o:1ting raw or undercooked fish. The infection is endemic in Japan,China (except the north-west), Koroa, Taiwan and Indo-china. It has also been datected in Chinese imrr.igrants to other countries (U.S.A., Cuba, India) and in native Ha'.miians -,Iho are believed to have been infected through eating fish imported from Chine or Jcpan. However, the infection does not appear to have gained a foothold in the89 countrios. The fish intermediate hosts consist of 40 or more fresh--'later species of tho family Cyprinidae. In South China, the ide' (Ctenopharyngodon ide~~~) is the most CODrJon source of infection.

WPR/VPH/26 Page 6 Opisthorciasis. Three specil.'s of Opisthorchis (0 •. feJ..J.pilllli,fh yiverrini and fh noverca) occur in the bile ducts of mon, and, like Clonorchis, use fishes as second intermediate hosts. Fish-eating mammals, such as, dogs, cats and pigs are reservoir hosts. Q. felin~ is highly endemic in cert~in areas of East Prussia, Poland and the U.S.S.n. It has also been reported from Japan, Indo-china, Philippines and Ind,;-PC1kistGn, but is not endemic in localities where clonorchiasis is prevalent. Stoll (1947) has estiQated that 1.1 million persons are infected, mainly in GQstern Europe nnd the U.S.S.R. ~ viverrini, first described from the civet cat (Feli~ viv£!!!ni) is an important parasite of men in Northeast Thail:lnd (Sndun, 1957) and l10stern Viet Minh (Bedier and Chesneau, 1924). Sadun has estimated that at least one-fourth of the total population of Northeast Thailand (1,500,000 people) are ir£ected, thus cre~ting a serious public health problem. Dogs and cnts are the reservoir hosts. Opisthorchis nove..!:£i;! iS3 rare parClsi to of mn in India, though it is fairly common in dogs and pigs (Bhalerao, 1931). Other opisthorchid flukes, which .:Ire rare parasites of man und are likeuise acquired through eating raw fish ere as follows: PSCUCkll)1.p'histomum i:1;:U1lca~B!ll occurs in Siberia, the reservoir hosts being the seal, cat, dog, fox and wolverine (Gulo boroglis). ItEtorchis orientalis is contracted f'rom eating the fish Pseudorasbora parva in Japan. lfu3torFhi~n~~~yus infoction is contractod in northeastern part of North AQerica from eating the coumon sucker (Catostomus. commersonii). An allied species, Me:~orchi§. fo;!.is. occurs in China but does not appear to have been recorded from men. llsLterophyiasis. The heterophyids ar~ S80ll flukes inhabiting the intestine of oon, fish-eating rnalTJ:lals cnd birds. Their life-cycle involves snails and fresh-water fishes as interQedinte hosts. They are particu18rly prevnlent in the Nile delta nnd the humid regions of the For &lst. Pr::!ctically all species are potential parasites of man; but fourteen havo so far been found in this host. Tilo of these, ~Q'phyes heteroPh.yes and Met.£.Igon~p~ yokogarlai, are the most important. Heterop~ heterol!hyes is fcirly COnlftiOn in Egypt, Palestine, Japan, Korea, central and southern China, Taiwan and the Philippines. The fish hosts are the mullet (M)lgil japonicus) Qnd Acanthogopius in JQpnn and M. ce'p'h,£I~' as well as Tilapin nilotica in Egypt. Tho snails involved live in brackish waters. Cats, dog,s,: foxes and other fish-oating monl'lnls are reservoir hosts. Metagonimus .Y,?kogawai is common in Japen, Korea, Tai.wn, China, Siberin, and Indonesia. It has also boen encountered in Pnlestine, Russin, Rumania and SpClin. The reservoir hosts are dog, cct, pig, tho ,:>elican cnd other piscivorous birds. The fish hosts are the salwonoid, Plectoglq~ altivelis, and the cyprinoids, B!.chardsonium hakuensis and Odontobutis Q.bscuru..s.. Other heter9Phyids of man, having n limited distribution in tho Far East, are asfolloVls: Heterophyes katsu!,~ occurs in Japan and uses the mullet as Its fish host. H.brevi£.9§.££ has been found in man in tho Philippines. llaplorchi§. taichui, and Jh ILumilo occur in Tai~·I:.n and the Phillipines. Their fiSh hosts are .Cyprinidne, Siluridne and Colitidae. Centrocestus fort1os~ occurs in Taiwan, the Philippines and IWriaii. There are a fOri other rare species described mainly from Taiwan. In their intestinal habitat, the heterophyid flukos hardly ceuse any symptoms unless present in large nillubers. In the Philippines, hm,ever, a general secondary invasion of the heClrt, spinal cord, brain and other organs has been

. .c

_

t

.lPR/VPH/26 Page 7

reported in patients· hart>ouring adult heterophyids. Apparently the avc gain access to the gener~l· circulation and invade the capillaries of various organs particularly the hen:rt-nnd br<;in. In these locutions they set up serious cardiac and cerebral lesions, chiefly haemorrhages and oade~. EchJlLostQpatid_infections. These flukes erG small and of low pathogenicity for men. TJelve species belonging to the gonera Echinostoma, ~~, Puryphostomum and Echinochns~B[ have been recorded from man, mostly in the Far East. Some of' them ooy be rJOntioned hero. Echinostoma ilocanum occurs in the Philippines, Celebes, J::va and China, in rnnn-;-dog c:nd rat. The first intermediate host is the small snail Gyraulus convexiuscul~, The second intermediate host may be any fresh-water snnil but human infection is derived chiefly from ~. This snail is eaten ra,1 by the inhabitants of Luzon, either directly from the shell in the field or with salt or vinegar in the home. £iQ!l.inosto~ revolu~ is a cosmopolitan parasite of ducks and geese but human infection has been recorded in Taiwan (2.8 to 6.5 per cant) and Indonesia. Snails are the second interr.lediate hosts also. Paryphos~ sufrart.yfex is a parasite of pigs in eastern India (Bhalerao, 1931) and is kn~Nn to occur in association with dropsy and anaemia in children in Assam. Fascioliasis. The ruminant liverflukes Fasciola hepatica and L gigantic.!! are capable of infecting man accidentally. The former is generally prevalent in Europa, America and the teuper~te parts of Asia. F. gigantica is wideepread in the warmer parts of Asia, Africa, the Pacific islands and central America. Snails belonging to the genus Lymnaea are the most importcnt interruediate hosts. Domestic herbivora and wild rabbits are important reservoir hosts. Human infection takes place through ingestion of infected water plants s e.g. water cress (Alicata and Bonnet, 1955; Stommermann, 1953) or water containing cercariae. Only sporadic cases occur' in Jil..an but in Q fe",1 areas (France, U.S.S .R. , Cuba) subst:mtial local foci have been detected. Since ova of these flukes may be passed in the faeces of uninfGcted parsons after eating infected sheep livers, care isnocessary in interpreting results of faec!?l exaD_ination. Jll.cll'ocooli.?sis. The small liverfluke of sheop and other herbivora, Dicrocoelium dendriticum is alnost coanopolitan in its distribution. Sporadic infections of human beings have been reported from several countries including China, Siberia and Turkestan. Curran and Feng (1930) deoonstrated eggs of this fluke in the faeces of rl:any persons in Shensi Province, China, but believed that most of them ".Vere cases of spurious parasitisEl. Tho life history of this fluke has recently been i10rked out by 'Krull and Me,pes (1951 et seg.) in the New York area. They found the first interE~diate host to be a land snail, Cionol10 lubri~, and the second host to be an ant, Formica~. Animals are "infected by swallowing ants carrying the metacercariae. The mode of infection of human beings is not" knm7n but it is likely to be similar to thnt for animals. Eurytrema pancroati.9_~, a· dicrocooliid paraSite of tho pancreatic and bile ducts of s'idna, cattle and buffaloes in the orient, Msbean reported once from man in China. The life history of this fluke and the mode of infec tion 3re unknown. Fasciolopsiasis. Fa§£io1.opsis p~, the large intestinal fluke occurs in pigs in China,Tairwn, Indochina, fhniland, Indonosia, Burma and India. RacentlY, i t was found in -.-dld boars (fu:lJl cristnt].!s) in West Pakistan (Abdussalam

,~

~·'PR/VPH/26

Page

8

and Amin, 1955). Human infection hus been reported from all these countries except ITest Pakistan but~le incidence is particularly heavy in Chekiang ahd Kiangsi Provinces of Chinu (Ilsli and Li, 1953) und in certain districts of Assam. Stoll (1947) estimated 10 n:111ion infections in the Far East half of which are in Chok:ang area only. It is highly probable that undetected foci of hUJfian . infoction exi:Jt in other cou'1tries ';Ihere tho infection is knOl'n from pigs and water plants growing in the habitat of snail intemediate hosts ure peeled with teeth or eaton raW. Such a focus l/OS recently found i::1 central 7b.ailand, where epic.emiologi0cl investigation:'! ,Iere carl'ied out follo:-ling the de:::th of a 15-yearold girl -.vho carriod over 500 cdul t F '- £.~!c.l. in l:el' Jm7els (Sadun, 1957). Thirteen per cent 0:: 1,563 persons eXc.miMJ in areas ',7here >later caltrop (Trar..a and Eichorniq sr.) :las common were found i.n.c'ected. The pravalence rate \las highest umor:.~ children 5 to 1/+ ;rearlJ old. 'i'he infected children admitted that they often' picked up ar.d ate fresh ~2ter caltrops on their TIay to and from school. In parts of China and I1:dia, the water chestnut (Eliocharis tuoorosa) is a similar source of ir~ectio::1. ;" heavily infected endemic arees, fasciolopsiasis'is an important cause of disease nod de::'.th. Animals other than pigs and ~ild boars are not import3nt as reservoirs of the ~c.r~site, though dogs are aecas ionall~T llii'ect.ed. ?a:r:"l\g~·LI:!te,~j,::... Tho lU.tlg fluko PnrLW•.£:Y\ll}Q~ ClP..:'1te.!.fJJ!J1.-i.. is vlidely but faeon:,' dis i:;riiJutec. in sovoral count,r.ios. In tID F:lr EE.St , it occurs in Siberia ,Japan, Korea, Manchul'ia, China: Tai';i,:m, Ind:J-China, the Philippines, 'Ih3ilad, Ma:t.Q3ra, Indonos ia, India, Hew Guir.oa, Sallioa and tLo So).omon Isl:lnds. It is also knoym .

from 0 fe,. arens in Arrico. and centre]. nnd south America. Apart frcn a snaIl; tho luilg flu.ke uses a' second inwrmediate hest which Bay be 0 crab or a crayfifc"h: In t;le Fa:..' Eat! t, crabs ofGhe genera Elioch.~i:r:, .!.~tomon and S3sillllEJ. and the . crayfishes Asto£.1d§. ,ioj?or",~ and A. sir,1ili[ are infected. Human infection results from eating infected crabs or Jrayf'is)19S particularly after soakingtharn raw in vinegar brine or wine.:il:ile the crabs ara killed by this treatment~ the rJe-",~cercarniae survive for several. hours and may be viable \·Ihen ingested. Ce,·tain aborigines . en"'; the idec 3ed crustace~ r::r.,. Stoll (1947) has estimated about 3 million cases of lung fluke in:'E>ction in £Wio. The anillUll hosts of the :.U:1g fluke include dog, cat, wild cat, tiger, fOX, marten, badger, mink, rat, m:l.skrat, weosel,opossmn, wolf, goat, pig, crab-eating Dongoose (Herpost9s ~) and tho Indian mC'ngoos9 (H. edwqr.£si). In man,tho fluke generally lives in . cystic cavitie-s in the lungs but, at t~':-.1es, it has u more generalizod distribution in V'l~"iOU3 organs of the body. Serious SymptOUlS are )roduced by the P3.ros::.tes located' in the brair., r:u'·i:.icularly in children CESTODA. -----Cestodes or tape',70ms nrehighly specialized parasites and use two 01'. Ulore hoets for their development. ,Species :which devolop as ndul ts in man spend their larval stages in food anioo13 (and some tape..... orns of carnivora infect lllll'n du.ring thei~ larval stages). They oro, therefore, important as Uleat-borne infections and their prevalence in r.ny population in connected ,71th their food hnbits. A' few others genel"2.1ly occur in monkeys, rodents, dogs and other an1mls and accidentally infect mn. ilith tho exception of a species of Hymenolepis they cause sporadic infections. 111e follouing infections r.1Qy be nentioned. TaeniaSiS,. The pork tope;wrn, ~ia>!olium, is cos[",opolitan ind:i.l'ltri+':'·· bt:tion an4 isparticul[lrly I?revalent "ilhere insufficiently cooked or processed'

wm/llPH/26

Piige

9

pork is eaten by man. In the Far East, it is common in Manchuria, North Ch,ina and eastern and southern.·lndia and does not occur in muslim conununities whddo not eat pork. Stoll (1$47) has estimated the number of infected persons to be less than three millions, half of them being ;in Asia. Faust (1949) considers this estimate to be 'Jultra c6tfscrvative II • The larval worm eaten with pork develops into an adult in about ttJree months and may live in the intestine for as long as 25 years. Human beings can also be infected with cysticercus if they swallow eggs of the worm harboured by themselves or by someone else. The cysticerci occur ,most frequently under the skin and in the brain. They may also occur in the muscles, the heart, the liver, lungs, orbit or the abdomen. When in the brain, the cysts cause symptoms of epilepsy and other nervous disorders (Bickerstaff, 1955). The beef tapeworm, Taenia saginata is considerably more prevalent than the pork tapeworm, stoll's (1947J est~ate of its incidence being 59 million persons, mostly in Africa and the U.S.S.R. The muslim populations of Asia are also fairly heavily infected and in the Far East it is much commoner than T. solium. Wu (1959) found an :i ncidencl'l of a .58 per cent' in 56,286 persons at Peiping, China. Cattle acquire the infection from grazing on ground polluted by human faeces containing eggs of the tapeworm. Eggs may remain viable on grass for eight weeks or more. Infection in water buffaloes is said to be much less than in cattle. Hydatidosis. The dog tapeworm, Echinococcus granulosus, uses sheep and other herbivorous animals in which the larvae (hydatid cysts) develop from eggs sWallowed with grass and forage polluted with infected dog faeces. Man can get' . infected with hydatid cysts by swallowing eggs of this tapeworm. Infection takes place during childhood but symptoms caused by the hydatid appear several years afterwards in adult life. The infection is cosmopolitan but more frequent in seme areas than in the others, e.g. in South America, Australia and New ZeaJ.iind, the Mediterranean region and 'V/'estern Indo-Pakistan. Stoll (1947) has estimated 100, 000 infections mainly in South America. In the temperate parts of Eurasia, Japan (Rausch and Yamashita, 1957) and in st. Lawrence Island, Alaska, another closely allied tapeworm (E. multilocularis) of dogs and foxes is prevalent. It utilizes microtine rodents as its intermediate hosts in addition to mrbivora and man. The hydatid produced is alveolar (multilocular) in type (Rausch and Schiller, 1956). (Hydatidosis 'is dealt with in detail in another paper p~~ . sented at this Seminar). Diphyllobothriasis. The broad fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum and relateiVspeciesare prevalent in the human populat1.ons of the northern temperate ZOlJes of)l.me,rica,EW'9P§l anGi Asia, where fishes from fresh:"'water lakes form an integral part of the diet. In the Far East, the infection occurs in Siberia, northern Manchuria and Japan. In the;; ,\varmer countries o~,this region, it is extremely rare. Several fish-eating mammals inclu<;ling d.ogs, cats, bears, seals, foxes, etc., are reservoir hosts. The ciliated embryophore, which hatches from the egg in water, develops in crustaceans to form a procercoid larva. In fishes, which feed on infected crustacea, the larva develops to form a sparganum or "plerocercoid larva". This is ingested by man and other mammalian hosts in the flesh of raw .or \lIld~,rcooked fish. The fishes involved are the pikes, eels, salmons, trout"ljiaube(r and burbot. In Japan, the rainbow trout and several other Salmonida~ a.ctas second intermedia. te hosts. Pollution of lake s with un;treated sewage and faeces of fish-eating mammals are important factors in maintaining infection in an endemic area. Sporadic cases outside endemic areas may be caused by the impartation of infected fish.

:-.r

wm/VPH/26 Page 10 Sparganosis. The plerocercoid larvae (spargana) of several species of dtpbyIlobotl1I'iid tapeworms have been fmUld in man. The adults are parasites of !IlalllllBls or are unknown. Most cases of human sparganosis have been recorded in the Far East. The adults of Diphyllobothrium erinacei and related species are found in dogs, cats and wild carnivora. Only the larva occurs in man. Other animals, parasitized by the larva are monkeys, pigs, weasels, hedgehogs, rats, chickens, snakes and frogs. Han and thes<J animals commonly beccme infected through ingestion of cyclops containing the procercoid in raw water. Human infection also results from eating raw flesh of the second intel'lOOdiate hosts (frogs, snakes, etc.) which, according to iTeinstein et al. (1954), is not uncommon in Korea. Infection may also be acquired by applying infected meat from the second intermediate hosts as poultices on inflamed skin or mucous membrane particularly the conjunctiva (Houdemer, 1926; Botero and Gomez, 1958). Hymenolefiasis. The dwarf tapeworm, Hymenolepis nana, is cosmopolitan in its distribut~on but appears to be commoner in warm cou,ntries. Heavily infected foci have been found in parts of U.S.S.R. (Samarkand) and Indo-Pakistan. Stoll (1947) estimates 20 million infected persons, 2/5 of them in Asia. Children between the ages of four and nine years are more commonly infected than other age groups. Rats and mice are commonly infected with the same species or a closely allied variety (H. nana var. fraterna) but opinions differ as to the extent to which rodents actaSSources of human infection. Experimentally, children can be infected with the murine species and vice versa but certain differences in the facility of development in the reciprocal host have been Observed. It appears that man is the chief source of his own infection, though there is epidemiological evidence that infection of murine origin also takes place. An allied tapeworm, H. diminuta occurs in rats, mice and other rodents but accidentally infects man and dog. This tapeworm uses several species of arthropods as its intermediate hosts. These include rat fleas, cockroaches and the meal-worm beetle which are liable to contaminate human food. Human cases have been observed in Japan, the Philippines, Indo-Pakistan, U.S.S.R. and several other countries. Dipylidiasis and other tapeworm infections. The dog tapeworm Dipylidium caninum is a cosmopolitan parasite of dogs, cats and wild carnivora. Human be~ngs, particularly children, are accidentally infected through swallowing dog fleas and lice whiCh are intermediate hosts. Bertiella studeri is a parasite of primates but has been f01.Uld in man in-India, Indonesia, the Philippines and ~lauritius. Human infection is accidental , and results from swallowing infected oribatid mites. Raillietina madagascariensis, a parasite of rats, has been occasionally found as an accidentai parasite of man . in the Phi.lippines, Thailand and Mauritius. I t is common in rats in northern Taiwan. cockroaches are believed to serve as intermediate hosts. NEMATODA Most of the large number of nematode species parasitic in man and animals are so host.'.specific that they are not interchanged j,n spite of frequent opportunities of doing so. Only a few (Trichinella, Dracunculus, Strongyloides, etc.), occur in many host species including man. Some species produce disease in man as erratic larvae though they are inc'ipable of attaining maturity in this host.

_,,~

~

wm/VPH!26 Page II strongyloidiasis. Strongyloides stercoralis is a cosmopolitan parasite of man, particularly in warm and moist area s --w.rtn poor hygiene. Its distribution generally parallels that of hookworms but it is rare in certain areas in China where 'hookworms are highly prevalent. Stoll (1947) estinates about 55 million human~l;:j:,ions in the world, of "fhich 21 million are in Asia. Man is believed to be the chit:Jfsrurce of his mm infection. Where conditions of moisture and v;armth are suitable, the worm can multiply in the soil, thus producing' enormous'numbers of larvae capable of penetrating the hunan skin. Certain primates and dogs are foum infected in the endemic areas but they are considered to ba ve acquired infection from human reservoirs. Related species of Strongyloides occur in dDm$stic animals but they are not capable of establishing themselves permanently in the human intestine • Trichostrongyliasis. The small bursate worm Trichostrongylus orientalis is a common parasite of the rural populations in the Far East. other species (T. colubriformis, T. probulurus, T. vitrinus, T. axei and others) have been fOUnd in man in varIOus parts of tEe world and are being encountered with increasing frequency in surveys of helminth parasites of man. Stoll (1947) estimated the world incidence of trichostrongyliasis at 5~ million human cases. Watson (1955) has raised this estimate to 58 millions on the basis of his awn eyperience and that of others since stoll1s 8stimate. He himself found 25.4 per cent of 555 persons infected in Basrah, Iraq. Human infection is apparently acquired by ingestion of greenstuffs and water polluted with infective .larvae derived from the faeces of herb;ivora which are t.he natural hosts. Infective ... stage larvae can survive on greenstuffs for as long as 15 months and withstand severe aridity. Herbivora are also readily infected with strains of human origin. Infections in man are generally light and symptomless. Other trichostrongylid parasites of ruminants which have been rarely found as accidental parasites of man are Ostertagia ostertagi, O. circumcincta, Haemonchus contortus and Mecistocirrus digitatus. The last named species is a fairly common parasite of cattle, buffaloes, sheep and pigs in China, Japan, Malaya, Burma and India, but has been seen once in human faeces in Hongkong. Ancylostomiasis. The two principal hookworms of nian, Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, have both been identified from dogs, cats, pigs, gorillas and other animals. Even if all these identifications are correct, animals do not appear to play any important p:1rt. in :,::.'; 'epic:i-3r:iology of the'3l:l infections in ran. Three species of anirrnl hook worms, A. brnzilienso, A •. caninum and Uncinaria stenocephala are infrequent or rare parasites of the human intestine but frequently cause local cutaneous reactions at the site of larval penetration. The larvae of A. brazilliense cause indurated reddish papules at the point of penetration into numan skill. In two or three days, narrow, linear, 'wavy, red tunnels, 1 to 2 mm in diameter, apparently produced by migrations of the larvae becOlOO prominent ("creeping eruption1l ) . The lesions itch, espt:Jciallyat night, and scratching may lead to secondary infection. The most common location of· these lesions is on the 'hands and feet, but they Jilay occur on any par}" qf the .body. They persist for weeks. Beaver (1957) has opined that the assWnption:thaFA. oraziliens.e causes creeping eruption is to be regarded as faulty unless further eyperimental proof is forthcoming.. These larvae dOtidtccausecreeping eruption inthc: skin of dogs, cats~ rats,'guinea';'pigs or monkeys, althoughnodularlesion~.are produced on the slO'ri" of'fuonkeys. Creeping eruption has been recorded frequently in the gulf states in'J .S.A. and probably occurs in the Far East and South America where A. braziliense occurs. Hunan infection is usuallycorrtracted, during;PQntact ofeXposed parts 'i'ir'Ehe body with moist earth or sand to which infected dogs and cats have access.

.....

WPR/VPH/26 Page 12 The larvae of A. caninum and Uncinaria stenocephala generally set up a transient inflaJJlllB tion of the skm with itching, induration and urticaria m 48 hours. The Ie sions do not show the lineClr tunnels of the creeping eruption and disappear within a few days to two Tleeks. Ancylostoma malayanum,a parasite of the Himalayan and Malayan .bears has been recorded as occurring in man. Ascariasis. Ascaris lumbricoides of roan and of the pig are marphologically identical and similar forms have been recorded from the muskrat (Tmer and Chin, 1948), squirrels and monkeys. There is experimental evidence to show that the human and porcine parasites are host specific races and the human parasite does not attain maturity in the pig. Cameron (1958), however, considers that in the temperate northern regions, where swine infections are heavy, the infrequent human infections are of porcine origin. Toxocariasis. The dog ascarid, Toxocara canis is a cosmopolitan parasite of dogs and the adult worm has once boen recora:ecr1'"rom the human intestine in Egypt. It is, however, more important as a human pathogen in the larval stage as· the so-called "visceral larva migrans". A very large number of ef:;gs are passed out in the faoces of infected puppies three weeks to siy months old. Counts as high as 15,000 ova per gram of faec3s have been recorded (Sprent and English, 1958). The eggs are highly resistant and may survive in the soil for years when fresh; thoy are sticky· and adhere to any objects that may come in contact with them. Thus, in a short time, tho surroundmgs of infected puppies (which may also be the human environment) become heavily infected. The embryo in the egg moults and becomes the second-stage larva. At tnis time, the egg is infective and may be swallowed by dogs or human .beings (children of dirteating age). The larvae hatch in the small inte:otine of the child and enter the blood. stream thus reaching the liver, lungs, brain and other viscera. In the tissues they start migrating causing large linear lesions. Ultimately, they become encapsulated in dense connectiva. tissue but ramain alive for two years or more. Beaver (1958) has studied in Singapore, a typical. case of a syndrome known since long as "tropical eosinophilia" and considers it to be identical with visceral larva migrans. This condition is not confined to children. Other species of Toxocara (T. cati and T. leonina) are probably also capable of causing visceral lesions in-man~--. Gnathostomiasis. ~'1.ostoma spinigerum Oc.curs in .the stomach of cats, dogs ..and wild feUnes in Japan, Korea, China, Indo-China, Malaya, Thailand, Burma, and Indo-Pakistan. Several -eases of human inf8ction.with illllll<!-ture worms are knovffi from the Far East. In the course ·of .its.development, thew<lI'rri-uti~ lises . two intermediate hosts, a Cyclops and a fish, frog or snake. The definitive animal hosts acquirs infGctionby eating th8 second interm.=diate host. l~an is probably infected in the same mamEr but the worm fails'. to develop to maturity. Human infection is also possible through accidental ingestion of. infected Cyclops. Gnathostoma hispidul)l,a parasite ~f swine and . cattle, qas been recorded once as a parasite of the sub"';cutis of man in Japan (~!orishita,1924). Dracuncuiosis. ·The guinea~wormDracunculus medinensis is a widespre~d parasite of man m Africa, western Asia and South America. Rare human infection has been reported from Korea and a case ina dog is known from China. It appears to be rare· in the Far East. S:weral specie s . of Cyclops act as .intermedia te hosts and human infection takes !)lace through ingesting tresecrustac.eans with ra.w water. Tanks and step wells are liable to get infected as affected hunians and animals can wade through them or wash themselves on the banks •.

, .. ""

WFR/VPH/26 Pctge 13

...

Trichinosis. Trichinella spiralis is a small nematode parasite of the muscles and ~ntestine ~h~ch is able to occur as larvu and adult in the same individual. It has a wide host range and occurs in more than 25 mammalian species. Human infection is generally contracted from pork. The infGction is cosmopolitan and particularly common in North America, the Arctic Regions and Europe. stoll (1947) estimated 27 million infected persons. The infection is relatively unimportant in the tropics and in the orient. R8cent work in Alaska (Rausch, 1953) has revealed the presence of Trichinella larvae in the flesh of several species of boreal carnivorous tnallUllals inclUding bears (Drsus and Thalarctos) which are eaten by the Eskimos. The larvae were also detected in white Whale and seals but these animals are not likely to be important as sources of human infection • Trichuriasis. The whipworm,Trichuris trichiura,is a cosmopolitan parasite of man Which is particularly abundant in warm regions with high rainfall. Its incidence generally coincides with t:1at of Ascaris, like which it flourishes in areas where untreated nightsoil is used as fertilizer. Trichuris trichiura has been reported from monkeys, lemurs and svvine but there is noevidence that these animals play any part in the epidemiolo~1 of the infection. other nematode infections. Capillaria hepatica, a parasite of the liver of rats, mice, hares, beavers, muskrats, peccaries and monkeys has been reported from man in India. Probably, the infection is not uncommon in rat infectedlocalities but is not easily detectable except on postmortem examination. The kidney worm of dogs and other animals,Dioctophyme renale,occurs in China, America and Europe. A few cases of human infection are known but the infection is necessarily rare. (This worm is the largest nematode knOwn and may attain a length of one meter.) Syphacia obvelata, an ~id parasite of the large bowel of rats and mice is cosmopolitan in distribution and has been recorded once from a child in the Philippines. Gongylonema pulchrum is a parasite of the oesophagus of ruminants. and has been found a few times under ~he oral mucosa in man. Dung beetles and cockroaches act as intermediate hosts. Thelazia callipaecia, the eye-'rrorm of dogs, cats and monkeys has be.en found in human eyes in China, Korea and India (Friedmann, 1948). A related species, T. californiensis has been reported from man twice in the United States. Physalopteracaucasica is a parasite of African monkeys and has been recorded from man in Africa and Caucasia. . HlRUDINBA In the warm, moist and afforested regions of the world, leeches are important parasites of animals which will r?Adily attack man. They may be discussed under the foll owing heading.s:

-

External hirudiniasis. The commonest leeches which attack man on the skin are terrestrial in habitat. They normally parasitiz3 forest mallUllals like monkeys, deer, etc. and attack themselves to moss, tree trunks, stones arid grass while waiting for their prey along jungle tracks. Human beings are attacked on the feet, legs, hands and other parts of the body while passing throu.ghinfQsted foliage. Bare areas of the akin arc attacked more frequently but they can bite through stockings and thin clothes. The bite is painless and is often detected only after the leech has engurged and left a bleeding puncture. The species of importance in the orient are: Haemadipsa zeylanica in Ind~Pakistan, Ceylon, .

.. .'

Wffi/VPH/26 Page 14

Burma and possibly Malaya, H. j.;lponica in Japan, H. talagalla in the Philippines and H. javanica in Indonesia:- Some of thac:e anrl other-species are serious pests in Inao:::China, Celebes, Borneo and Ne'·; Guinea. Some specie~ of aquatic leeches, ncmmally parasitic on frogs, fishes, tort.oises, etc., will attack man if he enters infested watEJrs. Internal hirudiniasis.. Aquatic leeches sometimes enter t!1e pharynx, nose and gem..to-urinary orifices of persons during drinking, wading or bathing in .infested waters. In southern Europe and north Africa, the species of importance in internal hirudiniasis of man is Lirnnatis nilotica It extends eastward through the Middle East into West Pakistan and S~nkiang, China. L. maculosa Occurs near Singapore and L. granulosa in India. The species commonlY-found in the upper air passages of animals and man ovor a large part of India and the Far East is Dinobdella ferox. Several cases· pf ~uman hirudiniasis have been reported from these regions WJ,thout id(mtifyingthe leeCh. ARTHROPOD.>\ Quite a large 'number of parasitic mites, ticks and insects are interchangeable , between vertebrate animals and man. Very often, these parasites attack man when he enters endemic areas or when the original host in the human environment is absent or dead. In some cases larval sta,c;es only attack man (chiggers, maggots, etc.). Very often, the arthro1)od parasites acquired from animals not only cause tissue damage and annoyance but also transmit pathogenic microorganisms. Evidently, such a vast fiold cannot be adcqu:lt0ly covered in the present review. Only the "highlightsll, with special referencQ to the oriental region and recent Ylork, will be mentioned. Harvest mites or chiggers. Of more than 700 or more species of trombiculid larval mites known, only 46 attack man or domestic animals. Many of the latter occur in the orient and a fmif transmit ttmtsugamushi fever or scrub typhus. The principal species is Trombicula akamushi and its variant which had been named T. deliensis. It is widespread from Japan to ihlv Guinea and westward t() Indo:'; P8:kistan. The, recorded hosts include dog, cat, cattle, insectivores, marsupials and birds but the 'prinCipal hosts in nature are rod3nts. In.·the river valleys Qf northwestern Honshu, Japan, species of Microtus and Apodemus are importl!-ntbut further south rats are the most important hosts. In Japan, the trombiculids are abundant in July and August and disappear with th" onsGt of cold in October. In Taiwan they are active for a longer period (April to NovembGr) and further south, nearer the equator, they are activetbroughout the y~ar, . their numbers decreasing only in the dry season~ In Indo-Pakistan and other parts of southern Asia, they are abundant in grassy areas at the eQgo:Qf forests and in abandoned cultivable land where rodents are numerous. Man picks up infection while passing through infested grass or when resting' on it. An allied species, T .scutellaris, . is believed to be the vector of Schichito fever which has been considered to be the mild winter form of'scrub typhus on' Izu Islands, Japan. Natural hosts of this mite are rodents and birds. In northern JaIan, the larvae· appear from September to November but in the Izu Islands its season extends from SGptember to Y'J8.y (Sasa, 1954). other important, species vlhich attack man in the oriental region are: Trombicula wichmanni, T. hirsti, Sch~ngastia vandersandei, S. schtlffneri, and Ne oschBngast~a americana. T'1oy cause dermatitlS but hiive nm so far been proved

I I

I I

II ,,

II

[I

,

WPR/VPH/26 Rage 15 to transmit any disease. Trombicula autmunalis and T. alfreddugesi, the two well known pest.. chiggers of Europe an<fAmerica do notseem to occur in the orient. For further information on chiggers of this region reference may be made to Womers1ey (1952.) and Wharton and Fuller (1952). Blood sucking mites. Several species of mesostigmatic (gamasid) mites parasitic on domestic birds and house-dwelling (domiciliated) birds and rodents, attack man causing painful bites and localised dermatitis. Some of the more common species are: Dermanyssus gallinae of wild and domestic birds,. Ornithonyssus bacoti (tropical rat mite) of rats and other rodents, O. bursa (tropical fowl mite) of dcmestic and wild birds, Laelaps jettmari of wild rooents in Manchuria, Korea and Japan, Haemogamasus pontiger of rodents in Asia, Africa and Europe, and Haemolaelaps ~lai3gowi of rats and mice in the Far East and America. The species occurring onLrds have been reported to harbour the viruses of arbor encephalitides and those parasitic on rodents have been found to carry infections of murine typhus, plague, tularaemia and haemorrhagic fever. The exact role of these mites in transmitting infections to man needs further elucidation. The mouse mite (Allodermanyssus sanguineus), however, transmits rickettsialpox to man in U.S.A. and the TJ.S.S.R. Recently, this mite has been found to occur on the black rat (Rattus rattus) in India and West Pakistan (Abdussalam, 1958). Itch mites or Sarcoptidae. Species of Sarcoptes closely allied to human S. scabies cause mange in domest2c animals. They may be physiological races of a-single species or closely allied varieties of it. Human beings develop transient scabies after contact with infected animals particularly camels and dogs. The. infection .disappears automatically after some time. Eyperimental transmission of the goat Sarcoptes to a human volunteer has shown that gravid females burr.ow. in soft human skin, lay eggs and cause localised scabies. The larvae that hat.eh are, however, unable to establish themselves on human skin and th3 l~sions' disappear in about three weeks when the adult mites originally transferred. )'lave ;. died. A similarly transient lesion occurs on human skin infected with Ndtoed,res. cati. The itch mites of man and animals have been reviewed recently by Dubinin "(I9b4) • Ticks. Except for Ornithodoros moubata which infests human habitations in parts of Africa, all tickS are primarily parasites of domestic and wild animals. They are only accidental p<;l.rasites of man, ~i,ho is attacked when he visits various biotopes like forest, bushlands, grasslands, banks of rivers and animal habitations. Some species (Argasidae) live in cracks and crevices of houses and come out at night to suck the blood of man and animals. They are vectors of such important diseases as relapsing fevers, tick typhus, Q fever.,. tick-borne encephalitides, haemorrhagic fevers, ColoradO fever, tularaemia, brucellosis and possibly anthrax. Their bites cause local dermatitis and sometimes toxaemia (tick paralysis). Some of the species which attack man in the ori.3ntal and neighbouring regions are as follovfs: Ixodes persulcatus, I. holocyclus,· Hyalomma excavatum and related species, Haemaghysalis bispinosa, RhiPicephalus sanguineus, R:--haemaphysaloides, Boophilus microplus, ,Ornithodoros tholozani Ornithodoros savignyi. Same of the faunal lists and descriptions of ticks in this region are: Indo-Pakistan (Sharif, 1928; Santos Dias, 1954), Burma~(Schulzi, 1959), Malaya and Borneo (Kohls, 1957), Indo-china (Toumanoff, 1944), Philiopines (Kohls, 1950), Indonesia (Anastos, 1950), Taiwan (Sugimato, 1957; Schulze,193S) andt~e U.S.S.R. (Pomerantsiev, 1950; Qaluzo, 1957).

-

aoo

I

I

WPR/VPH/26 Page 16 The bugs (Hemiptera). The family Cimicidae has about 40 known species of which two are commonly associated with man as bedbugs, Cimex lectularius and C. hemipterus. The former is t!18 bed-Jug of temperate area:s-aildthelatter of ~e trop~cs. It is not uncam~on to find both species in theaame country but they seldom occur together in the same house. These bugs can easily get established on colonies of laboratory animals such a s guinea-pigs and rabbits. other species of this family are parasitic on bats, and birds and some are potential feeders on man. Cameron (1958) has sugr,o:ested that the bed-bugs were also acquir~d by man from bats and birds. . The family Triatomidae has several species of the genera Triatoma Ei).triatoma, Rhodnius, Panstrongylus and Eratyrus which attack man •. ordinarily they infest burrows of rodents and armadillos, and chicken houses •. In the· :.:: absence of these animal hosts they enter houses and feed on man. They· hide· in cracks and crevice s during the day and feed at night. They transmit Trypanosoma . cruzi a.nd T. rangeli to man. The bite of some species is painful. Nearly all occur in tneAmer~cas but on species (Triatoma rubrofasciata) is found in SouthChina, Sumatra and Hawaii. Fleas (Siphonaptera) p..re scmewhat host specific even though they attack themselves temporarily to the skin of the host for feeding. They are generally numerous. on nest building rodents. Certain species attack domestic mammals or rats and mice and are cosmopolitan in distribution. Others are restricted to certain areas along with their hosts. Those which attack man in addition to animals are: Pulex irritans (cosmopolitan), Xenopsylla cheopis (tropics), X. astia (India, Burma, Ceylon), Nosopsyllus fasciatus (temperate zones, Mongolia, Asiatic parts of U.S.S.R.) and Ctenocephalides canis (cosmopolitan). Tunga . penetrans or the chigoe attacks man and other mamma1s in South America""'1'rOiii where it was introduced to, and got established in Africa. The adult female burrows in the skin and lays her eglSs there, causing painful sores and abscesses. The bites of other fleas are practically harmless for many Dersons but same are sensitive and suffer the formation of itchy, 8rythGmatous papules and even pustUles. It .is, of course, well known that fleas transmit certain microorganisms and helminths to man. Myiasis. The invasion of living tissues of man or animals by fly larvae is called myiasis. Except for a single species, thJ Congo floor maggot (Auchmeromyia luteola) which is confined to man, all the others known to attack man also attack animals. Indeed, most of them are more commonly parasitic in animals, which may be regarded as reservoir hosts. The flies that caUS3 myiasis in man belong to 'Several families of Diptera and ffive been described in a monograph by James (1947). Some of the mora common types of myiasis may be mentioned here. The tropical warble fly (Dermatobia nominis) attacks human beings associated vuth animals • .The femala fly deposits its eggs on mosquitoes, flies, ticks and other insects but particularly on the mosquito,P.sorophora lutzii. On c~ing in contact with human (or animal) skin the larvae hatch out of eggs, pcnetrate the tissues and remain in the subcutaneous tissue for about 10 weeks or less. They cause small swellings which itch. If crushed in situ allergic reaction may result. The ox warble larvae (Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum) as well as horse bots (Gasterophilus intestinalis, G. r)aSaIis andG. ffiemorrhoidalis) penetrate. the human shn and m~gratc ~n the Sub"":,cutaneous tISsue, thus causing a creeping eruption. The larvae of the shc8p and horse gad flies (Oestrus avis 2.nd Rhinoestrus

-

''t

"\!Tffi/VPH/26 Page 17 purpureus) maii11y attack the eyes of shephords and others associated with animals. The larvae burrow through the conjunctiva or the skin to reach the orbital fossa and sometimes even penetrate the eye-b~ll. Sometimes, the larvae are deposited in the nose and migrate to the naso-pharynx. Chrysomyia bezziana· is a calliphorine fly common in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions. In certain areas it is tha commonest cause of blown wounds. It also lays its maggots in thc nares, conjunctiva, ear or vagina. It will larviposit on living animals and man but not on carcasses.

-

Concluding Remarks In spite of host sp,~cificity being th3 general rule among animal parasites, man is subject to attacks by a number of importo.nt parasites of animals. A large number of them are darived from domestic animals particularly the dog and pig. Of the wild animals, rodents appear to be the most important sources of human infection. Quite a large nur.tb2r of zoonoses caused by animal parasites occur in the Oriental Region and the neighbouring areas of the Far East. Trematode infections, with schistosomiasis at the head of the list, appear to be quite prominent. In controlling these infections, the application of sanitary measures needs to be supplemented substantially by health education of the people. Many of the infections can be easily avoided by slight changes in food habits and cultural or agricultural practices. In other cases, the wearing of shoes or certain type of dress may be enough to ward off infection. The development of cheaper and more effective anthelmintics, molluscicides and insecticides will make the undertaking of mass control programmes possible. References Abdussalam, H. (1958). Froc. X. Pak.ScLConf., 3, 11 (Reprint). -- and Ami..'1, M.(1955). Froc. VII. Pak.sci. conr., ~, 8 (Reprint). Alicata, J .E. and Bonnet, D.D.(1955). Froc. H3lm.Soc.''rash., 23, 106-108. Anastos, G. (1950). Ent. Americana, 30, 1-144.

-"

Ansari, N. and Faghih, M. (1953). Ann. Parasit., 28, 241-246. Beaver, P.C. (1957). ~mer. J.Trop. Med. Hyg., ~, 433-437. Bedier, E. arrl Chesneau, P. (1924). Bull. Soc. Path. EYot., 22, 531-534. Bhalerao,

G.n.

(1931). Rec. Ind. Hus., 55, 475-482. ----~--~~~~.--

Bickerstaff, E.E. (1955). Brit. ~ied. J., Apr.,30, 1055-58. Botero, D. arrl Gomez, J.J. (1958). Amer. J. Tr0p. Med •. Hyg., Buckley, J.C. (1938). J. Helm.,. 16, 117-120 .

'!...' 597-59·9.

...

•

WPR/VPH/26 Page 18 Cameron, T .yr.M. (1956). Parasites and Parasitism~ London (1958). Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sn., 70, 564-575. Cobbold, T.S. (1896). Entozoa, London. Craig, C.F. and Faust, E.C. (1955). Clinical Pe.rasitology, Philadelphia. Curran, J.A. and Feng, S.T. (1950). China Med. J., 44,891-904. Davey, D.G. (1958). Amer. J. Trap. _Med. Hyg ., Davey, T .H. and Lightbody, l,!.P.].

-4. - "

.'

I

'2.,

546-553.

London.

(1956). The Control of Disease in the Tropics, --

Dubinin, V.B. (1954). Chestochniye Kleshchi (MangG Hites), EoscO';{. Faust, E.C. (1949). Human Helminthology, Philad~lphia. (1955). Infections produced by animal parasites, in Hull's Diseases Transmitted from Animals to Man, pp. 289-505, Spnngfie Id, I 11. Friedmann, M. (1948). Antiseptic, 45, 620-626. Galuzo, I.G. (1957). ArgasoVYe Kleschi (Argasidae) i Yikh epizootologicheskye Znachenye (Argasid ticks and their epizootological imy ort2nce). Alma-Ata. Heisch, R.B. (1954). Trans. R. Soc. ~op. Med. Hyg., 48, 449-464. Hoare, C.A. (1955). Vet. Rev., ~, 62-68. Houdemer, E. (1926). Bull. Soc. Path. Evot., 19, 802-804. HsU, ILF. and Li, S.Y. (1953). Thapar Commemoration Volumc, 133-138. and Hsu, S.Y.L. (1956). Amer. J. Trop. Mad. Hyg., ~,

II

521-528.

James, M.T. (1947). The Flies that cause Myiasis in Man. Washington, D.C. Dept. Agric. Misc. ?ubI. 651. Khalil, M. (1925). Proc. R. Soc. Med., 16, 1-6. Kohls, G.M. (1950). ThB Ticks (Ixodoidea) of the Philippines, Washington, D.c. N.I.H. Bull. 192. (1957). Malaysian Par2sites - XVIII. Stud. lnst. Med. Res. 1la1aya, 28, 65-94. Kuntz, R.E. (1955). Amer. J. trop. Med. Hyg.,

i,

385-413.

Latyshev, N.I., Kryukova, A.P. and Povalishina, T.P. (1951). Problems of Regional Gen. and EYD. P2.rasit. i\!ed. Zoo1., 7, 55=62 (In Russian) Ahst. i~ Trop. Dis. Bull., 51, 57-40. Le Raux, P.L. (1949). Cited by Craig "TId Faust (1953).

l,VPR/vm/26 Page 19 Li, C.H. (1957). Nat. Med. J. Chiw, 43, 515, 1957. 259,~265.,Abst.

in Chin. Med.,J., 75,

Martins, A.V. (1958). Bull. Ylld.Hl~.Org., 1'8, 951~944. Mapes, C.R. (1951). Cornell Vet., 41, 582';'452. (SeG also several subsequent articles in the. same journal by Mapes and Krull, and Krull . and 1laP0S on the development Dicroc,oelium dendriticum.) ~orishita,

K. (1924). Ann. Trap. Mad. P2.rasit ." 18, 25~26.

McMullen, D'!3. and Harry, H.W. (1958). Bull. ;~!ld.Hlth.Org., 18, 1057~1047. akoshi, S. (1958). Rep.,Conf. Reg. Parasit. a.I.E. Alllk'l.~Ata. No.25, 1~7. Oli"ier, L. (1955). J. Parasit., 59, 237~246. Pesigan, T.F.,Fa;ooq, iI., Hairst~n, N.G., Jauregui, J.J., Garcia, E.G. Santos, A.T., Santos, B.C. and B'3sa, A.A. (1958). Bull. "'l1.d. , .~.Org., 18, 545~455 •. Pirena, C.F. (1954). Arch. Venez. Patal. Trap. Parasit. Med.,~, 89:-1~a. , Abst. in Trap. Dis. Bull., 52, 881. Pomerantsiev, B.r. (1950). Iksodoviye Kleshchi (IYodid Ticks). Fauna of U.S.S.R., Arachnida, 224 pp. l!osccnv. . .

.

.

!,

. ,-

Rausch, R. (1953). Froc. XV. Int. Vet. Congr., 1 (2), ·1165~71.

-

.

and Schiller, E.L. (1956).

Parasitology, 46, 595-419.

and Morishita, J. (1957). Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash., 24, 128-155. Sadun, E.H. (1957). Amer. J. ~rop. Med. Parasit., ~, 416-422. Santos Dias, J.(;..T. (1954). An. rnst. ;·!Ied. Torop. Lisboa, 11, 561-459. \

Sasa, M. (1·954). Jap. J. S2-nit. Zool., ~, 255-25l. Schulze, P. (1955). Zool. Anz., 112, 253-257. (1959). Zeit. Parasitenk., 10, 722-728. Sharif, M. (1928). Rec. Ind. Mus., 50, 217-544. Shikhobalova, N .P. (1955). Gelmintosi obshchiye cholaveku i zhivotnym (Helminths common to man and aninals), Moscow. Sprent, J.F.1\.. and English (1958). Aust. Vet. J., 54,168. Stemmermann, G.N. (1955). Amer. J. Path., 29, 751-753. Ab.st. in Helm. Absts., 22, 458. stoll, N.R. (1947). J. Parasit., 55,1-18.

.. Wffi!VP!fJ~6 Page 20 SugimGto,'M .• (19.37). J. Cent. Soc. Vat. Med., 50, 303-540. Tiner, J.D. and Chin, T.H. (1948). J. Parasit., 34, 253. Toumanoff, C.

(1944). Les r.iques (Ixodoidea) de l'Indochine, 220 po, Saigon. ~1ed.

Van Hoof, 'L. y Henrard, C. and Peel, E. (1942). Rec. Trav. Sci. !" 53-68. Varma, A.K. (1955). J. Ind. }~ed. Ass., 25, 175-175.

Congo-Belge,

Walton, B.B., Bauman, P.M., Diamond, L.S. and Herman, C.M. (1958). Amer. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., Z, 605-610. Watson, J.M. (1953). Parasitology, 43, 102-109. Weinstein, P.P., Krawczyk, H.J. and Peers, J.B. (1954). Amer. J. Trop; Med. Hyg., ~, HZ-li9. Wharton, G.W. and Fuller, H.S. (1952). A Manual of the Chiggers, Mem. Ent. Soc. Wash. No.4, 185 pp. Willet, K.C. and Fairbairn, H. (1955). Ann. Trop. Med. Parnsit., 49, 278-292. !lfomersley, Ii. (1952). Rec. S. Austral. MUS., 10, 1-673. 1'1right, 1!J'.H. (1947a). Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 48, 553-574. (1947b). Nat. Inst. Hlth.Bull., 189, 1. (1950). BulL '.""ld .Hlth .Org., ~, 581-595.

II ,I

Wu, L.S. (1939). Chin. Hed. J., 55, 561-565.

• WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION REGIONAL OFFICE BUREAU REGIONAL SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC DU PACIFIQUE OCCIIENTAL

WPR,/vPH/27 27 April 1959

,

,

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

ENGLISH ONLY

l·

THE AR?rlROPOD-BOR}~ VIRUSES (ARBOR VIRUSES)

By Wtasami Kitaoka,

M.n.

Department of Virology and Richcttsiology

National Institute of Health

,-

r,. The Arthropod-Borne Viruses (Arbor Viruses) By

WPR/VPH/27 Page

1

Masami Kitaoka, M.D. Department of Virology and Richettsiology National Institute of Health The arthropod-borne (arbor) virus is, needless to say, transmitted by infected blood sucking arthropods, such as mosquitoes, sandflie S, and ticks. The arbor viruses were isolated from mosquito, tick, man and other vertebrate and have not yet all been assessed as producers of severe disease for vertebrate hosts including human-beings. HOWGwr, any warm-blooded animal become a host provided the voctors mentioned :lbove have, more or less, zoophilia for it. In other words, birds and animals, wild or domestic, would be infected by feeding of the vector which may afford to produce specific neutralizing antibody against the virus in toom. The senson of the disease being prevalent is closely related with the climatic factors, especially optimal outside temperature, high or moderate, and moisture 1'ihich the growth of vector and the virus in its body would be enhanced depending on its ecology. No direct evidence, however, has been' given for virus to pass to the nen generation of vectors transovarial infection in mosquitoes. They may beccme infected while taking blood meals from infected vertebrates at time of viremia. Japanese B encephalitis virus (JBE),. for 2yample, could be isolated from mosquitoes collected in natUre in pre-epidemic and epidemic seasons but not in non-epidemic season even i f the possible persistence of virus in masked or latent state in the vector could not be denied in non-epidemic so~scn. There is no more dOUbt about the arthropod-vertebrate cycle of the virus in epidemic season. However, the qU2stion as to where the source of virus is or l'Ihat kind of hosts the reservoir is tO'infect the arthropod in pre-epidemic season have not YGt been completely nade clear. The another cycle such as hird-arthropod cycle has been proven for arthropod-borne encephalitis virus such as western equine encephalitis virus (WEE) to persist in nature. Namely, it is said that wild and domestic birds are the principal reservoirs of infection, and nan and horse are incidentally attached by infected vector in the United Stntes cf Anericn. By the way, a migratory bird might playa role to carry the virus into non-endemic aral's far from a certain endemic area • ,

I

\d

r

. ..,

,

At the present time more than 70 agents are assigned to the arthropodborne virus group, and many investigators are discovering new ones one .after another, particularly in tropical zone. They are classified into group A,B, C and Ungrouped, by m.mns of hemagglutination inhibition (HAl) test according to Dr. Casals' system, the Rockefeller Foundation, New York. The accompanying table indicates, the group of those viruses so far known, their geographic distribution, arthropod of vectors and principal vertebrate hosts (draft of classification of arbor viruses issued from the Rockefeller Foundation). Of those known, approximately 20 appear to be of public malth importance. The diseases are called on the bnsis of species of the vectors to be mosquitoborne and tick-borne viruses respectively_

1~tlPfl/:27 Page :2 Mosquito-borna viruses Of the mosquito-borne viruses the equine viral encephalitis group (Eastern, Western, Venezuelan), st. Louis, and Murray Valley encephalitis Japanese B encephalitis group produce typirol cerebral symptoms to give ~ group of acute infianmetory disease, involving parts of the brain, spinal cord and meni~ges with variation in severity and rate of progrGss, that is, acute onsot, h1gh fevor, meningeal signs, stupor, disorientation, coma, spasticity, tremors, convalsions and som.JtillBs fie.ccid paralysis in hosts af'tar fed by infected mosquitoes. How,:;ver, it should bo anprosized that t"'3re are many subclinically or inapparently infected hosts aftor 8yposed to risk of infected vectors bGcause of positive antibodies being detected on sera of them. Those viruses have been shawn to be cC'.pabla of infecting birds, and it ap~ars likely that tho basic cycle by which they survivQ is a wild bird-mosquito cycle and that many marrnnals can be infected by marrnnal-mosquito cycla in an endemic area. For example, men, horses, cattla, pigs, goats and dogs wera found to be susceptible for JBE virus in nature. Saasonal occurrence of case incidence: Though all of arbor viruses are not known to be pathoganic for vertebrates, that is, to produce manifest infection, the seasonal occurrence of case incidenco among vertebrate hosts was observed almost parallel with these of th,:; V0ctor clos.3ly related with climatic factors, especially outside temperature and moisture in an endemic area. In temperate climates the daily case incidence indicates a sharply delineated seasonal distribution lasting for certain period. For example, JBE is used to break out in Japan in summ~r season, lasting apprOXimately for 40 days, usually, from the middle of August to the end of Septcmber, and incidentally from the end of July to the beginning of Septemb0r accompanying large epidumic or from tho beginning of September to the middlG of Oct ober. Th0 large or small epidemic does not mean its long or short duration but the high or low height .of its peak. It should be pointed out that the close relationship was alvmys recognized between seasonal OCCurrenCG of Culex trita"miorhynchus, a vector of JaF6nese B encephalitis virus, and those of c~se incidence in Tokyo and Okayama. At any rate, it is very important to know the ecology of each of arthropods in endemic area. Geographical distribution: The geographical distribution of arbor viruses is to be determined either· by positive isolation of the agent from vertebrates or arthropods, or by confirmation of case incidence by mGans of specific immune reactions, or by autopsy findings, or by immune state, that is, recognition of positive antiboiies, especially ncutralizing ones because of its persistence for long period against the arbor virus on sera collected not only from inhabitants but also from animals and birds, domestic and wild, in the area to be surveyd. For avampl.::, sera WGre colle cted from inhabitants and domestic animals in various spots in Far East and tJsted by means of neutralization test against JBE virus by using mice. As a result, it was found that the tropical district, such as Java, Sumatra and tha Philippines are slightly, and th,3 subtropical and moderate zones nrc more or less severe endemic. Only the districts giving the average SUJl1lll8T temperature balow about 25 eC such as the northarn part of Hokkaido of Japan are practically free from the disease. R,:;cently Malaya, Singapare and India arG found to be endemic of Japanese encephalitis by isolation of the agent ,from both the patLmts and tho mosquitoes collected in nature. Furthermore it is intoNsting to notv that according to the results obtained test on

~ I I

I

, I I I

JI

-

..

• wrn./VPH/27 Page 3 sera collJcted from nativJs .?nd horses :111 ovC}r Hokkaido, the most north island of Jape.n, the island can be divided geographically into three areas, non-endemic, sub-()ndemic and endemic of Japaro so encephalitis loc<'.ted from north to south in order. Such a geographical distribution can be assumed to be due to the climatic factors in each arJD.s. By the way> the sub-endemic aroa means that some of natives have, to some extent, positive neutralizing antibody but no manifest infection has been rocognized there. A group of mosquitoes, C. pipions var. pallens, experimentally infected with JBE virus were divided Intos""8"V8ranes£" series of which each was kept at various temparaturcs from 15 0 to 3S oe, in order to knmv how the temperature did influence upon the infectivity of tha mosquito. As a result, 2 of 8 series which were kept at 18 0 - 25 0 c and 3 of 8 serias which were kept at 150 - 22 0C were not proven to become infectious while all series which were kept at 27 0 - 310C and 28 0 C - 3S oC separately b0came inf3ctious aftJr the erlrinsic incubation wriod shorter than those of the former series kept at the lower temperature. By the way it seems vory likoly that the JBE virus may multiply in salivary gland with certain extrinsic incubation period, compared with daily occurrence of LDSO of each emulsion prepared from each of midgut, lmlpighii canal, salivary gland and the whole body of mosquitoJs after eXpGrimentally infocted. Outbreak of epidemic: Tho outbreak of epidemic among vertebrate hosts would depend upon at least two main factors, one being infectivity of the vector and the otmr being resistance of the host to infection, especially their immune state. The formor was proven to be influenced by the climatic factors and th3 latter was given through the infection of the virus in the epidemic season. Isolation, identification and classification of arbor viruses: Materials to be tested for virus are blood samples, spinal fluid, tissues of CNS and spleen of autopsy materials,mosquitoes, -ticks, sandflies and so on. If blood was taken at time when the viremi2 ,vas gone and inoculated into experimental animals the virus isolation would result in negative. In general, mice, especially baby mice are used for virus isolation. Hamsters and other rodents are proven to be suscoptible for c.Jrtain virUt.les. ~'ortilG eggs, especially one-day eggs are tried to inoculate the tost sampl,s. In order to identification and classification of new isolate, h3magglutination inhibition test (HAI), comploment fixation test (CFT), nButrnlization test in mice, adult or baby, in tissue culture by using certain tissue c,311s or cell line which are proven to show cyto-pathogenic (Cp) effect after inoculation with the virus, or in one-day eggs if killed after infection. It is worthy to note that all strains isolated from JBE cases have been provcm to be not tha same and that a strain has been attermated through serial passaga in one-day eggs. Control: Preventive lIDaSUr0S are carriJd out to eradicato the mosquitoes, to cut the chain of mosquito-host cyclj and to immunize hosts with vaccine. For this purpose, destruction of larvae and elimination of breeding places of thJ vector mosquitoes, spraying or dusting of mosquiticido in space of human habit2. tions, screening of slcGping and living quartars, prevention against attack of the mosquitoos by using repcllentfor skin or clothing and vaccination are recommended. As for the vaccination against JBE, the vaccine should be prepared and assayed according to tho minimum requirement issued from the H. & W. Ministry, the Japanese Govcrnmlmt. It should be kept in mind that such vaccine

•

wm/VPH!2'7 Page

4

might have possibility to induce the demyelinization aft.:!r inoculated repeatodly whatevor it may be proparod from the supernatant of 2% infected mouse brain which is provGn experimentally not to induce demyelinization in guinea-pigs. Tho vaccine has certain potency against intracerebral challenge in mice and it might reduce the morbidity rotG roughly half or onG third among vaccireted group compared with those among non-vaccimted. For example, 17 cases wero recognized among 550,616 vaccimted while 155 casos among 1,018,284 non-vaccimted children under 10 years old, in Tokyo, 1956. On the othor hand the vaccination in horses in Japan in 1948 and 1949 was statistically evaluated as to be effoctive. By the way, in horsos, for Eastorn and W"storn equine encephalitis, excellent results in preventing losses are obt2.inGd when formalized chick embryo vaccines are given annually. Tick-borne viruses The Russian spring-sumlll2r encClphalitis, louping-ill, Oms~: hemorrhagic fever and Kyasanur forest disease are known to bG transmitted by tick. Th:; first two diS:Jases givG encophalitis symptoms End tho first on3 gives rise to so flaccid paralysis as poliomyelitis whlL: tho latter two show fever accompanying hemorrhagic symptom. In thu v.3stor ticks, transove.rial transmission of the virus has been demonstratod and therG is nc difficulty in e~'1:Jlaining eyistence of the virus in naturo. Han and dol'D stic animals bocom3 inf:;ctod when they enter the known end.:.mIic for0st wh.:.:.:re tho: v3ctor ticks 2.1'0 1:Jre ..-alent. Outbreak of milkborne disease have been reported in contral a.nd north-eastern European countries which might be due to rmv milk contamirn. ted with tho virus from infoctJd goats. J.. certain infect'ld vnld anil!l2cls and birds might playa role as a reservoir to give thu virus to normal tick colony, and th2 virus might be distributed from endemic area to non-end'lmic. Control: According to th'l ocology of tick the control of tick-borne encephalitis is easier than those of mosquito-borne. Dusting insecticides such as Dill or B.HC, and applying insJct rop0110nt on the ezpos2d skin combined with wearing clothing impregnat2d with insect ropullent have been found to bo effective. The formalized mous0-bre.in vaccinJ havo been proven to be effective for a certain worker heavily exposod to infoction.

lrJORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ~HE WESTERN PACIFIC BUREAU RE~IONAL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL SllUNAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan

NPR/VPH/28 22 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

20 April - 1 May 1959

-

...

REPORTING SYSTNq ON ANIMAL DISEASE IN JAPAN by

Kogi Saito,D.V.H., D.A.S.

,'-./

\

WPR/VPH/ 43 PllucJe 1

Reporting System on Animal Disease in Japan, by Kogi Saito, D.V.N., D.A.S. In order to prevent and coinbat disease effectively, it is essentialt() hav", an effective method for ascertainin:-r its incidence and progress. For this end, the Domestic Animal Infectious Disease Control Lm~ provides for two types of reporting (Article 4 and 13), placing an obligation to the owner of animal concerned or veterinarian who attended the caso. First type of r3portin~ is the notification on death case of animal. In case animal died of any disease whatever the cause is, an obligation is placed on the owner to notify without delay the mayor of the city, town or village on this effect. The annual report is assembled by the Ministrv of Agriculture and Forestry through the channel shown in the following chart. Minister of Agriculture, and Forestry i

GovernOD of Prefecture

'f (2) Animal Hygiene Service Center " (2)'

I .

Prefectural i 1 - - ,Mayor of City, town veterinary inspector! (2) i or village -~-.-

..

--

--

---

; (1)

Owner of animal -/

Note:

(1) immediate report (2) Monthly report (3) Annual report

Law Art. 4, para. 1 Reg. Art. 2 Law Art. 4 Reg. Art. 4 Reg. Art. 20

WPR/VPH/28 Page 2 Second type of raporting is that for thJ main infectious disaases which are listed as reportable in the Law. The "Official Disaas,e" as mentioned in the Law means the infectious disease listed in the left column of the following table when contracted with the species of animal mentioned in the corresponding line of' the right hand column.

------ . -Kind of inf'ectious diSeaSe 1 2

----

----Cattle

-

Species of animal

Rinderpest Contagious pIe uro-pne umonia of' Cattle Foot and mouth diSease

Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Swine

3

Cattle, She0p, Goat, Swine Cattle Cattle, Horse, Sheep, Goat, Swine Cattle, Horse, Sheap, Goat, Swine Cattle, Borsa, She.;;p, Goat, Swine Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Swine Cattle, She3p, Goat, Swine Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Swine Cattle, Goat Cattle, Hor30 Cattle, Horse CattlG Cattle Horse Horse Horse Horse Sheep Sheep SHine

4 Enzootic bovine fever 5 6 7 8

Enzootic encephalitis Rabies Anthrax Blackleg Haemorrhagic sept icaemia Brucellosis TuberCulosis Piroplasmosis Trypanosomiasis

9 10 11

12 13

14 Anaplasmosis 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Trichomoniasis

. PseudO-farcy Equine infectious anaemia Equine paratyphus Sheep pox Scabies Hog cholera

Glanders

., 23 Swine erysipelas Swine Chicken, Duck Chicken, Duck Chick8n, Duck Chicken, Duck Honey bee -

WPR/VPH/28 Page 3 I

24 Fowl cholera

25 26 27

Fowl pest Newcastle disease Pullorum dise ase

"

-~

28 Foul-brood -

.

-~.

---

The report ofan officially reportable disease shall provide the minimal data of the name and address of the reporter (veterinarian) as well as that of the owner of animal, diagnosis, species, rex, age, date of onset and of diagnos1,s. Veterinarians are required to rJport all reportabl" diseases which come·· to their attention under the risk of penalty provided in the Law when they failed to do so. The report is forwardad to the Hinistry of Agriculture and Forestry through the channel shown in the following chart. There are two ways of forwarding a report from pr3fectural government to the Ministry: one by telephone, telegraph or other rapid m8ans, another by most practical means of ordinary mail. The rapid means is indicated to reporting of such a disease as Rinderpest, Bovine pleuropneumonia, Foot and mouth disease, Enzootic Gncephalitis, Glanders, Sheep pox, Haemorrhagic septicaemia, Pseudo-farcy, Hog cholera, Fowl cholera, Fowl pest, Newcastle dise.a83 o,nd tho first recognized ca·se of other reportable diseases. Reporting of all other cases not mentioned above is to be forwarded by ordinaIJ:' mail.

,

..

ltlPR/VPH/28 Page 4 International, Organizations i ~.-----.. - - - - Wf!.~~ _FAO, _.~:rE. : Foreign countries; .

.. , 1 -..

I

oth~r"I~stituti~ns-! concerned :

Ministry of Foreign Affaires ,-

-. -- ------ --

.

Public announcement )

1 I

-·---··-_..l-·-·- ....

'[' (2)

Governor of other I prefectures con- I cerned ! .'

.---.

r Public announcement

Animal Hygiene Service : Genter j 'i'( 2) !

! Mayor· of city, town

(.(2)1----..0:- ~il1a~~ . __ \ Ii'

.J

;~ -M~~rs-~f n~ighb~r-l rl·

ing Cities, towns L~d vill~ge ~_. .

i

I

(1) 1----- .............. - . . . .

;Veterinarian or owner of! ; animal : _..... _--.. _. _ .-..-J.

Note: (1) (2)

Immediate report Immediate report

·Law Art. 13, para. 1 Reg. Art. 22 1m; Art. 13, para. 3 Reg. Art. 24, 25, para. 2 Law Art. 13, para. 4 Reg. Art. 24 and Art. 25, para. 2 Law Art. 35 Reg. Art. 42, ~ara. 2

(3)

Immediat" and monthly raport Annual report

...

• WPR/VPH/23 Page 5 Ministry of Agriculture after assembling all the data forwarded by the local authorities makes summarization and return raport at national level, and return it back to the local authorities weekly or monthly so that they are well informed of prevailing dis3asa in its own area as well as in whole Japan and are in position to make use of the extensive knowledge and facilities in the whole organization. Finally, Ministry is also responsible to make an immediate, monthly or annual report for certain prescribed diseases to the international organizations such as ({HO, FAO and OlE to be distributed to other countries for the purpose of exchanging information on animal disease in world wide basis.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION REGIONAL OFFICE BUREATJ REGIONAL FOR D'J

ORGANISATION HONDIALE DE LA SANTE THE WESTERN PACIFIC PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL WPR/VPH/29

SEMINAR ON VETERINARY P'JBLIC HEALTH

'i!1 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

PROPHYLAXIS AGAINST IEPl'OSpmOSIS IN MAN '''lITH VACCINE by

Masami Kitaoka, M. D. Departm;;nt of Virology and RickGttsiology National Institute of Health

11lffi/VPJf/29 Page

1

PrDphylaxis against Leptospirosis in Wan with Vaccine by Masami Kitaoka, M.D. Department of Virology and Rickettsiology National Institute of Health The case incidence of leptospirosis would occur in a ch~in

of at least

:3 factors, the ecology of the carrier or spreader of the agent, the environment, that is, mode of infection for the agent to survive or to grow in outside, and

the susceptible host to be exposed to risk of infectiol'. The preventive measures against the disease are undertaken on the data obtained in those :3 directions. As for immunization of the susceptible host, it has been said that there is none of established value in vaccination against the disease. Contrary to such a conception,vaccination has been found to be as effective in Japan as in Italy, Spain and U.S.S.R. Consequently the vaccine should be prepared and assayed according to the mininrum requirement of leptospirosis vaccine issued from th:J Health & Welfare Ministry of the Japanese Government, and it can be used for certain occupational workers and farmers working in the known endemic area if necessary. It should be pointed out that the vaccine to be used has to contain all of the leptospira serotypes which are found to be the causative agents in the endemic area to be vaccinated. In other words, the vaccine should be prepared by using the serotypes of leptospira recovered from the spreader in an endemic focus. Otherwise it is not expected to be effective, such as in case of influenza vaccine. lMell prior to preparing the vaccine to be used, the survey should be done on how many and what kinds of the serotype of leptospira are prevalent in the area to be vaccinated. In the past, more than 100,000 people were vaccinated in charge of certain occupations or working in the known endemic areas who were heavily eyposed to risk of infection, and the case incidence decreased markedly in number after vaccination. However, it was difficult to evaluate the results statistically because the number of non-vaccinated or placebo group were not significant to compare with those vaccinated. At any rate the fundamental studies on a potency test of vaccine will be reported. The tables 1, 2 and :3 indica to the potency test of the vaccine in guineapigs. From the table 1 it is obvious that the supernatant of the culture media, but precipitate of leptospira body has no antigenicity protective against a challenge with roughly 100 MLD. And the vaccine should contain at least 50 leptospira per dark field (Leitz, object 1/12, ocular 1) and not be reated at 1000C for 50 minutes. Compared with agglutinin responses of each other, following subcutaneous and intradermal inoculations with the vaccine into volunteers, there "WaS no marked difference between them, but less response was

• f Wt'RIYPH/~9._ Page 2 ~.\

i

observed in the subqutane ous group with 0.1 ml than in those with 1 .• 0 ml (Table 4). Furthermore in order to produce detectable agglutinin in volunteers, the vaccine should contain more than 25 leptospira per dark field (Table 5). No side rea ction was observed in volunteers after vaccination. The vaccine is prepared from leptospira body collected by centrifugation to separate the culture media rich in protein probably incriminated as a cause of side reactions.

., i II i

,

f

I

,

I I ,

,

II

!!

II II -'1 I

!

j

, '.

WPR/VPH/29 Page

5

Table

1

potency of Vaccine Fractions by Centrifugation Supernatant and Sediment. Nurnb3r of Leptospira in Vaccine and Its Potency. Sediment Dilution 200/D.F .•

Challenge

*

Inoculated --.~

G. P.

10-1 lcc J.P. (10% infected liver emulsion)

x 10

- -.. -- -------0/5 0/5

5/5

(all survived)

x 100 10-2 control Icc

0/5

1/2 Supernatant Original x 10

10-1 lcc

0/5 -.--

0/5

x 100 ..- - - . ~

0/5 10-2 lcc

r

I

0/5 1/2

~ *

Control

10-2 lcc

Challenge dosis: liver emulsion.

10-1 , 10-2 and 10-5 dilutions of 10%.infected

First and second shots with 1.0 ml subcutaneously 7 days apart.

**

Numerator: No. of surviving for 14 days. Denominator: No. of dead of leptospirosis.

Wffi)v~/29 Page 4 Table 2

...(~'

Heating temperatl,U'e

Potency of Vaccine Heated at 60 0 and 1000C. - .-.-----._---- --ConcentraBody Virulence of i7eight tion of challenge vaccine of G.P. Leptospira 590 560 420 560 400 570 560 550 550 450 550 400 450 410 580 400 580 360 410 550 400 580 500 410 550 290

Result

50jF*

4 died in 7 days 1 survived 10-1 lcc All died in 7 days. I.P. (10% infected liver emulsion) 4 survived 1 died in 9 days 1 survived 5 died in 7 days, and 1 in 8 days. ~

l00QC 30 min. 25/F

~

50lF

60 0C 50 min. 25/F

"

10-2 Icc 10-3 Icc

All died in 6 days. All died in 8 days.

Control

* 50/F:

50 Leptospira in one field of vision.

•

• 11t I'

Wffi/VPH/29 Page 5

Table Concentration of Leptospira in Vaccine and Its Potency

------.Heating temperature

Concentration of vaccine

Body

weight ofG.P. 400 590 400 590 340 580 375 520 505 550 415 510 580 570 580 520 505

Virulence of challenge Leptospira

Result

lOO/F

All survived.

so/F

10-1 lcc (10% infected liver emulsion)

6 survived. 2 died in 7 days.

425 505 25/F 550

555 570 555 350

1, 2, 4 and 1 died in 6, 7, 8 and 10 days.

450 450

Control

450

10-2 lcc 10-5 lcc

2 died in 6 and 7 days respectively. Each one died in 7 and 8 days respectively. 1 survived.

340 370 570

"" -

•

WFR/VPH/29 Page 6

-(; Table 4

Comparison of Agglutinin Production between Subcutaneous and Intraderma 1 Vaccination in Volunteers Route & dosiS* Subcutan. Name of volunteers Titer of aggl. test 1 2 5 4 after injection 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 40 20 20 20 20 0 20 20 20 20 40 20 40 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 ,0

before 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

kSide reaction we" s

r.M. Y.Y.

1ml once

H.M. H.M. S.P. N.Y. K.H. M.M.

'0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -------

Subcutan. 0.1 ml twice

M.N. N.J. S.T. O.Y. K.M.

Intraderm. 0.1 ml twice

O.r.

S .1: •

* Twice

7 days apart.

~

• '1t

,

Wffi/VPH/?9 Page 7

Table

S

Relationship between Agglutinin Production in Vaccinated Volunteers and Number of Leptospira Bodies in Vaccine No~

of lept.

Name of volunteers K.M.

before 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Titer of aggl. test Side reaction 1 2 S W 4 ee ks later 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A.H.

lOO/F

F.J. T.D. S.D. Yf-N. N.T. K.M.

40 80 20 40 80 0 20 20 0

20 80 40 40 40

20 40 40 40 40

SO/F

T .H. S.T. K.I. W.N. K.B. O.G.

0 0

0 20 0

25/F

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

K.C. N.N. 10/F K.G.

S.T. K.J. lOO/F:

0 0 0 0 0

per dark field (Leitz, object 1/12, ocular 1).

•

• WPR/VPH/: page 1 THE VETERINA.RY SCIENTIST AI'ID CARDIOVASCULAR RESEAH::n

It is one of the curious paradoxes of modical research that animals have served as a medium so often for the experimental production of disease and so seldom for the observation of spontaneous disorders. Perhaps more so than others, cardiovascular researchers· have leaned to this one-sided approach, devising all manner of intricate mechanisms for deforming heart valves, for inducing a.therosclerosis ,for raising the blood pressure by neural, renal, or adrenal means, for thrombOSing blood vessels; have even lIaged" animals artificially by ~hole boqy irradiation. They have succeoded in mimicking many human lesions, but hml often have they truly duplicated thom~. Or duplicating them, does such artificial reproduction approach a solution of tho mysteries of etiology, and is thore any purpose in contriving a cure for a disoase that perhaps has no independent existence?

A fathomless reservoir of comparative anatomy, physiology, and pathology is "oi ting almost unsounded in the animal world. Why has it scarcely been tapped? The natural history of this state of affairs can be told: In a rClpidly increasing population, the prime need has been for a food supply expanding at an equal pace, and the most important source of that food supply is animal. For oconomic reasons it has been necessary to oradicate infectious diseases from herds, to improve tho quality and the yield of animal products, and to maintain sound lines of breeding stock. For utilitarian reasons, tho veterinarian hashed to devote himself to the acute disoases of domestic animals, to keep them healthy for the slaughter, for breeding and reproduction, and for their products~ lIe has accordingly made great strides iii the prevention C'.nd therapy of infec tious diseases, in t;le promotion of growth and nutrition, and in. the symptomatic care of the more fortunate small ~nim31s, the treasured llpetsll. But there are fe7J places in man's 1'Iorld for the chronically sick or salvaged elderly animal; and chronic dise3ses and met~bolic phenomena--with which cardiovascular research most concerns itsolf--have been rolatively neglected qy veterinarians. Nith the state of affairs being what it is, the National Heart Institute has, in its grants for veterinary rosearch, made a surprisingly good showing. Review of some of tho work in progress under Heart Institute support is a stimulating exporience. AI though a relatively small number of grants have been aI,arded for veterinary and comparative resoarch, there exists in. these a variety, depth, and significance unich bode good fOr future activity.,

....

SOine samples of basic comparative studies receiving mII support: The anatomy of the coronary arterial tree in large domestic animals; histologiC and in vivo observations of tho endothelium of peripheral veins in various vertebr:::tes; dynamics of invertebrate smooth muscles, ·"hich have properties rendering themsnitable for study by sensitive striated r.1uscle technics; the. distribution of ectopic lymphoid tissue in senile c.nimals; species differences in the terminal respiratory passages; the physiology of pregnant sheep and goats; the uterine vasculature and normal reproductive· cycle in hamster,rat, monkey, and man; closure of the ductus arteriosus in newborn lambs, utilizing dye dilution curves and cardiac output. Although much of this work is intended primarily to provide ne~J knowledge and tho· dcto. obtained may have practica;L application only as a basis for future studies, the implications here for an understanding of human embryology and evolutionn~T trends, for improvements in

¥IPR/VPH page 2 surgery, and for progress in the field of Clging are cle2.r. A knowledge of the structure 800 functions of lower animals often places man in his prop3r FGrspective; and the recognition of species vClrintions helps explain differences in response to diseases and drugs ;!i thout ;-lhic11 the results of animal experimentotion cannot be tro.nsli terated into hunan terms. The generous n"tural background in,l11ic11 animal lif(3 is distributed provides innumerc:blo opportunities for ev~:1t::.2ting climc~tic and environmental influences, forming a basis for comparisons under cO:1trolled laboratory conditions. Samples of such studies receiving National Heart Institute support: A. comparison of thj fluid compartments of terrestrial Lmd amphibious vertebro.tes; of salt and "utcr metabolism in tho SOc" gull and other merine birds ':1110 secrete a concentrated salt solution in their nnsell gland; oxygen secretion in tho fish S;lim bladder; circul~.tory physiology of the octopus, whoso closed orteri2l system has many similarities to that of ~~mmals; the circulation ~nd conduction syster of -:-jhCile h8'lrts; the physiology of species adapted to desert conditions; stress ond survival in nntural populations of birds ane, mannnls; adaptation to climatic stress in colonies of fo'"l in a high altitude station; the relationship of inactivity and cr~~ding to the developmont of crtorial disease in captive \1ild animals; the influence of cold environments and I 0;19 red body temporatures on various hibernators and nonhibornators. There are the beginnings of important:iOrk in genetics. ',;orth ',latching is 3 correlation of the endocrine ::Ind cnrdidc pnthology of bovine d';Jo'rfism, an. inheri ted recessive trait of Herefords, in a herd of d~;arf Cll ttle. ThG sccleless mutant found in a Nei! Ibmpshire. breed of domestic fowl, an autosomal recessive l1i th abnormal epiderr.:is and,u reduced ability to vii thstand hypothermiC stress, has roen developed into n flock of naked birdS, the only one of its kind in the 'i/orld, used for studies of the genetic ::ll1d physiologic asp>cts of ndaptationto environment 3nd to thermal stress in successive generations. The national cardiovascular primnte rGseClrch st3tion that is being 2stablished under National Heart Institute sl.cpport 'Iill not only serve as a finite community for long-term studies on long-lived animals closely allied to man, but will provide subjects wi th controlled genetic background for breeding Gxper:L;'onts. Not to be forgotten are a group of projects concerned 'nith animal products having as much significance for humar. m3dicine as for il:dustry. T.io of them deal ':lith alterations in the lipid content of CO':i'l:; milk under vorious conditions of feeding and \lith chemic·~l chO,nges in milk Lts created by vnrious :)rocessing methods; and the third '.lith dietary aHere. tion of tho cholosterol content of hen's eggs. At a time <;hen public concern over t:,e possi')le relationsilip botrieen fat in the diet and atherosclerosis may be rosponsible for Q decrease in the annual per capita consumption of eggs from 400 to 370 over a seven~year period, such studies can be a v3luablo guiJo to the processor; but they also serve to extend our oosic kno;-:lodge about the chemistry of important food substances nnd about the physiology of lactation and egg production. Conversely, it is interesting to speculate as to 'whether an NHI-supported investigation of blood flow through tho mammry gland of gods and of the relationship bet\Jeen mammary circulation and metabolism to milk production 1'.'ill have greater significance for our general kno'lledge of pregnancy nnd lactation or for the dairy industry.

WPR/VPH page

3

Research in diseases. to './hich animals arc subject is not only o~ economic import.:mce'. Such resoarch, whon it concorns mal::ldios common to an~mal and man, may provideconsiderablo elucid8.tion of th€) same disease in humans ; and when itconcerns'discases apparently peculiar to the species under obs~rvation, may yield unsuspocted amilogies to a rolated human lesion. Investigation of natural disease in an animal community has distinct advantages ovor such an approach in a human populQtion:' its oXperiraental counterpart can often bo induced in the same species; and the unaffocted controls can be sacrificed during or at the termin':!.tion of the study to confirm their "normalcy". SamplGs of Heart Institute-supported research on naturally occurring animal maladies with i:trong implic2tions for human medicino: Dirofilaria immitis infestation in dogs, which producss an obliterating pulmonary endarteritis, cor pulmonale, and chronic pulmomry hypertension; dissecting aneurysm of turkeys, a disease to which the largest and healthiest birds of a flock succumb and an important commercial problem in some areas, under study at two centors; a correlation of spontaneous' atherosclerosis with blood pressure in chickens; interrelationships of blood pressure and renal, ,vascular, and valvular disease in dogs; potassium metabolisrr: in dogs wHh,m:!turally occurring congestive heart failure; high mountain disease in cattle, of potential economic importance, associated with pulmonary thrombemboli, emphysema, Clnd cor pulmonale; streptococcic bacterial ondocarditis in chickens; a naturally occurring nephrosclerosis in populations of 'iloodchucks; the relationship of mineral deficiencies to "quick death" or, "falling disease" of cattle, '<lho at postnortem exhibit heart failure and myocardial degeneration; cardiac lesionsassbciated ':lith brucellosis (which the investigator' feels may be the responsible agent in some human cases of rheumatic heart disease)' in cattle hearts obtained from the slaughter house and in hearts of animals autopsied at a large zoo, many of ',1hom uill have died of "na. tural" causes; gra:'Jth, development, and senile changes in the dog and hog from birth to old age, perhaps one of the first such surveys to be performed on domestic animals. The detailed description of these studies nOH in progress makes fascinating reading. Yet further commentary hardly seems mandatory, for evon the skeleton listing presented above reads like a researcher1s dream. Impressive in scope as it is, this current NHI-supported activity in veterinary cardiovascular research hardly scratches the surface of our ignorance in these matters. Amazing and often unanticipated similarities and differences exist bet':leen animals and humans. Until recently the differences have received more attention than the resemblances , because differences are inclined in general to be obvious and self evident, ;'Jhereas similarities are more subtle, require elaborate comparisons, deliberate observation,the elimination of superficial obsonringdisparities, and patient research. For example, the list 0'1: diseases knor:n to be common to man and a t least one species of lower animals is already a long one:; but rlho actually can estimate its true length, for how many species and subspecies have never been examined at all, and how many human diseases have never been identified as such 'ahen manifested in animals? Audas concerns the many diseases. prevailing in one or several species for ,/hich no counterpart may ever be found in struc'turally similar species, 'i7hat more faSCinating parlor game than speculation o.bout--and \Ihat more fertile avenue for research than investigation into--the re3sons for this selectivity?

I~ I' I

w"PR/VPH . page

4

a ll,m~ted var1e~y ?~, amrals l.n, a synthetic stylized environment 'ilhich sharply ::estrl.cts, the Sl.gm.l.lc::mce and lnterpretation of results, are actually in their lnfancY--l.n fact they have hardly boen born. Cannot the resot:rces and facilities of veterinary medicine, the clinicQl kno'·lledge of veterinarians and their scien~ific herita~e that has made such progress in p.:!r<lsi tology, imm~ology, and genetlcs, be appll.ed to research that will not only h.:l','O immediate economic and hUJDanitarian benefits in the sparing of animal lives but will assure untold side benefits of more enduring effect and applicotio~? Is it really true th3t the chronic cardiovascuiClr diseases so ubiquitous in humans ate so rare in anirr~ls, or has poverty of interost created this impression? In the world of speechless living creatures how often is cardiovascular disease recognized before death occurs, and after death, ho-:I often has it mattered? Is it possible that uncoverinG such disease in aniwals has no importance to the livestock industry? A.re the 'cleak, the sick, tho stillborn animals in the herd or flock to be regarded as discards rather than as a potential source of valuable information? ' rlhy is there so much controversy concerning ',!hat ',!ould seem to be relatively simple facts? For examrle, is there such an entity as canine ~rteriosclerotic heart disease? There has beer, an impressio;1, based on a fe'.] surveys and on the resistance of canines to experimenbl diet-induced atherosclerosis, that the dog '.11th this disec:se is a ~ £Qnis; but some of the studies outlined above are beginning to dispute the rcrity of atherosclerosis in the dog. Probably too fe,'] breeds in too fe':! places have been studied, and a parallel is immediately apparant in the varying incidence of human atherosclerosis throughout the countries of the Horld. If susceptible breeds of dogs can be singled out, will not controlled feeding experiments in carnivores offer better nalogies to human variables than the usual laboratory studies in herbivorous animals? If .the lipid content of milk and eggs cc:n be influenced by diet, what about the lipids of meets?

sug~e~ted the?selves, b~t suc~ studies, performed lJdnly in the labor::! tory on

: Intriguing possibilities for comp~rative c2,rdiov2sculc.r studies hc.ve

f I

I

I

Has c.dvantage been taken of the f'.ct that tho rolctively long life of domestic and. probably of many YJild animals brings them closer to the hum.::!n span than short-lived laboratory animals? The elderly breading or sh0\7 animal or ancient household pet--who has been allowed to live for sentimental or hum.:mitarian or other reasonS--\90uld seem to be a natural for comp:::rotive studies in aging, as muchS 0 as the human inraa te s . of old age homes. A.nimals like huneUS are subject to r:sychic and emotional stresses; the cat ',!ho lives in a tense household is apt to be c tenso c~t. Anim:!ls are responsive to social pressures, to the drives of rank and competition, to the forcos of population density-a wide,- open field for studying the role of stress in hypertenSion and arteriosClerosis. \Thile size in itself !:lay seem at first thought to offer no great advant!lge in visibility in this er::l of electron microscopy, may not the size . of the larger animals have much to offer rJhen it is a question of demonstrating the gros,s anatomy or pathology of the lesser blood vessels, such 0.3 the cerebral and peripheral, or of developing no',' surgical technics on small structures? Is it not possible to develop a systOl':! of referral ~,hGrotw tho veterinary di~g­ nostician 'iJould provido aninals ;"lith spontaneous diso::!ses as subjects in human cardiovascular laboratories?

II II

11

11

· . ' ,

;U'R/VPH page 5 And .vhat of the organization of kno·.11edgo in comparative pathology and medicine: the scattered observations still uncorrelated, the gross pathologic specimens still unsectioned, the microscopic slides still unstained or unstudied, the established laboratories unvisited ~ the untrained, the symposia of accumulated kno~ledge unconvened, the atlases of comparative anato~ uncompiled, the articles of interest to the veterinarian lost in the general scientific literature, the monographs on animal diseases unwritten, even unc once ived? This is only a fragment of what remain:> to be done. The natural history of animal diseases should be ;,ritten and the initial documentation of data should be performed by the specialist, the veterinarian, followed up '.Ii thout delay by comparative animal:human studies performed by teams of veterinarians and M.D.ts working in close collaboro.tion. There is a tremendous need for training veterinarians in cardiovascular research methods and goals; with this specific purpose in mind, research training programs might be established at veterinary medical schools, ;·lhere apprentices could make contact ':Ii th creative minds in a stimulating environment and receive guidance from competent and experienced teachers. Interest in comparative anatomy, physiology, and pathology should be inculcated in students at our veterinary and human medical schools, so that the graduates of both are prepared to join forces at the research level. It is no longer--if it ever vJas--to tho advantage of either veterinarian or· M.D. to go each his separate vlay, any more than it is for clinician to walk apart from basic scientist, or chemist from physiologist or pathologist. We are realizing more and morc that nll knowledge is a part of and contributes to all other knowledge and that "hat is good for the part of knooledge is still better for the ·,1hole. James H. Steele Voterinary Director Chief, Veterincry Section Communicable Diseases Center u. S. Public Health Service

'4t

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZitTION

ORGANISATION I-DNDIA.LE DE 11.\. SANTE

. REGlml.'J, OFFICE FCE THE 1'iESTERN ?i.CIFIC BUl\ShU REGIONh.L DU R.CIFIQUll: OCClDENTi"L

S:t:lmAR ON VETERmARl" PT.lBLlC HEAL1H

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 }lJ,ay 1959 '41

15 April 1959 n'EH~

liarE ON BA.CKGROtlND lfl.TERIA.L FeR VARIOtB AGENDA.

All participants will receive severalvm;O/FAO technical publications which contain ll£terial on almost all subjects to be discussed in the seminar. In sane instances e. particular technical publication w.Lll be the on13' working document for the sEJllmar. The following technical publications, working docwoonts and reprints have been issued in reference to the Egenda item to be discussed:

Inter-relationships of human and animal health and disease

WPR/VPH/l - by Dr. steelo Advisory Group on Veterinary Public Health, IlIO TRS III 2

Potential contributions of comparative medicine to human problems of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, metabolic disorders, and radiobiology Contributions of veterinary medicine to human medicine Comparative medical research and chro¢c diseases of Studies in cOmparative medicine as a veterinary public-hesith .activity - WfiR/'tFtI/1 Veterinary medicine and radiobiOlogy - WPR/VIH/lO Advisory Grmlp on Vetcrine.ry Public Health, i\lfiO TRS III aniJllaJ.s '

'".

i'iffi/V:m/2

.

3

Control of food and products of animal origin of importance in the_ transmission of diseases i'Ionograph "Meat Hygiene n , Publication No. 23 EXpert Committee on HeatHygiene,l'l10 TRS. 99 Expert COl1lII!ittee on Nilk Hygiene, vEO TRS 124 Japar~ese

Vetorir..,Jry Publio JIoclth LogislationThe Sl[lUghtor-HollBo Lr.w and ?,ogulction - l1PR/VP1I/18

3.1

Epidemiology of food.oorne diseases

W?1i/VPH/2b - by

wmlvPH/6

- by ;)r. Kaplan .DJ,-. Abdussal';71

•• .• 2

- 2 (

3.2

Specific control measures of milk, meat, fish, and processed food An outbreak of a peculiar disease affectin~ the central nervous systan caused by an unkrown agent in the fishing districts of Hinamata City in KUmamoto prefecture - WPR/VPH/4 Hygienic-bacteriological examination of prepared foods - WPR/VHI/8 The spoilage of fish and the examination of fish - WPRjVm/9' Japenese Veterinary Public Health Legislation The Food Sanitation Law - HPR/VPH/l. 7 The Alinistrial Ordinance regarding the Ingredient Standards etc. Of Milk & Dairy Products - wpR/VPn/20 Specific control measures of other animal products Specif'ic control measure s of animal products other than for consumption - WTR/VPH/ll Japane'se Veterinary Public Health Leg:Lsla:tion ; The law relatin g to the processing plant of dead 'animals and others ~ t-.r:?R/V:?H/l5 :',.)

3.3

3.4

Administration of food hygiene programmes

WPR/VPH/6 -Dr. Kaplan See references under 3

4.

Veterinary public health practice

4.1

National, prOvincial, municipal and rural organization and administration ot: veterinary public health Advisory Group on Veterinary ?ublicHealth, WHO TRS III Japaneses Veterinary Public Hdalth.Legislation The Domestic Animal Infectious Diseases Control Law - WPR/VPIVl6 Reporting" of. animal diseases including zoonos os Joint WHO/Fb.O Expert Committee on Zoonoses - VlIO/loon/61 Advisorv Group on Veterinary Public Health, \oliO TRS III

4.2

WPR/VPH l 23

-Dr. Griffiths

4.3

Veterinary education in public health - undergraduate and postgraduate . ?rogramme of a complete cours e in food hygiene and food cont;rol far public health veterinarians - Wffi/VrtI/5 Education in veterinary public health - lrl?R/V?H/12 Advisory Group on Veterinary Public Health, ioffiO TRS III

'"

•••3

•

'lit

- 3 4.4 Ecology and emerging zoonoses Joint l'lliO/F1O Expert Committee on Zoonoses - WHO/Zoon/6l Significance of ecological studies on the wild animal reservoirs of zoono ses - WIR/VPH/13

Advances in the control of specific zoonoses

5.1

ludmal tuberculosis 1~

Joint WHO/F.AO Expert Committee en Zoonoses - l~O/loon/61 tuberculosis Epidemiological aspects of tuberculosis control l~cr.oG~C:ph _"Advances in the Control of Zoonoses ll , WHO TRS 19 'JPR/VPH!25 -by Dr .)riff'iths

5.2

Rabies Annals of medicine - too incurable wound Recent development in the epidemiology of rabies Rabies and rabies control Third report of EKpert Committee on Rabies, WIO TRS 121 Monograph "Advances in the Control of Zoonoses", WID TRS 19 Monograph "Laboratory Techniques :in Rabies", WHO TRS 23 Japanese Veterinary Public lfualth Legislation _ The Rabies Prevention Law and Regulations - i{PR/VPU/19 Arthropod-borne viral infection Joint WHO/Fl;O Expert Conunittee on Zoonoses - WHO/Zoon/61 ii'H./Vt>,{/22 -bY '-'r. :.iriffiths -by ;)r. Kitaoka

5.3

5.4

Brucellosis

~JpJ.~/"T i'l/ 27

Third Report of Expert Committee on BrucellOSiS, WID TRS 1.48 WHO TRS 19 5.5 Salmonellosis Joint WHO/Fl.0 Expert Committee on Zoonoses - WID/loon/6l

5.6

Lept os pirosis Joint WHO/FLO Expert Committee on Zoonoses - WHO/Zoon/61 Epidemiological Patterns of Leptospirosis Technical Program of tho Interprofessional Symposium on Leptospirosis The epidemiology of leptospirosis in the tmited States with special reference to wild animal reservoirs - WPR,IvrtI/14 Study Group on Diagnosis and Typing in Leptos pirosis, l'lliO TRS ll3 ;t"lc/Vn.j21 _ by ih-. Ymnmoto

... 4

- 4 5.7 Anthrax ,i'

WliO/Zoon/61 WHO TRS 19

5.8

Hydatidosis and other parasitic zoomses

WHO/Zoon/6J. . ;'JPR/vP'ii26-bj Dr. Abdussa.lim

6.9

Zoonoses of.1el3ser importance

WHO/Zoon/61 Survey of l.nimal

Rin~rm

in the lliited States

Mis cell ane 0 us :

,.

.

'IF

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION REGIONAL OFFICE BUREAU REGIONAL SEIUNAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL WPR/VPH 18 April :}.959 ENGLISH ONU

INFORMATION BULLETIN NO. 1 1. Attached please find: (1) List of Participants List of Consultants and Discussion leaders

(2) 2.

The Seminar takes place, 9:00 a.m. - 12:00 noon and 1:00-4:30 p.m., at the Institute of Public Health: Address in English: Telephone: 39, 1-chorne, Shiba-Shirokanedai-machi, Minato-ku, Tokyo

44-7111, extensions 43 & 44

Attached please find instructions in Japanese for the taxi driver. Attached please also find agenda and time-table. The consultants, discussion leaders and administrative staff of the Seminar have offices at the IPH{9n thefirst floor (ground floor), to the left after you enter the main door.) 3. Transportation Private bus placed at our disposal by the IPH: leaves hotel at 8:30 a.m. sharp for IPH ,

...

leaves IPH at 4:30 p.m. for hotel If you miss the bus, please take a taxi. The drive takes about 25 minutes and the fare by no or I80 small taxi is about :t'220, one way.

4.

Coffee bre aks The coffee will be served during the Seminar discussions seSSions, once in the morning (10:30-10:40 a.m.) and once in the afternoon (2:30-2:40 p.m.)

5.

Lunch As the IPH is in quite some distance from downtown, and the restaurant facilities in the neighbourhood are not very adequate, the lunch will be

- 2 If

served at the IPH by a concessionaire at Tl50 per cover. For the conveniency, the money will be collected from each of you during the bus trip to the IPH in the morning. (Please prepare for small money). This cannot be cancelled at short not~ce, and we are committed to the concessionaire. Therefore,we regret that you will have to be charged even if, for some reason, you cannot take llUlch anyday. Documentation Same of this had been sent to you. If this did not reach you, please contact Dr. Shu. He still has a limited sUPP4r. The rest of the documentation will be distributed to' you as it becomes available. Attached please find a note on backgrolUld material for the various agenda items. 7. Questionaire Even if you had filled in the questionaire and sent it to Manila, very few reached Dr. Shu before he left Manila for Tokyo. Therefore,please cheok with him.

8.

Evaluation Attached please find evaluation form. Kind4r fill out and hand it to Dr. Kaplan at the end of the first week of the Seminar.

9.

Reception of the Minister of Health and Welfare. Business suit. Enclosed please find the invitation cards.

10.

OVer-night field trip, Atami-Hakone Wednesday, z:} .April is a Japanese national holiday. An over-night field trip has been planned. In order to avoid p~ing for hotels both at Tokyo and Atami, kindly pack, give up your room and check out of the Dai-Ichi Hotel early in the morning of Tuesday, 28 .April. Checking-out t:ime is ll:oo a.m., but you will be leaving the hotel at 8 :30 a.m. that morning for IPH and will not be returning during the day. You can leave at Dai-Ichi Hotel the suitcase(s) not needed on the trip. The WHO will p~ for the bus. You pay 'your hotel bill (Y1250 per person, two in a roam) at Atami and for your meals. A collection will be made to pay for the services of a guide (approx:imately 'Y'219oo to be shared by all those going on the field trip)

ll.

Arrangements for travel home Attached please find form. Kindly fill out and hand. it to Mr. Watanabe by the end of first week. A representative of the travel agency designated by the Ministry of Health and Welfare will be at IPH during the llUlCh recess on Monday 27 April to collect your tickets, passports and health certificates in order to confirm your flight or to try and arrange a more desirable flight. However, this service will be arranged only when

.. ,..

- 3 -

you gave the filled in fonn to Mr. \>latanabe in the first week, otherwise you are requested to arrange your return travel by yourself through the Branch of Japan Travel Bureau at Dai-Ichi Hotel. On the day of your departure; you can give up your room earlier during the day, and leave your luggage at the hotel check-room near the reception desk. Will you yourself arrange limousine transportation from hotel to the airport? 12. Financial matters Please contact Dr. Shu. He will be away from Tokyo, 6:00 p.m., Tuesday, 21 April to 8:00 a.m., Thursday, 30 April. The Japanese host government has nothing to do with your per diem allowances.

13. 14.

Please give us the number of your hotel room and notify us ii' there is any change. others Since the IPH is the training institute for the Japanese health workers from allover the country who is nothing to do with our Seminar, you might have some dii'ficulty in obtaining correct information at the IPH. Therefore, for the convenience of you people and the Japanese Seminar staff, you are requested to wear identii'ication ribbon in the following manner while you are at IPH.

•

(1) (2) (3)

The pink/white ribbon

Consultants, discussion leaders and operational officer

The red ribbon -- Participants The blue ribbon -- Japanese Seminar Staff (Mr. Watanabe, his assistants, typists and secretary) The yellow ribbon Japanese Seminar Staff understand English wo may not

(4)

Dr. C. Y. Shu, WHO, WPRO Mr. Ko Watanabe, Office of Liaison Ministry of Health & Welfare Japanese host government

.-

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

ORGANISATION MONDIAlE DE LA SANTE

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC BUREAU REGIONAL DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL SEMINAR ON VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

WPR/VPH/m/2 22 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959

INFORMATION BULLETIN NO.2 A.

Financial Arrangements (1) Expense for lunch at IPH:

As we announced in the first day of the moeting, you are requested to pay in advance lump-sum lunch expense at the IPH, 150 yen a day, totalling 1,350 yen per 'person. (You will not take lunch at IPH on the 25th, 26th and 29th) (2) The hotel charge for Atami/Hakone tour:

Since we have committed hotel reservations at Atami for the night of 28th, all of you are requested to !BY the hot,al charge in advance (at the hotel, you have only to pay the meal costs; the transportation fare will be wholly payed by the WHO). As we informed in our previous Information Bulletin No.1, it is 1,250 yen per person (2 persons at one room). (3)

The guide expense for Atami/Hakone tour: It is 220 yen per person.

'(4) The group photograph which was taken just after the opening session of the first day will be available to you all at the latest by the 30th of this month. It is 80 yen per picture. (5) For convenience, you are kindly requested to pay for those expenses mentioned in items (1), (2), (3), and (4), totalling 2,900 yen at the desk established in the dining-room of the Institute during lunch hour of~ 23rd. B. Operetta ,Show Invitation:

Reference is made to the daily programme of the Seminar, un-numberd document, dated 18 April 1959. Although it is stated that you are invited by the Japanese Society of Veterinary Science for the operatta show ~n the evening of the 27th (Monday), it should read lIinvitation by the Japan Veterinary Medical Association ll • Our sincere apology goes to Dr. Yuichi Ochi, who happened to be the president of both organizations. Enclosed you will find your invitation card for this programme.

....

WPR!VPH!TB!2 Page 2 Please note that you are not going back to the hotel after the session at !PH. Instead, you are leaving the Institute at 4~00 p.m., by bus dir~ct to·the Main Office of Japan Veterinary Medical Association, where the light suppor will be servod for all of you, and then go to the Kokllsai Theatra by the ~azae·~Dlla •. The show starts at 6.)0 p.m. and ends at about 9.)0; the"return bus to the hotel will be also provided.

" 0 R L D

H E A L T H

ORGIL\TIZATION

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

R:,GIONAL OFFICE FOR T!E'JESTERi~ P,.CIFIC BUREAU REGImEL DU P;\CIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL SDUNAR Ol! VETERINARY PUBLIC IffiALTH ~-JPR/VPH/IB/3

23 April 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

Tokyo, Japan 20 April - 1 May 1959 INFORJ.'LTIO.T BULLETIN NO. 3

Return Travel Arrangements: Although we have informed you previously, for your conveniency, the following information is furnished again. If any of you want return air-travel arrangement as to re-routing of

ticket or confirmation of seat reservation to be attended by the host government Secretariat, please complete the blank form" Arrangement for Homeward Journey", issued to you previously, with the following additional informations, to the Secratariat Staff or Hr. 'Jatanabe by 5 p.m. tomorrow. (Another copy of the blank form is enclosed herewith in case you have lost it) Nationality. Passport number and its date of issue. (in case you have a UN passport, pleas3 give its No. and date of iSSue, in addition to the information on the private passport) Contacting address. (Room No. of Daiichi Hotel).

Ai'ter above precedure, you arG requested to hand the ticket to Mr. Watanabe

or his assistants during the lunch-hour of next Monday, 27th •

.,

Field Tour Itinerary

28 - 29 April 1959 Hours 28 April Programme Lv Tokyo by bus Ar Atami. staying at Atami Hotel Lv the hotel by bus Ar l'10tohakone Lv Motohakone by a sight-seeing boat across the Lake Ashinoko from south to north

4:00 p.m. 7:30 p.m. 9', trf)

..

29 April

~

a.m •

10:00 a.m. 10:30 a.m. 11:00 a.m. 11:10 a.m.

Ar Kojiri Lv Kojiri by bus

l •

12 :L.O a.m.

Ar Odawara, taking a rest at " Kibun" , with refreshment on "kamaboko" and other f ish pastry cake s Lv Odawara by ~

1:00 p.m.

.-

1:30 p.m.

Ar Hiratsuka; visit Powdered Milk Plant of Morinaga Dairy Co., after taking luncheon there Lv Hiratsuka by bus Ar Fujisawa, (changed to motor-car; visit the plant of "Yakuruto"-fermented milk product)

3:00 p.m. 3:20 p.m.

4:00 p.m.

Lv Yakuruto plant by motor-car and change to the bus whe n we get to the Highw~ Lv Fujisawa by ~

..

"

4:10 p.m. 4:40 p.m. 5:10 p.m. 6:).0 p.m.

Ar Kamakura (visi t the big Buddha) Lv Kamakura by bus Ar at Daiichi Hotel

,

'iot.,.

Arrangements for Homeward Journey Name: Hotel roam number:

,I' , •

I am now booked to fly by (airline) leaving Tokyo at hours on

, flight no.

,.

---

May for

--r-:-:--c-----

(city)

•

1. 2.

I wish to confirm the above. I wish to change the a. abOVG

and, i f possib18, leave in the or

morning

I r , of

b. c.

afternoon or evening

May a. for (City) or b. for (city) stopover in (city) with hours' or da;ysl

. -3.

I prefer (airline) I have need visa for (country)

"

-

-l

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

ORGANlSAnON MONDIALE DE b\ SANn WHO/Zoon/6l Corr.1 25 February 1959 ENGLISH ONLY

JAINr WHlYFAO EXPERTCOf.ItIl'l"l'EE Qi ZOONOSES

Stockholm. 11-16 "August 1958 SECOOD REPORT

Corrigendum 1. Pa.ragraph 5.,.1.2 "Sub-t7Pe". page 25. should now read as tollows: "5.,.1.2 Slb-serotype

In eome instanoes residual ti tres lower than 10 per cent. may occur. and it these findinSa are constant these strains may be grouped wi thin the serotype as sub-serotypes. Thus a sub-serotype i8 a strain within a serotype where in repeated tests less than 10 per cent. of the homologous titre remains in one 'f

antiserum but 10 per cent. or more in the other antiserum atter cross-asborption with adequate amounts of heterologous antigen (within the serotype)." 2.

Annex 6, pages 85-88. should be eanoelled and replaced b7 the tollowing list: LIST OF PATHOGENIC LAPTOSPlRA BERarYPES AND SUB-BEROl'YPES

Serotype

Sub-serotype

Type strain

icterohaemorrhagiae icterohaemorrhagiae (AB)+ icterohaemorrhagiae M 20 icterohaemorrhagiae (A)+ naam++. mankarso++ sarmin++ +

incompleta

RGA Na.am

Mankarso Sarmin

•.

International Reference Anti-Leptospira Serum and homologous culture (type strain) available to national Laboratories on request trom WHO/FAO Reterence Leptospirosis Laboratories listed in Annex 7. ++ International Reterenoe Anti-Leptospira Serum in preparation. For designation of terms ot serotypes and sub-serotypes see tootnote p.26 of this report.

WHo/Zoon/6l Corr ~ page 2 LIST CP PATHOGENIC LEPTOSPIRA SERCYl'YPES AND sua-8EROl'YPES (continued)

Serogroup

Serotype birkini* birkini* * ndambari

Sub-serotype birk1ni smithii

Type strain Birkin Smith Ndambari Veldrat Batavia 46 Poi Cox Hcmd Utrecht IV VleerlllUis 90C Benjamin Jones Sumner H-6

. "

,

...

Javanica

Javanica+ ++ poi ooxus

can1cola

can1cola+ schueffner1++ benJam1n++ Jonsis sumner1 malaya

ballum

ballum ballum (AB)+

.ballumensis castellcm1s [Bl++

Mus 127 Castellon , Sal1nem Zanoni Abraham Biggs Hampton

pyrogenes

PlTogenes+ zanoni biggis hamptoni*

= australis

abramis

+ International Reference Anti-Leptospira Serum and homologous culture

(type strain) available to national Laboratories on request from WHO;PAO Reterence Leptospirosis Laboratories listed in Annex 7. ++ . International Reference Anti-Leptospira Serum in preparation.

*

PrOVisional classification pending further work.

For designation of terms of serotypes and sub-serotypes see footnote p.26 ot this report.

WHO/.&oon/61 Corr.J. page 3 LIST OF PATHOGENIC IEPTOSPIRA SEROl'YPES AND SUB-SEROl'YPES (oontinued)

, ~

.

Serogroup cynopteri

Serotype oynopteri++ butembo

Sub-serotype

Type strain

'522 C Butembo . Sentot autwmalis rachmat1 Akiyami A Rachmat Bangkinang I

sentot autumnalls

sentot autumnalis (AB)+ autUlll'l8.1is (A)+ bangkinang++ mooris

Moores DJasiman [Ar Ballioo Mfnchen 0-90

dJasiman australis

dJasiman++ australis mua'.'l'J~en

= australis

esposito* pomona grippotyphosa hebdomadis pomona+ grippotyphosa+ hebdomad is +

Esposito Pomona Moskva V Hebdomadis Hond He

medanensis++ wolff11++ hardJo++ + .

'705 HardJopraJitno

International Referenoe Anti-Leptospira Serum and homologous culture (type strain) available to national Laborator1es on request from WHO/FAO Reference Leptospirosis Laboratories listed in A.~~ex 7. ++ International Referenoe Anti-Leptospira Serum in preparation. Provisional classifiCLtion pending further work.

*

WHo;Zoon/6l Carr. 1 page 4 LIST OF PATHOGENIC IE~PIRA SEROl'YPBS AND SUB-sEROl'YPES (continued)

Serograup

Serotype mini+ mini kremastoll kabura jules* haemolytic a haelllOlyt1ca* worsfoldi sejroe+ saxkoeb1ng+ borinoana* ++*

Sub-serotype mini

Type strain Sari Szwajizak Kremastos Kabura Jules

szwajizak

..

•

haemolytica rioardi

Mareh

Riohardson Worsfold

M84 Mus 24 HS-622 swart

bataviae

batav1ae+ paidjan++

Paldjan Veldrat S 173 CHll byos baker1 celledooi whitoomb1 Mitis JobnaOll

semaranga andamana byos

semaranga+ andamana+ byos .. mitis Johnaon+1 byos*

LT 79 Celledoni Whitcomb

celledoni

celledonl++ celledonl

[riJ

+ International Referenoe Ant1-teptoep1ra Serum and homologous culture (type strain) available to natIonal Laboratories on request trom WHOAi'AO Reference Leptospirosis Laboratories listed 1a Annex 7.

++ International Referenoe Anti-Leptospira Serum in preparation.

*

Provisional classifioation pending turther work. ~

Possibly the type strain is L. perepelitsin. a human strain isolated in 17~ in the USSR which later was recognized to be serologically ident1cal with the strain M1tis Johnson (A. A. Varfolomeeva (1958). J. !fyi. Epid. M1krob. lDImm •• 2. 50)

1 .

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

ORGP,NISATION MONDIAlE DE LA SANTE :rnOl~oon/Sl

l2

n0V8l!11 Jre

1958

• .\

JOINT 'i'HO/F 10 'S.!' ~'l' C01'l ..ITTEE ON ZOONOSES Stoc!::..'101m, 11-16 !'.ugust 1958 S:'l)COND REPoRT

'1

CONTENTS

I~troduction

•

1, Definition of zoonoses • 2: Prevention, control and eradic~tion.

.. ., , ~

.

2 ~

J

·

:

4

J! The Pan American 4! Salmonellosis, 5. Leptospirosis •• , ~.

~oonoses Cen~re ~

. ~ • • • !

Tubercu+o~i~ of"~i~ orig~n~ • • •

·

5 6 :

20

<

7. Anthrax. • • 8! 9~

30 33 41

Psi ttacos:i,.s . - . o~n~"tlfoi?ii? Q fever. • • . • • • . . Arthropod-b~r~e,vir~l.e~c~pha~i~igei?

1O!

45 48 52 t~'human'

. . . . . . 11! Hydatidosis. . . . . 12. Animal influenza and its possible "relationship influenza

.. . .. .. . . .

57 58 59 60

13. otl].er zoonoses l3~1 Toxoplasmosis~

•

13.2 Listeriosis 13,3 Cutaneous and visoer3.1 larva migrans 13.4 Dermatomycoses ••• 13.5 Trematode i~~ction~ 13 f S Tularaemia • • . • • 13.7 Cat scratch disease, • ~

,

f

.

.

.'

14. Ecology of wild animal :rs:;iervoifs, • 15. Anime.l "or')han" viruses. . . . . 16. ~erging zoonoses • • • • ~ ~

,

!

•

,

, .

·. .. . . . . ., ~

61 62

63 64 64

.. ..

..

S5 . 66

WHO/Zocm/5l page 11

CONTTI0TTS (cmtinued) Page

Annex 1, Annex 2.

List of zoonoses • • • • Veterinary ,?ublic -~ealth activity- at Vll'ious levels' of government. • • • • • Reporting of ~oonoses.

S8

JI

Annex 3, Annex 4. Annex 5. Annex 6, Annex 7. Annex 8. Annex 9, Annex 10. Annex 11. Annex 12. Annex 13. Annex 14.

.. • • •

Salmonellosis.

Pasteurization of

r~H

egg products

75 75 79 80

The functions of international and national-Salmonella centres. ••. . • • List of Leptospira serotypes and subtypes List of '.rnO/F itO Anthrax, Anthrax. Leptos~irosis

•

0

c

Reference _ r. .aborat9r:j.e::;

Control_of tuberculosis in cattle •• Ascoli preCipitation test.

..

..

..•

85 89 90

96

Outline'of wool-sterilization process used in the

Uni ted Kingdom .. • . . . . . . . • ., . . . . . .

Anthrax. Procedures recommended in plants ~ere potentially contaminated materials are handled • Itnthrax. Importation of animal by-products. • j;·ledicated food for psittacosis control in 'parakeets' and parrots. . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . System for mass treatment of dogs for echinococcosis

98 100 102 103

I SEGm':i: i12fORT ,

.

"e:ubers -.,... -~-

Pro!. Dr,

~~. !~bdusl'Ja1am,

College of .ft.nimal Husba.nc!I7, Lahore, I= aki8tan

'ro. Chas. Cockburn, Director, E,;,ic.emiologicalllel'Jevch Cu~tral 'Public Health I.aboratcry, Public Health Laborato17

wbon-l7, &1"'110. ." .

CoJ:ha4.-~"

......,

Lonc!on, N.'7.9, b'lgland Airea, Argent1na(Co V1c&~~)

DJ'. Inl 1'. :~',ndy, Directcr de 7oonoeb, :!.irJ.atmo de JptOGl..... ,. ~,

:aunoe.

Dr.

x.r. ";1&'1er, li1rloCtor laillr1tus G.W. HO"Ptr JoMD4atLOlll.. ~ fJt C$lUoJ'lQ1a 2:.&&1 Cftnter, Sen Franc is 00 22, c.UtomlA, tltUte, St.a~. cf .riea (Chaixman) .

llr'. J.j.R. ~ •• J Fl'Ofe8&Ol", Depart&ent of !.!lerobiolOQ', Unl."eftl.v'ot ~,])medinJ N"" Zeal$Dd (Co nce-chaixman) . .

Dr •. JiX'l.-A utnl~, ~6,ad of Swanella Depart.~ent, ~t$ VturiDa17 SeruDl.. taborator.r, Bttl.odnj 'Z7, COPenhagen, Dtmazt: . Dl'. Jouf Pamas, Professor of :~dica1 AcacieilV anti. Lirsctor of State Institute; ot RuralOcc\lp~tio.nal.redicim ane: (turd i\Ycif..ue or .th~ Mir-iatry C!f Health, Chopin stre~t 17/6, Lublin, rolend.

Dr. A.w. Stabletorth, Dinctor,

Vf"terina~' Laboratory .!InG Invn101gat4.oR SfniCf', C;ntral V~t"'rin8Iy Laboratory O'inistry of Agric'Illturf, FiSiu'riAS end Fo,d), Nflr Haw, ".'I~rbrlc.ge, S"Ul':rey, Ent;land (lta?~rt~\Il')

Prot. X. Wagener, TiI'l'Hnt1t.chf' Hochachulf.l, Hana-F8ckl"l'-Allte 16, Hannov~r, Gel'!llany

Prot. Dr. JoV'G30~raI-i'1ca1

Wolf"!'

Di ......ct'.,. Tn!Jt1.tutE:, tor Tropical Hy"gifcne and Patbol<JgY (Royal '.LTD "of ~ft~ ~:; t~J, ~sterdam, N(·tbLtlandI >

• ..:.. . . .

...

lIHO/Zoon/61 page 2 Secretariat

Dr •.B.D. mood, Director, Pan American Zoonoses Center (PASB/WHO), Azul (Province of Buenos Aires), Argentina

Dr. Earl C. Chaaaber1qne, Public Health Veterinarian, PASB/IHI>, Washington, D.C., United State~ of AJnerica Sir 111011&s Dalling, Veterinary Consultant,. FAO, Rome, I~

Dr. Ervin A. Eichhorn, Veterinarian, Animal Promotion Branch, Rou, ltal7 (Joint secretary)

rID,

Dr. Kart.in M. Kaplan, Chief, Veterinary Public Health Section, Diusion of CollllUD1cab1e DinaH Services, WHO, Geneva, Sldww1aDd (Joint Secretarr)

Dr. James H. steele, 11110 Veterinary Public Health Ccmsultant, Veterinary Director, Co'!"'micable Disease center, United states Public Health Service, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America A Joint lIHO/FAO Expert Committee on Zoonoses met at the Karolinska InetUute

in Stockholm, 11-16 August 1958, followillg the Seventh International lIicrobiolog1oll Congress. Joint sessions on some aspects of subjects of cOIIIIIOn interest, DOt&bl1' WlI)

1nf1uenlla, were held with the

Expert Committee on Jlup1rato17 V1raa Diseases

which was meeting in the same building.

Dr. K.F. lIeyer wa,s Zoonoees.

el~ted

Chairman, Dr. R.lI. Mend;y and Dr. J.A.R. lI1les

Co Vice-Chairman, and Dr. A.W. Stableforth Fapporteur of the Expert Colllllittee on

INTRODUCTION A Joint WHO/FAO ]bpert Group on Zoonoses met in Dec_ber 1950 to tOl1llulate recommendations on zoonoses for the guidance of WID and FAD. Their report1 pu1:fl1ahed in 1951 was considered by the present Committee in the light of advances made in the zoonoses deal t with in detail, viz., bovine tuberclllos is, Q fever, anthrax, psittacosis and ~datidosis.

Also, the Committee was concerned with

111ld Hlth Org. techno Rep. Sar., 1951,

~

-.

WHO/Zoon/61' ' page 3 several additional zoonoses of importance, including salmonellosis andleptospi,weU" " - and other problems of zoonoses of concern to the liElllber Governments

ot WIll &lid FAD.

'l'bree other major zoonoses, rabies,

1

brucellosis

2

and plaglle,

.3'

have been dealt with" ,

by other expert comnittees of lffiO and FAO and are not considered in '!this report.

'Ibe Committee in dealing with the agenda items had at its disposal lIOrit1ng documents and publications (e.g. the study Group on Leptospirosis) on several of the subjects under considerati,on which were prepared by members of the EJcpert panel ' on Zoonoses and other authorities in the respectiw fields, apart from the 1951 report

ot the Joint WHO/FAD

Ib:part Group on Zoonoses mentioned previously.

The COIIIII1ttGe

decided to make the present report a self-contained cbcument as far as possible and, borrowed freely from sections of the 1951 report dealing with bovine tuberculous,

anthrax, Q fever, psittacosis and hydatidosis, and of the st.ud;y Group on Leptospirosis. 4 In ever,y subject, however, III&jor modifications were made by

the

present COBDittee in view ot scientific advances and field e:xperience which haft accumulated since the 1951 and 1956 "portsS,4 were puhlished. file CoJllll1ttse, apnea.. ita great indebtedneee to the lIOrk ot these previoUS groups in facilitating the preparation ,of this report. 1. DEFINITION OF ZOONOSES

In the 1951 report 5 the term zoonoses was defined as those diseases which are

naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man. tl'OID ~s to man) and zoo-anthroponoses

Views have been expressed

in the literature PI'9posing euch terme as anthropo-zoonoees (diseases tranllllitted (diseases transmitted fran

man

to ani-

. mals). The Committee considers that the introduction of euch terms into general use

would have map;y drawbacks, including the fact that the definition as given above is 1 Wld Hlth 2

arg. techno Rep. Ser., 1957,

~

(>:.

Ser., 1958, !!! 3 1I1d Hltb Org. techno Rap. Ser., 1953,,~ 4 1I1d Hlth arg. techno Rep. Ser., 195(" ID 5 1I1d Hlth (»g. techno Rep. Ser., 1951, .1Q Wld HUh Org. techno

nep.

,

'.

lfHO/Zbon/61 page4

now widely recognized and accepted as delineating a very important group of diseases

~

....

,

cOIIIIIOn to'man and animals •. Recent -f'i!.ldings, however, have shown'that apart tram. microorganisms or parasi tee causing latent infection there are other isolates, as yet not clearly defined in nature and ~

of which cannot as yet be

1nc~ted

as

procl1cers of disease, which can be recovered from both man and .m1mals. they Can

Some

ot

these isolates have cOllDDOn characteristics and there is good reason to suspect tbat be transmitted between man and animals (see also Sectiorus IS and 16).

'l'be COIIIIittee, therefore, bas slightly modified the definit.ion of zoonoses

given above, vis., "'l'hose diseases between vertebrate animal S

~d

infections which are Daturally trensitted.

and manit. PBEVEN'l'ION, CONTROL AND ERADICATION

2.

llare than 100 zoonoses are now recognized (see Annex 1).

Prevention, control

and eradication or some or these diseases, particularly 'Where domest.ic animals are the principal reservOirs, are responsibilities or considerable magni:blde in every country. -J)omest.ic animal reservoirs or zoonoses are the sources or greatest ~er .f

for man, since he is in closest contact with such animals, and emphasis should tbererore be given to these zoonoses in the development or animal disease control programmes. Notable successes have. been achieved when such a procecilre has been followed, e.g., bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis and rabies. The discharge of governmental responsibilities for zoonoses control requires adequate financial support and close collaboration between the agencies of the government concemed, and particularly between t1!.e medical and veterinary services. The operation of interministerial colllll1ttees (health and agriculture) has proven to be an excellent means of achieVing co-operative eftort on the zoonoses, with

appreciable concomitant saviDgs due to pooling of funds, personnel and facilit.ies. Such formal means ot collaborat.ion encourage free a~d

frequent exchange ot

information on animal and human disease situations, the joint planning and financing of disease-control campaigns, improved food-hygiene services, and mutual assistance in laboratory and epidemiological work. as paper organizations. Such committees should not, however, remain

\ WHO/zoon/61' page 5 Attention to the zoonoses must be given at all levels of government - local, municipal,' provincial and national. Local customs of the population in an area DIW!It be studied before control measures can be organized.

Measures feasible in econoadcally

advanced countries may not be applicable to developing areas, so that adaptation an4. modification of these measures may be necessary. Acininistrative organization and activities with respect to the zoonoses in countries of· different economic dev.lo~ l were considered by ah Advisory Group on Veterinary Public Health convened by ,WHO,. with FAO oollaboration, in 1955. from their report in .Annex 2. The l"eportirlg of zoonOS88 is important in the development of aOT d:1IJeas...control

A chart concerning these activit!es

18

:rep~du0a4

programme.

Notification of disease outbreaks to the appropriate authority by the medical practitioner or other medical or veterinary personnel is the Administrative pract:l.ce as to what diseases are to be anot~er.

vete~rian,

first step towards control.

reported and how they should be reported varies greatly' from one region to disease. Annex:3 summarizes what can be done in this connexion.

This is justified in part by different conditions and different frequencies of

Througbout the report there are a n\Ullber of specific references to the importance of food ~giene

measures in controlling and preventing the transmission of maqr of the

zoonoses.

Food is often a vehicle o! infection, by consumption or through handling; Due emphasis must be given to the importance of food b,yg:1.ene as an

the food may have come from infected animals or have been contaminated in processing2,:3,4. integral part of zoonoses control and prevention of their tranamiSlid.on to man. 3. THE PAN AUERIC£If ZOONOSES CENTRE

The Pan American Zoonoses Centre was established in 1956 in Azul. Argentina, in response to the demands of the countries of the Americas. The Centre is an

1 Wld lD. th 2

Org. techn. RIiIP. Ber., 1956, 111

1I1d lD. th Org. techno Rep. Ser., 1955, 22 :3 1O.d lD.th Org. techno Rep. Ser., 1957, .lli 4 . World Health Organization (1957) Meat hygiene, Geneva (World Health Organizations Ifonograph Series, No. 33)

-

WHO/Zoon/6J. page 6'

international 1nri.1.tuliion dedicated to promoting and strengthening activities against the ZOOnoS8S

in those countries, its services being available to health departments"

•

agricultural departments, edlcational institUtions, and other agencies having an interest in zoonoses. It serves in the education and training of professional and lay' technical personnel in techniques and methods to be used in combating those d1aeaaes. It stimulates zoonoses com.rQl and eradication campaigns in the different It conducts research with the aim of improving diagnosis and control

countries, and its staff is available for consultation on problems and activities related thereto. in the Americas. zoonotic diseases. of the zoonoses, and it promotes such research in governmenta;L and private institutions It aids in the standardization of diagnostic methods and procedures It prepares and disseminates information about those diseases. to reduce the tor lIIIIking and testing vacc1nes, sera, and other biological promcte used tor the All of these services are aimed at helping the people of the Americas

social and economic burden caused by diseases transmitted between animals and man. The CoDmittee considers the programme of the Pan American Zoonoses Centre to be an

Dlportant contribution

:to

~onoses work, and recommends that it be supported to the

fUllest possible extent. 4. SALMONELLOSIS

INTBODUCTION

Salmonella infection 1s widespread in man and an1mal.s thro.out the lIOrld. )lore than 500 different tqpes of Salmonella have been described. have been foun!i in animals. in this report.

Nearly all of them

The typhoid and paraVphoid bacUli are not c1iscussed

salmonellosis is most camnon in cbickens, mcks and turkeys; and occasional in various wild and teral animala.

it 18 ~frttquent Mortality

in rodents, less frequent in swine, not uncommon.in cattle, sporadic in sheep, is especially high among nEl'lf-bom birds and animals.

Direct and

~d1rect

losses

are dU'ficult to estimate accurately but are undoubt.edl.y very high.

The reported incidence of salmonel.losis in man and animals is increasing, partly due to greater interest in tile problem. The real inoidence, however, is also

lIBD/Zo0rJ/61 .: ,.., page 7

..

increu1Dg," "1i1 thie connexl.onrthe growing naticmalUl4f,1Rt.ma:tt~ 41atl"1bGtiol1 of .truman andanUnal .f!oodll S'1J8C'eptible to conifamina$d.on !.s.of gre.t- ~e~' !be , clo...t oo-operation 'of the med:1cal and 'WItertnal"Y profeesioDa lsreql1j,red,bet""~'

pro\tl_ of aalmonelloa18 in both" natlooal and 4.1 HUIWf SUIlONElJ.nsIS' '. ,

1n\emat1onalf1~d c~

be eol.-.

,

'

fhe· 1nc1deD1l. of b--.n nlmonellosu baa not beeD IlOCl1I'&:MlT "~ iA, fIJ'T

count11', but in countries where Qbservations have been -.de tbe inQldeDce 18 coul_able. In In&1nd and Wales for example about .

3000

~:S.cl8nu.

(CCIIIP", __ :. ,,'.'

sporadic cases, tam.1l7 outbreaks or

ge~ral

outbreaks)

are

,

~

.

reported itnmJjlll~ co1Ip8ftCl

with

about' 100 e~ococous :1ncldents.

In the 'ODi:tad stat..

ot JIDel'ica ,"

~occw, enterOtox:1n'food poisoaing 18 reportK IiOre fNqUllltl7 'tban ~ WttbeditteNrlC8 betnID the t.o countries 18 pl"ObablT _ to the 1IOH0CIIp1de , nporUqi

ot..u

o'GtbrMta .ncl-s»«ad1c caa.eot aalllOMllo.1a in ~alll &114 . . . . Iil ....~ ~U~ 1'Pl'8 ltUiiItYo.'. M:Uecl h.., POlit, eaa and ob.... ha.... 'b8en .' C0ft8U11ptton' ot

>

than in th~United

.*of lIIn"ioe..

outbreakS associated wi til sa...., reported. In SWeden some thousands of cu.e have ocourred '1'1"OIIl' the

domestic and imported meat. In the Netherlands lIW\V outbJ'eaU dnoe the....,.. }save . been traced"to meat proclucts. H\88n salmonellosis, therefore, 18 COlIIIIOD 1ft IIIIQJ', countrie.,and in aountr1e~ where observations ha'tG ~ made OftI' a perio~ of tI.1.M., 1t appears to be ~reas:lJ:lg. It causes preventible deaths in the very 1'O\IQI and ver:r' old "rxlis~,spor:.:ible tor ~uch d1sabll1V and discomfort in persona' ot all " ; 0 , ' . '

minor

is an example of. the distaetef\U ' .- v_ter of bowel pathogens from.man to man and from animals to man. . .

agu.

~th8n1Ore, 1t , - ' , .: ' .

..

Salmonella !jlpb1-muri_ in moat countries j,e the COIIIIIIOna.:t "alllODella 1801.W from cases in man and is & frequent pathogen in animals. 01:.ber tJpell ot aal,!",ql~,

wax and wane in 1no:\.dence in J!l&n from time to time and from plAce to place. sabx,nella, heidelRR

!~r' 8X8!'IP~e

was first 'isolated in

but b:.119'Y1 had b~ome tbe s~na lIIOl!'t . IlllU'iUlll. No explanation of this increase has been found.

~an,d, and' Wales in19sl ' co~ iaolateji e&1monella after, s...... ' ' ; ' , .

lIHO/Zoon/61 pageS 4.1.1 ,Se.l.Jr1onellosis not !pparen!J.y associated with food. There are reports from ~ countries that human salmonellos1.aaomatimea appears

to Spread v.i.a fom1teaor contact rather than direc1:J.y from of

COIlto1Mted

food.

Moat

'hee

reports describe outbreaks in hospitals, pat-t1dularly ab1lcn.'s hospitals In the general population, however, such a JDOde of spread is

or closed colllllUIlitJ,ea. lus .&87 to prove.

DLrecttranamiesionhu bam observed among animal attendants, polJlt.l7 JI1'OC"SOl'8 and others baYing close contact with infected animals. I . .

4.1.2 'Foo&! associated with outbrdks A partial survey of recent literature shOl{s .that of 200. outbreaks associated with :.ifc?pd, 5 were associated with fresh meat, 8? with procestJed or made-up meats, 41 with shell a s .(ma.i~ ~k egga) and • 2~

produc~

(frozen eggs, eaalb\lll8Jl, egg yolks), Ji:)st who~

1d.th cream confectioQery, 10 with milk and 34 with a wide variev of foods.

of tlle incrJ.minated processed and made-up meats 'Were compo88d porle products.

or partJ.y of

Duck eggs, egg products in general, and

po~

prochcte therefore plq

a substaJrt,ial part in the causation of salmonellosis in man.

4.1.:3 The human excretor The role. of the human excretor as a source of salmonellosis is difficult to Food handlers have been frequen1:J.y blamed as the source of infection, because, on asS88S.

examination, they have baen found to be excretors. consumers of the food.

In ~ :Iilstancu, however, the

food handlers 'Were probably infected from the foods and 'Were as IIIUCb v.i.ctima as the In Britain and America, the carrier rate in the ganeral )(an

population has b.een estimated at about 2 per 1000. saliIIOn8ll!1e and there 1IlWIt &1;

is himBel.t a reservoir of

8lS1' given time be many food bandlera lIho are 8J1IIPtomles8

excretOrs •

.0. high standard of petsonal hygiene in food handlers and the provision of adequa ts facilities for att.a1ning this standard in commercial kitchens, packing plants and meat

pre~rat1on factories would certainly remce the incidence of infection.

.

.'

~

'j

", \

WHO/Zoon/61 page 9 4.2

SAUIONELtOsrs INANDIALS

4.2.1 Salmonellosis in

poultry

A very large number of types of Salmonella have been isolated in

one

area or

another from fowls (78 types to date), turkeys (62 types), ducks (31 types), geese, pheasants,partriclges, pigeons and other birds. poul try meat appears to be playing 8ft

As a source of human

~&Ction

increasingly important role. that the

Large-scale 1mrestigations in several countries have shawn hostr-epec1fi.c S•. @Ol'Wll ,

. . . .

~d

gal11narum (responsible for pullorum disease ot chick8 .

-.

and fowl typhoid respectively) account for some two-tMrdl of the salmonella infections in poultry and the fomer for over a halt of the total, ubiquitous ~st

the

s .. typhi-mUrium

acoounts for a further 10 to 20 per cent.

S. pullorwn and gallinarum can

be occasionally isolated from turke;ya, ducks and

other birds but most are from chicks or adult fowls. . S. t;lPhi-murium, on the other

..

hand, has been isolated from a large variev ot birds, the highest incidence being in ;young or adult fowls, turkEtyll (forming in one area about one-half of the total infections), ducks, geese and pigeons. ducks may be faecal excretore. The ranaining types are mostly sP9radic, being isola ted !rom individual birds

In some countries, as 11I&l:W as 10 per cent ot

which usually shaw no -:ligna of disease. decline or disappear; Denmark.

sOme types

become widespread in a

district or country for a few years, Perhaps causing considerable disease, and thaD : examples are S. thompson in Great Britain, S. o110ese. in Certain serot;ypes are more common than others in sane countries,. e.g. &JIatum, S. oranienbutg,lbare111y and montevideo in the United States of America, S. enteritidis Variations are possibly due less to the 8Usceptib111V of individuals than to density of population, methods of husbarxlry and the extent of critical examination made. ·To summarize, the greatest loss to the poultry industJ7

in European countries.

is <he to three organil!lll8,

the relatively host speCific S. pullorum and gallinarum and the ubiquitous

s.

typhi-murium..

If infeotion with these can be brought under control, 108ses in

poultry can be correspondingly reduced or eliminated.

Poultry, however, act as

WHo/Zoo~/6l

,

page 10 ._~~servoir

for,a large number of salmonella serotypes, all

pote~tially

pathogenic to

birds . ani:r~ ____ ___ ..

---. dis~

4.2.1.1 Control and prevention The incidence of pullorwn has been gr~tly

reduced in the

19.$~4CVlears

in several countries by the method of blo~t~sting and elimi~tion/of reactors.

In one country the percentage of the nocks containing one or more reactors "as reduced by a voluntary scheme from 39 per cent in 1939 t9 9 per cent in corresponding reduction occurred in outbreaks of disease. infection) was at the same time brought under control by the same means. 195~.

A

Fowl typh9id (S. gA.U.inarum In other

countries, similar or better results have been obtained, sometimes by compulsory methods. Chemotherapy; e.g. nitrofurazone (5-nitro-2-furaldehyde semicarbEone).in f::>wl typhoid outbreaks is sometimes effective in reducing losses, though at other times results are disappointing. vaccine which does not and have ~

Recent work has also shown that use of a living "rough" with the use of the agglutination test in diagnosiS A

int~rfere

is a practical possibility.

These methods are of undoubted value in commercial flocks

place in control measures in countries which cannot undertake an eradication

progranme. The control of S. typhi-murium infection is morE? difficult. the Tl}e blood test fcrr

de~~~t~n·orc~~ _;1.s

less reliable than in S. pullorum and S. gallinarum The

infections, largely because antibody levels fluctuate considerably, so that neg?tive flock tests cannot be regarded as .-...,. conclusive evidence of . freedom from inf.ection. ' . ~

test has. ·nevertheless been widely us';Cl>iD, at least-~>ne country in t~keys ,-whilst in

--...

.

-

another country a stained antigen plate test has been used, with useful results in flocks of turkeys, infection. f~ls

and ducks.

Despite their limitations, it is clear that blood

tests can,play a useful part in controlling and preventing outbreaks of S. typhi-murium As in infection caused by 9ther salmonellae, blood testing should be Hens' ,eggs should be incubated separately Whe~e

supported by improvements in sanitation. run apart from other poultry;

from those of other poultry and of aquatic birds.

practicable, hens ,should be

this applies particularly to breeding-fl.ocks.

WHO/Zooti/61 page 11 4.2.2, SalmGnellosis in cattle SaJ.mone-Ua dublin is

Cattle. may harb~ur many dif':t'el"~nt .types· of. Salmonella. in many parts of the world.

specially adapted to cattl,l[l, and causes disease in cal"ftlS as well as in adult amJlala

The clinical.signsof infection in typ1:cal. csses are those of a septic enteritis • with offensive smelling diarrhoea or dysentery, fatal, may result. The diagnosis 18 bestmadJ:r'bl" the 1?acterlologicaJ. nudnation or spleen, l1ver,bUe andmesanteric lymph nodes, post.mortem~ fever~

anoraxia and Avere prostration.

In milking cows a,sudden drop in milk yields is observed and in calves pneumonia, otten

Ariimalsthat recover from th~ clinical disease will. often exc.rete S. dugl1n in their faeces 11ltermittently or r~gularli for long periods, even ·for l,ife.. Tl).e common site of the latent intection in the carrier antmal is the gall blad4e~ •. The carrier state can also result from an inapparent or "silent"WaCtlon • . II.

Healthy ca:n::iers can transmit. the lntaction to calves· and adult cattle. of carriers in markets plays an important part

The sale

insp~eading

iI)fection within· an area

and in introduCing the intection and disease into clean areas ~

In herds where the disease has occurred it is therefore recommended that a bacteriological examination of faeces sllllples from all catUe bemade·in order to . detect carriers. T1).9se, when found, :should be segregated from '

~e

herd i f it 18noi;

possible to .·remove them from the farm. . . ' . , before distribution.

In dairy

~erds

with sal)llonellosis, in addition

to these measures the milk must be adequately heat-treated, preferably on the premises, ", .- .

T\? a lesser extent. than $. dublin, S. tYphi":IIlUr:i.um.W cause clinical. disease in cattle. Carriers of S. typht~urium

are encoW)tered, though ·1;he carrier state proba.bly

does not last as long as in

s.

dublin int;ection.

Though other types of. Salmonella do not play so important a r61e in clinical disease as S. dublin and ..

s. typhi-mUrium, .

:l.n~pparent

infections with them

may

be

c;:.

important from a public health point of view. . They are sOllletimes .found in meat ard bone meal, fish mell and vegetable concentrates and may thus infect cattle, the

WHO/zoon/6l page 12

oarcasses of which may in tum carry infeeUon to human beings. In all countries, i t is recCIIIIIleDded that bacteriologtcal ex_nation be made of

organs from animals which have died from gastro-enteritis. recOIIIIlenc1ed that for survey purposes bacteriol~cal

In surveys it is &r

examinations be made of faeces

samples from cattle gathered at markets or abattoirs and plants or other places dealing with casualties. 1

or bile samples

mesenteric ~

l1mPh glands from slaughtered animal. carcasses.brought together at kDacker1.6s, rendering

4.2.2.1 Vaccines Vaccination has been practi~ed

in different countries in an attempt to prevent Though vaccines have been claimed to protect calves grosslyinfec~ed

outbreaks of infeotion in calves.

1Jt some instances J they have apparently failed to do so in vaccines cal-mo't, therefore J be generally recom.ended.

areas The use of

or in premises harbouring a particularly virulent st:rain of the organi8Jl1.

4.2.2.2 Treatment Different chemothsrapeutic agents and antibiotics have been tried. developing. Though such

treatment J!laY diminisb the losses in an acute outbreak, it will not prevent carriers .It can J therefore, not be relied on for the eliDdn3tion of infection !rom the herd.

4.2.3. Salmonellosis in pigs The pig is the natural host of S. cholerae sl}is and may. suffer fran acute, subacute or chronic disease as a result of infection. When,S. obolerae sllis infection In addition to acting occurs in man it often resu1ts in serious or fatal disease. infected with other types of Salmonella. Though S. cholerae sllis 1.s characterized by its invasiveness in pigs) giving rise to bacteraemia which often proves fatal, it is usually confined to the mesenteric 1 For bacteriological methods see Wo:ri.d Health Organiution (1957) lieat hygiene, . Geneva (World Health Organiza.tion: Monograph Series No. 33, Annexes.11 am 12). /

as host to S. cholerae sms .. pigs rival fowls in the freq.mcy with Which they beoome

WHO/7.oon/6J. page 13 •

lymph nodes or intestinal intestinal. tract are not

cont~nts.

The sources of the localized infections in the

mown.-

Contsminated tood stutts of animal or vegetable or1g1n

or crowding of animals in sales, bams, truoks,· r:Jr holding lot~ maypl~ a part. There is .evidence that S. cholerae suis is more likely to assume a pathogenic r61e in swine i f the resistance of the animals is already lowered by 1nter-eurrel)t. disease, for enmple swine fever (hog cholera), or poor enviromnental conditions. Outbreaks of salmonelloeis <fan be initiated by apparently healthy carriers, these being present in many herds.

4.2.3.1 Control Vaccination

at pdgs

against salmonellosis is

~

no value.

Pigs should not be ted ~ooked ..ul or gar.,., clad .lft$MleetflJ'u.t8Dce

dead pigs, dead chickens) incubated ens or ooata1.nat.e4 JIleala.

.. .

4.2.4 Salmonellosis

tn

sheep and horses w1~

Infections of sheep 1d't!h S. abort\lS 0Y1e and horsel of considerable economic 1mport~ce

S.

~U

eqd. ... be

under certain

cOndit~ODS.

BQth types baWl a

nl'OJlil

tropism tar the genital tracts ot tlJey <;1etiQitive hosts. have never been clearly established. have also been reported. Outbre~

HuDtIan infections with tilwI

s.

tzphi-JWr1um intelot-iona are _not 1atrei:pleS

in sheep in somecountr:t.es and infections with S. cholarM-su;\! and S. bQV1s,

!!pD1ti!w

in sheep due to these types have BOUIeti_.

resulted in spre!ad to human beings.

4.2.5 Salmonellosis in other speCies Practically every animal species investigated has yielded salllonsUae. unwise to assume that a species is seldom or n~ver

It is

infected until Os thorough made on ~

investigation has been made in different areas.

sUrveys

in recent and over

years have shown an incidel'lCe o£'l to over .30 per cent in d1ttereDt

~as

59

types have already been isolated from them, including the ubiquitous S. tlphi-arts.

WHO/Zoon/6l page 14

:r'he

incidence has usuall7 been low in Juropean· countr1~.. SVV811!1 o~ ~ have already' uncovered.more than 20 WPes, incidence varying up to 12 per cent according to area

and condition under which the animal s lived. 4.3 HUJlAN AND.ANIMAL FOODS LIABLE TO CONTilMINATION WI'lH SAIJfONELLAE 4.3.1 Eggs and egg products 4.3.1.1 Duck-egSS studies in Oennany, the Netherlands and other countries have shawn that a proportion of: duck-eggs

are

contaminated with salmonellae, usually

s.

t,zphi-murium

and sauet1mes S. enteritidis. report were infected. the shell.

In England and Wales in 1954, a stuq, indicated that

1.5 per thousand of the 126 million duck-eggs sold per annum at the time of the Duck-eggs may be infected in the ovary or 'oviduct or through contam1nati~n

Improvements in farm hygiene 'WOuld reduce WQulci

through the shell .11

but the problem of: ovary and oviduct infection notices exhibited in shops selling the eggs. 1

still. remain.

Duck-eggs:: shOuld be

marked as such and users of wck-eggs in the shell should be warned, for example

The.

b.r

is merit in ensuring that

wck-eggs are sterilised before the shell is broken as the use of ra:rr duck-eggs in a ld,tch$ll may lead to the transfer of infection from the egg contents to lightly cooked or uncooked dishes via m:ix1Jlg bowls or washing-up water.

Though outbreaks of human salmonellosis due to ben-eggs in the shell are occasionally reported, they are rare. 4.3.1.3 Egg products Egg prochct.s -dried whole egg, froZEn whole egg, l:1.quid whole egg, egg albumen and egg yolk - have been shown to be ve17 important sources of' salmonellae. 1 . ~

to

In the Netherlands, Germany and the United Kingdom, COn.9umcrs 3l"C recommended to boil duck-eggs for 1<>-15 minutes bofore the shell is broken.

WHO/Zoon/61 page 15

20 per cent of samples have.recently been shown to be infected. Hen-eggs are usually contaminated from the shell. The use of olean, rapidly cooled first quality heDSI eggs for the preparation of egg products would reduce but would not eliminate the risks, '!Uld the production 9f unifm'lllly safe egg products requires pastelJ;l'ization of the liquid before distribution.

A temperature of 140 F or l46~F for three and two minutes

0

respectively has been shown in laboratory and commercial prmt:tiee to

kill salmonellae The

in whGle eggs without appreciably changing the qualities of the product.

temperature-range between killing the salmonellae and coagulating. the egg is small and earetul oontroJ. et the templilrature is necessary (see Annex 4). With dried albumen o a different process oan be used. It oan be heated to US "tor six dqs in bulk without reducing its usefulness to the baker or confectioner. In practice, three

days are required to raise the temperature of bulk quantities to the reQUired lavel and two. d8¥s are required for the oontainers to cool, so the whole procass occupies II days.

4.3.2 Meat 4.3.2.1 Poultry meat

That poultry can be a source of extensive food pOisoning h.:ur been shown ;'scently in the United States of Amerioa, where some hundreds of cases w~re Msoai~ted

.

w11ih

widely distributed pre-packed chicken salad contaminated with !:.Jllockley. States of America, espeCially in institutions and schools.

Roasted

turkeys and occasionall¥ chickens are .r:-equently a source. of infection in the United

4.3.2.:2 Beef, veal and por!t In some countries, the consumption of raw beef' or veal is a oommon source,of human salmonellosis, while in other countries, pork is more often incriminated. Boned beef.and veal, pig liver, fresh and smoked sausages have been mentioned most frequently_ Sometimes human food handlers contaminate meat wi th . ~ may ~almonellae.

orten contamination appears to come from infected anima1s.

The· infection

take place during shipment or in overloaded holding-pens at the

O/Zoon/61 age 16 Lbattoir, and extensive contamination of the meat may follow during th~ processing ,f the carcasses.

f.3.3

.Mf!! human ...

When milk is routinely pasteurized, the 'risk of it being a source of lIlhygienic bottling of pasteurized milk ma;y be a danger.

lalmonellosis is EIllall though a number of recent outbreaks have shown that the Outbreaks from unpaateurised dlk occur from time to time e1 ther as a result of salmonellosis in a caw - S. cilblin .s often the cause - or as a re8Ult of infection being introdmed by food handlers. lilk promcts, in particular cheese, hp.ve sometimes been incr:l:minated.

1·3.4

~

In temperate climates, cooked fish is seldom incriminated in food poisoning; rh~e

uncooked' fish 1s eaten, however, salmonellosis somet:lJDes occurs.

In the

rarmer ,climates and where fish are caught in sewage-polluted waters, there are ~reater

risks, and more observations are required before the problem can be Despite the well-known risk of tQrphoid and paratyphoid from

l.ccurateJ.y defined.

1hellfish gathered from sewage-polluted waters, there is little evideme of -,hellfish as vehicles of food poisoning salmonellae, though such salmonellae have Jeen isolated from the shellfish and the waters in which they live. 1.3.5 Vegetable products The danger of vegetables and vegetable products being contaJ;jinated in the .field or afterwards by fertilizers, infected water or sewage should not be overlooked. 4.3.6 ·Animal foods and fertilizers These products' are being produced in many parts of the world trom inedible ~i'i'''ls

and scraps fro!'! slaughterhouses, meat packing pI '\Iits, retail food dealers, dise~se.

etc 0' and from other rf!.w materials, especially 'lIbole C'll'casses of arumals th'3.t have died from

·

" with salmonellae including many uncOlllllon serotypes.

WHO/ZooD/61 . page 17 Recently it has become known th'lt they may be,more or less heavily contaminated In some European countries. :$:1; has been realized that following the import of such contandnated products, particularly fish meal fram Africa, salmonellae of types hitherto unknown in those countries have made their appearance ~n

the animal and the hwnan population and have caused tood-

borne outbreaks in man. Though in some countries fish meals are produoed in a manner that entails a heating process that will ensure the killing of salmonellae present in the raw product, some of the fish meals he~vily

contaminated with salmoneUae are being The introduction of more ~oods

produced by lIIilling lIun-dried fish.

Such fish :l,s very liable to contamination

from birds and rodents during the drying process.

satisfactory methods of produc'tion in the countries concerned should be encouraged. Until such methods c&n be inaugurated oountries which have to import animaJ. will have to consider the necessity for the ~sterilization

of the products. I

It has now also been shown that concentrates of vegetable origin (e.g. cotton seed cakes, suni101'1er cakes, groundnut cakes) and alfalfa may be contaminated with salmonellae. Further investigation is needed to determine the sources,and degree of thil'\ contamination and the possibilities ot sterilizing the products. It is strongly recommended that in the plants Where these foods and fertilizers are made there should be a strict separation between the "unclean" section where the raw materials are kept and the "clean" department where the sterilized meal is milled, sacked and stor~d,

so as to prevent secondary contamination The meal should also be protected

of the tinal product tram the raw products. insects. The introduction of

during !}torage against possible contamination trom rats, mica, birds, reptiles and

salmonella-cont~inated too~

into tactories which

prepare mixed animal feeds may lead to contamination of mills and other

WHo/zoon/6l page 18

equipnent from -which, in its turn, other products may become contaminated. In this connexion the dangers of re-using sacks -which have contained potentially oontaminated material. should be remembered. 4.4 . CONTROL OF HUMAN SALI€ONELLOSIS There is a lack of tnformation on the true incidence of salmonellosis in man and animals in all countries. salmonellosis Careful inv~stigation

of outbreaks would improve knowledge ~ven

of the nattlre and extent of the problem.

Methods of investigation of human in the Meat Hygiene

ang or l

other types Experience

or h~

food poisoning were

Committee Report.

shown that in many outbre3ks, even when they are

thoroughly tnvestigated, it is difficult to trace the food or food ingredient responsible. Mention has ~ready

been made of cross-contamination of foods in

kitchens and food factories.

Where there are the necessar;y facilities, surveys

should be made of foods or otger subst3Ilces which from their nature or method of handling mightbe cont'llllinated. So far as present knmvledge allO'Is the fornm.lation of control measures, it may be said that they should include the following:-

1. 2. 3~

Reporting of cases .so that they and their contacts may be prevented spreading disease. Education of cat9rers and fo.OO handlers in a high standard of kitchen

~om

8l}d person.al hygiene. Proper refrigeration of foods. Effective pasteurization of milk. ~d ~.

4,

5. Hygienic production of eggs and storage in the cold if possible; hygienic preparation of egg products effective heat treatment of the final product before distribution.

1 Wid Hlth Org. techno Rep. Ser., 1955, ,22, 7-11

WHO/Zoon/6l page 19 6. sterilisation of animal food liable to contamination • High standardsof abattoir hygiene.

. 7.

These measure" are self-evident and in. III8lV countries some. attempts are being made to applY them. Heat treatment of food for animal s has so far boen very "little used. Pasteurization ot egg products is being actively pursued at least on an e~rimentaJ.

scale, -·but there are still problems to be overcome.

The small

difference between the temperature which ensures death of salmonellae and tllat which. resu.lts in coagulation of the procbct raises difficulties when the method is applied cOlIID8rcially. There is need, too, for .a test, such as the phosphatase test for 1IIilk,

to ensure the pasteurbation method is being used effectively. Despite the difficulties health authorities should press for legislation to ensure egg products are distributed free from salmonellae. ~

It is impossible to mea8Ure the ccntdbution

made by egg. products to human s8J.monellosill, but tMy are so in lldangerous situations I! -

w1deq

Used

bakeries, cont'ectioneries, cooked meat factorieeand the·

like - that they ma;v well be a. major source ot trouble flvan though tracing .pec1t1c outbreaks to this 80111"0$ has boen found to be difficult. '!be main food source of human salmonellosis, however, is. meat. Therefore, the importance of a high standard of hygiene in. abattoirs and meat,..pack~ plante cannot·· be ovel'-emphasized. is essential.

Rapid and adequate cooling ot carcasses (preferably below 10 C)

0

This applies also to e!lible otfals which are going to be packed in.

barrels or boxes for further handling. It has boan I!Ih~ by mora than one investigritor that cattle and pigs ted with • . Ulness, but thetr sal.monel:l.a.tcontaminated foods or otherwise natUl"ally intected do not neces88dly showl organs mq contain salmonellae. Duri~

the processing of their carcasses in. the ~nner,

abattoirs widespread contamination of the meat passing through the abattoir can occur. At least one very large human epidemic in recent years originated in this veterinary authorities, should ensure the hygienic operation of and no <x>ubt abattoir contamination of meat has caused marv other outbreaks. Health and

WHO/Zoon/6l p9ge 20 abattoirs by demaMing tho application or all possible sanitary measures bacteriological checks. precautions and control procedures. It is tpe responsibility

.

.

1

including

Food progessing plants shOUld also be subjected to similar

or

the tood industry of food processing.

itselt to develop the use or bacteriological methods in

san1tati~n

In some countries this is already regulated by their gC?Vernments. When widely-distributed foods have been freed from salmonellae, the problem

or

human salmonellosis will have to be reassessed and it will· then perhaps be possible

to define the rSle ot tho human symptomless excretor in the food fac100ry and kitchen. In the investigation of salmonellosis, full use should be.made of the resources

or

national and international Salmonella Centres (see Annex 5). 5. LEI'rOOPIROOIS

5.1 EPIDElITOLOGY Leptospirosis occurs in &rlmals and man in all parts of the wcrld. epidemiology of the disease follows a charact~ristic

The

pattern, similar to other

,,

zoonoses, animal to animal, and animal to m911. rare exceptions, stops with human infection.

The chain of transmission, witlt.

For. many years rats and field-mice n.nd bter dogs were considered to be the primary animal carriers, but, as investigation increased, a wider host rang~

was

uncovered, not only among domestic animals but in a variety of wild mammals. Leptospirosis.now constitutes a major problem in cattle and a problem 9£ undetermined size in swine. In some areas sheep;..goats and norses become infected. Rodent carriers include rats, mice and voles. have been found infected. In addition, bats, mongooses, bandicoots,

shrews, hedgehogs, jacka+s, faxes, opossums, raccoons, skunks,·w1ldeats and others In these host animals, leptospires l?ecome localized in the +~en

kidneys and may be found in the

of the convoluted tubules.

They are shed in

the urine often for long pElriods. . Arthropods do not seem to have muoh importance but some ticks can remain carriers. 1

Wld Hlth Org. techno Rep. Ser., 1955, 99

~I

WHO/Zo~61 . " page 21 Some l~ospiral

serotypes have a single animal host, others may infeot a. An·

variety of hosts.

$ometimes more than ona type may be found in the same host. it has been isolated·

eX8l!lple of this is L. canicola found principally in dogs; other serotypes.

from oattle, sw:j.ne and jackals while dogs have been found to harbour at least nine

The dispersion of leptospirosis is related to specific environmental cgnditions, particuhrly those which bring animal. carriers, water, lIII1d and man together. carrie~s

Animal

otten excrete a profusion of leptospires in the urine - up to 100 million

per ml.

If the urine is excreted into water 9r mud whico. is neutral or sl1ghtJ.y Susceptible a.n1mal, and 1II8D v~

9.lIcal1nlj- the leptospires may survive for weeks.

entering this environment are exposed to the agent and 1118¥ develop infection, from an inapparent response to an acute fulminating fatal disease. The leptospires usually enter the body through the muco~

membranes of the It 1s doubtful

conjunctivae, nose or mouth, or the broken or macerated skin.

it

these organisms can penetrate the intact slc1n and it is unlikely that the stomach or intestines are i'1lportant portals 9f entry since the pH of the stomach or rumen is such that they are rapidly killed. 5.1.1. Human infections

In man, Weil's disease caused by L. icterohaemorrhagiae is still the most dangerous of the leptospiral infectioll4,.but serious human infections caused by other serotypes of leptospiras also occur, e.g • fatal cases . have been reported from inf'ectionlJ caused by L. bataviae, L. grippotyPhosa, L. pYl'ogenes and a f<JW other serotypes. Although other serotypes ~

cause a relatively mUd

diseas~,

recovery In casell"

usuallY takes a long time and occasionally complications may occur later. of an acute disease with high fever and signs of muscle pains, redness leptospirosis must be considered. diagnosis should be c~rried

ot

the

conjunctivae, and jaundice, and :\on cases of' aseptic meningitiS, the possibility of. Early laboratory investigations to Qonfirm the out especially where occupational exposure to infective

material is suspected.

I

o/zo0"!l/61 e22

'!be dj.sease has long been recognized among veterinarians, sla~hterhoU8e rker~,canal workers, poultry and fish handlers, kenneJ. men,

swineherds, miners,

king hPt\Bo .ol!lployeos, plantation labourers and other~. O~act

In Wen's disease iDiivid~

with watercontamin~tod ,11th urine from infected rats are at speoial risk.

rkers in irrigated fields (rice and cane fields, in particular) often become ,. . ecte~, as do farmers handling infected livestock, particularly swine and cattle, and ers of dogs have suffered from the disease. For ~

decades swimming and accidental immersion have been 'associated with ca~e

Uls disease in h1.Dllans, .wt in recent years other serotypes have been shown to sease after suoh exposure to contaminated water. our such outbreaks have been reported. '!bese episodes followed a common

In the thited Statel!! ot America pattern.

bey occurred in the .late sumner during dry periods (stagnant ponds or slow-moving

treams) when there was presumed contamination of the water by urine from infected n1Jnals. lIost of the infections were char~terized

by signs of meningitis.

Children

ad young adults were principally involved • •• 1.2 Cattle am swine Leptospirosis is thought to be spread by contaminated water and soil, by.:.:ehronic Ihedders among domestic animals, and probably!w!ld animals in some areas. ma~

The

.

lisease is known to spread vel)' rapidly in feeder cattle, dairy h$rds and swine..

:n

cattJ.e there have been instances of epizbotics extending over

counties.

:nfection in cattle and swine can . result in abortion. . , lEIavy in some parts of the world.

Mortality in calves is

'!be disease is spread from dog to dog by urinelcon~inated tomi tes . as well as by

. b y direct contact or by

utero

In some cases it can be spread from I'odents or livestock to dogs. The epizootic

The disease is frequentJ.y epizootic in dogs in urban populationS'. may persiBlt for some months before subsiding. may not reappear for years.

Following such an episode the disease

-'

WHO/Zoon/6l

page 2:3

Despite widesp'l'Elad infection of ebgs withL.. canicola, surprisingly few cases in man ascribable to this source have been observed.

5.1.4 Rodents and other small mammals Widespread infection in these animals Is an important source of disease for domestic animalss-'1.d man. 5.2 UBORATORY DIAGNOSIS

The principal methods \lS$d for diagnosis are culture, animal inoculationa and serological tests. All thCG3- methods tho~h

should be used wherever possible,

serolog:l.cal tests are the 'most 1f1del7

employed because of their practicabUity,

...

l The agglutination test is the method of choice but it has some practical

disadvantages in that antigens are frequently unstable, and a large battelY of )

antigens made from different serotypes is required to cover the spectrum of sero"Qrp8e found in a particular area. This difficUlty can partial~ be overcome by grouping or mixture/il of a n t i s e r a , . 2 :3 related serotypes into antigens/which can be used for screening purposes. ' For diagnostic purposes in indivichlal cases of illness, the most. significant finding is a rising titre iIi_t.wo serum. specimens taken of the disease.

7 - C days apart, provided the first is taken early in the course On single specimens no definite statement can be made, but a

relative~ high titre foupd in conjunction with clinical signs is presumptive

evidence of leptospirosis.

Some workers have reported low levels or absonco of

antibodies when antibiotics have been administered very early in the disease, or when the 'case is rapidly·fatal.

1

Th:1s test has been known as the agglutination-lysis test. Recent work w1thtbe- .. aid of.t~ ~ectron-micrqsc;ope has revealed that true lysis ebes not' occur. 2 ' Alston, J.lT., & Broom, J.C. (1958), Leptospirosis in man 'and animals, Livingstone.Ltd table 34,. 399

3

12,

Galton, M.M., Powers, D.K., Hall, A.D. & Cornell, R.G.(l958), Amer. J. Vet. Res., 505-512

WHO/loon/6l page 24

When making serological surveys it should be borne in II11nd that the length at thte for Which antibodies persist, and the height or the titres# vary in different indiv:iduals, and with the serotype causing the original intection. Microscopic screening tests in an:imls With both living and killed antigens can be carried out at a single serum dilution or 1/100 and a positive reaction at this dilution can be considered as evidence of past or present infectiOn with leptospires. Complement-fixation tests are. used by maIV workers for diagnosis, but this test is inferior in value in most instances to the agglutination test. l ,2,3 Same workers have obtained favourable results with Cox's hemolytic test4 but this test has not yet been evaluated on a large scale.

1 ,

Isolation of the leptospire by culture or animal inoculation should be tried whenever Possible.l,2,3 5.3 CLASSIFICATION, TYPING AND NOMElCLATURE

I

I I

I' ) I

The Committee read the report

2

of a Study Group on Diagnosis and Typing in Work J'"

Leptospirosis convened by WHO, with FAO participation, in November 1955.

carried on b,y members of the StuQy Group and collaborating laboratories since that time, including meetings of some Panel members in December 1957 and during the Seventh International Microbiological Congress immediately preceding the present meeting, was also brought to the attention of the Committee. It was noted that the Leptospirosis Sub-Committee of the Internaticnal COIIIIittee on Bacteriological Nomenclature at its meeting during the Seventh International Microbiological Congress had considered various recommendations made by the Study Group on questions of classification and typing of Leptospira and had accepted most of them. The following views in this section of the report, therefore, represent the opinion of the present Committee which, except for relativeJ,y minor points, are in fundamental agreement with the groups mentioned previousJ,y. Alston, J. M. and Broom, J. C. (1958) Leptospirosis in man and. animals, Livingston Ltd 1

i ,

II Ii II

j I

2 Wld Hlth Org. techno Rep. Ser., 1956, 113

3 Wolff, J. W. (1954) The laboratory diagnosis of leptospirOsis, Thomas, Springfield, Ill.

4 Cox, C. D. (1957) J. Inf. Dis., !Q!. 203

...

""

WHO/Zoon/6l page 25

5.3.1 . Classification and typing The

cuz:rent OIl

sch~e ".

of classification 1ihich divides the genus Leptospira into " :" t " \ '. <

serovpes available.

the basis of agglutinogen characters, by agglutination and cross-

absorption reactions 1Vi th immune rabbit sera, still provides the best system

In view of the paucity of basic information on the nat~eot ~lut:l.nating· antigens, and in view of the large llllIIDer of serotypes that could .be envisaged i f , , '

.

serotypes were to be distinguished. on the. basis of minor differences, the CoJlllllittee considers that soDie arbitrary numerical standard mWJt be applied for the " " " I . " '

~'ficlai

,

recognition of different, seX'Owpes. . . " "

The criterion most widely accepted at present '

18

the residual homologous titre after cross-absorption (see belOw), and arguments' have' . been advanced for (a) redLlcing the presently accepted W,per cent figure to 6 per cent, 1ihich lIOuld enlarge the number of recognized serotypes, or (b) increasing to 25 per' cent which wouldrecfuce the number. Since the 10 per cent figl1re has been widely used tor many years and there seem to be no cotllpelling reasons in the light of our present incanplete knowledge 'on antigenic composition to change this figure" the" Com.1ttee recommends the following criteria'for classification..

5.3.1.1 Berotype .''l'wQ strains are conside~ed

1:0 belong to, different sero1:iYpes

i f J after cross-

absorption with adequate Smotmts of heterologous antigen, 10 per cent or more of, the homologous titre regularly remains in each of the 'twO. art.t1.se;oa in'repeated teste~

In some instances limits lower· than 10 per cent,lQ!Il' occur, and ,if thesefind,ings "are constant and the differences appear to be of epidemiological significance, these

strains may be grouped within the serotype as sub-types. wi thin a. serotype where in ::repeated tests less

"

Thus a SUb-'tiYP8 i,a a etr~

th!in 10 per cent of the homOlogous, in at least one antiserum , . titre/remains after cross-absorption with adeqwlte amounts of .heterologousant!gen . (within the' serotype).

ltHO/Zoon/61 page 26

5.3.1.3

Serosroup

This is a group of two or more serot7pes. shoring maJiced s1m1larities in their serological reactions by the agglutination test. routine diagnostic purp~ee

It should be noted that for

detailed serological analysis of isolated straine is not

necessary, and a preliminary classification by means oi simple agglutination tests

,

.

using a battery of standardized antisera ldll: suffice. grippotyphosa, pomona, etc.

By this technique, stra1.nll

of pathogenic leptospirosis can be grouped (serogroup) into icterohaemorrhagia!,

Annex 6 shows the classification according to the above-mentioned criterta. The COIIIIIIittee fully realises the fact that biochemical methods of ant.i.genic tr~tionation ,

.

of leptospirres,

or other methods, mq in the futu" provide a new

and more satisfactory basis of differentiation and classification. In view of the increasing number of IInewl' sero1v'Pes which are appearing in the

literature without adequate description of urological characteristics the Committee suggests that before a new sero14YPe be accepted as Valid, either the work sb:>uld be verified in one of the WP£J/FAO Leptospirosis Reference Laboratories (see .Annex '7), or, if the work had been mne in a Reference Laboratory, tlaeprotocols of agglutination and agglutinin-absorpt.i.on tests should be examined by a second Reference Laboratory.l

1 At the Seventh International ltlcrobiological Co~ress in Stockholm in August 1958,

!@l and L. icterohaemorrhag1ae(A) (or such designations as complete

the Leptospirosis SUb-commi:ttee recommended that the terms L. icterohaemorrhagiae incomplete biotypes or sub-types) . no longer be used to designate the two sub-types of L. icterohaemorrhijfiae. This should also apply to serotypes (e.g. L. australis- A and L. australis B. No alternative method of designation was however proposed. A reasonable solution would be the adJption of the system outlined in the Internatl.onal. Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria and Viruses (Iowa State College Press, Ames, 1958) for the designation of taxa of subspecitic status. The Leptospira SUb-committee also decided for the present against a proposal that the names of all leptospiral serotypes be latinised. However, i f at some future date the present serowes be accorded speci.f'ic rank, then the names must be bro~ht into confom.'t!Y with the Code. This would mean that any specific, or subspecific, epithets correctly formed and valicD.y published would automat1cally have priorit.y over names (continued on next page)

ana

--

II

WHO/ZOOn/61. page ')f'I

'!'he Coimn1 ttee notes with satisfaction the valUable fUnctions •

bei~

served 'by ~thO~

the six WHO/FAO Leptospirosis ReferenCe Laborator1es in ase1st1Dg cOUJ);tri,es ~ tb ,. respect to classification and typing of strains, the fostering of uniform . '

tor diagnosiS and survqti;, and in research on :Improved laboratory procedures. . Th, Committee strongly recoaendstbat countries take fW.1 advantage of the services otteNd by these cent"s, and that WHO and FjD continue to assist the work of ,the.. centres (see Annex

.

7).

S.4.1. In tho prevention of Leptospirosis thean1mal shedde:r:, the contaminaijed eqvironment and the exposed indiVidual or animal have each to b9odnrii1ered. <a> The animal shedder pa~cu1arlT

Small rodents, leptospirosis

rate and mice, are the. principal spreaders .of

contracted in fields (Weil' s disease, mud fever, .

cane fe'Ver, etc.> and fl'OlD bathing pools, althougb large-an1mal reservoirs hUlll8Jl infections however, can be throug~

are

sometimes .concerned iri tho latter. '!'be pig shedder has often' been· the sourCe of contact, and cattle and clogs to a.much lesser extent. sources of infection. Cattle infected with L. sr1ppotzpho'&j L. pollOna and dogs with L. ioteroAapl'l'l!y1¥ ~eroU8

'!here has been little BUCOdS· in achieving a practical metAlod for elilllirlat1Dg the shed.d8r state in e:llDals through antibiotic treatment.· This point

is important and the .CoIImittee recollllll8Dds

that tur.ther research be made.·

1 (cont:l.m1ed from previOl18 page) . ,not inlatinbed form,even it they had be.enin use. for ma.n;y years and were wall established in the literature. To prevent confusion which might result from Changd at a later date the COIIIII1ttee recoJllllends that this be again brought· to the attention of the Leptospira SUb-COIIIIII1ttee for further consideration of this question.

WHO/Zoon/6l page 28 Rodent 3preaders can beoombsted only by rodent control. This is difficult. t<;l'

accomplish GConomically in the agricultural arellS usually affected by leptospirosis. Some partial succass ..as reoorded. in Italy and Spain where a dic\llllarol oom.pound. was us~

in poison baits in the campaigns, but thts method required reIl3Wed efforts wer~

yearly on large tracts of land and the eoonomic and health benefits sufficient to encourage ;routine use. achieved. limited ~uccess.

not

In Awltralia the burning of eane-t1e1ds has loo~

A. thorough lcnOIflOOge of

rodent eco.l.ogy is necessary

to ensure success and this information is otten la.cldng. (b)

Contaminated environments

Leptospiras are very sensitive to disinfectants J and cblotine disinfection of water or bathing pools should be carr!ed out wherever possible. of contaminated The disinfeeSion

9a;'IlS,

pig

~41iesJ

etc., can be accomplished With the oonunon

disinfectants, e.g. eresols. Disinfection of large tracts

or

land, such a.s rice-fields, with copper sulfate b~en

or caloium cyanamide has been tried but results have not

successful except

under limited and special conditions (some areas of Japan). (c)

ProplYlax1s in man and vacoination of animaJs glove~

Protective clothing such as boots and and other vulnerable groups.

are to Ite recommended for h)anters. they offer

fishermen and .ewer-workers s but they are impracttcal fOC' field workers, miners Protective sJp.n creams have. been triedj some protection but only for a short period. Vaccination has been claimed to be successful in Italy, Spain, Japan and the USSR, but it is otten difficult to evaluate the claims becawse there were not suftioient numbers of persons under observation to give the differenoes be~en

st~tistieal

a1gniticance to

vaccinated and unvaccinated

grou~.

Also, some vaccines have The best results sgem

caused undesi rable side-reactions a1'Id have lleen abllndoned.

to have been achieved in Italy where fqrmollaed or 1I1e!'th1olate vaeci1\e was ued.

--

WHo/zoonlfA: page 29 Two 8~u'taneo~ 1noculatioM of 1 m1. oenoentPllted vaceine·?-lO'days apart were

liven.1 Chemoprophylaxl.s .:.-

".

has

boen recommended fer use after

'Where mulUple serotypes are incriminated' eValuate this procedure.

in a J"eglon, or where anticipated exposure

an

outbreak has st.arted,

will only be of short d1}l'ation, but the Committee does not have su!f1cien\; data to

The Oommittee also t1nd8 it difficult to evaluate claims for the effectiveness of vaccines in an1mal.s because sufficient expe~ts

have notbcen reported.

SCIIIG

vaccines in dogs (prepared witg L. canicols and L. icterohaemorrhagiae serotypes) and in cattle (prepared With L. pomOna) have apparenUy prOtected to soioo extent

against clinically demonstrable' disease, but the vaccines have in many instances ' failed ~o

protect ag&11'18t the establishment of a car1'"1er st.ate within'ind1yidual This is a serious drawback from the public health point ot view. Tbe'

animalS.

OOllll11ttee 'atrongly reoOllllll9nds that carefully controlled expEl~sbe earned out 111. \h vacoine in domestic 8l)imals to enable a better assessment of the· value o£ .

vaccines 'for \hese animals. ' 5 .4.2 Treatment Early serotherapy of Well's dis~asein

man, uling purified antiserum

ot

btgb

potenay, has given excellent results.

PeniCillin has been the !pltlbioticmOlt Contradlctca:'y the pyrexial. Treatment if given early in the ~educe

oommonly employed in the t1"eatment of acute leP\iospirosis in man.' results have been obtained by different workers. disease before the sixth day. ot'illness has bgen elatmedto '

period of the patients. Herxheimer reacilions, followed b11"api.tl " with quick improvement . rellef ot symptoms, have sometimes been observed, but opposed t.o thele obaervatiGa8 have been earef'lll studies ,?f treated and un\reated ~1v14uals

.with nQ 8ignU1\c!U2t InWeo..lone

d1tferences in the.results • These tailures were noted

p~icul,arly

i

Babudieri, B., Bussinelloi E., Bajocchi, E., Salvi, A. Riv. Inflort. Mal. Profess., 42, 453-484 I _

'

&&

Yusa,

t.~

(l9SS)

,

.

WHO/Zoon/61 page

30

caused by L. icterobaemorrhagiae and IIIa\Y other serotypes.

~t.apply

equally to infections caused by

Conclusive resw.:t;s have not been obtained with antibiotics (straptom;ycin, penicillin, tetracyclines) in infected antmals, although favourable responsl!!s have been reported in cattle and dogs it treated early after infection,

6. 6.1 BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS

TUBERCULOSIS OF ANnw. ORIGIN

,Eradication of bovine tuberculosis is a major, object.i:ve of a number of countries. Considerable progress has been made in the e;radication of tuberculosis in cattJ.e in III8.IlY parts of the world since the Report of the First Session ot the Joint WHO/FAD 1 Group on Zoonoses -was published. 'Ibis is exemplified by the present position not

onlJ' in Norwa;v, Sw!tden, Denmark, Finland and the United states of _rica. which were alreaqy well forward at the time of the first report and are now free of the disease or practically so, but also in Canada, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Great Britain and the German Federal Rapublic, in all of lihich rapid results have been obtained by the application of the methods of control recommended by the Committee (see Annex 8), the basis of whieh is the systematic application of the tuberculin test and relllOval of reactors. The continuing decrease of the incidence of tuberculosis in cattle is being acoompanied by a great reduction in the incidence of bovine tuPerculosis in the human population and, in some countries, its virtual elimination. the kinds of tuberculin and methods of application given 2 ;1nthe first'report have in the main been continued in the different countries. 1 WId Hlth Org. techno 'Rep. Ser;, 1951, 40 2 The doses of PPD tuberculin used in Gr:::t Britain, howeTer, have been changed. They are nowt mamnalian tuberculin - 10,000 international units (0.1 ml tuberculin, 2 mg per ml) and 2,500 international units avian tuberculin (0.1 ml tuberculin, 0.5 mg per ml). , , - , So far as 1s

mown,

\ .

,

WHO/ZOQDlQ", page 31 ..... . While different types ot tuberculillare used in diiferentcountr1es, PPD . (purified protein derivative) 'is considered to be the tuberculin of cb,1cebecau8~ •

ot its state of comparative purity (tuberculo-protein) and the ease with whicb it can be atandardized. In the production of tubercul1n,str81na of the human Vpe of In some. countries bovine strains' are flO _ _

the tubercle bacillus are largely used. regarded as more specific; conclusive.

the evidence on this point, however, is by

In the retesting of cattJ..e, the interval between the appl1oat1o'ft of teat. varies according to the pon tion Of the disease in the 'berdJ thus, wlien Nacttore ue,iIl:J3j be"'~

present in the herd, sri. interval of about 60 dqa (not less) shouldelaps8

tests whUe,on the o'ther hand, when 'no further reactol'8 are dIIalorie'tl'ated, tbe interval'mq be increased to se.eralllldnths and eventually to a year or more. ," Retesting with tuberculin, however, even in herds in which no reaotors essenti81 to detect possible introaed infection. . Non-specific reactions (no visible les:1on reactors) to the tuberculin' ex1.t~

is

teet' " t- _ ~

continue to be a problem, especially in SOlll6 countries. The incidence of non-sPecitic reactions increases in 1mpo~ce as that of tuberculosis becomes less in'hel'ds '~'" , ., .,,-.' areas. While some of the causes of this sensitivity to tuberculin are known and ~

,

.

_ .

. •

~-

differentiation between such sensitivity and that caused by bovine

tub~ai8

can

often be made, e.g. by the uSe of the comparative tuberculin teat (mammaUan _d,l.: avian tuberculins), more 'WOrk 18 still necessar,y on the causes of non-specitio reactions. ~

Epideln1010gical and iaborato17 studies that mq reveal ecologie&1 aDd .: 'l'beA

other factors to explain the·sensl"tl.v1ty to tuberculin testB such as are be~ '" co-ordinated by the Tuberculoms Research Office of WHO are to be encouraged. findings would be of value towards, pertaining to tuberculin reactions. I

801ving~th,human

andveter1na17 Pl'Pbl:-e1118

AnimaJs can 'also of traced to this source.

COurs6 becOD18

infected from humans and a large numb.' 4tc',;

reinfection of tuberculrit-free herds with human or bovine ti)'pe's1il"ains have beaD· ',.

,. r

WHo/Zoon/61 page' 32 Infection with human strains ooes not cause progressive lesions in cattle but often gives rise to a marl<:ed tuberculin reaction, often temporary in nature, and

interferes with the application of the tuberculin test. Tuberculosis in buffaloes is a .problem in SOme countries. While, generally

speaking, 1ts control and eradication ma;y be pr.actised on lines s1m1lar to those for tuberculosis in cattle, some further work is necessary on the application and 1nterpretation of the tuberculin test in these animals • . In the humanbe1ng, vaccination against tuberculosis is being extensively

pr40t1sed in some parts of the world.

In cattle, experiments have been made with

vaccine a consisting of live cultures of the BeG and vole strains of the tubercle bacillus. ,The Committee is of the opinion that, generally speaking, vaccination has no place in the eradication of tuberculosis in cat~le.

'!be method h&a never been

shown to lead to the eradication of the disease;

vaccines such as those composed

of BOO or the vole strain of bacilli create a sensitivity to tuberculin and therefore interfere, to a mari<:ed extent, wi:t;h schemes for eradication of the disease in which tuberculin testing forms the basis. Kaqy difficulties are inherent in the application of &nT vaccination scheme, one of the most important being the essential condition that onlY animals free from the disease are submitted to vaccination. While in the human subject chemo-therapy may be a useful asset in dealing with tubercul.oa1s, .it has no place in animals and should be discour~ed.

In addition to

the possibility of the development of resistance of strains of the causa;!. organism in treated aniDlals, the use of chemo-therapy is entirely impracticable in .animal .s

because of the high cost of treatment and frequent recurrence of the disease. when tl'eatmentis stopped. Tuberculosis in humans rasul tlng from bovine organisms was a serious problem in the past ill several countries and the reduction in human cases which follows the recmctlon of t.uberculosis in bovines has been clear~

danonstrated.

'tYPing .should be

encouraged in a country in which the necessary infomation 1s not alreaeV available~ 1

1 World Health Organization (1953) Advances in the control of zoonoses, Geneva (World Health Organizationr Monograph Series, No. i9)

~;J

i

.

WHO/Zoon/61 page))

6.2 ,

TUBERCULOSIS IN ANDLALS OTHER THAN CATTLE AQ1ma] S

. ...,

,

.

other than cattle may occasionally be a source of infection for man. they are highly susceptible to both human and bovine

Ifonkm are the mostjmportant;

VPes and can transmit the disease to their attendants. Dogs. though moderately resistant, can contract infection nth either 'human or bovine organisma, the proportion in aDT area depending on the type of exposure; in the main, hUlllBJi sputum, bov.1na m:llk and possibly meat. ~ which are highly resistant to the human 11YPe hlt suscept1ble to 1.ihe bovine tJpe are also a possible hazard, though contact.with man "is 1UIual~

I.,. clo.. tbaD is the case with dogs, especially lap dope ~ ~

Parrots are suaceptible to the human 'ti'Pe and ma;r be a partlcular danger owing to 'their! intimate contact with human beings." VPes but are not oOIlllllOnl:y infected. herds from goat. are in ex18tence. ... are susceptible to the bovine and human Several records of infectiOn of clean bovine are tJ'9quently infected, prevaltmee being '!'he Vpe concerned - bovine and

greater in sows and boars than in ;yoqer pigs.

avian usua1l;y, but sometiDles hUlllall - depends on tbe nature of the exposure.'1'hq constitute only a minor hazard to hUillarur @d indeed appatently to cattJ.a in Contact, though infection of bovines from pigs has been clearl;r establish.d.

Horses are

80metilles infected but

c~te

a negligible hazard». sheeP are rarel;y infected. 7. ANTHRAX

Though the number of reported cases of anthrax, both hUl!l&n and c.tUe, 18

.-

relatively low when cClDpared with the other soonosee, the.e data give a .f$l.ae impression of the true importance of the disease. number of human oases are frequent. oeeurr~

From available publ1ahed.. dIlta t"U

annuall;r has.been estJmated to be around 9000.

)lost of these casas occur in rural people, but in some areas, industrial infections . When various reasons for under--reporting are taleen into conside,J'ation, a truer incidenoe figure 18 felt to be somewhere between two and ten t1ma8 the

WHO/Zoon/61 page 34 report.ed figure. econo~

1

. An est.imat.e of t.he impact. of anthrax upon the animal husbandly ~

is the sum of the total cost of yearly immunization and the economic loss due This sum is ver,y considerable because in mat'W' countries annual

to animal deaths.

vaccination campaigns atrecting much of the livestock population are required. Epidemiologically 'jihe problem can be conveniently divided into its agricult.urlll and industrial aspects.

7.1 AGRICULTURE The spore form of Bacillus anthracis is ver,y resistant to chemical and Flnvironmental influences and can survive for years in certaj,n solls and in animal prodUcts S1:iiCh-.y b-1des, bair eli.weal.. 'ben antlnax intect:ion in livestock becomes Heavy

established in a district, there is created a relatively permanent enzootic focus of infection because of the inability of the soU to destroy the spores. Southem Europe and Africa. parts of the world. There is considerable evidence to show that anthrax is introduced into some cOlmt.ries by feeding-stuffs and fertilizers prepared from bones and other products of animals that died of anthrax. hides, or hair. Non-infected materials mq also become contaminated during transport in vehicles or ships which have recently conveyed infected bones,

contamination of the soil exists in III81'IY areas of the world, particularly: in Asia, Other cOlmtries have large or small lIanthrax districts", but the anthrax problem is not as serious in the Westem Hemisph6re as it is in other

Contamination of agricultural areas may occur through the use of . fro m plants such as tanneries.

waste materials salvaged from wool ·and hair processing plants as fertilizer material on crop lands, or by the efnuents

The anthrax bacillus can also be spread by nesh eating birds, animals and

insacts from dead carcasses to heal thy animals.

i

This estimate is based on studies made in both economically advanced and lesser developed regions. For example, in certain African countries reporting few cases aruma1ly, up to 20 times this number was observed in indiv.idlal clinics and hospitals.

-

,< )

WHO/ZooI!/61 page 35 '!he main SOUl"C98 of infection in agricultural wol'kers are contact infection

from contaninated carcass98, wool, hair and hides. cooked m~t

The ingestion of insUt!1cientq Inhalaui.)n

derived from infected animals is another source of infection.

anthrax is now rare. ~

factors contribute to the frequency ot anthrax infectioJl in man.

Deapi te

familiarity on the part of tamers with anthrax in livestock where this disease recur;; periodically, the onset of an epizoctic is frequently difficult to recognize because of the lack of striking signs.1n the hyperacute or apoplectic fo:nn of the disease 'Which mq be found at the beginning of an outbreak. where anthrax is recognized as the cause of death. 'lhese practices are highly dangerous. RegulatiON! are helpful in areas practising advulced animal husbandry, but in some coIllllUllities thee. regulations IllU8tbe abetted by concrete assistance trom governmental authorities, in the form of low-cost or free vaccination programmes in livestock, undertaken at regular intervals. ZOOM8GS,

For economic reasons, farmers An1mals are orten slaughtered

are loath to lose the value of hides whicll are sal vagecl hem dead an1ma]., even at the first sign of 8l\Y illness for meat purposes as ".11 u for their by-products.

In anthrax, therefor., as with other

the responsibilities of the health and agricultural authorities are

interlocked, and the following steps for control of this disease are recormnendecll <a> The provision of adequate local diagnostic facilities for the diagnosis

of anthrax in aniJnala. '--.,. -~ -.~

Rapid presumptive diagnoses can be based upon bacter101og:l.cal

-.

8IIlears made d1rectJ.y from the &lad animal or the performance of the MCol:!. . --. .. ...... - precipitation test (see- Annex'). l'Ihere f'acll:l.ties are available, culture and 1 an:I.mal inocula tion procedures should be used.

(b)

The unopened carcass ot the an1mal~·trom anthl'ax or 'Where anthrax is

suspected should be ciestroyed at the site l1here the anima] died as soon as possible 1 '!be use of anthrax gamma bacteriophage, which is specific for B. anthracis makes it possible to confirm the diagnosis of anthrax usually within 12 hours after the animal tissues have been received at the bacteriolOgical laboratory. (Brown, E.R. & Cherr,y, W.B. (1955) J. infect. Dis., 96, 34).

-

WHO/Zoon/6l page

36 'Iho prafe!"red mt:+,hod is by incineration; however, if this is not

a£ter ooat11.

possible, burial with lime spread over the carcass in a pit two metres deep is effective in preventing spl"aad of thG organism from the contaminated carcass. (0)

Subsidized

livcs-r,o~k-vaccination

programmes undertaken at regular intervals, Experience has shown that annual

using biological products of proved potency. months may be ne<Jded.

vaccination is r.ecdsaarJ and in some badly affected areas vaccination ever,y six

Many different kinds of an:'hrax vaccines have been used successfully for the

prevention of this disease in. animals, particularly spore SIlspensi9Jl. vaccine Cd) has been used with considerable success in many countries.

'lbe St;erne

Education of the agricultural population in the earJ,y signs of this disease Emphasis should be placed on· the dangers of contaminated wounds, Suspecte\i cases of anthrax in aztiJDals

in Ilian and animals.

scratch3s, abrasions and of eating meat from infected animals, and on the necessit,y for proper handling and disposal of carcasses. should be promptly reported to the rl'lsponsible authority. When anth:'ax h"',= ~t;en

diagnosed within- a herd i t is advisable to qUarantine the

entt,.s ;,tolrd for a period of two weeks following the last diagnosed case of anthrax, or two weeks following effective immunization.· .The quarantine implies that none of the ani..'!lals, either singly or as a herd, can be moved from the premises or pastures where they were at the time of the diagnosis. The management of anthrax in dair,y herds has been well covered in the first hmo . 1 report of the Joint FAD/nnO Expert Committee on Milk P.ygiene as follows, "Fortunately,- cattle infected with anthrax do not usually excrete the bacillus in t.'1eir milk since milk secretion stops abruptly.

(e)

...

-

However, the danger of milk

contamination arises .from the environment which frequently is highly contaminated wi th the bacillus or its very persistent spores.

r

Wld Hlth O::-g. techno Rf:lp, &Jr., 1957,

ld1;'

14-15

-

WHO/Zoori/61" page 37 "Where anthrax actually eXists in a herd, great pre.c.aut.ions must be taken because of the possibilit.y of the environmental cotl1iamination of the milk (warm milk prondee a good medium for t.he multiplication of the anthrax bacillus and the formatLon of spores). Despite this danger, however, milk-transmitted anthrax has been very rarG,

,

,

"Where adequate veterinary supervision is available and good sanitary practices are followed, precautions should include the careful observation of all animals in the herd for a period of at least two weeks after the last-observed clinical case ?f anthrax. Duri~

this period, &IV animal showing sjgns of Ulness' (including a rise'

in temperature

as indicated by a dailY thermometer check) ehoUld be isolated and The rest of the milk from we11-

its milk excluded. from the remainder of the supply. treated.

8upervised herds of this kind should be pasteurized or otherwise adequa,tel;r heat-

-In all instances of anthrax infection in a herd, imorough disinfection of

the

premises should be a' requirement.

., .

'Another point of difficul V in connmon with milk lQrgiene aspects of anthrax· occurs where dairy herds are inoculated with living-spore vaccines, with the resultant possibilit,y of anthrax bacill1beil1g excreted in the milk. Despite the lack of evidence of this possibiliV materializing, certain authorities have recolllll16nded that

milk fran herds where spore vaccine has beenaaninistered:.be not used for 3 to .30 dIQ's following aan1n1stration. 'lh1s often produces a decided hardship for fanners and

very frequent1¥ the application of such a restriction is not practicable. ·AmOre , workable procedure would be to require that all milk origins. 1Aing from vaccinatedherrda

•

-

be subjected to adequate heat-treatment before consumption, and that no milk should

be used from an:1mals showing systemic reactions to the vaccine (fever, anorena or othor clinical signs). vaccinated when dr,y.)ft (l)

(The difficulty can be avoided entirely 1£ the ard,IllalB.

Sl..".,.

The recognition or suspicion of anthrax in a carcass in an abattoir calls Operations should cease until rapid presumptive tests (smears, If these are positive, the infected carcasses

for severs measures. '....

Ascoli precipitation test) are made. disinfec'tton (two per cent ly~)

2l\d all carcasses possibly exposed to contamination should be sterilised, and thorough of the contaminated premises should be performed

lfflO/zoon/61 page 38 before operations are reSWlJ8d. inspection. In well-run abattoirs such incidents occur, only ~t

rarely, because animals ill with anthrax would be usuallJr recognized

ante-mortem

7.2 DIIlUS1'RI Cutaneous infection caused by contact with contaminated animal by-pro~cte

('WOol, hair, h~des, akins) 18 by far the most frequent tom of antbrax encountered in 1D.dutrial 'WOft.... '!'be inhalation fom of anthrax ranl7 OCCV8, althOUlb health . . . 1 author!ties should be on the alert for focal epidemics of this type.

'l'ha principal aources of anthrax in industrial 'WOrkers are two groups ot animal by-procmcts: (a) hair and wool, and (b) hides and skins. Nearly all eases ot proce~s

anthrax !rom handling contaminated hair and wOol occur in weaving and finishing operations; process. Anthrax associated with hides and skins OCCUl';J

prior to the

the spore wes not usuall7 survive the q,yeing frail handling these

materials prior to the tanning and finishing operations. Goat hair and skins from areas where anthrax is highly enzootic are the greatest sources of human infection. The most dangerous 'WOols are coarse wools originating from countries and distriots where anthrax is a severe and continuing problem. areas ~ere

"Orease" wools J even fl'(lll

anthrax is highl7 enzootic, are not as contaminated with B. anthrac1s

spore" as are !!pulled" 'WOols, since these latter wools lIl8¥ haft originated from

1 An

outbreak of inhalation anthrax occurred in the United states of America

in 1957, when several cases of inhalation anthrax were reported from among

the employees of one industrial concern within a few weeks.

WHo/Zoon/6l page 39 animals dead from anthrax. handling. l

"Grease" wools may I however I become contamina. ted during

Wool that is used inmanufac1#ur1ng carpets (coarse wool) is associated with more . human anthrax, infections than is the fine wool used in the manufacturing of·text.1les. 8COurtng

The danger is considered te be diminished following the reduce the. content of dirt and extraneous material in tile number of B. anthracis 48

process which will

sp=~the

well aa cause some reduction

wool.

The qyeing of wool in itS raw

state also rewce8 the danger of anthrax infections. control recommendations shouidbe made with' the vi_that they do not disrupt too greatly the supply of raw materials, or involve a cos1# out of proportion to the seriousness of the problem. There are many advocates for the compl,ll.so17 disinfection of animal products

potentially contaminated with B. anthracis.

From an. economic point of view, there

is no known satisfactorr 1nexpens;i.v~ method of disinfecting hides and skins, or of treating efnuents from factoriel. For hair and 11001 there is an effective process of disinfection in current used in the United Kingdom (see .AnnexlD). This process

makes it. possible to rewce the col1tamination of the raw wool and hair with B. antbl'ac18 and thus decreas.the likelihood of anthrax infections occurrlXW &IOOng those who sub8equen~

l!andle these materials.

Due to the Eapense of this method of

disinfection, its cost should be subsidised by, governments or spread evenly among the entire indust17. , -_.

The procecllrea reeOlllll8Oded'1n plants where potentially contaminated materials are handled are dealt with in Annex: U. 1 nOrease" wools are obtained by cutting- or cUpping wool fl'Gm the live animal

and are baled and shipped in. the naturaigrea,BY condition. "Pulled" wools, ... also called fta)dnltor It dRcit' .woOls, are obta1l1ed from the skins of d8aaainms,ls~ The wet processes used in the relllOval of "pulled- or IldeadD wool from the skiD, and in tl\e wuMnl ••r, ·~co.~ that frlliquently follows, ma;y result in the spread of the lII1c:rooreamllll to previous17 uncontaminated wools.

·1IHO/Zoon/61 page 40 7.3 INFECTIONS FROM BRISTLES

In the past, numerous cases of anthrax in man have been caused from bristles of shaving and. some other brushes contaminated with anthrax spores. sterilization procedure betore being embedded in the handle. 7.4

It is recommended,

therefore, that all bristles to be used for shaving brushes be subjected to a

llIPORTATION OF ANIMAL BY-PRODUCTS hy-procQctrr, such as wool, hsir, hides, skin, bones, bone meal, etc.,

WDIB)

are frequenUy contaminated with B. anthrac1s and serve as a vehicle for introducing the disease into countries which import these mater:i.als.

It would be difficult to The

formulate uniform regulations 'Which could be applicable to all countries.

Committee feels, however, that certain measures in connexion with import requirements are feasible and have proved useful in the past and suggest as a guide the regulations now in effect in the united Kingd:>m (see Annex 12).

7.5 VACCINES FOR HUMANS Another control measure which can be considered for prevention of human anthrax is the use of an anthrax vaccine for protection

ot all indivic,;hals Who have contact

with potentially contaminated materials.

Various vaccines for use in humans have been

prepared and administered to exposed groups. These are discussed in reports from the l United Kingdom, USSR,2 and the UniWd States of America.' Promising results have been claimed for these vaccines.

(~~6) Lancet, 8 September, 476 • . 2 Shlakhov, E.N. (1957) Journal of Micl"ObioloQ', EPidem1o~oR end IDmUnobiologyl 1 Barlow, H.H., Beeton, F.C. &: Henderson, D.W.

5, 130.

:3 ;right, G.G., Gre8ll, T.W_ &: Kanarde, R.A. Jr (1954)

J. Immunol., :Q, 387.

vmo/ZoolJ/61..- ~ page 41

?6THEaAPI

Before the advent ot: sulfonamides and penicillin, even .the cutaneolJS form had a mortality rate of up tp 20 per cent. cutaneous Qisease to almost zero. Early diagnosis and treatment with penicillin or other broad spectrum antibiotics have current1yreduced the mortality of the Successful results with penicillin treatment and broad spectrum antibiotics have also been obtained in animals.

P81t~ageneralbed infection of man or p8it.tacine birds by one of the psittacQsis-lymphogranuloma group of organi8ll18. Omitbo818 is u86d for the s . . infection :in birds other than psittac:ines. Some 100 species ot birds of which more than one-halt are psittacine. have been tound to be naturally :in!ected. Emphaai8 on the psittacine aspect of this d1se&8e has :recentJT been replaced by intereet :in the infection of poultl7' &s a publio health and eClOnom:l.c problem. ,..

Acute omithoeu

18 at time8 a severe di8888e of tumYs, wcks and pigeone.

8.1 EPIImlIOLOGY The psittacosis-lymphogranuloma group ot organ1ems is one of the most widely

disseminated in nature. in man or its host.

It is found in many varieties of birds,

anima) S

and JII8I1.

Fortunately, it is usually of low virulence a.nd only occasionally produces di.,ease

Psi ttac:ine birds have been recognized as the pr:1.m.817 source ot dieease for man :in the past. Most infections have occurred in persons having cloe6 con_t with them. - bird breeckirs, handlers, sales persons, fanciers, and pet owners.

\

Turiteys, ,and to a 1e8s extent pigeons and chcks, are also a majOl" S01U'Ce of intect:lon tor man. Disease from these sources has bf;en reported among tamers, poult1'1 processors, and rendering plant weriters. ipfected more than once. or poultr,y prochctse Some of these individual.

ha.,. been

No disease has been traced to the consumption of poultl7'

I

'

WHO/Zoon/6l page 42

Pigeons are a world-wide source of infection for man, espeoially pigeon fanciers and handlers. Most infections are mild, although some severe cases have been reported.

In areas where psittacosis exists in wild or domestic birds, faw people can avoid direct or indirect contact with this sOtn'ce of infection. Fortunately, few individuals It develop disease, al~ough a number have serological evidence of past infection.

is thought that mild inapparent infections of avian origin, without. pneumonitis or any recognizable symptoms, have been the cause of t:lcst of these positive serological

reactions.

It is improbable that the mammalian viruses of the psittacosis group were

the source of these infections except among certain groups, e.g. veterinarians and livestock handlers. It has been suggested ~t

man may be the primary hest of certain strains of

the psittacosis organism, e.g. San FranCisco, nlinois and Louisiana strains, and also that there may be certain human strains that are of less virul&nce than those mentioned which generally cause no more than a mild rEspiratory infection. views require further confirmation.

These

The public health hazard of free-flying pigeons in urban areas, as well as starlings and sparrows is relatively small, although in some areas incriminated as being the source of human cD.sease. source of IIl8I\V of the inapparent infections. The mammaJian reservoirs of the pSittacosis group are becoming increasingly important as an animal health problem. The public heal.th significance is very small. Few human infections have been attributed to this source, except among some indi viduals exposed to enzootic abortion of ewes. ~ey

have bean

They probably have been the

8.2 DIAGNOSIS 1· 8.2.1 Virus demonstration

In man, diagnosis is confirmed by the isolation of the virus from the blood or

sputum.

This is often difficult to acco)IlPlish and requires repeated attempts.

In patients treated with antibiotics isolation of the virus is eVen more difficult.

1 See )leyer, K.F. and Eddie, B. (1956) Psittacos1s. IJ)a Iliagnost.ic l'No&dures for Virus and Rickettsial Diseases, New York. Amer. Pub. Hlth Ass., 2nd ed.

WHO/Zoon/6'l page 43 IJry material suspected to contain the psittacosis virus must be regarded as potential:

infectious and

da.~erous

to handle, unless proper precautions are taken.

It is :impossible to diagnose .with certainty psittacosis in birds by clinical

or gross anatomical. examination.

Impression smears made from lesions on serous

membranes of the air sacs, liver, heart and intestines and properly stained by the method of Giemsa or lIacchiavello ma;y reveal thE> intracellular or extracellular

elementary bodies.

Material in which the parasites can be demonstrated Attempts

microscopically is excellent for virus isolation by inOculation of mice. eggs are not alwqys successful.

to propagate the virus directly from infected birds in the ;yolk sac of·.embt'yonated

8.2.2 Serological tests The complement-fixation test is valuable in the detecticm of psittacosis in man and sane birds. In man, arising titre in paired serum specimens taken 7-10 days

apart can be considered presumptive evidence of active infection. obtained. Recently, ~

The results of

a.

single serum examination ma;y be difficult to interpret unless a High titre is the use has been reported, .. , ~

of a nOn~phogranuloma

specific antigen for psittacos:ls diagnosis in man with a killed suspension of Bact. anitratum. is not available. The direct complement-fixation test detects antibodies in man, psittacine birds and occasionally in pigeons. The indirect complement-fixation test should be used It should be noted, however, that the 'organism when the sera of turkeys, ducks, pheasante and pigeons are examined, as the direct test· is not reliable in these birds. has frequently been isolated from birds ane. man negative to complement-fixation tests. Although isolation of the virus will remain the final conclusive method in individual birds, particularly in relation to human infections, the complement-

This antigen is being tested in several countries.

venereum antigen can be used for the C.F. test where a l'6liable specific antigen

fixation tests provide evidence of active infection in aviaries or poultry flOcks. Whenever reactions with titres above 1/16 are encountered, the psittacosis virus isolation of the virus. can be considered to be active in the flock, and further search will usually lead to the

WHO/Zoon/61 page 44 8.,3

'1'HERAPY AND CONTROL Therapy with broad spectrum antibiotics is very effective in man. Treatment

;I .,

II II should be continued for 12-14 days to avoid relapses. Penicillin is of no value.

II

It has been established experimentally in the laboratory and field that psittacosis can be elillinated or controlled in parakeets through caretully supervised chemotherapy with tetracycline compounds given in medicated food (see Annex 1,3) or by injection.

This procedure, however, cannot

al~s

be depended upon to eliminate

the infection from birds, and carriers ma;y remain. avoidance of overcrowding.

The highest standards of II

husbandr,y must also be maintained, including clean well-ventUated premises and the No birds should be introduced into breeding flocks l.Ull.ess they originate in disease-free flocks and have been under observation for at least

30 days. The control of disease in turkeys, ducks and squabs is difficult and no procedures can be set forth except that the pranises be quarantined where the d1sease has been identified. Antibiotics have been used in pigeons with success, but in di.seas~

II

turkey nocks where acute

outbreaks occur, it has not proved practical Immuni~ation

because of its expense and uncertain value. nocks.

procedures are now baing

investigated to determine their effectiveness in preventing disease in turkey breed1ng The problem in duck nocks has not been acute except in soma instances. Antibiotics are of value in overcoming the acute phase of the disease in these birds, but virus carriers remain. There is no recommen~ble

control procedure for free-fiying pigeorus.

Costly

campaigns to reduce the pigeon populationio urbaneommunities are unwarranted as free-flying, pigeons are seldom the cause of human infection. aJOOng racing and fancy pigeons are individual problems. to be of value. 8.4 INTERNATIONAL TRANSFER OF PSITTACINE BIRDS Zoo officials and bird exhib1 tors usually follow the practice of holding imported psittacine birds in isolation for 30 ~s. I

Control of infection

Antibiotics are reported,

Any birds showing auspicious signs are

WHO/Zoon/61 page 45 subjected to laboratory invElst1gatioM (by direct and, i f possible, indirect oomplement-fixation tests, and mouse inoculation of faecal samples). plus the use of medicated food is worth inve~tigating

This procedure

as a pOssible alternative to

complete prohibition of entzy of these birds. As stated above, experimental investigations are now in progress with medicated food administered to birds in commercial shipments bew6encountries. the value Until, nowever, ~"ti

of this method haa been definitely proven it is recommended that the

importation of commercial shipments of psittacine birds be prohibited, but

consideration ,should be given to allowing indivicbals to import pets, rare birds,

and stock of exceptional breeding value, after receiving special pemission from the appropriate governmental aqthorities. allowed in a cage. Birds imported under these conditions should be shipped in individual cages unless they are very small, when two birds can be

9. as an important public health problem.

Q

FEvml \mo assisted survey of the

Q fever caused by the rickettsia Coxiella (Bicltetts1a) burnet1i is recognised

The results of a 2

distribution of Q fever in .32 countries

together with other published reports have

shawn infection in over 50 countries on five continents, and only in very few countries in which adequate investigations have been made have they failed to reveal the existence of this disease. human infection. Both animal and human infection occurs most commonly via the respiratory tract. Drinking contaminated milk can also infect, although experimentally it 1s not 'eaa;r to obtain infection via the gastro-inteltina1 tract. In most countries domestic :ruminants appear to be the most important reservoirs of Q fever at least from the point of view of

\ 1 The disease is also known as "Balkan Grippe". 2

Kaplan,

1W(.,& Bertagna.

P. (1955)

Bull. WId lD.th Org., 13, 829-860

WHO/Zoon/61 page 46 Because the organism is spread throughout the infected animal and is present in the blood, man may become infected from the meat, particularly at the time of slaughter.

Many outbreaks in abattoirs have been recorded and in some countries

Q fever is legally recognized as an occupational disease of abattoir workers.

As well as transmission from animals to man several incidents in which Q fever has been directly transmitted trom man to man have been reported, including infections in the post-mortem room and among hospital aids. In the infected ewe the organism becomes activated at the time of parturition and can be found throughout the boqy and in the excreta. fJ. though abortion is rare,

the placenta contains innumerable rickettsiae and these contaminate the ground. Rickettsiae are present in the milk and the waoi is also contaminated with organisms which mSy survive. Particularly in those countries where ewes are brought into yards to lamb, very high concentrations of rickettsiae may be found in the dust of these yards and since the organism is ver.y resistant to dr,ying, such dust, when sheltered from direct sunlight, is highly infectious. infectivity at least. at· one further parturition. The cycle in goats and cattle appears to be essentially similar to that in sheep. In the original Australian investigations a wild life cycle involving the tick !!8:~~e.~sal;i.s

Even in the presence of

substantial antiboqy concentrations, ewes may again go through a cycle of

humerosa and the bandicoot IsoOOn torosus was revealed and since then certain other wild mammal !!I, In the

at least 22 species of ticks falling into six genera of Ixodid and two genera of Argasid ticks M.ve been shown to be naturally infected. particularly rodents, have been shown to be naturally infected at t.i.milS.

USSR it is thought that ticks are important in the transmission of the disease to man, but in most other countries the respirator.y route of infection is regarded as the most important. More recrntly infections of both wild and domestic birds have been shown to be cOllDllon and the infection of migrating swallows (HirunOO rustica) and house m.artins (Delichon urbica) suggests that those could be responsible .for transporting the disease from one countr.y to another. The eValuation of the importance of avian hosts in the natural histor.y of Q fever requires further investigation.

WHO/Zoon/61 page 47' , 9.1 THE CYCLE OF INFECTION In certain countries .'where the disease has been recognized for several years,

a cycle of infection has been observed.

During the late 1940s and early 19.50s there In the middle 19.50s the numbers of

were vel)" large numbers of cases reported. be6ll reported from three such countries.

reported cases fell tenfold or more and then in 1958 a sudden increase has alreacV

At the same time from other countries evidetlce has been obtained of spread to further areas and to new cbmestic animal. hosts, probably due to movements of infected stock and this SUisestsanother problem in control.

9.2 DIAGNOSIS Isolation of C. bumetii and the inoculation of laboratory animals and culture should be undertaken only in well-equipped laboratories whe;oe suitable precautions can be taken to protect laboratory personnel from infection. The standard diagnostic procedu:re remains the complement-fixation test, but considerable advances have been made in the development of simpler agglutination 1 tests. ~e micro-agglutination test is simple to perform, economical in antigen and appears to be highly specific in the hands of experienced workers, but requires some further stuqy before it can be confidently recolllllended as a routine method to replace the complement-fixation test. The capillazy test' 2 '3

is a rapid and

.'

economical test of great value in survey work. 9.:3 CONTROL Despite the advance in knowledge since its first session, the Committee still 'cannot recommend adequate control measures for thill diseue. Heat treatment of milk

Ivrorld Health Organization (1953) Advances in the control of zoonoses, GeDeva (World Health Organization. Monograph Series, No. 19, p. 200) 2,3 Luoto, L. (1955) Luoto, L.! (1956)

J. Immunol., 74, 222-227 Ibid. 7?, 294-298

WHO/Zoon/61 page 48 is a measure which can be easily applied, but pasteurization by the holding (vat)

..... ,

method at 143

0

F for 30 minutes mq not kill all hhe organisms.

Raising the

temperature by several degrees is effective.

In laboratory workers and other ~en

individuals liable to heavy exposure to Q fever, it is recommended that vaccination procedures be carried out although undesirable reactions have instances. reported in some )lass vaccinations of humans cannot be recommended at this time.

Vaccination of cattle has been tried on an experimental scale and some promising results were reported. This prccedure, however, does not appear to be sufficiently effective to justifY mass application. The continued spread of the disease among domestic rdminants emphasizes the importance of giving consideration to the routine use of the complement-fixation test on sera from all ruminants passing to an apparently uninfeeted from an infected area with the exclusion of rll sero-positives. It should be noted, h9Wever, that all infected animals are not detected by the complement-fixation test.

•

Most cases of Q fever in man are mild and will recover rapidly without specific therapy. More acute disease responds well to broad spect:rum antib:i.oties..

10.

ARTHROPOn-OORNE VIRhL ENCEPHALI'l!IDES

These viruses (sometimes referred to as "arbor" viruses) belong to the group including all the viruses known to be arthropod-borne and capable of infecting vertebrates. During the last few years, numerous isolations have been made in various parts of the world and the number of such viruses isolated exceeds 70; reports on many of these remain unpubliShed and no disease syndrome has been associated with about 50 of them.

WHo/Zoon/61 page 49 l The world distribution of infection and classification of these viruses is under stuqy by Th'HO and FJ..O in collaboration with other groups of workers. Most, of these vix:uses appear to have only a limited range in geographieal distribution, but evidence of infection with some m6lllber ~f this rapidly growing group is being obtained in almost all count.ries where investigations are being made. problem ma:y be obtained. To illustrate the characteristics of this group, an important e~8mple from the mosquito-borne viruses and one from the tick-borne will be deecribed. 10.1 MOSQUITO-BORNE VIRUSES Extension of these investigations to further areas is desirable'so that a globaI understanding of the

The viruses belonging to the equine viral encephalitides group (Eastern, and tp the Japanese 13 group Western, Venezuelan)/have all been shown to be capable of infecting birds l and

it

.-

appears likely that the basic cycle by which they survive is a wild. bird - mosquito cycle, although many mammals can be infected and will show antibodies when a serological survey is made in an endemic or an epidemic area. ,These mamma] s, however, are not believed to play. a significant role as a reservoir of the virus. The most thoroughly studied of the equine encephalitides is Western equine encephalomwelitis

(WEE), which has been recognized over a ver,y large area of the

United States and in western Canada.. WEE virus has been isolated from wild birds on several. occasions and serological

evidence of natural infection has been found in a wide variety of wild and domestic . birds. It has also been isolated from at least six species of mosquito in the field.

Clima tic factors undoubtedly influence the incidence of WEE in horses and man •. Epidemic years are usually thos!> when there are long periods of warm weather and sufficient moisture which pennits a rapid population increase of both birds and 1 Yellow fever, because of its iml?ortanQe, has been dealt with separately by other expert groups (see WId HUh Grg. techno Rep. ser., 1950, 19; Off. ll.ec. Wld Hlth Org., 1954, No. 56, 77'::'85; i1.l.d Hlth Org. techno Rep. Ser:: 1957, 136).

,.,.

-..<!o.'

;

IBO/Zoon/61 page 50 llOaquitoe.. 1ni'ection. Horses and man become infected when thel"e bas been a large build-up of In man there are hundreds of inapparent infections for every clinical

intected mesquitol in an area, the disease in horses often acting as a sentinel of Case of encephalitis. The survival of the WEE· virus through the winter months when no infections occur hu not been satisfactorily elucidated. The possibilities which have bElen suggested return of the 'virus ~th migrating

are over-wintering in hibernat4ng mvsquitos,

birds, and survival of the virus in latent fonn in vertebrate hosts.

10.2 TICK-BORNE VIRUSES

In the tick-borne viral encephalitides, the viruses of the Russian spring-summerloup1~ i l l

group have been studied most extensively.

The viruses of this group,

isolated in large areas of Europe and Asia, are all closely related antisenically and are subdivided by seme workers onlJr on their relative pathogenicity for different vertebrate hosta. The disease in these areas is called tick-borne encephalitis. therefore, In the vector

ticks tranacvarial transmission of the virus has been deucnstrated and there is,

nO

difficulty in explaining survival of the virus.

The disease is found

in many tick-infested areas. workers in certain forests.

Man and Cbmestic animals become infected when thq enter o:rransmission to man also occurs through dr1nk1llg the Extensive outbreaks of m1lk~bornedisease

fores't areas and are bitten by carrier ticks, and tjlere um;y be a high incidence among

JD1lk

of

:lnf eo t ed

g 0 at • •

have

been. ~orted in central am north-eastern European countries.

. Man and hl.s domestic animals are, however, not essential in the natural. cycle of. tick-borne encephalitis.' Serological evidence of infection has been found in more ,

than 100 species of birds and mamals.

The disease ia man not only prowees an lI\Yelit1.~

encephalitis similar to that due to mosquito-borne viruses, but also a which is difficult to distinguish clinically from polioll\Yelit1.s. Members of the ~81aD sprlDg sUlliDEl1"-l'OUj:d,ng ill

.form.

sToup o£ viruses. have

also l"IEiell

deSCribed as a ca~se of some forms of "haemorrhagic fever" fQDsk), and of Kyasanur forest disease (India).l

1 Smorodintsev, A.A., & Work, T .R. (1958), Progress in Medical Virology, I, & pp. 248-275

pp.2l0-24~\ \

WHo/Bnlo!6-+", page 51 ,

10.,3 CONTBOL The present possibilities for control of tick-borne encephalitis ,are bette:r than those for mosquito-:borne. 1.

It is possible to take measures to reduce the number of ticks. pastures~

In'

Czechoslovakia, it has been shown that the numbers of ticks are greatest in neglected and that careful management of pastures will lead, to considerable reductionj while on sub-marginal land in Scotland ,it has be8l'l

ot large, widely ranging mElJlllllaJ.s (sheep and cattle) ,from an area tor a periQd ot some years will lead to a great rec11ct~n in the shOlm that removal number 2.

ot ticks even when no attempt is made to cont.rol, rodents. ~e

In the USSR it has been found that it ill possible to obtain 97-99 'per oan',

destru.ction of ticks in large areas of forest by dust1ng e1therfrom ground or from the air with

30-50 kg per hectare

of

10%

DDT orBHC.

In the case of DDT this reduction is maintained tor at least three years., ,

.

DIlsting with BHC is equally efficient during the first year, but does not have so good a long-term effect. nilmbersot humans are at risk. The' use of insecticides is

concentrated in the neighbourhoods of roads, paths and other areas where

3. 'Exposed 'Workers can be encouraged to 'Wear protective clothing impregnated with insect repellents or insecticides and trained to remove promptly arv attached ticks. 4.

Formaliriized vaccines have been developed and in the USSR are

~ound

• to give good protection to those, such as timber workers, who have to go into heavily tick-infested endemic a.reas. The mouse brain vaccine used has caused severe reactions in some instances and further research :La in progress partioularly on the deVelopment of a vaccine grown in tissue culture. 5. The virus in milk can be destroyed by heating, but requires 6~700 9 Normel pasteurisation procedures will not be effective.

tor 20 minutes.

WHO/Zoon/61 page 52 Insufficient is known of the natural history of mosquito-borne viroses to make satisfactory control practicable. in the main towns disease. It ~s

Where the most important vector has a specialized reduci~

habit, and epilianics only occur under very clearly defined condi tiona, vector control

ma.v

prove effective at least in

the incidence of the

also been suggested that the presence of trees which act as bird

roosts "and nesting sites close to houses may'increase the risk of infection for the inhabitants. In the present state of our knowledge, reduction in the number of vectors presents the best hope of obtaining some control. Vaccines 1Ihich have been tested so far against mosquito-borne encephalitides have been liable to cause severe reactions and have not given very satisfactory results in man. They are to be recommended for specially exposed laboratory

personnel.

In horses, for Eastern and western equine encephalomyelitis, excellent

results in preventing losses are obtained when formalinized chick anbr,ro vaccines

are given annually. 11. HYDATIOOSIS

Hydatidosis is a world-wide public health and economic problem, recognized in varying degrees in every continent. The areas with the greatest known incidence It is

are southern South America, parts of Oceania, and U:laMediterranean littoral. also of considerable importance in the Middle East and in South Africa. other areas are affected, but to a somewhat lesser extent. granulosus, the

Several

In all of those areas, the

disease is caused by the cystic stage of the very small tapeworm Echinococcus COlllllOll

definitive host of which is the domestic dog.1

1 It is now generally recognized that a second species of tapeworm is the cause of hydatidosis in the islands and neighbouring continental areas of the northern Pacific and in parts of Eurasia. Although similar in maJ'G'" respects to the tapeworm described above, this species (Echinococcus multilocularis) is peculiar in that its life cycle involves foxes (the red fox Vulpes vulpes, and the arctic fox Alopes lagopus) as definitive hosts, from which it is transmitted to form the cystic stage in wild rodents. It has been shown that the domestic dog may serve as host for the adul t worm, but it would appear that the larger domestic animals are not sll'eceptible to infection. Man, however, is quite susceptible and human hydatidosis is not uncommon in the areas concerned. "

WHfJ/ZOOD/61. page 53· 11.1 EPIDEMIOLOGY

The infected oog eliminates large numbers of the tapeworm eggs which, when ingested by man, sheep, cattle, swine, goats, horses, camels or other herbivoroUs. animals, pass through .the wall of the intestine, and lodge in various organs of theu intermediate hosts, 'Where. they form cysts. . • , I

Theee cysts, Iilach . . '

COn~ining ' .

numerous '. ..

scolices (heads of immature tapeworms), ,may b~ fQun~ in aD¥ part of the bod;y, but ~

are most commonly encountered 1n the liver and the IWliS. .

The life cycle of the . .." .

parasite is completed 'When cystic organs of animals are ea~n by

c!CIgs,

and

new

tapeworms develop in the intestinal tract of these animals •. This chain of health hazard and economic losses resulting fran hydatidosis. however, that wild ardmals may

1n1'ecti~n,

1n oomestic animals, 1s the most common and represents the major source of the public It should be noted,

be

involved in ~rt, or in all,· of thS'lite Cycle just Similarly,'

described. Wolves, jackals', d1Dgos or otilerwild carnivores, mq harboUr'the adult tapewo:m, thus substituting for the domest.1.c dog as the definitive host. intermediate hosts. The disease 1s most often transmitted to man directly from the c:bg" but indirect transmission from dog to man via foodstuffs and water is a source of infection. When c:bgs eat infective offal, the parasites mature in ,the .intestine for a period of about siJc weeks before eggs are shed. , It has been rePorted that the lite of the tapeworm' after maturity is limited to some six months and, therefore, it is thought that unless they are re-infected, dogs will become clear of EChinococous granulosus in about eight months. These findings are clearly important and it is very desirable thilt investigations to establish their general validity be undertakeQ. Much investigation is ne~ded on'the biology of the parasite. lead to better control prooedures. Such basic· real danger. elk, moose, reindeer, kangaroos, deer and other wild herbivores may serve as

In· some

areas, authorities consider that contaminated drinking water ,supplies,.ar.e the major

information should help to clarify the epidemiology of this disease, and might well

WHO/Zoon/61 page 54 11.2 CONTROL The sickness and dea~s

of human beings, and th6 heavy economic losses, due to

hydatioosis make it highly desirable that responsible authorities take appropriate me&81ll'Els to, reduce and eventually eliminate the problem. The major efforts in the campaign against hydatidosis muat be dLrected towards reducing the disease in its animal reservoir. measures should be designed to minimize infections. Only in this

Since the dog, inf'ected with

Echinococcus granulosus, is the cOIIIIIIon transmi tUng host of hydatid disease, control

am

eventually elilllinate such canine

"'w

can ultimate control of the parasite be gained and the

danger to man be eliminated. Iceland onoe bad what was probably the world's highest incidence of hydatioosis, yet the disease has now been eradicated from that country. This situation is the result of a campaign which comprised public education, proVision and enforced use of slaughterhouses with veterinaZ7 inspection of al;t meat, laws limiting the number of dogs, and the anthelmintic treatment of all oogs. <

An antihydatioosis programme headings.

~

be convenientq considered under the following

11.2.1 Eradication of canine infection 11.2.1.1 Anthelmintic trealment 11.2.1.2 Str~-dog elimination 11.2.1.3 Reduction of wild canidae population 11.2.2 Prophylactic l118asures against canine reinfection 11.2.3 Edu~ational measures These various aspecta of hydatioosis control should be pursu.d concomitantly. It 1s obviously useless to treat oogs for echinococcal. ~

infect~n

i t the same dogs

gain access to erstic offal and promptly become reinfectedo

WHo/zoen/61 page 55 11.2.'1 Eradication of canine infection f

11.2.1.1 Anthelmintic treatment .Arecoline hydrobromide has been 4 DIg wide~

used for many years and, although The recamnended ebse is .

possessing disadvantages, it remains the drug of choice. per kg of bod;y weight.

Various methods have been used to administer this

compound, but the recommended technique is the use of a one per cent aqueous ftOlution

to which a snail amount of sugar has been added. treatment of ebgs is g··.?en in Annex 14. intervals, preferably ever,y four months. l

A useful procedure for the mass

The treatment should be repeated at regular

There is 1ll'gent need for research activities to develop an anthel.llintio tbat ebBS not cause vOmiting, that is more effective for eliminating the tapeworm, and that is taeniacidal. 11.2.1.2 str§r-ebg elimination The elimination of ownerless dogs is essential in antinydatidosis campaigns as well as of the fight against such diseases as rabies. The effectiveness of the ~lan

to eliminate stray animals is dependent, firstly upon cOllll1unity ewcation to the necessiw of their removal; secondly upon laws and regulations to provide the necessary supportj requirements. thirdly the diligence of the enforcement agency. Proper facilities for apprehending and impounding the stray dogs are, of course, basic Instruction of dog wardens as to the value of their work 1s important.

11.2.1.3 Reduction of wild canidae population In areas where wild animals of the canine family such as wolves, jackals"

dingos am foxes are known to harbour the adult parasite, measures for reducing the population of these animals should be adopted. 11.2.2 Prophylactic measures against canine reinfection Improved practices of slaughtering livestock, with appropriate methods of offal disposal, are the keystone of nydatidosis eradication; it is also the most difficult phase of programme from the standpoint of attaining extensive improv. .nt. 1 A purgative action is necessary for success of the treatment. Re-infestation can occur within one month or treatment in heavily exposed dogs and the parasite can ' mature and shed eggs after about seven weeks. Thus more (continued on next page)

WHO/lc.on/61 page

56

Special emphasis must be laid on the cantralbation of slaughtering services and the provision of adequate vetsrinary meat inspection at each of .the centralized plants. This, however, will not solve the problem created by the existence of various Success in this aspect small abattoirs and farm slaughtering for home consumption.

of hydaticbsis eradication must, therefore, depend largely upon the development in rural butchers and individual farmers of a greater sense of responsibility through

an understanding of the dangers involved.

This becomes

a:

matter of rural education

concerning public health and animal hygiene. In no circumstances should dogs be allowed on the premises of abattoirs. premises. Some research has been done on a vaccine for immunization of the dog against this parasite, but there are insufficient results to date to pemit assessment of its value. 11.2.3 Educational measures This

ban should include the use of cbgs for rounding up or driving livestock on such

Although the goal of the antihydatidosis programme must be the elimination of the disease from it.s animal reservoir, such a result cannot possibly be attained immediately. In the meantime, wh:.le pao~l.e

live in the vicinity of this reservoir, An important part of the

they must be made aware of the danger and how to avoid it.

programme must, therefore, be an intensified campaign of public health education. This activity should not stop with the hanging of a few posters, but, rather, should make use of the many modern techniques of imparting infomation to the public, and particularly to children of school age on means of transmission of infection. 11.3

DIAGNOSIS OF HUMAN HYDATIDOSIS It is seldom possible to diagnose a case of hydaticbsis in man by clinical signs

of symptoms alone.

X-ray is an important aid to diagnosis, and is essential for The allergy tests, such as the Casoni

lOCalization of pulmonary or cerebral cysts.

and modifications thereof, are widel)" used for differential diagnosiS, but the 1 (continued from pn;vious page) .frequent treatment of cbgs (every two months) may be necessary according to particular local conditions (see, for example, Gemmell, M.A. Austral. Vet. J. (1958), 34, 2Cf7).

WHO/Zoon/61 page Tariable resulte obtained show that there is a , I

~

n~ed

for further evaluation to Recent research on

..

. , .~

develop a satisfactory standardized antigen and technique.

l

serological. tests indicate that the complemen1i-f'ixation test with an improved antigen; and an indirect. haemagglutination test, 2 deserves wider trial • 12.

I

l I

J.NDl.AL INFLUENZA. AND ITS POSSIBLE

RELATION~IP

TO HUllAN :INFLUENZA

1

I

The Committee welcomed the opportunity to consider this subject in a joint meeting with the WHO Expert Colllllittee on Respiratory Virus Diseases. The report

I \

of the latter deals extensively with the influenza problem in general. and the f'ollowing section considers only briefly one component of' the question. A clin10al swine influenza infection has been known to exist in the swine

population of the United states of' America since the severe human pandemic of 1918. A virus was isolated as the causat.ive agent in 1929 and was of the vpe A Some inn U8ntla authorities believe

(cdmmon soluble antigen) of inn uerusa viruses. ""

that the infection in swine originated from human sources, but the possible role of swine or of other animals as inter-epidemic reservoirs of the human influensa virus has been the subject of much speculation. Consequently when the human pandemic of' 19,57, caused by a distinetJ.y new variant of type A (VAsian) began in the Far East

early in the spring of 1957, WHO took the opportunity of organizing an animal serum

survey in sOllIe 25 countries throughout the lIOrld. The immediate purpose of the survey was to detemine 1£ the AIAsian strain, or a closely related one, existed in the animal. population before the pandemic Btruck a particular countr,r; under na'blral conditions to other strains of type A nrus. and, if' not, whether the strain would establish itself in domest.ic animals known to be susceptible Furthermore, it 'Was hoped 1;ype

to gain some pre11mi,nary infoi1Dation on the. status of other , exist in horses and swine in some countries.

A strains known to

The resul te of' this preliminary survEV' were still incomplete wben the COmm1tt.e

met, but it was agreed that the informati.on alreactr gained certainly' warranted

t

Benswd, H."_ & Atkinson, J.D. (1958) Brit. lied. J~, vol. II, No. ~. 203-20~

.

2 Garabedian, G.A., Yatossian, R.M. & Djanian, Y. (1957) . J. Immunol., 78, 269-272

-

WHO/Zoon/61 page 58 continuation and expansion of analogous surveys, and specific research to elucidate .

.

the possible role of .animals in human influenza.

It is now known, for example, that

•

distinct disease enti t~es caused' by type A/influenza strains occur in ep~zoot1c form in horses (caused by A-equine/Prague/56 virus) in central and northemEurope, with serological evidence ·of its presence in the United States of Ameri~a •. A

II II ....'1

.~I

II "

II JI ) ,

type A infection in swine is well known in the United state. of ADerica.

'!'he virus t--

of classical fowl pest (fowl plague) and two strains of viruses isolated from ducks " 1 all belong to type A. The significance of these finding. cannot be evaluated at the present time and the problem requires careful investigation. strong~

The ec-d.ttee

I" II

II

recolplll8nds that both WHO and FAO continue to encourage and co-ord:1aate '.

II "' \1

research in this field. '-.

The Committee cc;msidered it would be useful

t()

give sbort summaries

and recent

developments co.venng some"ilrlPortant zoonoseS 'Which could not be treated 'fUlly at'the"lDee1iing because of lack of time. Trichinosis,2,3 jungle yellow f~ver, 4,·5

and taeniasis2 ,3 (beef and pork origin) "have been considered in other WHO/FAO publications.

Ij.i TOXOPLASMOSIS Tomplasmosis is causing iilcreasing concern as a cause of severe infectiOn in

man and.an:l,mals. 1

Congenital human infections are often tollowed by tragic coll8equences :

The Sendai virus (hemagglutinating virus of Japan) has been isolated from pigs,

hamsters and mice in Japan, from mice in China, and has been.reportedt.o cause human disease in the USSR. " . 2 " 1I1d Hlth Org. techno Rep_ Ser., 1955, 22 "

3 World Health Organization (1957) Meat Hygiene, Geneva (World Health .Organisation, IIonosraeh Series, No. 33) ---4

5" . Off. Rae. Wld Hlth Org., 1954, No. 56,'n-85

W'ld lUth Org. techno Rep. Ser., 1950" 19

"".

." .

WHO/Zoon/61 page 59 because the central nervous system may be involved. The disease in adults frequently

affects the eyes, although the. disease has a protean symptomatology.• The causative organism, Toxoplasma gondii, is one of thelOOst widespread . infectious agents in the animal kingdom, including all the cklme s tic animals, but·the means of its transmission is not knOwn. infection. Considerable circumstantial evidenCe exists ~s

that in m8.l\Y instances, but not in all, animals serve order to develop suitable preventive measures.

a. reservoir for human

The epidemiology of this disease urgently requires clarification in

One of the great difficulties with respect to this disease is its diagnosis. The Sabin-Feldmann d,ye test and the complement-fixation test are the mo most widely used procedures and in experienced hands these procedures give fairly satisfactory results, although each of 1ilem has lim!ta tions. Unfortunately, most diagnosticThe d,ye test requires laboratories are not equipped to perform the valuable dye"test. occurred.

the: use of living toxoplasma organisms and numerous laboratory infections have A human serum containing lIaccessozy factor" is also needed and is difficult Diagnostic procedures wh.ere living antigens are used to obtain and to standardize.

should be concentrated in specialized laboratories in each country. The standardization of diagnostic tests, possibl;r on the basis of an internaUoilal s~dard

serum, is highly desirable so that more llI'.iform and comparable results would A recently developed hilE~magglutination test shows some promisE!. ,The.

be obtainable. such tests,

Committee recommends that stimulat~

WHO and

FAO encourage wherever possible the development ~he

ot

studies to clarifY the epidemiology of

disease and support

the training of laboratory personnel for work in this disease.

13.2 LISTERIOSIS The lack of exact knowledge about the epidemiology and means of transmission of liste~iosis resembles very much the situation with'respect to toxoplasmosis (see

Section 13.1).

The causative organism of listeriosis,

Liste~.a

monocytogenes,

is found widely in animal~, where it causes encephalitides in cattle, sheep and goa~.

WHO/Zoon/61 page 60 Human diseas6 is characterbed by a mE.ningo-encephalitisj infection of new-borns

occurs.' In recent years thE. disease in humans has ,been rEcognized and rGported previously and listeriosis in humans must now l be considered as a not uncoDDllOn infection. ~agnos1s of ,the disease. by means of much .greater frequency serological tests a,nd culture of the organism cbes not present great difficulties, but the disease will be overlooked unless physicians and veterinarians are on the

,,1 t h

th~

alert. for it. 13.3 CUTANEOUS AND VISCERAL LARVA MIGRANS Cutaneous larva migrans or creeping eruption are common infections of man in warm climates where the dog and eat hookworms (.kncylostoma braziliense and perhaps A.

caninwy _~ ndespreaci. ho~pi tali.sation

!Lan becoJDes infected by the entry of the dog and cat

hookworm larva into the skin. to cause skin.

The larva migrate about in the skin causing a In some instances tlle invasion mCl3' be so great as The larvae are eventually destroyed in the Infection is' usually found among

denaatitis of var,ying intensity.

of tlle vict..im.

Diagnosis is made by clinical examination.

those who are exposed to animal faec!"s, especially children on beaches, lawns or playgrounds where larvae are prescmt. examined for parasitic infection. Control is effected by restriction of cbgs and. Household pets should be frequently cate, and destruction of their faecal material.

Soil disinfectants (e.g. borax) have been found

to be of val. ue in selected areas such as schools and playgrounds. Visceral larva migrans is we to the ingestion of dog and cat round worm eggs (Toxocara canis and~) by individuals, usually children. the larvae enter the circulation. about causing varying reactions. The eggs hatch out and ~

They fail to complete their life cycle, but wander In some instances tissue injur,y be so great Serological

as to cause a generalized reaction, and some human infections terminate fatally. Diagnosis is usually by histopathological examination of biopsied tissue.

1 Seeliger, H'.P.R. ('1958) -Lbteriosc. Leipzii, J.A. Bartb ('Beitr!ge zur Hygiene und Epidemiologie, Hatt 8) p: 78, etc., 2nd edition

WHO/Zoon/61 page 61 tests are being 'USed eXperimentally. (see above). children. Other animal parasites may also cause cutaneous or visceral larva migrans. This problem 13.4 w~ants

Control is the same as with creeping eruption

Public health education is of considerable value especially among

further investigation in various countries.

DERMATOMYCOSES

Human and animal ringwonn is a clinical entity involving the skin and its appendages oaused by the same or closely related dermatophytes. dermatophytes manifest varying degrees of host specif1ollty. The individual Some. are primarily

parasi tes of man,. others of animals, and still others are free liv:lng agents commonlyfound in soil. Most of the dermatophytoses in man are caused by human type orgB:Ilisms. However, a large percentage of the ringworm occurring on the exposed parts of the boqy of the human hosts is caused by animal type dermatophytes with animals serving as reservoirs and vectors of infection. In rural areas,

In urban areas,

Microspo~

canis, the common

cause of dog and cat ringtlOnn, is the principal cause of animal ringworm in man. ~V'CrT\lecS".un..

and T" mentagrophytes are the main animal

ringworm infoot:lon9- affecoting man.

1,1 though ringwonn in man and animals is of worl~wide occurrence, there are few

data available on its morbidity. encouraged.

Surveys to detennine its extent should be

The control of zoophilic dermatophyte infections in human and animal populations rests upon the detection and elimination of reservoirs of infection. proper veterinary care. necessary. Thus, cases in man and animals must be traced to their sources, and suc.h sources placed under Where small animals are involved their destruction may be Examination with a Wood's light apparatus, and routine perfonnance by:

veterinarians of microscopic examination of suspicious skin lesions are practical and effective methods of detecting infected animals. Culture -t.echniques are nece,,2r8Z'7 to determine precisely the fungus speCies involved. In addition, vigorous attention

WHO/Zoon/6l page 62 must be directed towards known reservoireof infection which include cats in breeding establishments, stray cats and dogs, and infected cattl~

and rodents.

1. successful

demonstration control programme bas been operating tor several years in Leeds, England, where zoophilic dermatopqyte infections presented an important public health problem. 1

Therapy of ringwo:nn in man and animals requires much additional research;

present

da3" methods of treatment are not satisfactory. or biological proph;rlaxis also warrants study. systemic mycoses. veterinarians.

The feasibility of utilizing chemical The Committee strongly recommends

further survey and research in all fields of human and animal dermatomycoses and Epidemiological studies are also needed, particularly in rural areas, and should be a combined effort between medical practitioners arid The teaching of these subjects in veterinar,y or medical schools Diagnostic laboratories should recognize the need for should not be neglected.

specialized training in this field. 13.5 TREMATODE INFECTIONS

13.5.1 Fascio1asis Recently, infections with Fasciola hepatica, the common liver-fluke of domestic animals, have been reported in a considerable number of human beings in several countries. Cases of F. gigantic a infection in man have also been reported. It 1s possible that undetected human infection exists with these liver-flukes in other areas where drinking water and food are liabie to be contaminated with cercariae, or among fishe:nnen, farmers, and others who work in snail infested fields, streams, ponds and lakes. 13.5.2 Schistosomiasis

Human and animal infection with Schistosoma japonicumhas been found to be widespread in the Pacific region and in the countries of Eastern and South Eastern

-

1

La Touche, C.J. (1955) Vet. Rae.,

§7,

666-669

WHO/Zoon/61 page 63

Asia, where it is one of the most important parasitic diseases.

Considerable

information on tha bionomics Of the intermediate hosts and animal reservoir. has been gathersj in recsnt years, but more ecological studies.6nsnails and on

wild'

and domest::.c animal reservoirs are needed to detem1ne more clearly the :role of anima]. reservoirs in huma., disease. Recently, foci of human schistosomiasis have been discovered in areas Where animal infection is common but human infection was believed to be situation exists. In mal'\Y countriee where .chistosomes capable of attaining sexual maturity in man are absent.J the ce:'Cariae of blood flukes of birds aDd rodent. capable of penetrating human skin are present. (Schistosoma dermatitis). _. . ,.

no~existent.

This f;l.nding calls for search for human infection in other areas where a s1mi1ar

Tbey die almost immediately after penetration

but they give rise to an irritating, often severe, dermat.itis called "8WiDmers' itch"

13.6 TULARAEMI.1:j, Tularaemia is a common disease of various wild animals in the northern hemisphere; it o~caf'ionally

affects domestic animals, especially sheep in Which

it ma,v caus,) epizootics.

The disease is transmitted to man principally by the

handling of rabbit carcasses, contact with infected animals, bites b,y ticks, inhalation of infected wst, and the contamination of water by diseased rodents. Rarely infections may result from hi tes of an:iJnals who are passive carriers ot the organism. ,-" Food-borne infections occur we to eating und6r-cooked rabbits. Occupational disease occurs among wool shearers and commercial rabbit butchers •. Control is based on avoidan::e ot e:xposure or the use of protective glove. when handling suspected material; be contaminated. adequate cooking or. heating of meat' or water that ma;y Rodent and animal control are recollll18nded in endemic areas.

Rat

proofing of rural homes and store houses is important..· Recently, a living attenu.atecl vaccine has been developed in the USSR and used in especially exposed population groups with beneficial results.

WHO/Zoon/6l page 64 StreptoD\Vcin, the tetrocyclines and chloramphenicol have been found to be effective therapeutically.

13.7 CkT SCRATCH DISEASE Cat scratch disease has been reported from many cO'lmtries in recent years. The name stems from the fact that most, though not all of the cases are associated with a cat scratch. The etiological agent is unknown. Cats or other animals involved show no signs of disease and it is not known if they are passive or mechanical carriers of the disease agent. No-one has been able to produce the The disease in man is characterized These signs usually A diagnostic adn disease in cats, dogs or laboratory animals.

•

by a regional adenitis, general malaise and usually fever.

oCcur from 2-8 days after exposure, although in some instances later. .... tovolviDg but the antigen is not readily available. 14. ECOLOGY OF wn.D ANIMAL RESERVOIRS

material aspirated from an involved regional lymph node has been used,

Several of the important zoonoses have wild animal reservoirs. the world is inadequate.

With few

exceptions, information on the ecology of wild hosts available from most areas of This has often led to hesitation or failure in the It is, therefore, necessary that enzootic foci of application of control measures.

zoonoses should be carefully investigated where this has not been done so far. Besides a stud;r of environmental factors, the investigation of such foci should include taxonomic survey of all vertebrates and their parasites and detailed studies on animal populations, life histories, migration, food and habits of the reservoir hosts. Where a vector is involved, it has to be studied similarly. The tissues and excretions of the hosts and vectors would be surveyed for th6 causal organism, antibodies and morbid changes. This work warrants the co-operation of epidemiologists, ecologists, microbiologists and parasitologists with advice from botanists, geologists and

-

VlHO/Zoon/61 page 65 climatologists. for this work. In practice, a very elaborate organization is not generally nece88&r,l

\

'

A few· enthusiastic and interested field workers backed by an effic1en,

laboratory and museum service can accomplish a lot. ,~

Available information on the biology and ecology of reservoir hosts and vectors should be compiled preferably on a regional basis and made available toworkera in the ~rea.

Production of field guide-books, containing inatructione on collection,

preservation and preliminary identification of animals mould be encouraged particularly in areas in which they do not exist. Sometimes, ·animals new to an area are introduced for the biological control of ve:nn1n without due regard to the effect they may have on human health. islands and ferrets into Cuba for the control of rats was foll~d

FQr example,

the introduction of the Javan mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) into the Caribbean by tbe estab]1ahmen

-

of a new reservoir of rabies.

It is necessary that careful ecological studies, with

due consideration of the possible effects on zoonoses, should be Wldertaken before introduction of animals new to an area. Also, the use of ve:nn1n killers containing living pathogenic organisms (e.g. rat baits containing Salmonella) should be prohibi ted. The Cormnittee noted with interest the method of detection of wild enzootic foci of certain zoonoses from ecologicalpecuUarities of topography, soil, vegetation and other enviromnental factors, which has been applied over the years in man;y 1 . . countries. This method appears to be uae1'll1 in detecting foci of leishmaniasis, arthropod-borne diseases and trematode infections and may find application in other areas. 15. ANnw. "ORPHAN" VIRUSES

In the animal field an analogoue aituation is being encountered to that in humans with respect to the ECHO (entero-cytopathogenic human orphan) viruses.

1 This

has been exemplified in recent yean by the mass application of "landscape epidemiology" by Pavlovsky and his co-worlcers in the USSR.

WHO/Zoon/61 page 66

The problem has aptly been summarized by the phrase uviruses in search of a disease ll •

Thus, large numbers of strains O'f viruses have been lmcovered, principally by tissue-culture techniques, from humans and animals, but their importance as diseaseproducing agents is far from clear. In some instances they are known to cause frank Some disease, but frequently they are not associated with an,y disease process. systematic grouping and stucl;y of these agents is highly desirable.

strains of human and animal viruses thus isolated appear to be related, and the The value of doing this can be Ulustrated by the finding that the HAl virus (haemadsorption virus type 1) known to cause a respiratory disease in humans, is nOlI" suspected to be involved in the etiology of the shipping fever complex in cattle.

1.he Committee realizes that stucl;y and grouping of the .orphan" viruses present very great practical difficulties, but such work is essential lest the great contusion already existing becomes completely chaotic. groups already engaged on this problem. The Committee recommends that WHO and FAO take whatever steps possible to co-ordinate this work between

16. EMERGING ZOONOSES New diseaea entities or previously unsuspected hUlll8Jlo-animal disease relationships are being reported with increasing frequency. It is clear that host-parasite-

environment interactions are constantly changing, and this with the more refined tools of biological research to stud;y them, no doubt partially explains these observations. It can be antiCipated further that with such factors operating as (a) major known diseases being increasingly brought under control or eradicated, (b) the great changes in human and animal. ecological patterns being brought about by development of virgin territories, and (c) increasing human and a:limal populations, diseases will come to the fore which have been submerged, latent or restricted to well-defined areas and animal or human groups. Recent observations such as . (ar·the apparent spread or mere uncovering of arthropod-borne viral infections in new areas,

' ..

(1)) the detection in· animal sera of substances reacting serologically but l'Ihose virusel\, specifioit;y is doubtful ldth resp~ct to the poliomyelitis, coxsackie, measles and mumps!

--, "

WHO/Zoon/6i page &7

and (c) the problem of anirilal influenza and animal "orphanllviruses (see sections l ! and 15 ) illustrate some aspects of this situation.

It is important, therefore,

to clarify wherever possible the na'blral history of specific disease agents and to be alert to the possibili~

of new zoonoses emerging.

The Collllittee notes with satisfaction that WHO with fAD collaboration are considering specific studies in this clirection and late 1958 on thislJubject. a~oonvening

a stuc\Y Group in

For example, one of the t-.Uu.re.s in studies on inabili~,

commwrlcable diseases until the present time has been our

to follow the '1'bi.a

progression of disease in geographical areas at different points of time. failure cannot be attriwted to human oversight, but rather t.othe l:1mited opportunities and tools available for inetiblting appropriate stud:l.es. conditions are better in this connexion, progress in communicable diseases. studies will be feasible.

. it will be III&D1' years

While '

before there 'will be

sufficient facilities to cops with the matU probltillul associated with stud:l.esof Nevertheless, in the meantime certain steps are possible that llOuld no dQubt be of invaluable assistance later

when

more detaUed

ThUs, serum. specimens from different age-groups in hUlllBll

beings and animals in various partl'a"f the world could be taken within a given span of time, and the specimens catalogued and stored in a freeze-dried' state for examination. Thereby, where a particular stuctr is undertaken, perhaps JDan1' years geograp~cal

later, serum. specimens from the human and animal population of a

area

of interest would be available for examination by qualified laboratories.

.,

Such work can be undertaken and co-ord:i.n4ted uniquely by such organizations as

WHO and FAO, and should be of immense benefit in improving our knowledge of ' communicable diseases both in the near and more distant future. The Committee, therefore, strongly recOl1llll<mds that WHO and FAD give the maximum possible support

to such activities.

\

.JI

lIBO/Zoon/6l page 68 ANNEX 1

LIST OF ZOONOSFB

1be following list gf zoonoses is not comprehensive al thOUCh all the knoIm .

major ones have been included.

The diseases listed have been confined to tholle in

which the animal link in the chain of infection to man ill considered to be of importaDce, although net al"ll'Q"lI essential. Many

proved zoonoses, particularly helminth infections of relatively rare

occurrence; have been omitted, as well as those diseases caused by fish and l'ePtile toxins. Also omitted are thoae diseases whose causative organism, while found in . ." ~

both man and animals, appears to be derived from a common source, e.g. soil, or where the importance of the vertebrate animal component in the disease cycle appears

to be negligible.

Examples of these diseases include diphtheria, gas gangrene, ac~sis,

tetanus, botulism, shigellosis ~ amoebiasis,. and many others. See

aspergillosis,

coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, moniliasis, nocardioai s, sarcosporidiosis also sections 15 and 16 of the report.

1 wright, W.B. (1941) Ann. N.Y.

Acad. Sci.

48, 553

-

\::.

WHO/Zoon/61 page 69 Annex 1 SOME DISEASES NATURALLY TRANSMITTED ~TWEEN

VERTEBRATE AND4ALS AND MAN

1.

VIRUS DISEASES

Principal an1mals Disease ArthropoG-borne virus infections Colorado tick fever Eutem equine encaphaUtis Encepbal~carditis

Causative organism colorado tick fever virus Eastern equine virus Encephalomwocarditis virus Japanese B virus Murray

invo~ed

Japanese B encephalitis Murray

rodents birdlJ, eqabe. rodents birds, horses, swine and other mallll1als birds.

Valley virus RUt Valley virus St. Louis virus Russian spring-summer group (including loup:LzIg-Ul, louping-ill group of Russian spring-SUIIlIIl8r viruses encephalitis, Omsk hemorrhagic fever, ~asanur forest disease) Venezuelan equine encephalitis Venezuelan equine virus Wesselsbron fever Wesselsbron virus Western equine encephalitis western equine virus West Nile fever virus West Nile fever Yellow fever virus Yellow fever (jungle) Aujeszky's disease (pseudorabies) Aujeszky's virus • i

Valley encephalitis Rift Valley fever st. Louis encephal1tis Tick-borne spring-summer

sheep, cattle birds

goats, sheep, birds wild mal'lMls

equines, rodent. sheep birds, equine. birds monkeys r'illli nants,

swine,

B virus Cat scratch disease Cowpox (milker's nodUle?) Equine infectious anemia Foot-and-mouth disease Influenza ~phocytic choriomeningitis

..,

Bvirus Cat scratch disease vil'U8 (?), Cowpox or vaccinia virus Equine infectious anemia viNs Foot-and-mouth disease virus Infl uenza vil'lls Type A ~phocytic choriomeningitis virus

dogs monkeys cats cattle equines ruminants, swine swine, horses mice, dogs, monkeys

I

KHO/Zoon/6l page 70 Annex 1 Disease Newcastle disease Ovine pustular dermatitis (contagious ec~) Psittacosis (ornithosis) Rabies Causative organism Newcastle disease virus Ovine pustular dermatitis virus Psittacosis virus Rabies virus Principal animals involved chickens sheep, goats poultry psitta6ines,/pigeons >- •

dogs, cats, wolves, foxes, jackals, bats, other wild animals swine, rodents equines, cattle, swine

Sendai virus disease Vesicular stomatitis

Sendai virus Vesicular stomatitis virus

2.

RICKE'ITSIAL DISEASES

1lurine ( endemic) typhlUl North Queensland tick typhus

Rickettsia typhi (mooseri) Rickettsia australis Coxiella burnetii

rats bandicoots, rodents cattle, sheep, 'goats, wild and domestic birds and mammals mice rodents dogs, rodcnte and other anL'11B.l.s

Q fever

Rickettsialpox Scrub typhus (Tsutsugamushi) Spotted fever (including Rocky Mountain, Brazilian and Colombian spotted fevers)

Rickettsia akari Rickettsia tsutsugamushi Rickettsia ricketts!i

Boutonneuse fever } Kenya typhus ) also probably ) Rickettsia conorii Indian tick typhus ) and South African tick-bite fever) 3. Anthrax

.. dogs, roden~

BACTERIAL DISEASES Baci:.lus anthracis Brucella abortus, Br. suis, B;:-meli tens isruminants, equines cattle, swine, goats, sheep

Brucellosis

WHO/Zoon/61 page 71 A,nneX 1 Principal animals involved . \"

----

::j3ease

Causative organism

Bacterial food poisoning

Salmonella spp., staphylococcal ruminants, swine, enteX'Qtoxin, Clostricliua poultry welchii, and others Escheric~~a

. ;,-

Colibacillosis

Bpp. Arizona group of Enterobacteriaceae E;rsipelothrix rhusiopathiae Actinobacillus mallei LeEtospira SPE.

poultry, swine, dogs

Erysipeloid Glanders LeptofP1ro &!d.s Listeriosis llelioidos1s Pasteurellosis Plague Pseudotuberculo8i8 Rat--bite fever Relapsing fever (end8Dic) Salmonellosis staphylococcos1s streptococcosis Tuberculosis

swine, poultry, fish equines

rodentl,.dogs, .. nine, .cattle rodents, sbeep, cattle, swine

Listeria monocytogenes Pseudomonas pseudomalle1 Pasteurella mul tocida Pasteurella pestis Pasteurella pseudotuberculosis Spirillum ~ streEtobacillus mon1liformis Borrelia sEP. Salmonella sPE. stapgylococcusspp. stre}?tococcus spp. MYcobacterium tUberculosis var. bovi.s var~

rodents· rodents

.i

·..".,&1s, birds

rodents, cats ~ fowl. rodents rodents rodents INIqna' s, birds, .

poulti7 IIJAIIIIIN .. mamals

.

;

eattle,goats, swine, cats

hominis

dogs, swine, RIOnkeys poul try, swine, cattle rabbi ts, hares, sheep, wild rodents

var. aVium Tularemia Vibriosis pasteurella tularensls Vibrio foetus

----.--

cattle, sheep

WHO/Zoon/61 p~e 72 'rmex 1 4. FUNGUS DISEASES

Disease Rinpol'lll,

Caueative organism

Principal animals involved cbgs, cats, horses bones, cattle, poultry, 8111&11 maDal. >-'

favus

lIicl'Ospo1"Wll BPP_ Trichophyton sPP.

5. PROTOZOAL DISEASES Balantidiasis

Balantidium coli Leishmania brazilienai8 Leishmania donovan! Leishmania tropica Toxoplasma gondii Trypanosoma gambiense (?) Trypanosoma rhoGesiense TrYPanosoma cruz! 6. HELMINTH DISEASES

swine

Lei8hmenlaaie Espundia (American

cbgs, cats, rodents cbgs, cats, rodents dogs, cats, rodents

.

(leishmantasis)

Kala-azar Oriental sore

Toxopla81llOAS Trypanosomiasis ~ican sleeping aickn888 Chagas I disease

me....a] s, birds wUd and domestic ruminants wUdgame eats, dogs, rodents

Ca>

Trematode diseases lmphistomiyis (Gastl'O~oldi&Sis)

Gastrodiscoides hominis

nine dogs, cats, swine, wild ma ll!l8ls, fish

Clonorchiasis DicrOcoeliasis Echinostomiasis

Clonorchis sinensis Dicrocoelium dendriticum Echinostoma ilocanum (and occasionally other species) Fasciola hepatica Fasciola gigantica Fasciolopsis busk! Heterophyes heteropgyes 'MetagonimuS yokogawai

equines cats, dogs, rodenu 1"'..1 nants ,

Fascioliasis Fasciolopsiasis Heterophyiasis lletagonimiasu

ruminants J"Uminants swine, dogs

cats; dogs J fish cats. (lf~ _.; .:;., :;.

·~!l~!

o.T .,.l,.O/l.oon/o1 page 73 Annex 1

. Disease Opisthorchiasis

Causative organism Ooisthorchis felineus (and occasionally other species) Paragonimus westerman! Schistosoma a onicum and occasionally other species) Schistosoma spp.

Principal animals involved cats; dogs, wildlife, fish cats, dogs, wildlife ruminants, swine, dogs, cats birds, rodents

.

. Parag&nimiasis ";,

Schistosomiasis

(It)

Cestdde diseases Diphyllobothriasis Dipylidiasis Hydatidosis 'Jiphyllob&thrium la.tum Jlpylidlumcaninum fish, carnivores dogs, cats

Hymenolepiasis Sparganosis Taeniasis and eysticercosis

'Schinococcus granulesus dogs, ruminants, swine Tlarval cyst stage) aid occasionally E. multiloeularis faxes, rodents ';{ymenoleJis nana rats, mice Sparganum mansonoides eats, mice and other mammals (and other s~ecies) Taenia saginata cattle Taenia solium and its larval swine form Cysticercus cellulosae

(e)

Nematode diseases Ancylostomiasis and cutaneous larva migrans ~ ;1 creeping eruotion; ) Strongyloidi asis Ancylostoma braziliense (and occasionally other species) Strongyloides stercoralis dogs, cats

dogs dogs eats swine, rodents, wild c arni vores ruminants

'roxocariasis Toxocara canis (vlscer,l larva migrans) Toxocara cati Trichinella spiralis Trichinosis Trichostrongyliasis TriChostrongylus colubriformis (and occaSionally other species)

WHO/Zoon/61 page 74 Annex 1

? Diaease Acariasis

ARTHROPOD AND INSECT INFESTATIONS

Causative organism De~ssus

Principal animals involved k'

spp., Sarcoptes spp., Trombicula -sPP., etc •

poultry, domestic animals, wildlife chickens, birds, small JD8.DIDaJ S rats, dogs, cats, swine, birds

Bug-bites Flea-bi tea Myasis

Cimex spp., Triatoma spp., etc. Xenopsylla, Ctenocephalus, Ceratophyllus, Tunga, etc. Oestrus, Hypoderma, Gasterophilus, Cochliomyia, etc. Ixodes, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus, Haemophysalis, Amblyomma, Argus, etc.

ruminants, equines dogs, cattle

-

WHO/Zoon/61 page ?S ANNEX 2

VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH ACTIVrrY AT VARIOUS LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT*

W

.t

National heal. th service Veter1nary publio heal.th .eotion or division

Zoonoses I reporting and statistical analysis; surveys and control measure,s; standards for biological products; legislation; research Food sanitationl regulatory supervision of meat and milk, and food inspection services; development of standards Consultation .and research. animal-4isease problems of human interest; epidemiology of infect10us diseases; experimental biology and medioine; public health, medioal and veter1.na.ry education . Zoonoses. reporting and oontrol J epidemiologioal. surveys and research; legislation Food sanitation. supervision ot operational servioes in meat and milk control (slaughter~oU8es, dairies, markets); legislation Consultation. regional public health planning; eduoation ot the public; liaison with praotitionere and professional societies Zoonoses I reporting and control

~t National livestock and vetel'1nary servioes ~

i'

1 Regional health servioe (province or large munioipality) Veterinary public health unit

,I'

......

Regional livestook and veterinary servioes

! Rural. health unit .>

!

J

Food sanitation. supervision of local. sla\lghterhouses, dairies and tood markets Consultation. publio health planning; education ot the publio, particularly livestock ownere

Looal veterinarian or veterinary assistant

I

* Reproduced

trom Wld Hl th Org. teohn. Rep. Ber.

ill

WHO/Zoon/6l page 76 ANNEX 3

REPORTING OF ZOONOSES With respect' to means for :improving zoonoses reporting, the following excerpts from the report of an Advisory Group on veterinary Public Health (Wld Hlth Org. techno Rep. Ser., 1956, lli)are pertinents IIl10rbidity and mortaliV reporting IISystems of animal-disease rePorting are weak in many countries. The first principle in effectively combating diseases is to establish effective methods for ascertaining their inoidence and progress. "Organized reporting of animal morbidity and morlaliV from zoonoses is essential'to the development of veterinary public-health operations, and steps should be taken in this direction. Frequently, the establishment of effective zoonoses-reporting systems by health departments encourages analogous efforts with respect to purely an:iJna1 disease by veterinary departments, and a combination of the two often results in greatly benefiting heal th and veterinary activities. liThe organization of a reporting programme requires co-operation among all interested agencies and groups (agriculture, health, veterinarians and statisticians). In most instances the programne with respect to zoonoses has been inaugurated at the provincial (state) level of health administration, eventually growing into a national system. The development of the programne logically falls under the guidance of the publ:Lo-heal.:t.h veterinarian, working in close co-operation with interested groups. liThe first step in organizing an anilllal-disease reporting programme is ,

.

to secure the assistance of statistical experts to advise and guide in the technical aspects of collecting and analysing data. In most situations

the best method is to use a coae number for each disease on which informs.:tion is requested, so that it may be readily transferred to cards that can be tabulated and sorted by machine. Such procedures are very efficient and permit reports to be compiled and distributed within a few days of receipt of the field data. Cards for reporting can be provided by the national heal th service to the provincial authorities, although occasionally a provincial government may purchase cards for reporti.ng. These cards are usually mailed twice a month. The list of diseases on which information is requested is agreed on by the various groups collaborating.

L

"Co-operation of veterinary practitioners is essential to the success of a reporting system. This co-operation can usually be achieved by keeping practitioners informed regular~ of :t.h~ incidence of v¢ouS diseases in their area. The vaiueof these ,notices is1ncreasjild i f that include brief summaries of diseases of current interest'.' '

• • • • • • • • • • "Where there is a lack of veterinarians, i t is often possibl'e to utilise the services of an assistant trained in specific veterinar,y techniques (stock inspector, vaccinator) to serve for reporting suspected outbre&ke '9t zoonoses to the health ,or agricultural services (where exchange of 1nfomation should be &rratlged). Often, no persom'iel of any kind 'with veterinar,y trai.ri1Dg-18 l&Vailabl., Put ,:the village chief', religious leader,or other per80ntrusted·. by the rural community as regards their livestock needs can be used. Shortterm training can be given to these individuals to enable them to recognize the rudimentary signs of epizootic diseases, so that they IJI8Y be immediately reported to the responsible veterinar,y anel/or health authorities." The following zoonoses are div:i,ded into thos~ of lIOrld-widepreV8J.ence for use . ...... ' ; ',' .. ~

in almost all countries (List 1), and those which are of more local importance (List 2). List 1 - world-wide. (Identification of type strains involved in some of "

the zoonoses listed below is not a common practice, but efforts- in this d1rection should be fostered as much as possible.) Anthrax "i

Brucellosis - identified by type where possible Cat scratch diseas$ Dermatophytoses - identified by type where possible Encephalitides, arthropod-borne (G.g. Eastern,Western, Venezuelan, Jlurray Valley, st. Louis, Japanese B, Russian spring-summer) identified by type where possible ' Erysipeloid ' Hydatioos18 Food poisoning - by type (e.g. Salmonelc;l;Ca;c'ar~mi LeptOsp;t.':i:c,S1s - identified bY tyPe where possible -----, Listeriosi., Liver fluke disease (fasciOliasis) Lymphocytip choriomeningitis Newcastle disease Pasteurellosis Plague Psittacosis (ornithosis) Q fever

WHO/ZOoD/61 page 78 AnneX )

Rabies Rickettsialpox Salmonelloses - identified by type where possible Septic sore throat (streptococcosis) Taeniasis (beef and pork tapeworm and Cysticercosis) Toxoplasmosis Trichinosis Tuberculosis, bovine Tularaemia Vibriosis Visceral. larva migrans (toxocal'iasis) L:lat 2 - notifiable where locallT prevalent, but wortb;r 01'. inclusion 1'01" r~ference

purposes in all lists (for more comp~ete lists of zoonoses 8ee Annex 1 ).

American spotted fever (Rocky Mountain, Brasil1an, Colombian) CowPox Clonorchiasis Cutaneous larva migl'8Jl8 (-.reepiJ:lg eruptional D1p~llobothriasis

---

Glanders If7IIeDolepiasia Influenza, swine Leishmaniasis

lIelioidosis

------

Murine typhus Opisthorciasis Ovine pustul:ar dermatitis (contagious eetb,yma) Paragonimiasis Rat,..bite fev2£_ Relapsing 1'e~. (endemic) .Rift Valley fever . Schistosomiasis Scrub typhus (Tsutsugamushi) Sparganpeis . Tick bite fever (rickettsial, e.g. South African, boutoJmeaee, Indian, Ken;ra) Trypanosomiasis (Chagas I disease, African sleeping sickness) Yellow fever, jungle

W1ID/~61

,',

page 79 ANNEX 4

,PASTEURIZATION OF RAW EGG PRODUCTS

, .-/.

The small difference between the temperature which eftSUres deatb of the salmonellae and that which results in coagulation of the However, carefUlly contro1le4 experiments recently produ.ct,p~Sent8Certain,

technical. dl.ff1cu]:ti.es when the heat treatment is to. be eu-rt84 out;.cealllwcialll'.

sCalea1i tbe Goft' reh :rna t1 tute on Da1ry lata.,.. IUlUMCi. ru.Uk" have shown that it 18 poae:lble to pasteurize ray eu prodalete ~th a i'e~bl. degree of safety in a pasteurizer used for pasteurbat.1.Oll of milk. This can be done when the construction is modified so as to en81lJ'8 an adequate flow, thro1.lgh the \ apparatus of the circulating water at a tEmperature that 1s only 0.5 ' C. higher than the temperature at which the products are being pasteurized.

'.M....

cam.~

out on

$ co_rc~al

o

t

\

The cooling

section of the pasteurizer must also be especially adapted. The following recommendations are given in a report to be published by the Institute: o Whole egg should be pasteurized at 65-69 C. for 90-180 sec.

Egg yolk should be pasteurized at 64-660 Fermented egg white. carried out at 51-52 )

c.

for 180 sec.

Ammonia is added to reach a pH 9f 10.;3, followed Pasteurisation is then 0

by holding the material for 20 hours at,15° C.

C. for 90-180 sec.

Fresh egg white can be pastel1rized at 55-;60 C. for3Q min~, aftertbe . addition of 0.5-1.0 per cent sodium citrate or 10-20 per cent sl1ccbJoa•• if the whipping abili1:vr of the final product. is ofldnc:lr 1mpoI'tance.,

.. /...

I;

WHO/zooa/61 page 80

ANNEX ,

THE PUNCTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL .AND NATIONAL SAIMONELLA CENTRES

The present Int.emational Salmonella and Escherichia Centre, d:l.rected by

Dr.

r.

lCcitf'maIm, originated in 1938 at the Statens SenJII1nst1tut, CopeDhaaen, as

the tiIftterna tional Salmonella Centre" wi th support fran the Coaaomreal th Foundation of N_ York. In 1941 the Bxpart Committee on Biological Stanclardisation reco......,vted In 1950 the International Association of

that 'the centre should be supported by WHO, and this recaaendaUOn was acbpt.d by the Firat Worid Health Aasembly in 1948. include work onescherichiae. 1ficrobiological Societies proposed that the Centre's activiv should be extended to This proposal was accepted by the WHO Executive Board' in 19S2, and the -intemational Salmonella Centre" accordingly became the

-International SalIIIonella and Escherichia Centre". The International Centre undertakes to: <a> <b) collect, identify and ~ salmonella and escherichia strains; supply free of charge to national salmonella centres, salmonella and escherichia strains and diagnostic sora; carry out further research wo'rk in salmonella and the escherichia.

(c)

II II

" II "

In order to promote world-wide identification of the salmOnellae itie necessary

for the International Centre to have close contact with the laboratories in the diU.NAt countries, and this has been achieved by the creation of national centres ~

II

deaignated by the government of the' country concemed.

ibe relationship of the·

II

lmemat10nal Centre with the na\1.onal centres is that of technioal and scientU'ic eollaboration.· The International Centre supplies to each newly established national oentre a set of diagnostic sera and test-strains in order that it mq do all its awn routine t)'ping (see later). The Intemational Centre also gives advice on the In add! tion, bacteriologists from national organillation of the laboratory work.

centres can receive WHO fellowships to enable them to be trained at the International

WHO,lzoon/61 page 81 Annex

5 to tlle

Centre.

All the national centres

are· enti.tJ.edto

.send 'e.almonalla part:l.cula~ly

~rai%ls

International Centro for furthe:r identification·"

in tne case of an

outbreak or i f the organism is of a rare Or anomalous type. At the present time there are some 51 national centres. in each country only one officially recognised National In pl'iDciplethere l.'·

SaJ.mo~l.,a c~ntre.

. This

does not mean that only one labora.tory conc$'ms itself wi tAealmoneUa Alao t.ben are, in JNI\7' CI01IDU1esj research or similuu.14-a1ir1UJM..

W~,

e&pedall)" i t the cmmt17 1.!t large Or has a highly deTeleped publlc health ,.erv1ce.

'llob.u

departments of universities, in which enteric bacteriolOD is intell8ively studied. The national centre, however, is the official direct link be_pn the Intiernaticmal.,. Centre and the country's other laboratories. but not as a barrier. It is intended to act as, a screen Thus, there should be no interference with free scientific

intercourse between the International Centre and atG'" other laborato17, provided that this does not hinder orderly develoJXll6nt of the subject or of national laborator,r facilities in the country. The functions of a national centre vis-a-vis other laborator:Lea in a countq are similar to those of the International Centre vis-l-vis the national oentres. Primarily a national centre serves as a reference laboratory for all the laborator1el of the country. It has, therefore, to investigate the antigenic structure and This activity b~

biochemioal reactions of anY culture which gives equivocal results or which it il thought could be a salmonella strain needing identification. )

the national centre into contact with all types of laboratories (public heal. tit laboratories, university laboratories, hospital laboratories, private laboratDrie8. veterinary and food control laboratories). The national centre is responsible tor distributing the diagnostic material needed by other laboratories within ite own territory. International Centre. This material can be prepared at the national centre with the standard sera and. strains supplied by the For small countries, or where staff is not sufficiently experienced, some material may have to be purchased from large oentres or special firms in other countries.

WHO/Zoon/61 page 82 Ann8X

5

The national centre .boQld also facH'tate tlle 1dent1t1c&t.:i.oD ol ealmooalJae by giving help and advice in technical ma1;ten! and by training personnel from peripheral. laboratories. 1n small or less developed countries, the national centre may have to undertake a great deal of routine work. In addition, the national centre ~ be

called upon to plq a direct role in other

aspects of the fight against diseases caused by the salmonellae - by taking

Jl8;rl

in

bacteriological. surveys, by collaborating closely with the veterinary service and official laboratories for the control of foodstuffs, and by advising in the treatment of patients and carriers. heal th service. The extent of this contribution will vary from one country to another depending upon the structure and the stage of development of the public

'-

r

WHO/ZOC:J6J page 83

ANNEX 5

BAIlGmLLA MATERIAIB SUPPLIED BY THE INTERNATIGlAL SAIMONELLA AND ESCHJi2lICHIA cmmm TO Nmfi,Y E8l'ABLIBHED NATIONAL SAIMCImLLA CEm'RES

(a) No.

Diunostio sera tor slide ag~lutination ~notabsorbed)

Sera,

Prepared wi til

o Sera 100 101 102

I. II. XII N. V, XII, XXVII VI, VII, VIII

S. parat;tphi A

.§.:.. paratYphi B + S. essen 173 + S. sohleisshe1m S. thanpaon+ S. newport S. t;Y;phi + S.enteritidis

. vm, "

J 103 104

IX, XII 'III, X, XV po~alent

.

,

S. london + S. newington I, II. IU, !:V, V, VI, VII. ~,

lOS

X, XII, XV. XXVII Vi Serum· 106 Vi,XXIX,Z14 H Sera "

'.

Bal1erup l1ving

107 108 109 110 111 112

a b 0 "

8.

pa;:~h1

A

S. minnesota phase 1 S. oho1erae suis phase 1 S. t;rphl "

d ' e, n. x

S. abortus equ1 S. dublin ,

113

g, P 1 1, 2, 3, 5 ,

S. bonar1ensis phase 1 S. ne!2ort phase 2 + S. than~son

-

114

phase 2

The 0 and Vi sera should be used in dilution 1:5 or 1:10, the H sera in dilution

1.50 or 1:100 (with 0.25" phenol-aalt solution and kept in the refrigerator at Ji-5Oc).

WHO/Zoon/61 page

84

(b) No. 1 } '.

Test strains

Strain S. 2aratlpb1 A 1015 S.J)IU'!tlphl B 8006

o Antigen ..

H Antigen Phase 2 Phase 1 a b .b

I, II, Xll: IV, V, XII .

1,2

5 2.iJ8 }1 22

s. s.

parttyphi B

var. Java

paratYphi B 0 form

"N, V. XII "N, V, XII III, XXVII, III, XII III, V, XII III, XII

XII b

S. Bohle1ssheim I} S. essen 17'

g,1II 1

209

.s.

tYph1 murlum 1ar 4

2:70 211

S. abortus eg,ul WH 2 S. oho1erae suls 179 S. lan1ta 910

c

- ,. e,n.x

. ,

;

VI, VII (VII) VI. VII (VIII) VI, VIII VI, VIII IX, XII

1.5 1.'5

201 40 175 51 145 57

e,h

s.

thom2son var. berlin 2988

-

S. v1rsinia S. nemrt var. 2:!erto rico

\,

s. s.

bonariensis C 12 typhl H 901

1

d

1,2,3 e,n,x

i I

d

58 60 : ,

S. typhi 0901 S. tyJ)h1 Watson

IX, XII IX. XII, Vi (IX, XII), Vi IX, XII I, IX, XII IX, XII III, X

d

62

: 269

s. s.

typhi Vi 1 enteritidis 5168

(d)

1,6 1,6

-

g,.

\ 65

S. dublin 215 S. &allinarum e11ina S. london 1446

t / / / . .

74 76

b

g,p

-

84 218

s. s.

new1n~on

C2

III, XII XXI

1.v e,h

minnesota P

-

,--.~

4rr

Ballerup 7851

XXIX, Vi

z14'

-

\~

WHO/Zoon/61 page 85 ANNF..I 6 LIST OF LEPrOSPIR.\ SmOTYPl!S AND SUBTYPES

Serogroup

•

Serotype Suggested latinized name ~ubtype

Present name

+ ioterohaemorrhaglae icterobaemorrhagiae AB icterohaemorrhagi&e ~cterOhaemorrhagiae 1120 + RnA icterOhaemorrhagiae A icterohaemorrhagiae ,..ncompleta naam ~l arso++ ++

:'1 ...

naam1

!birldn1 a1thU

mankars1nis birld.ni trII1tbii javanica

.... ~kir.

~th ~eldr;

javanica

javanica+ ~++

IBatav:l

~

po1ena18

~ ~oxu

COlOaI

coccia aa:na1ni

~ox I"'-..l!l

sarmin

88l'11l1n++

schue£tneri canicola

schuetfner1 ++ canicola+ jonsis sumneri pnaIa,.a

schuettneri canicola jonds sumner! malaya benjamini ballumenais ~allumensis

~~m

!Utrech ~V

~0n4

Jones S\DIIQer

a--6

benjamin ballum

!benjam1n++ Iballwa + !ballwa AB

BenjUl ~lumensia pastell~s

hlus 12'

Castella

.'

+

++

International Reference Aftti-Leptospira Serum and homologous culture (type strain) available to national laboratories on request from "'IlHOiFAO Reference Leptospiros:l,s Laboratories listed in~ex 7. International Reference Anti-Leptospira Serum in preparation.

.;-JOi Zoon/51 page S6

Annex

6

II Ii II

Serogroup Present name pyrogeDes p;yrogenes + australis B ++

Serotype Suggested latinized Subtype name pyrogenes zanoni abramis biggis hampton1s cynopteri butembo1 sentotU autumnalis autumnalis bangld.nanga mooris ++

Type strain Sallnem Zanoni. Abraham Biggs H8l:Ipton 3522 C

,

abramis biggls hampton! cynopteri++ butembo

c:ynopteri

Butembo Sentot autumnalls rachmati Akiyami A ::tachmat Bangkinang I lIoores Djasiman Ballico HUnchen 90C Pomona grtppotyphoes duysteri 'bemkoptU (bOvis) Moskva V

Isentot autumnalis

sentot autumnalis AB+ autumnalls A+ ++ bangkinang mooris

I

\djas1man

djasiman

djasimani australis monacensis pomona +

•

australis

australis A + muenchen ++

pomona grippotyph08a

pomona+ grippotyphosa

I ! ! i I

I

grippotyphOS& grippotyphosa grippotyphosa

\ •

grippotyph08& grippotyphosa

Duyster Bemkopt t

l

I

..

, • i

,

WHO/Zoon/61 page f!7

Annex 6

Serotype Serogroup Present name hebdomadis hebdomadis ++ medanensis woUtH ++ hardjoH mini swajizale kremastos ++ kabura jules hemolyticUB worsfoldi rieardi + sejroe sa.xkoebing borincana bat avi ae bat avi ae + paidjan semaranga andamana hyos .++ + + +

Subtype Suggested name hebdomCldis medanensis woUfii hardjinis mini mini kremasti kabura julia haemolytica worsfoldii ricardi aejroeensi8 s ax..l<:oebingensi8 borincana bataviae paidjani semaranga l:lt~_nized

Type strain

Hebdomadis Hond HC

'3705 :;ardjoprajitno mini Sari Szwajiaa.1c Xremastos Kaburs Jules F.arah '.Vorsfold Richardson )484

Y..UB 24 HS-S22 Swart .

Paidjan Veldrat S 173 CR 11 hyes baker! Mitis Johnson LT 79

semaranga+ and amana +

andamana hyus hyus

hyos s~. mitis Johnson baleeri*

* Provisional

classification pending further work.

-v7HO/Zoon/61 page 88 Annex S , ,

Serotype Subtype

I Serogroup

Type strain

Present name celledoni celledoni ++

Suggested latinir,ed name celledoni celledon1 espos1tinis ndambarii celledoni Celledon1 whitcombi 'TIli tCOlllb Es"oosito Ndambari

celledoni II esposito ndambari eSpositO* ndambari*

*

Provisional classit1eattOQ pending .turtberwork.

I'

wao/zooP/61 page 89

LIST OF WHO/FAa LEPTOSPIROSIS REFERENCE LABORATORIES

.&uatral1a

Laborator,r of the Department of Health and Home Affairs

BrilblDe eland Dr. 4.~)

r-

Itall leid. tuto Superiore di Sanita Viale ReaiDa Ilena 299

a-e Japan

(Dr. B. Babudier1)

Department of Viral and Rickettsial D1aea... National lnati tut. ot Health

Tok:1o

(Dr. 11. Kitaoka)

Netherlands Institute tor Tropical Hygiene and Geographical Patholog, 10181 Tropic31 Institute Mauritskade 57 • Amsterdam (Dr. J.W. Woltf) United Kingdclll of Great Britain and Northem Ireland The Wellcome Laboratories of Tropical lIadic1ne The Wellcome Building, Euston Road London N.lI'.l (Dr. J .c. Broom.) pn1ted states ot America Division of Veterinar,y Medioine walter Reed Army Institute ot Research Wa1 ter Reed Army Medical Center Washington 12, D. c.

WHO/Zoon/61 page 90

CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE

l

It is emphasized at the outset that, in order to assure the success of any oontrol programme in tuberculosis, it is essential that the official scheme of eradication should have the support of veterinarians and other members of the agricultural community. The backing of the medical profession will greatly assist in obtaining public support. Tuberculin-testing is the basic method of obtaining information on the incidence and distribution of tuberculosis, and an adequate meat-inspection service is an important aid. infected. It is important that efforts are made to p~vent

non-infected

premises from becoming infected, and relatively free areas from being more heavily In an area where there is only little infection, it may be easy to build This provides a psychological stimulus to the control It is important that such up a completely free area.

programme and also provides a supply of healthy animals to replace reacting cattle as eradication proceeds in more heavily infected areas. be provided. disease. According to the conditions in a oountry, a programme can be made voluntary or compulsory, or these methods can be combined. in only limited control. Voluntary steps alone usually result 'An educational programme will do much to arouse interast

a reliable source of animals should be available and that disease-free markets should It may be considered desirable to mark permanently animals that react co~trol

to tuberculin, particularly after some progress has been made in the

of the

in the control of tuberoulosis. but it is necessary to give some form of financial assistance, because the eradication of tuberculosis involves oonsiderable effort and some expense on the part of the farmer. herds, and ar~

A bonus for milk from tuberoulosis-free

later a reduction of prioe for milk from diseased herds, have been found In

very effeotive. tively, 1 C~,

beef-raising areas, a per capita bonus for disease-free herds,

perhaps bonuses or reductions for disease-free or infected caroasses, respecalso be effective.

Abstracted and slightly modified from Wld Hlth erg. techno Rep. Sera 40,

" ..\->.\ \WHD/ZoOn/61 page 91 Annex 8

A.

ME'l'H(1)8

OF CONTROL bov~ ~airy

In cOWltries l'Ihere the dairy industry has not been well, developed, tuberculosis may'not be a serious problem.

However. as soon as intensive

methods begin to be' developed, and particularly when Bu.ropean breeds of ea"'!le are introduoed~ i t i8 iJllportant that attempts should be made to control th~L disease. i: . ~.

:'~

, -' . .

1.

Teat and sl!UShter In the United States of "-rica, cattle wnich reaotedto tuberouUn were

slaughtered

r~

the inoeption of' the federal control progl'_in

1911~

.1.'bi8 was

possible becaus. ot the economic resources ot that country. -bu.t 1t shcNl4;be III84e clear that, althoUSh the overall incidence wu onlyaboutf1ve pereellt., 'Ule incidence in some ot the Eastern states was 20 p~~

oent •. to 50 peroent'.1Il·the

-

adult stock. It is obV,"ous that the test and slaughter method. 18 a h1ghly ette.ot1•• :, procedure tor eracUoating bovine tuberoulosis. 2. Moditiederadioation procedures In the early stagel$ ot an eradication schenae, sllW8hter1ng otreaotor8 18 usually economically impossible, and in the Scandinavian countries and the Uriite4 Kingdom very good. progress was made without this drastic procedure. . .. '

The tollowtog steps are advised, (a)

Farmers in various parts of the country are encouraged to develop Bonuses are oftered as 1ndl-

tUberculosis-free herds on a volWltary basis. cated'previously. (b)

The reacting animals are sold and go into other herds.

. There 11161 be

,

-

some objections to this procedure. but it should be realized that the react1ns animals are otten trom the best herds in the country. the great majoioitjaz;e'--' '. ,~. '.j.

YfHo/ZIxx7/61 page 92· .Annex 8

only slightly affected, and they go 1mo other herds that already contain tuberculous an1mals. The 1mportant consideration in this method is that there are more and more animals no longer exposed to the risk of inf'eotion. (0)

In 1Dd1v1dual herds the incidence of tuberculo.1s in

JOUDg

stock 18

'uauall:y low.

It 18 pnerall:y agreed that i f the incidence of' reaoto" to

tuberculin at the fiNt test 1n the adult stook is high, it 1s not a4vu_le to attempt tobulld up a tuberculosis-free herd trOll the non-reacting .sw.t

_bIals.

In decidlna on such a course, the prevalenoeot. tUberculin reactors c~nsideration.

in all the d1Uerent lip-groups has to be taken into even be de01ded that the re~ors

It II&Y

need n()t all be disposed of at once. if'

.aa1teble 1.olat1on taoi.l1ties are available.

If reaotiOK animals are retained,

• o~ olil\1oal enmnat'lon must be lIIade perlod1call:y (including Jlicrosoopic eZI!IIIa1nation of exoretions) to detect Itopen It .lea ions , particularly cases of . pulmonary, uterine; and (d) JII8IJIII6ry

tuberculosis. .

.

1

In the early atages of eradication, herds are retested every two to three

months, then at longer intervals (except when new intections are detected) and, as areas become free, possibly every two or three years or even less frequently. (e) Free herds should be protected from new intection by all available

_ans.

Where skim milk or whey 1s used for feeding calves, these products should originate from tUberculosis-free herds, or the pr3duct should be sufficiently heated or pasteurized. Cattle not recognized as tuberoulosis-free should not be allowed to be taken to the same pastures, markets, etc •• as health:y cattle. When most herds in a certain area or village are clean, the introduct10n of other than tuberculosis-free animals into that part ot the country should be prohibited. (f) The time when compulsory eradication is undertaken in a particular area

depends upon the prevalence of tuberculosis, and economic cond1tions. difficult to give precise figures.

It ie

If the prevalence of tuberculosis 1n

. The terms It open " and Itclosed" are not def; n it 've as applied to bov:ne tuberculosis. Cows not uncommonly shed tubercle bacilli in theIr mIlk even though no lesions can be detected in their mammary glands.

1

ii WHO/Zoon/61 page 93 Annex S

1nteoted herds is very hjgh. oompulsory eradication should not be undertaken until. say. 70 per oent. to 90 per cent. of the herds have been made free (as was done in Denmark). On

the other hand. if there is only a 10w prevalLT: .

of infeotion within herds. compulsory eradication can be begun when, s8¥ .. 10 per cent. to 50 per oent. of herds are free trom iDtection.During· all

stages ot killed.

eredlo~tion.

clinioal and "open" cases that are deteoted,partiou-

1&1'11 lIIlilllaJ.s ..with.. tuberculosis ot the lungs, uterue, or.udder, ahould be'

--

ot all tuberculins depends on.the preaence ·cd .,eoU10 proteins produced 1>7 the tuberole bacillus during its srowth. 'l'he activity

WbeNul'O-

·In Koon's Old 'Nbero~1n. this tUberculo-protein 1s m1Xecl with t.be protekl& 'Of:

-the medium and OaDnot.·be purified. be preoipitated ..by triohlol'~tio

When, hawver, the

tube~ b&oUluals;~

in a synthe,\io ~W!I (contain1D8 no protein) all·the tuberGUla--.prote.1n,pr.uent.o&

a,oid or by o'Uwr I118thods.

1bis preo1p1t.te .u··'

known as "purified protein derivative" or PPD tuberculin •.

It was hoped that PPD would prove to be a homogeneous product that .,Oould be . standal'dized by such simple chemioal methods as determination'of nitrogen .. but it 18 now known that biologioalaatlv1ty does notalwaye oorrespond to the n1tropn oontent. PPD as used consists of a mixture of Pl"Otein moleoules ·of .d1tl'erent. size PPD tuberculin is, however. the and sl1ghtly dlfterlng biologioal properties.

purest and I1I08t uniform produot used in tuberculin-testing.. and the dried product is stable over very long periods. 1be existence of a standard tuberculin now enablesoountr1es·to ~are lI'eau.'kta and ensure that any new tuberculin 1s of sufficient potenoy to detect tuberoW.os1a

in cattle (see footnote, page ~-­

30).

\

~I WHO/Zoon/61 page 94 Annex 8

The product10n of tuberoul1n, and the perfomanoe of the teet, IWSt be supervised by the Stnte to .ensure uniformity of prooedure, but this does not mean that the tuberoulin need be produoed in a state laboratory.

2.

'!be tuberculin-test

I t mq appear from the acoount given below that tuberculin-testing is

00lIl-

plioated, but i t should be emphasized. that the oomplioations arise ohietly 1JIben the incidence ot tuberculosis in a herd has beoome low.

'ruberouloai8 haa always

been fENatl), reduoed in inoidence, or eradioated, whenever 8D7 tuberoulin-test has

been systemat10ally applIed and reacting animals segregated. The original subcutaneous tuberculin-test has been abandoned aa a primary

test and replaced by the intradermal. test carried out on the s1dn in the oaudal told and read 72 hours later.

ot the neok 01'

If the tubercle bacillus were the only agent produoing sensitivity to 'tuberculin, tuberculin-testing would be simple beoause the use of a suffioiently potent tuberoulin would ensure the deteotion of all, or all but a very small nwabe!' . of, tuberculous animals. Unfortunately, the follOWing infections, ani some other

UDImown agents, cause non-specific sensitization to mlllllllalian tuberculin, Mycobacterium tuberculosis avium Myc. Johnei "Skin lesions" or so-called "skin tuberculosis"l Myo. tube1'Oulosis homin18 The latter Is, of course, not a "non-specific sensitization", but it contuses the interpretation of the test because it is difficult to distinguish the allergy caused by the unimportant (in cattle) human infection trom infection caused by the iJDportant bovine-type organism. 1

...

These terms are used to denote skin nodules containing as yet unidentified. aOid-fast bacteria which oause non-speoific reactions to tuberculin.

-

r

,

WHO/Zoon/61 page 95 P.nnex 8

No tuberculin has so far been produced that will detect all tuberculous animals without causing non-specifio reactions in a varying, but high, proportion of animals. Unfortunat8ly, some animals that do not reaot are suffering from All recent work on tuberculin and tuberculin-testing The maln advanoe advanced open tuberculosis.

has been direoted to increasing the specificity of the test.

has been the introduction of the comparative intradermal test in whioh avian and manmal1an tuberc,ul1ns are injected intradermally in two sltes of the neok at the same time. The importance, and probably the type of non-specific infection varies in different countries or parts of countries, and it 1s unlikely that any standard test will be universally adopted. It should be emphas1zed that the tuberculin-test is a herd teat" and. it

should not be interpreted 1n a mechanioal manner. previous history;

All facts concerning the herd

should be examined, particularly the incidence of tuberculosis in the herd and ita also, its possible exposure to infection, including inteotioQB o&Using non-speoific aensitizat1on. As eradication proceeds, the proporl'ion of reaoting animals with no visible lesions will increase. will increase. The status of the t~berculin-tests

This does not mean that the actual number of such animals 1

was summarized by Bang

in

1892.

Despite

changes in method his statement desoribes the position today I "It is found that the tuberculin-test is no more perfect than are other thinga in this world. Sometimes it fails. Animals with a very real degree of tuberculosis will sometimes fail to react, and the same applies to animals with a very slight degree of the disease. Further, a positive reaction has been observed several times in animals in which no tuberoulous changes were found on examination of the organs when the animals were slaughtered • • • but it would be the greatest folly to reject this method because it is not able to give everything we desire." 1

.....

-

Bang, B. (1892) Ugeskrift for Landmaend, .§. (translation in Selected works (1936) London, p. 268)

WHO/7I:ion/61 page 96 ANNEX 9

ASCOLI PRECIPITATION TEST This test is very useful., partioularly with respeot to the examination of hides suspected of originating from animals infeoted with anthrax. serum and oareful teohnique on the part of the laboratory worker. serum is best prepared in donkeys. The sucoessful Precipitating Strains use of this test depends, however, upon the employment of potent preoipitating Strains of micro-organisms vary widely in

their ability to aot as antigens in the hyper-immunization of donkeys.

ot Baolllus oereus (anthracoides) have been found to serve as the best antigens. It is often neoessary to try several strains before a good antigenio strain is tound. In this oonnexion, the Istituto Sieroterapioo Milanese, Whioh first

prepared the preoipitating serum, and the Institut Pasteur, PariS, oan provide further information. Brie·fly, thick suspensions in saline are made of agar-slant The suspensions growths of the different strains of mioro-organisms being tested. fied with preoipitating serum of known potenoy.

are boiled for a few minutes, oooled, filtered, and the olear filtrate is strati-

1;:~fj/ZOOn/61

page 9? ANNEX 10 OUTLINE OF VOOIrSTERILIZATION PROCESS USED IN THE UNITED KJNGDOll

!be process for the sterilization of hair and wool imported from dangerpus s , . is conducted at a central sterilization plant in Liverpool. .. . .... The hair or wool is washed for 10 minutes in 0.'Zl% sodium carbonate solution '

at 400 C.

This is followed "by another washing in a synthetic. soap solution (2 lbs. 0

of a detergent added to 3,000 gals. of water) for 10 minutes at 40 step is a 10 minute exposure to 2.0% formaldehyde at 40 step is a rinse in coldwater for 3 minutes. possible. scorched. The . ' .0

c •.. The third The fifth

C.

This is 'followed by

a ••cond tormald.ehTde ....h ot 2% for 10 minutes at the same temperature.

In between each of these stages the 0

wool or hair is rolled out so as to remove as much of the previous solution as, Following the last step, the material is dried in an oven at 120 C. After the material is dried, it is blown iIito baling presses. for 7 minutes, the temperature dropping rapidly so that the wool and hair is not

two fo:nnaldehyde bowls are enclosed

by a glass superstructure through

which there is reaqy aCC9SS to the scouring equipment.

There is an exhaust'system

within the superstructure which removes the formaldehyde fumes with t.'"te aid of fans. This system has recilced the irritating effects of the formaldehyde to a minimiun. '

" •

WHO/Zoon/61 page 98

ANNEX II ANTHRAX

Procedures recoomended in plants where potentially contaminated l .terials are handled (a) All dusty operations in leather, hair and wool industries 1Ibich hauclle

potentially contaminated material should have adequate exhaust facilities, and should be isolated from other operations.

(b)

Floors, walls, stairways, elevators. and traoaport vehicles. eto •• Cleaning should be performed daily.

ehould be of such construction that they may be readily cleaned by _t sweeping or suotion.

(0) (d)

All dust, dirt, 8lId sweepings should be burned. In the soouring prooedure the ciroulation of clean water while draining

ott the sludge is advisable. (e) Blending of wool should be done atter scouring. when this is oompatible

with the manufaoturing process. (f) Drying

of the wool should be conduoted at the maximum temperature com-

patible with the process. (g) (h) Dyeing of the raw stock wool should be used as much as posaible. Finished products. and dyed wool and yarn. should be h8lldl.ed and stored

in suet. a manner that there is no danger of oontamination from dust. d1rt. grease. and excrement from raw materials. (1) Protective clothing should be worn by employees in all oocupations 1Ihere The clothing should oonsist of loose-fitting Boots and aprons imperv10us The wearing ot

exposure to anthrax is likely.

overalls with long sleeves and oollars. 8lId hats.

to water should be available for workers in wet prooesses. with the prooess. dusty operations.

gloves should be mandatory in all instances in whioh it would be oompatible The wearing ot respirators may be neoessary in certain

1 Adapted from Wolff, A. H. 8: Heimann, H. (1951) Amer. J. Hyg.

2l, 80

1'IHO/Zoon/61 page 99 Annex 11 Adequate lavato~ and looker space should be made available. ~o

(J)

lookers, preferably in separate rooms, one for· street olothes and the other tor work oioth~8. should be provided for each worker exposed to the materials oonsidered contaminated witb B. anthracis. to· take showe~ and

These workers should be require4 Additionally, adequate

change completely from work clothing to street olothing,

inoluding shoes, before leaving the factory.

lunoh-room facilities Should be available so that employees need not eat their food in the same room where contaminated materials are being processed. (k) Employees should be thoroughly instructed as to the cause, nature, and oontrol of anthrax. lesions. (1) Effluents trom suoh factories must not be disoharged into plaoes Where . All outs, scratohes, abrasions, and pimples· shoUld be reported 1rmIediately and adequate medical attention should be given to such

an1lilals are lett.

WHO/zoon/61 page 100 ANNEX 12

IMPORTATION OF

~~IMAL

BY-PRODUCTS

Requirements for the United Kingdom (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries) Hides. skins, and hair Importation is allowed for hides and skins which have been dried, dry-salted, or wet-salted; wet-salting must be done for a minimum of 14 days. pickled pelts are allowed entry provided they have been treated with a depilatory paste and are subsequently washed and placed in a lime bath for 48 hours. The importation of cow hair, goat hair, and pigs' bristle from slaughtered animals is allowed, provided the hair has been pulled from hides or skins which have been treated by the lime or other chemical process. periods of up to one week. (In the lime process, the skins are soaked in milk of lime, sometimes with arsenicals added, in vats for In the chemical process, depilatory paste (sulfides and arsenicals) is painted on the flesh sides of skins, after which the hair oan

be readily removed, washed, and dried by speoial machinery). other hair (oow tail hair, hogs' hair, etc.) must be subjeoted to boiling for one hour, dyed, ar fermented and washed in a disinfecting solution equal in strength to five per oent. phenol solution, or be subjected to other approved methods of disinfection. Steamed bone flour, bone meal, meat meal, horn meal, bones, hoots, and hoot meal Every importation must be accompanied by a certificate ot a duly authorized officer of the government of the country of origin statingl (1) the factory of origin, which must be one which has been approved by the

Ministry; (2) that the material ref'3rred to in the certi.t1cate has been subjected to Gterili~ation

one of the following methods of adopted) namely:

(stating whioh method was

• WHO/Zoon/61 page 101 .Annex 12

(a) (b)

subjection to a ~ry heat of 1400 C for not less than three hours;

or

I

I

,-

subjection to a moist heat under steam pressure ot not less than 2 twenty pounds per s'1uare inch (1.4 kg per cm ; 1.3 atmospheres) for fifteen minutes; (c) or

treatment of the bones, after they are broken, with the vapour of

benzine boll1..':'l.g between 95°C and 115°C for not less than four hours, live steam to be thereafter admitted for one hour;

(3)

that after treatmel!t every prec.aution was taken to prevent the reinfeotion

of the stern hed pr'Oduct; (4 i '(;hat the steI'll!.zed proj\4ct was packed at the !'aotory in new bags; a.nd

(5)

that before the stsrilized. product was l':Jooed into any '1ehid..,: vessel. or

barge tor cor.veyonce to tile port of shipment t,o tile United Kingdom, the s8.1d vehicle, vessel, 01"

barge Wail dis'.nf'0c·\;ed with dieinfectant solution eqU2J. in

disinfective efficiency to a fi'le per cent. solution of standard pher'PL

Note.

The Minis tl;l' is prepared to gI'an·t; licences in respect of the :!.mpor+...ation of 9

specific consigA'.llIents of steamed bone f~ ot:r, bone meaJ.,

to., obtained from factol'les

which have not yet been inspected by '(,he Ministry, providedth!l.t each consignment is accompanied. by a oert1ficat.e of a. duly fl.u·th'Jri.?:ed :>fiice:::' of the government of the country of origin, stating the !l3me

and. ad"'ress o£ t!J.e factory. and which complies

wit.h (2) to (5) of the ab;;vc -menti "ned c·.;lld i t'.c.ns,

WHO/Zoon/61 page 102 ANNEX 13

MEDICATED FOOD FOR PSlTTACORT"? CONTROLc-IN P.ARAXEETS AND PARROTS

Acute psi ttaeos1s in parakeet~and treatlnent, providing medicated feed fo!'

:parrOrR _ bae bean ourbed by oral achin~ ~ les.than 100 mg/kg.. Interrupted

of aureoll\Ycin in t.he feed in doses of not

no'b\ lass _than

30 days and if necessazy

repeated, has liltpnately eliminated .."'I'i carrier state in a parakeet aviary, as . , proven by sampling of the Fl to F4 gtmeration~. Psittacosis-free aviaries have been developed by conscientious breeders with 'chemotherapy and maintain~d througb replacement only with in;fection-free.. brSeding stock. untreated nooks with unknown epizoo~c

Introduction of birds from The drug is

history must be strictly avoided, to

eliminate any possibility that the infection will be reintroduced.

conveniently administered orally, by feeding hulled millet seeds impregnated with

0.5 mg of aureom,ycin per g of feed.

An interrupted schedule of offering the

medicated feed - three to five dayeof me,dicated feed' followed by regular feed for one or tvro days, over a period of a total of 30. dqs of drug intake - has brought about complete, but not always immediate, cures. Success has been achieved only by conscientious aviculturists who maintain high standards of sanitation and isolation. Several species of parrots have been successfully freed from. virus by feeding on the interrupted sChecble a mixture of boiled rice and "chicken scratchn feed (corn, wheat and alfalfa meal) with 10 mg of tetracycline per g of mash.

Two

intramuscular injections of the drug in sesame 911 were less, efficacious than . ; prolonged oral treatmento

..

WHO/Zoon/61 page

103

ANNEX 14

"

SYSTEM FOR MASS TflEATMENT @F 1)OOS FOR ECHIN~~OSIS

'The anthelmintic treatment ot dogs, aa,

part ot a progr1UJlll8 against

~t.i4oe1a~

can be effective only if done on a systematic and contiDuous baais.

Treatment

should be performed by official personnel, and may be organized in suOb a W8¥ that dogs are taken to a collection point by the owners or on the system wberebJ the mobile field team makes house-to-house visits. A programme providing tor the free 8nti-eohinoooooal treatment of &ll dogs within speo1t1edareaa WAS iDaugurated 1n Argenttna 111

1944.

$1Doe _t1owtbe

work baa been carried on rather extensively in sfitveralother regiona these o8lDpaipus m&T well serve ~

ot that

Republio and hu also been practised in other couatri.s.1'be methocla uaed 111 a SUide tor aillllar acU'fity in other pU't.I of the Althou&h the system described 18 world lIhere oaniM eohinoooooos18 is enzootic.

baaed upon treatment of dogs at pre-announced oolleotion points, it may e ..11y be adapted tor programmes usins house-to-house Visits. The tirst step in this type of encleavour is to give noUoe to inhabitants of the area concerning the purposes of the campaign and to issue notioes ot the specified locations to whioh all dogs should be taken tor treatment. most convenient for owners to &ssemble their dogs in the mornirlg. should have received no food since the previous evening. It 18 ~

The animals As soon

At the appolnteO time,

data are obtained from owners or attendants tor entry on record to:rma.

as

this 18 done. an assistant places on the dog a collar end chain furnished bJ tbe

..

operating orew tor use throughout the treatment.

The anthelmintic (one per oent.

aqueous solution of arecoline hydrobromide with sugar added) is then given orall, with metal syringes or automatio dose-oontrol syringes. reduced in aocordance with the dOgs' weight. '!be dose used 1s 10 111. of

the one per cent. solution tor large dogs (more than 20 kg), being progres.ive1y The dogs are not aotually we1p;he4 sinoe their toleranoe tor arecoline will allow an estimation to suftioe, thU8 making it unnecessary to go through a weighing process, whioh may exoite the aniallll.••

· WHO/ZOOn/61· page 104

.......... \

Annex 14 I

Next, a tattoo mark is placed in the ear ot the treateeS an1llal UM! the owner is ~~truoted

to keep the 4og's head lifted for about 10 minutes in order to avoid

the vomit1ftg·whioh 1s sometimes oaused by areooline. 'l'b.e aniiDals are then allowed to relax and are kept tied to stake. for a period

ot approx1Jl&t81y one OOOUl'll .•

hour.

If the dog vomits, or If no purgation is observed Unless purgation

.

within )0 minutes atter medioation. the dose is repeated. "wits will be unsatisfactory.

utmost· preoautlona must be taken in oolleoting the .xo.....nt lett by the dogs. '1'hi8 _terial shoUld be gathered and buried in pits. It .hoUld be added that the period during whioh d08 oMners must wait for their animal.s to be released may very well be used for the purpoae ot instruoting -these persons ooncerning hydatidosis, by l118ana of leotures, demonstrations. motion

I I)

·f

C

piotures, eto.

-{

\

I

HI·printed fr'JllJ

TilE :\_"ERIC.-\~ RE'"IEW

OF

TrlU:I« l"LOSIS .-\~D

Pn ..\lO~ARY

I>I:-<EASE:;,

YO!. 77, Xn_ 6, .JUnE'. 1958 /'rintr-d ill C_S_.I.

ANIMAL TUBERCULOSIS JAMES H. STI,ELE A"D

ALBERT"F. RANNEY

•

ANIMAL TUBERCULOSISl. JAMES H. STEELE A"D

2

ALBERT F. RANNEY

(Received for publicat.ion October 28, 1957) INTIlODUCTION

Tuberculosis is bclie\'ed by some authorities to have affected animals that inhabited the earth before the advent of man. Animal bones of the paleolithic and neolithic periods show evidence of the disease, and recorded history from V':l'y ancient times contains unmistakable references to its effects on man. Proscriptions against eating the flesh of animals with disease now believed to have been tuberculosis appeared in the Jewish Talmud in the second and fifth centuries .\.D. Laws concerning the use of diseased animals ,,'ere enacted by German cities as early as the fourteenth century, In li32, the Germans, believing that bovine tuberculosis and syphilis were related or identical, ordered the destruction of all tulwrculous cattle and imposed penalties for the sale of meat from infected animals. These regulations were repealed some hfty years later after Graumann demonstrated that the two diseases were different and concluded from that that the meat of tuberculous cows '\'as safe for human consumption (1), Almost a hundred years were to pass before the wisdom of these discarded puhlic health practices and ot.her preycntive veterinary medical measures was again recognized, A number of French, German, and English veterinarians and physicians recognized the infectious nature of tuberculosis in animals and man in the early nineteenth ccntury, but this concept was debated for many decades. As early as 1850, German ,'cterinarians were advising dairy farmers to dispose of their tuberculous animals (2). By 18iO-some twenty years before pasteurization of milk was accepted as necessary to protect the human consumer-the infectiousness of tuberculous Co\\-S' milk for swine and calves was suspectcd, and Bavarian farmers were urged to cook milk before feeding it to young animals, Koch's disco\'l~ry in 1882, of course, made possible the differentiation of the three types of tuberculosis organisms: human, bovine, and avian. For some time at the tnrn of the present century, contrO\'ersy raged a.bout whether the bm'inc tubercle b;,cillus was infectious for man before its seriousness as a human lH'alth hazard was generally acceptl'd, :\ ow it is known, of course, that bovine tuberculosis can be transmitted to man both by the ingestion of milk from tuberculous cows and by inhalation of bacilli in droplets expelled by animals' coughing, I From the U. S. Department of Health, Edllcation. and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of State Service", Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, Georgia; and the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, Animal Disease Eradication Division, Tuberculosis Eradication Section, \Vashington, D. c. 2 Presented before the Medical Section at the annual meeting of the National Tuberculosis Association, Kansas City, l\fissouri, :\Iay 8,1957. 908

.

\,

909

\

"-...

.'

The Briti~h Hoyal Commission on Tuberculosis pointed out the danger of cow's milk as a cause of tuberculosis and fatal tuberculosis in man and urged that stringent measur!'8 be taken to prevent the sale and consumption of such milk, The persistcnt and mctit'ulous work and the conservative interpretation of the results, by Griffith, were probably more responsible for the final indictment of i11ycobacterium tuberculosis /)(lI'is as a menace to human health than were the efforts of any other individual. The conelusions of Griffith and Munro (3), in their extensive study on human pulmonary tuberculosis of bovine origin, further emphasized the danger of milk of tuberculous animals and revealed that pulmonary tuberculosis in man often resulted from th!l ingestion of milk containing living bovine bacilli. They predicted that this form of disease in man would disappear if infected milk from tuberculous cows was not used for human consumption. The control of bovine tuberculosis in animals was begun in the United States shortly after tuberculin was discovered by Koch in 1890 and demonstrated by Bang to be an effective agent in the identification of tuberculous animals. Many health departments in the Midwest began to test milk cows for tuberculosis shortly afterwards. This testing eventually led to a national program in 1917 under the C S. Department of Agriculture. About the same time that testing of milk cO\\"s was started in the ~,[id\\'e't, pasteurization of milk was introduced in l'>ew York City. Within a few years pasteurization was made compulsory in many cities and towns. Chicago and :\Iinneapolis were among the first cities to adopt compulsory pasteurization during the first decade of the twentieth century. There is no better example of its effectiyeness in eliminating tubercle bacilli from a large city milk supply than the reports of Price (4). In 1916 Toronto made pasteurization compulsory. Between that time and 1939 there was not a proyed case of bovine tubereulosis in a generation of children using city milk. The more susceptible breeds usually succumb to tuberculosis within weeks. The British Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (5, 0) reported in 1917 that 94 per cent of Jersey calves given subcutaneous injections of bovine tubercle bacilli were dead within ninety days. Most authorities agree that cattle are much more susceptible to infection by the respiratory than by the alimentary route. The distribution of lesions in cattle, as shown by meat inspection reports, leayes no doubt that thoracic disease is much more common than disease in the abdominal organs. Theobald Smith and later investigators who looked into this problem agree that the transfer of infection occurs in the stable or in other dose confinement, when diseased ('attle are coughing and expelling infectious droplets. Tubercle bacilli are found in cattle feces which are the source of infection for oth!'r animals, especially swine because of their coprophagic habits. Dried feces elinging to the udder, tail, and flanh of milk cows are a major source of COIltamination for milk, even more so than infection within the udder, which is

\)10

infrequent. Dried feeal dust may also be a source of milk contamination III the barn or barnyard. Today most im'estigators of animal tuberculosis belie\'e that a primary complex occurs in all animals at infeetion and that, \\'hene;;er tubercle bacilli inYllde the animal host, therp is some evidence of their aetivity. 'Vhen the aetivity is arrested the primary I('sions may disappear, but observations of tuberculous disease in calves rpveal that th" primary foeus usually remains latent. Such lesions are quite often aeti\'e, a faet fiupported by epizootiologic data, which indicate that, if any infeeted animab are left in a hf'rd, others are likely to become infected. Primary lesions in eattie may remain quiescent for long ppri()(b, after which progre",sin' disease develops. (It is abo possihlp that, when primary lesions heal, endogenous reinfeetion O(TUrs.) From til<' primary lesion, bacilli spread through the Iymphatie vesseh, or through the hronchi to other parts of the lung. Although pulmonary tuberculosis ill cattle may eausp an acute caseating pneumonia, it usuall~' takes a more chronic form. TIH' indi\'idual lesions of the chronic form often include a limited area of hronehopneulllonia. TruE' primary m1\·itation rarely oeeurs in cattlc, although it is eomlllon in cats and dog~. The pleural le"ion" are quite eharacteri~ti('. They first appear as ,",oft, pink, \'elvety gro\vth" and later they dC\'e!op into grapelike ('Imters (figures 1,2). 1Iedlar in hi" exeelJent report on tuben'ldo~i" in eattle (i) points out thnt in animals more than six months old the dispase is primary in the lung and i" ill nil probnbility eontracted by inhahttion of tb(' bacilli. In 1Iedlar's "tudy of ;;20 pairs of tubereulous lung,;, it \vas quite ('vitif"nt from the haphazard distribution of lesions in the lung parenehyma and their loeation that the inf('etion was nir borne. :'lingle tubereulous lpsion, \\'('re found in all region, of hoth lungs. 11ultiple le,ion, showed a ,imilar haphazard distribution. In most instances the lesions were in the superfieial portion of the lung parenehyma; few were in the deeper portion. :\[pdlar (jpserihed the vnrious ma('roseopie lesions as follow,: very slight ('m'cation (early); soft eHseous; firlll eaS(',>us; fibrocaseous; caleified; and eavitating. Cavitation "'as frequently denlUnstrat ..d and was deseribed by 1[edlar as a "very eommon oecurrenc('." To what extent this cavitation is primary is impossible to determine but, ina,mueh as m,,,t of the 2,005 lesions that wen' d('seribed were in the superficial pare]whyma, it would follo\v that the cavitation was thp result of the extension of thes(' lesions. Endobronchial le"ions \\'ere obserH,d frequently in advaneed pulmonary disease in rattle in eOlll1!'etion with mvitation. Tuberculosis of the abdominal \'iseem \\'as a eOllllllon oe('UIT(']H'" in the far adnulCed cases in this ,cries \vith cavitation. From thi, it is apparent that thp intestinal tub('rrulosis \vns seeondary to the ingestion of tuberculous pus from a eavitating pulmonary le,ion. Lesions produced in calve~ by experin1Plltal ~lIl)('ut:lneou~ infeetion with bovine 1uhercle baeilIi are extensive at the ~ite of ino('ulation. :\II elIormou~ necrotic tumor develops and infiltrates the covering skin and suhjacent nltls('le~. ~u('h local tumors remain hard. The approximal lymph nodes become enlarged alld quia' firm. The lungs are extensively diseased, with smalL opaqne, grayish t.uherdes ."('attered ver.\" thi("kl~'_ Arollnd these tubercle:;;

_\XIMAL 'lTBEH(TLOSIS

911

\

,'....

FIGS. 1 )\nd 2. Photomicrographt'1 showing cha.ru('.1eri~tie pleural lesions which appear as soft, pink, velvety groups and later develop into gl'a.pelike cluster~.

are frequently congested, edematolls areas that are {'onfiucnt, so that the lung tissue contains little air. Tllberrle~ are also nmnerutls in the liver, spleen, and kidneys. Every lymph node may he affect.ed, and the mediastinall~'mph nodes in the chest enormously enlarged (figures :1, i-). In more ehronic eases, i!pearly disease" growths are common on the margins of the lungs and on the Rerons lining of the thoracic ' . . alls, as in naturally occurring disease.

When cal\-es are challenged subcutaneously with human tubercle bacilli, the disease does not usually spread beyund the ,ite of inoculation and the nearest lymph node,;_ A recent report suggests that palmitic acid may be the active component in bm,ine tis,;ue underlying the resistance of cattle to human tubercle bal'illi (8) _ In rare instances thp disease becomes generalized and persists for

!ll2

STEELE

A~D

HA~"EY

FH;:-;. 3 and 4. Photomicrograph ..; :-:ho\\'ing ra.:eated mediastinal lymph nodes.

years, Traum ((I) encountered a ('asp in l!Jl G in ,yhich a human tlllwrcle hacillu~ waH isolated from the milk of a cow thr('e years after the animal had heen inoculated as a mlf for the purpose of producing artifi('ial immunity (10), Briti"h investigators ha,-e also pointed out thp dangers of immunizing milk cmys with living tub"rcle bacilli (11), When human tubercle ba('illi are injPeted dire('tly into the blood stream, they "'ill product' a pneumonia that can be rapidly fatal. n"pOl't" on the isolation of human tuberde ha('illi from naturally infeetpd ('attle indi('atp that the as"o('iated )e"ionti are u"uall~' "light. Th(' infection is important .. hiefly ill selhitizing th" animal to tuhpr(,lllin, \\'it('n animals arc e«'nsitizpd under :mch conditione<, thpy must be treah,d :I" di"PHsed animals and rpmm'l'd for "laught('I'.

ASIMAL TrBEHCtTLOSIS

913

Cattle rarely contract tuberculosis from man, although this occurs in the United States today more often than man ('ontracts tuberculosis from animals. During the last two years, epidemiologic reports of tuberculous infections in cattle contracted from humans have been re('eived from South Dakota, Missouri, and Michigan. One of the cases reported by the Michigan Veterinary Reporting Service was attributed to a dairy owner who was hospitalized with tuberculosis of the scrotum. Fourteen of the 20 cattle in his herd were reactors to the tuberculin test. On slaughter the 14 animals showed no visible lesions, although the tuberculin test reaet-ions had bpen as large as a fist. Another case reported from :\lichigan involved a 16-year-old boy found to have moderately ad vanced pulmonary tuberculosis. He had taken care of a dairy herd which, ,vhen tested, produced 2 reactors out of 15 animals. At slaughter the reactors showed no visible lesions. The remainder of the herd was also slaughtered and no evidence of the disease was seen. The instances reported from South Dakota and Missouri were similar to those ill Michigan. Feldman (12) has reviewed infection of cattle with avian tubercle bacilli in his excellent monograph. t'sually the tissue changes are slight, but severe generalized disease is reported occasionally, including mastitis and metritis which may give rise to abortion and even to eongenital infection. Avian tubercle bacilli are an important cause of nonspecific sensitization to mammalian tuberculin. Hagan and associates, as well us many other investigators, believe that contact ,,,ith acid-fast organisms other than tubercle bacilli arc able to sensitize cattle to tuberculin (13). BOVI.'iE TrBEHCl:LOSIS IX HrMANs

..

Human infection with bovine tubercle bacilli is exceedingly rare in the L nited States today. Only isolated casps arc known to have occurred in this country in the past se,'en years. An example of a recent casp eonfirmed by the Communicable Disease Center, Public Health Service, was one reported in 1954 in a 6-year-old boy who lived on a farm in l\Iichigan. Tuberculin testing of the animals on the farm revealed that all of the cattle were reactors, and the slaughter report indicated that gross lesions had been found in 15 of the 17 infected cows. (Since the presentation of this paper a ease has been reported in a packing house employee in :VIassachusetts.) Other single cases of human infection have been reported since 1950 from :\Iaine, Connecticut, West Virginia, and Illinois. The only outbreak in recent years was in northern Ohio in 1948; it involved 119 schoolchildren, a number of whom developed lymphadenitis. In no instance was it possible to isolate an etiologic agent from the lymph nodes, but the histopathologic findings were compatible with a diagnosis of tuberculosis. Bovine tuberculosis as a cause of tuberculous lymphadenitis in humans is frequently discussed, but there are fl'w cases in which the relationship is proved b~' bacteriologic study. Fortunately in the rnited States, the brn'ine type of pulmonary disease is unknown. Griffith and :\1unro (3) have reported on the spread of bO\'ine tuberculosis from man to cattie in Grt-at Britain where human disease of this type

!ll-!

STEELE .1'.;)

IL\:'(:'(EY

formerly existed. Like\\'ise Sigurdsson (I-!) has reported similar instanees In Denmark. While the human cases of bovine tuberculosis that have come to the attention of the present writers in recent years do not represent all that have occurred in this eountry, the fact that there are so few known instances does give some index of ho,,- infrequently the di8easc occurs. This favorable situation, of course, is a result not only of the eommon pnwtice of pasteurizing milk, but of the campaign to eradicate tuberculosis in cattle, begun forty years ago by the l'nitpd States Department of Agrieulture in cooperation ,,-ith the states. EH,\IllC.ITlV; Tl"BEHCTLOSIS r:'( C.\TTLE

I

j'rogress

Although the goal of complete eradieation has not yet h"pn reached, pmgress has IWPIl noteworthy. _\hout :)'i8 million tuberculin test" han' bpPII made Oil cattle in the pm;t forty years, and slil!;htly more than -! million reading animals ha\'e been found and sent to slaughter. In almost el'ery year silu'" thc' eradication campaign got under Imy ill l!Jl7, t hp ill!'id(,lIcP of thp diseas!', as indicated by tubprculin test remIt:.;, has beell reduced helm\- the leyel of the prPI'ious year. In I DIS-the peak year-nearly;' per cent of the anilllab t('sh,d I\"ere found to \)(' infected lI"ith tuberculosis. In :;ome milk ,hed:.; the ratp of infection at that time ranged from :2.> to ;;0 ppr ('cnt. By 1\);;7, the rate of inf('ction for th" country as a ,,-hole had dpelinpd to 0.15 per ('ent-':3 reador" of p,'pry :2,000 cattle tested. :\ I!;radual reduction from year to yC'ar in the number of !'attle !'arcassps that sh()\\" lesion:, of tuherculo"is under fpderal meat inspection (not indudinl!; reactors sent for slaugbtpr) has !'oin!'ided I\"ith the decrease in the p!'rcental!;p of reacting cattle. It has heen clllculat!'d that nparly 100,000 carCllSS('S would have been condemned as unfit for human consumption in I !l57 if b(lI-ill(' tuberculosis had remained uncheeked siw'c 1\)17. The actual number so cond('mne!! in 195i \ms 212. On the basis of !'uITent prices, the savings on the "011demnation:i resulting from the testing program and on the killing floor pqual more than $150 million a year. 'I'll!' total expeuditure for the eradi!'ation prol!;ram o\"er the years has been S:l:2G milliou. Tbll', in tll"O years the program sal-es alnlO:.;t as much as has been spent for it in forty years. Ho\Ye\-er, de:,pite thes!' sil!;ns of major progress, bO\-ine tuber!'ulosis still o('curs in this country alld probably affects some UO thousand !'attle" \I'hi!'h as ~'et hu\-e not bppn identifi!'d (figurp oj). III 19;;7, almost 10 million cattl" (10 pC'r cellt of tlw total ('attl!' populatioll) were tuberculin tested. Of the 1-! thollsand reacting animals, f('wer than ,H1Phalf reyealed lesions pathognomonic' of hm'ine tu)wrculosis on slaughter. Many of the lesions found were in the early "tages, indieating reepnt infectioll. As 3 One hundred and forty thousand infectious cattle is an. e::-timate hased 011 an extrapo1ation of 0.15 per cent Teactor:-t among 10 million cattle tested in IH5, out of a total population of 100,000,000. It i:-:; pre::iumed that. t.he 0.15 per ('ent [pactor rate would apply to the total ('attlc population.

A:\I~IAL

TCBEHCULOSIS

915

1917 \

.'1940 ' .

\

~' 0.12"114,000

314000

1955 1956

I

I

0.15"144,000

FIG. 5. Bovine tuberculotiis: Infected animalti (ealc:ulated).

the incidence of infection has heE'n reducE'd, opportunity for exposure lessened, and factors responsihle for nonsppeific reactions have tended to remain fairly constant, a sharply increasing proportion of reactors slaughtered have shown no visible lesions. Heaetion in these animals is due in part to exposure to: (1) human tuberele bacilli; (2) avian tuberele baeilli; (3) M!Jcobacterium paratubernonspecific acid-fast organisms. Health and agricultural agencies culosis; and are intensifying their epidemiologic and epizootiologie investigations to determine the etiology of tubereulin reactions in animals when no-visible-lesions are found. During the early years of the eradication campaign, emphasis was placed on building up a large number of individually aecredited herds. (An accredited herd is one that has been tuberculin negative on two successive annual tests.) As soon as possible, states adopted area testing, usually on a county basis. In 1940, twenty-three years after the program began, the last county in the L:'nited States became a modified accredited area, that is, one showing less than 0.5 per cent of tuberculosis. This achievement was only an intermediate goal. It is now necessary to think in terms of complete eradication in all states. Since the entire nation has reached a modified accredited status, a tendency toward complacency among members of the li\'cstock industry in some areas and among some regulatory groups has been deterring the eradication effort. Research, education, and improved testing procedures have helped to bring the incidence of tuberculosis among cattle to an extremely low level in this country. Further research and education, particularly the kind of education that counters apathy, will be needed to accomplish eradication. In many states there is a close \\'orking relationship between public health officials and state and federal livestock ~anitary officials, \yho keep each other fully informed of any possible relationship of tuberculosis in humans and in animals. This close contact should bc extended to all states. A sudden realiza-

(.n

916 tion that a few herds are riddled with tuberculosis alerts the general public to the danger of allowing a little infection to remain uncontrolled. There is little doubt that public health groups are aware of and sympathetic to this problem. Procedures Scientifically accurate testing and interpretation of results, strict quarantine of infected herds after reactors are removed, thorough cleaning and disinfection of premises which have been occupied by infected animals, determining the type of infection and the origin of infected animals, and tracing down exposed animals to locate new foci of infection are all necessary measures.

For many years there was :t tendency to t('st a lH'rd, r('mo\·e the reactors, and pass on to the next herd. Today more attention is being gi\·en to the epizootiologic investigation of all infected herds. "'hen inf('etion is scattered as it is now, nothing is an effeetive substitute for searehing out and destroying the disease completely whl'r(, and when it can be found. A slight increase in the annual infeetion rate last year was probably due to tracing to herds of origin animals that showed lesions of tuberculosis on slaughter, along with similar follow-up stndy of those that n'acted to the tuberculin t!'st, and the testing of ('xposed animals. Such temporary increases in infection rates are to be expected, as the ,·enters of infection are more effectively located through established epidemiologic procedures. The manner in whi('h traeing can increase the number of known reactors is illustrated by an incident that occurred last July in Ohio. A producer sold his entire herd of 88 beef cattle, expecting them to he ~ent to immediate slaughter. Instead, they \vere auctioned, -18 of them going to twelve different slaughterhouses and the remaining -10 going to three farmers and three dealers. Federal inspectors at one plant and municipal inspectors at 1\\·0 plants reported 5 carcasses sho,,·ing lesions of tuberculosis. Acting on this information, fedl'ral and state tuberculosis I'radi,·ation officials traced the animals, now scattered to four additional farms. In all, the im·estigators found 2:~ reactors on seven premises. Tracing and testing \\"('re completed in three \v('eks from the date the :tnimals were sold. Another example-whieh demonstrated the value of tracing reactors to locate ne"· centers of infeetion-('oncerns a Connectieut dealer's herd. Eight reactors were found when this herd was tested in Ylay, 1!J55. Fin of the reactors had originated in ::vraine, 2 in Connecticut, and one had predously been tested in the dealer's herds. Investigations of herds from which all rem'tors had come turned up no infected animals. However, as a result of routine area testing and the tracing of animals that had moved through the herd during the previous six-month period, infection was found in three states: 7 reactors in four Connecticut herds, 7 in threp Massachusetts herds, and (j in two herds in Rhode Island. Because epizootiologic tracing so frequently pinpoints th" source of i~fection, it turns up a higher pprcentage of reactors than does testing animals for other reasons. For example, during the calendar year 1!J56, testing the herds of origin

/

--

A"HlAL TU1t;HCCLOSIS

917

TABLE 1 Tt:BERCULI:S TESTING OF CATTI.E, JAl'iL\RY I-DECEMBER

31, 1956 Number of Cattle Tested to Find One Reactor

Reason for Tests

Kumber Tested

I\Tumber of Reactors

Area te"ting and herd accreditation. Quarantine herds. Testing herds after tracing diseased or exposed animals. Animals tested for sale or to comply with interstate requirements. . .......... . Other (miscellaneous) .......... .

7,413,lO5 365,880 62,234 489,076 658,639

8,336 3,666 1,061 119

_.._-_._---889 99 58 4,109

616

1,069

t

of carcasses found t.o have tuberculous lesions at. slaughter turned up one reactor in every GO cattle tested in such herds; testing quarantined herds turned up one reactor in every 99. Herd accreditat.ion tests, on the other hand, revealed om' reactor in every 3,052 cattle tested. When reports submitted by the :\<Ieat Inspection Division of the Department of Agriculture and by state and local meat inspection agencies are used to identify and locate the herds from which tuberculous animals have come, and those herds are tuberculin tested, the spread of infection can be minimized by eliminating other diseased animals before they are sold and moved into other herds. This procedure is both direct and economical. In one state, during the calendar year 1953, the cost of locating a reactor by tracing and testing was calculated to be $32, while the cost of locating a reactor by routine methods in that state during the same period was Sla9. The federal expenditure for eradicating tuberculosis in animals during the fiscal year 1957 amounted to $1,807,868, and state legislatures appropriated $4,564,971 for the purpose during the same period. If all tuberculous infection evident at the time animals are slaughtered is report€d and herds of origin promptly identified and tested, the effieieney of the program can be materially increased with the same expenditure of funds. Although epidemiologic procedures produce a higher number of reactors in proportion to animals tested and are less rostly per reactor, a great majority of the t.otal reactors located in the eradication program are found as a result of testing for area and herd accreditation (tablp 1). Tracing procedures are a valuable adjunct to other eradication measures and deserve the increased attention they are getting, but they are not a substitute. Eradication officials believe that, with efficient tracing operations and more diligent application of other established procedures, the eradication of bovine tuberculosis will be hastened. TUBERCULOSIS I:-1 OTHEH A1\"IMALS

Swine Tuberculosis in other animals in the Cnited States has declined along with bovine tuberculosis, although not to as great an extent. Losses of swine due to tuberculosis are shown in figure (). Swine are susceptible to all three types of

--

918

1924 1934 1944 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 FROM FEOERAL "'EAr INSP{CTION RECOPOS OF CARCAsses R{TIlINCo

FIt;.

t).

:-\wil1f' :-<howing tuhcrr"ulol1:-,

](>:-:ion~.

tubt'rculo~i" human, bO\'ill(', and a\'ian; but 1ll0"t of th<' tuberculosi, recognized in swine today i, a\'ian, whieh i~ ('ontra(,(pd from poultry, The bovine disease has practieally disapppar('d in ,,\'in(' sinec tub('r('ulosis ha" been reduced to a 10\\' Ip\'cl in cattle, Last year, hOl\'pver, tnl<'ing thp origin of two lots of swine, in , which 18 careass"s of :17:1 "Iaughtpred animab \I'prp eondemned, uncovered hea\'y infection in tll'O herd, of eattl<" Tes(,; on tlH' :28 ('attle on the farm from which Rome of thl' '\I'ill(, originated produ('I'd :21 I'p,wtor:'; ;) had extensive It'sions, Tl'sts On a herd of :20 cattle which a tplum! had t,-,ken from til{' farm when he moved produced 17 I'('a('(or:', only :2 of \I'hi('h failpd to show If'sioll" of tuber('ulosis on autopsy, TI1(' 18 IH'ad of brpeding s\I-inp on the farm of origin Iwre tested, and all reaeted, The unusually large number of ""ine can'asses condpmllpd on ll1('at inspeetion and thp sP,-pre infp('tion fOllnd in the two herds of cattle suggest that in thb ease thp ,m-inl' I\'('re infe!,!pd with bovine tuber!'lliosis, There hay" bepn no rl'por\" of ";\I-int' infer'ted \I-ith human tubercle bacilli in recent years, This may be l)('cauRe of til(' prohibit.ion against ft't'ding s\I'inE' rail' gurbage, espe~ially that originating from hospitals or sanatoriums,

"'"

Poultry

Poultry are susceptible only to avian tu]wrc]p bacilli, Althou~h twenty or thirty ycurs ago Yct('rillariall., noted extellsi,-p tubeTculous infection in poultry, the diseasl' has bpen reduced by improved nlatHl!1:eml'nt praetieef', Aviall tuberculosis renmins a problE'1II ill the T\orth ('Plltral f'tatp:, where birds arc carried over from year to yPlU' in laying flocks, and ('sp('('ially where farm flocks have the run of the premises, The disease is also found ill wild birds in mallY parts of the country, Fortunately, tu]wr('u]osis is not a proh](,111 in tb(' broiler industry because the birds ttl'(' mark('(ed at a youllg age,

,

,.J I

.... A"IMAL TCBERCULO:3IS

9l!1

(

\Vhen a floek is known to ht' illft'ctt'd, the rt'{'oll\ll\elldcd procedure i~ to mi~(' a I}('W flock on eleall ground, amI to disposE' of okl birds at the end of the laying seaSOll or when they are about eighteen month, old. Bemuse tuberculosis usually progresses slowly, most hens will not j,pcomc a source of infection if they are handlpd in this manner. Careful attention to these alld other management praetices can be expected to result in the eradication of the disease from a flock. Phpasants and turkeys are quite susceptible to avian tuberculosis. Ducks, geese, and swans are more resistant aud, even when living with tuberculous chickens, they are seldom affected. Tuberculous lesions are frequently found in both captive and wild pigeons. In some parts of the world the condition occurs in natul'lll epizootics among wood pigeons, not direetly acquired from domestic fowl. Avian tuberculosis has been found to be common in starlings in England, a~ well UH in crows, sparrows, and gulls.

Pet8 and Zoo Animals Tul)('reulosis in dogs is rarp in the l~llited StateH. Durillg the past two years only one report of canine tuber('ulosis has \:Ome to the attention of the Communicable Disease Center. It is not Ullconllnon, however, in some parts of the world. According to a world survey, about I;) per ceut of the strains isolated from llaturully infected dogs are humtlll, and nearly all of the remainder are bovine, with only a few twian strains. Although contaminated food may serve as a vehiclp of infpctioll, dogs usually a('quire tuberculosis directly from man. Spread of infection from dog to dog or to other animals is very rare .. The disease ill dOgH u8ually ill\'olves the thoracic organs, but may occur in the livers and kidneys. Lesions elsewhere are infrequent. Cat.; are \'pry resistant to human tuberculosis and seldom art' infected by tuberculou:i owners. They aI'!' ,[uitl' ,msceptible, hO\\'e\"('r, to bodne infeetions, contmeting the disease by drinking milk from tubereulolls "O\\·S. In eats, th(' primary lesions are u:;ually in th(' abdominal organs, with frequent secondary il1\'olwnlL'llt ill the lungs ..-\s \\'ould be ('xp(·t!pd in vi('\\' of the low ineidenc(' of bovine tuberculosis, therc IU1\'e b{,(,ll no rpports of fdim' tuberculosis in th(' r nited States in recent years. Interestingly enough, parrots in captivity are more sU8ceptible to mammaliall than to avian tubercle bacilli, and pC't parrots may bl' infect.,d with human tuberculosis. The lesions ill parrots urI' most commonly on the head and appear as warty or horny growths 011 the root of th(' beak, nasal orifice, eyelids, and on the tongue. The internal organs are not always affected but, when they are, infection is usually confined to the lungs. Parrots illfeeted \"ith ~1\"ian tubercul08is, howeve!', show the characteristie nodules in the lungs, liver, and spleen. Ca.naries are al80 susceptible to organisms of human tuberculosis but less so than they are to the avian strain. Human struins hm'E' been recovered from .othcr pet birds, as well as wild birds. While investigators have not found tuber('u[osis ill mOll keys living in the .wild sta te, monkeys in captivity ha \~(' all extremely high incidenee of the disease. Tubcrculosis can b" a serious disease problem ill the monkey colonies of. lab-

920

,.;TEELE .\Xn RAXX EY

oratorie~ and zoos unless the animals are tuberculin tE'sted frequently and precautions are taken to prevent the introduction of infection. The monkl'Y is susceptihlE' to hoth human and bovine infection, although most "train, isolated are human strains, There can be little doubt that til{' monkey in captivity is the most susceptible of all animals to tuberculosis. There are ahout 100,000 monkey pets in the l-nited States, according to the 195(i pet census made hy All Pets Jlagazine, and every year a number of these animab are found to havE' tubpr('ulosis. In spite of their usdulnp"s as laboratory animals, rabbits, guinea pigs, hamst!'rs, mice, and rats rarely have natural tulwf('ulous infection when they are kept m; pet", E\'idpntly tuberculosis does not ()('('ur in these animals in the \dld statc, ex('cpt occasionally ill mi('e and rats. 'Vild animals not in con tad "'ith domestic animab or man are helie\'ed to be free of tuberculosis, but it is not uncommon in "emi-\\'ild or feral animals, For instance, foxes and minks raised on fur farms are quitp sw.;ceptible to bm'ine infect.ion, and animals kept in zoological purks are frequpntly infeded. ::\links are also susl'eptible to m'iaJl infection. It is of spe('ial inteft'iit that human tuberell' bacilli, whi('h are incapablp of producing progressi\'e tuberculosis in domestic cattle, goat>', "hee>p, and pig~, cun ('uuse> tllberclIlo"is in thl' ,yilt! sppcies of ruminanb und pigs equal in sen'rity to that produced in these wild animals by til(' bovine strain, There are 8 reeorded cases of futal tuber('ulosis in elephants confirmed by autopsy and bacteriologic examinution; all yidded human tubercle bacilli. BOVl"E TGBEHCULOSIS IX OTHEH C'OUXTHIES

"

....

,

The situation in the l-nited States with regard to tuberculosis in ('aUIE' is better than that of most of the rest of the world. The only area that has a lower incidence thun the United States is the Seandinal'iun countries. Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark have almost completely eradicated bovine tuberculosis; in these countries now, tuberculin reactions in cattle are ehiefly due to exposure to hun}[1n infection. Another encouraging report comes from Holland which has rednl'ed t he incidence of tuberculosis among animab to less than 1 per eent, Dnteh Yetl'rinarians and public health workers realized early that ugri('ultural workers, rural residf'nts, and others hu\-ing contaet with eattie should be cheeked for tul)!'f'(·ulo~is. In their control campaign, they are testing hoth animals and humans. Germany hus made considerable progress during the past decadf', influenced by United States Army and .\ir Force yeterinarians \\'ho snpf'n'i,,!'d thp procurement of milk supplies for the troops stationed then', The Germans han' re('ently enlarged their program and they hope to eliminatp bo,'inf' tub!'rculosis within the next decade, Fmnce has also had the stimulus of l"nited State" procurement requirement:; in some areas and a numbl'r of "island,," of dispase-free animals have been established, For forty ye"rs the French used BC'G as an immunizing agent for cattle, but they discontinued this progmm parly ill 1955, and now plan to carry on a national te"ting and slanghter program,

'I

AXIMAL TUBERC1:LOSIS

921

England, Scotland, 'Vales, and Korthern Ireland are moving along toward pradication of tuberculosis in cattle. Recent reports statc that 83 per cent of the hprds in England are known to be disease-free and a sizeable number of the remaining herds probably are as well. The dramatic drop in the incidence of bovine tuberculosis among children in England attests to the public health significance of the progmm. Although Portugal is almost free of bovine tuberculosis in eattlc, Spain and Italy have the highest incidence of the disease in cattle in Western Europe. Italy has depended upon BCG vaccine for many decades and is "till continuing its usp, especially in northern Italy, which is known to have a high incidence of bovine tubereulosis. During the past few years reports have come from Italian investigators on the use of isoniazid in the treatment of animal tuberculosis. According to early information, the results are equivoeaJ. Further data reeei,'ed early in 1957 in(!ieate that drugs arc of little or no mlue in eliminating tuberculosis from cattle and that maintaining the necessary levels of drugs is uneconomical. It is abo TPportl'd that, as soon a13 the drugs arc withdrawn, the disease becomes active. Information is limited on either the prevalence of tuberculosis in cattIe or steps taken to control it in the countries of Eastern Europe. The disease is known to be present in Africa, especially in European breeds of cattle, and in the dairy eenters in Asia. Australia and New Zealand have a 10\\' ineidence, and both have inaugurated eradication programs. With their well-organized veterinary services, they should be able to wipe out the disease in the next decade. Outside the l-nited States and Canada, which has many areas with no tuberculous cattle, the problem is still of major concern in the ~Western Hemisphere. Tuberculosis in cattle i, common in the milk sheds of populous centers in South America, and is even to be found in beef animals of the Argentine. Only Venezue
a and Colombia have eradication eampaigns, and in the latter country the program has been inactive in recen t years. Bovine tuberculosis ('an be brought under control and eventually eradicated when public health and veterinary mcdical officials reeeive the support of the public and of legislative groups. This support is the keystone to control of the disease, and it can be dewloped \\'hen there is an enlightened public and the necessary leadership among publie health and veterinary authorities. HEFEHEXCES (1) IVIYERS, J. A.: ]\'lan\~; Greatest Victor.\" over Tlibel'CllJosi~J CharIeR C Thoma.s, Spring~ field, 1940, p. 199.

(2) (3)

(4) (5)

(6)

F. S.: The Helation of Animal Di.eases t.o the Public Health, and Their Prevention, D. Appleton & Company, "ew York, 1884, p. 68. G-RIFl<'ITH A. S., ANO )Ir~RoJ W. T.: Human pulmonary t.lIberclilosi~ of bovine origin in Great Britain, J. Hyg., 1944,43,229. PRICE, R. 1\"1.: The bovine tubercle bacillus in human tuberculosis, Am. J. M. Sc., 1939,197,411. FR..<\~CI~, J.: Tnberclllo!"is in Animal~ and :.\Ian, Ca:'lell and Co., Ltd., London, 1956. COBBET',., L.: The Cau,es of Tuberculosis, Camhridge, 191.'; (citerl in Francis (5». BILLINGS, 1

\122 STEELl, AX]) RAXXEY

(7, ;\lEDLAR, E. :'11.: Pulmonary tuberculosis in cattle, Am. Rev. Tuberr., 1940, -11,282. R. A., AXD HrDGIXS, P. C.: Tuhercu]osta.til' effect of calf lung faHy acids on human and bovine tubercle bacilli, Am. Rev. Tuberc., 1957, 75,6.30. (9) TRAP"., J.: Per!'onal commnnication, 1957. (0) GII.LIL.-\XJJ, S. H.: The production of artitieial immunity aga in . . t tuherculo:o;is In domc~tic animals, Am. Yet. Hev., 1914,45, 27S and 392. (11) COBBETT, L.: The Danger of Immunizing ~Iilch Cow:, with Living Tubercle Bacilli in the Causes of TlIherculo:'1is, Cambridge Universit.y Pre~s, 1917, p. 674. (lQ) F}<~LDMA,\" \V. H.: Avian Tuhf>rclllo~is Infection,:, \Yill iam=-, & 'Vilkill~ Co., Baltimore, 19aR.

(8)

P;\T~ODE,

(13)

HAGA:-';,

' 'T. A.,

AXD BHc~EnJ

\V. B.: The

Infe('tioll~ l)j:-;eu:;:;E's

of Dome:;:;tic Animals,

pd. 3) Cornell rniversi1.\" Pre~~, Ithaca, 1057.> p. :)37. (14) SIGl"RDf;SOX, J.: ~tlldips oll1hp risk of infectioll with IHl\"inc tuberclilos.j:.:: to the rural poplilatioll; Acta tuber('. SCtlndillav., Hl-45, SupJ.lJ(,llwnl X'·, p. 1.,17"

/