CLIMATE AND HEALTH COUNTRY PROFILE – 2017 JAMAICA
OVERVIEW Jamaica is one of the largest and most populous islands in the Caribbean, with 1,022 km of coastline and over two and a half million residents. Jamaica has a rich cultural history and diverse tropical geography from the waterfalls of the famous Blue Mountains to the island’s white sand beaches, making it a popular destination for tourism. Like many neighbouring Caribbean states, the Jamaican health system and economy are susceptible to the direct and indirect effects of climate change. Tropical storms, sea level rise, and the changing distribution and outbreaks of vector-borne diseases present major risks for population health and will also have an impact on critical aspects of Jamaica’s economy such as tourism and agriculture. Over the past two decades the island has been impacted by major hurricanes causing extensive damage. Extreme weather events are anticipated to increase in intensity, emphasizing the importance of resilient infrastructure and health systems. Likewise, recent outbreaks of vector-borne diseases such as chikungunya and Zika highlight the need for climate-sensitive infectious disease surveillance and prevention.
• Climate change is expected to increase the risk of vectorborne diseases in Jamaica including an increase in the potential for dengue fever transmission [page 4]. • Outdoor air pollution in several Jamaican cities in 2012 was higher than the WHO recommended guideline values. Air pollutants, such as fine particulate matter, pose a substantial risk to health [page 5].
OPPORTUNITIES FOR ACTION Jamaica is currently implementing projects on health adaptation to climate change and has implemented actions to build institutional and technical capacities to work on climate change and health. There are opportunities for action in the following areas:
1) Adaptation • Develop a national health adaptation strategy to be approved by the Ministry of Health. • Conduct a national assessment of climate change impacts, vulnerability and adaptation for health. • Implement activities to increase the climate resilience of health infrastructure.
SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS • In Jamaica, under a high emissions scenario, mean annual temperature is projected to rise by about 3.6°C on average from 1990 to 2100. If global emissions decrease rapidly, the temperature rise is limited to about 1.1°C. Increases in heat wave days and drought conditions are also expected [page 2].
2) Mitigation • Develop a national strategy for climate change mitigation that considers the health implications and co-benefits of mitigation policies. • Conduct a valuation of the health co-benefits of climate change mitigation policies.
DEMOGRAPHIC ESTIMATES Population (2017)a Population growth rate (2017)a Population living in urban areas (2017)b Population under five (2017)a Population 65 years and over (2017)a 2,890 thousand 0.3% 55.3% 7.2% 9.7% 4,868 USD 5.4% 0.22% 76 years 15.3
ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS GDP per capita (current US$, 2016)c Total expenditure on health as % of GDP (2014)d Average annual HDI growth % (2010-2015)e
HEALTH ESTIMATES Life expectancy at birth (2015)f Under-5 mortality per 1000 live births (2016)g
a b c d
World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, UNDESA (2017) World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, UNDESA (2014) World Development Indicators, World Bank (2017) Global Health Expenditure Database, WHO (2016)
e United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports (2016) f Global Health Observatory, WHO [2016] g Levels & Trends in Child Mortality Report 2017, UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation [2017]
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CURRENT AND FUTURE CLIMATE HAZARDS
Due to climate change, many climate hazards and extreme weather events, such as heat waves, heavy rainfall and droughts, could become more frequent and more intense in many parts of the world. Outlined here are country–specific projections up to the year 2100 for climate hazards under a ‘business as usual’ high emissions scenario compared to projections under a ‘two-degree’ scenario with rapidly decreasing global emissions. Most hazards caused by climate change will persist for many centuries.
COUNTRY-SPECIFIC CLIMATE HAZARD PROJECTIONS The model projections below present climate hazards under a high emissions scenario, Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 [RCP8.5] (in orange) and a low emissions scenario, [RCP2.6] (in green).a The text boxes describe the projected changes averaged across about 20 models (thick line). The figures also show each model individually as well as the 90% model range (shaded) as a measure of uncertainty and, where available, the annual and smoothed observed record (in blue).b,c Modelling uncertainties associated with the relatively coarse spatial scale of the models compared with that of small island states are not explicitly represented. There are also issues associated with the availability and representativeness of observed data for such locations.
MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE 30 29 28 30 27 29 26 28 25 27 24 26 25 24 1900 1950
DAYS OF WARM SPELL (‘HEAT WAVES’)
300
°C °C
Days Days 2000 2050 2100
200 300 100 200 0 100 0
Year
1900
1950
Year
2000
2050
2100
Under a high1900 emissions scenario, mean 2050 annual temperature is 1950 2000 2100 projected to rise by about 3.6°C on average from 1990 to 2100. Year If emissions decrease rapidly, the temperature rise is limited to about 1.1°C. 15 EXTREME RAINFALL (‘FLOOD RISK’) DAYS WITH 15 10 10 5 5 0 1900 0 1900 1950 1950
Under a high emissions scenario, the number days of warm 1900 1950 2000 2050 of 2100 spelld is projected to increase from about 35 days in 1990 to about 360 days on average inYear 2100. If emissions decrease rapidly, the days of warm spell are limited to about 290 on average.
CONSECUTIVE DRY DAYS (‘DROUGHT’) 80 100 60 80 40 60 20 40 0 20 0 1900 1900 1950 1950 2000 2000 2050 2050 2100 2100
100
Days Days
Days Days 2000 2000 2050 2050 2100 2100
Year Year
Year Year
Under both high and low emissions scenarios, the number of days per year with very heavy precipitation (20 mm or more) is not expected to change much from an average of about 3 per year. The number of days with precipitation of 10 mm or more does however decrease somewhat under a high emissions scenario (from about 20 to about 15 days on average), with little change in such days and mean annual precipitation under a low emissions scenario.
Under a high emissions scenario, the longest dry spell could increase from about 35 days to about 50 days on average, suggesting greater persistence of droughts, with continuing large year-to-year variability and a few models indicating very large increases. If emissions decrease rapidly, there is no change on average. These changes are consistent with those in mean annual precipitation, which decreases by 15% on average under a high emissions scenario.
a Model projections are from CMIP5 for RCP8.5 (high emissions) and RCP2.6 (low emissions). Model anomalies are added to the historical mean (where observations are missing the ensemble mean is used) and smoothed. b Observed historical record of mean temperature is from CRU-TSv.3.22. c Analysis by the Climatic Research Unit and Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, University of East Anglia, 2015. d A ‘warm spell’ day is a day when maximum temperature, together with that of at least the 6 consecutive previous days, exceeds the 90th percentile threshold for that time of the year. 2
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CURRENT AND FUTURE HEALTH RISKS DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Human health is profoundly affected by weather and climate. Climate change threatens to exacerbate today’s health problems – deaths from extreme weather events, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, infectious diseases and malnutrition – whilst undermining water and food supplies, infrastructure, health systems and social protection systems.
SEA LEVEL RISE & SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURES IN THE CARIBBEAN Fig. 2.1. Climate change projections for the intermediate low (500–700 ppm CO2 e) Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 (RCP4.5) scenario for the main small island regions. The table shows the 25th, 50th (median), and 75th percentiles for surface temperature and precipitation based on averages from 42 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) global models (adapted from WGI AR5 Table 14.1). Mean net regional sea level change is evaluated from 21 CMIP5 models and includes regional non-scenario components (adapted from WGI AR5 Figure 13-20).a RCP4.5 annual projected change for 2081–2100 compared to 1986–2005 Temperature (˚C) Small island region Caribbean Mediterranean Northern tropical Pacific Southern Pacific North Indian Ocean West Indian Ocean 25% 1.2 2.0 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.2 50% 1.4 2.3 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.4 75% 1.9 2.7 1.7 1.5 2.0 1.8 25% -10 -10 0 0 5 0 Precipitation (%) 50% -5 -6 1 2 9 2 75% -1 -3 4 4 20 5 Sea level (m) Range 0.5–0.6 0.4–0.5 0.5–0.6 0.5–0.6 0.4–0.5 0.5–0.6
Sea level rise is one of the most significant threats to low lying areas on small islands and atolls.a Research indicates that global mean sea level rise rates are almost certainly accelerating as a result of climate change. Estimates point to a half meter rise in sea levels for Caribbean islands, though there is variation among models and scenarios.a
KEY IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH Sea levels in the Caribbean are expected to rise by 0.5m to 0.6m by the end of the century. This is an urgent matter in Jamaica, where an estimated 70% of the population lives along the coastline and trends in population growth and increasing demand for land in these areas are expected to continue.b Models show that significant coastal land reduction of over 100km2 due to sea level rise is likely by the end of this century.c Sea level rise is also significantly expected to impact Jamaica’s groundwater systems including contamination of aquafers and a reduction in available clean water as well as salination of irrigation water for agriculture.d Jamaica’s marine ecosystems, including fisheries and coral reefs, will also be affected by these trends as well as sea surface temperature changes and ocean acidification. Along with effects on biodiversity and tourism, the impacts of climate change on these ecosystems may disrupt the marine fishing sector, a major economic and livelihood activity in Jamaica with implications for food security.
a Nurse, L.A., R.F. McLean, J. Agard, L.P. Briguglio, V. Duvat-Magnan, N. Pelesikoti, E. Tompkins, and A. Webb, 2014: Small islands. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L.White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1613-1654. b http://www.pioj.gov.jm/portals/0/sustainable_development/jamaica_climate_change_paper.pdf c Climate Studies Group, Mona (CSGM), 2014: Near-Term Climate Scenarios for Jamaica (Technical Report). Produced for the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ), Kingston Jamaica. d Food and Agriculture Association of the United Nations, 2013: Climate Change and Agriculture in Jamaica Agriculture Sector Support Analysis.
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EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS IN THE CARIBBEAN Fig. 2.2. Tracks for all storms reaching category 4 or 5 KEY IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH intensity, for the control and the warmed 18-model ensemble conditions, as obtained using the GFDL/NWS hurricane model. Model projections indicate that tropical storms and hurricanes Populations in small islands are particularly vulnerable in the Caribbean region will increase in intensity due to climate to the direct and indirect impacts of weather-related st not change but necessarily in frequency towards the end of Late 21 Century Climate Warming Projection-Average of 18 CMIP3 Models disasters. the century.a Extreme weather and climate events such as tropical Control climate cyclones, storm surges and flooding can lead to The Cat 4-5 increase drowning, injuries, increased disease transmission, is not projected for and health problems associated with the disruption of all of the 18 supplies and sanitation services.b Longsafe water individual models: term consequences of extreme weather events can also include an increase in mental health stresses and displacement for the population.
Late 21st century warmed climate
Simulated NWS (27 version (GFDL) Hurricane Seasons)
Source: Bender et al., Science, 2010
INFECTIOUS AND VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES Fig. 2.3. Mean relative vectorial capacity for dengue fever transmission in Jamaica 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
KEY IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH Some of the worlds most virulent infections are also highly sensitive to climate: temperature, precipitation and humidity have a strong influence on the life-cycles of the vectors and the infectious agents they carry and influence the transmission of water and foodborne diseases.d Socioeconomic development and health interventions are driving down burdens of several infectious diseases, and these dengue projections assume that this will continue. However, climate conditions are projected to become significantly more favourable for transmission, slowing progress in reducing burdens, and increasing the populations at risk if control measures are not maintained or strengthened.e
Mean relative vectorial capacity
Baseline 1961–1990
RCP26 RCP85 2021–2050
RCP26 RCP85 2041–2070
The mean relative vectorial capacity for dengue fever transmission is projected to increase towards 2070 under both a high and low emissions scenario. Source: Rocklöv, J., Quam, M. et al., 2015).c
a Bender, M.A., et al. (2010). Modeled Impact of Anthropogenic Warming on the Frequency of Intense Atlantic Hurricanes. Science Vol 327, Issue 5964, pp. 454-458. b Nurse, L.A., R.F. McLean, J. Agard, L.P. Briguglio, V. Duvat-Magnan, N. Pelesikoti, E. Tompkins, and A.Webb, 2014: Small islands. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L.White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1613-1654. c Country-level analysis, completed in 2015, was based on health models outlined in the Quantitative risk assessment of the effects of climate change on selected causes of death, 2030s and 2050s. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014. The mean of impact estimates for three global climate models are presented. Models assume continued socioeconomic trends (SSP2 or comparable). d Atlas of Health and Climate, World Health Organization and World Meteorological Organization, 2012. e Quantitative risk assessment of the effects of climate change on selected causes of death, 2030s and 2050s. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014.
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CURRENT EXPOSURES AND HEALTH RISKS DUE TO AIR POLLUTION
Many of the drivers of climate change, such as inefficient and polluting forms of energy and transport systems, also contribute to air pollution. Air pollution is now one of the largest global health risks, causing approximately seven million deaths every year. There is an important opportunity to promote policies that both protect the climate at a global level, and also have large and immediate health benefits at a local level.
OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION EXPOSURE Outdoor air pollution in Jamaican cities annual mean PM2.5 (μg/m3) 2012* 35 Annual mean PM2.5, μg/m3 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Kingston Northern Old Harbour St. Catherine Plains, St. Catherine Portmore South Vere Plains Eastern Clarendon Manchester
KEY IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH Outdoor air pollution can have direct and sometimes severe consequences for health. Fine particles which penetrate deep into the respiratory tract subsequently increase mortality from respiratory infections, lung cancer and cardiovascular disease.
WHO annual mean PM2.5 guideline value (10 μg/m3)
The cities for which there was air pollution data available had annual mean PM2.5 levels that were above the WHO guideline value of 10 µg/m3. Source: Ambient Air Pollution Database, WHO, May 2016. *A standard conversion has been used, see source for further details.
HOUSEHOLD AIR POLLUTION Jamaica Percentage of population primarily using solid fuels for cooking (%), 2013
19
RURAL AREAS
URBAN AREAS
5
NATIONAL TOTAL
11
Source: Global Health Observatory, data repository, World Health Organization, 2013
Per cent of total deaths from ischaemic heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (18 years +) and acute lower respiratory infections (under 5 years) attributable to household air pollution, 2012
KEY IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH Air pollution in and around the home is largely a result of the burning of solid fuels (biomass or coal) for cooking. Women and children are at a greater risk for disease from household air pollution. Consequently, household air pollution is responsible for a larger proportion of the of total number of deaths from ischaemic heart disease, stroke, lung cancer and COPD in women compared to men.a
Total Deaths: 6,234 (9%) Attributable to household air pollution
Source: Global Health Observatory, data repository, World Health Organization, 2012 a Annu. Rev. Public. Health. 2014.35:185-206. http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/HAP_BoD_results_March2014.pdf?ua=1 5
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CO-BENEFITS TO HEALTH FROM CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Health co-benefits are local, national and international measures with the potential to simultaneously yield large, immediate public health benefits and reduce the upward trajectory of greenhouse gas emissions. Lower carbon strategies can also be cost-effective investments for individuals and societies. Presented here are examples, from a global perspective, of opportunities for health co-benefits that could be realised by action in important greenhouse gas emitting sectors.a
Transport Transport injuries lead to 1.2 million deaths every year, and land use and transport planning contribute to the 2–3 million deaths from physical inactivity. The transport sector is also responsible for some 14% (7.0 GtCO2e) of global carbon emissions. The IPCC has noted significant opportunities to reduce energy demand in the sector, potentially resulting in a 15%–40% reduction in CO2 emissions, and bringing substantial opportunities for health: A modal shift towards walking and cycling could see reductions in illnesses related to physical inactivity and reduced outdoor air pollution and noise exposure; increased use of public transport is likely to result in reduced GHG emissions; compact urban planning fosters walkable residential neighborhoods, improves accessibility to jobs, schools and services and can encourage physical activity and improve health equity by making urban services more accessible to the elderly and poor.
Electricity Generation Reliable electricity generation is essential for economic growth, with 1.4 billion people living without access to electricity. However, current patterns of electricity generation in many parts of the world, particularly the reliance on coal combustion in highly polluting power plants contributes heavily to poor local air quality, causing cancer, cardiovascular and respiratory disease. Outdoor air pollution is responsible for 3.7 million premature deaths annually, 88% of these deaths occur in low and middle income countries. The health benefits of transitioning from fuels such as coal to lower carbon sources, including ultimately to renewable energy, are clear: Reduced rates of cardiovascular and respiratory disease such as stroke, lung cancer, coronary artery disease, and COPD; cost-savings for health systems; improved economic productivity from a healthier and more productive workforce.
Household Heating, Cooking and Lighting Household air pollution causes over 4.3 million premature deaths annually, predominantly due to stroke, ischaemic heart disease, chronic respiratory disease, and childhood pneumonia. A range of interventions can both improve public health and reduce household emissions: a transition from the inefficient use of solid fuels like wood and charcoal, towards cleaner energy sources like liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biogas, and electricity could save lives by reducing indoor levels of black carbon and other fine particulate matter; where intermediate steps are necessary, lower emission transition fuels and technologies should be prioritized to obtain respiratory and heart health benefits; women and children are disproportionately affected by household air pollution, meaning that actions to address household air pollution will yield important gains in health equity; replacing kerosene lamps with cleaner energy sources (e.g. electricity, solar) will reduce black carbon emissions and the risk of burns and poisoning.
Healthcare Systems Health care activities are an important source of greenhouse gas emissions. In the US and in EU countries, for example, health care activities account for between 3–8% of greenhouse gas (CO2-eq) emissions. Major sources include procurement and inefficient energy consumption. Modern, on-site, low-carbon energy solutions (e.g. solar, wind, or hybrid solutions) and the development of combined heat and power generation capacity in larger facilities offer significant potential to lower the health sector’s carbon footprint, particularly when coupled with building and equipment energy efficiency measures. Where electricity access is limited and heavily reliant upon diesel generators, or in the case of emergencies when local energy grids are damaged or not operational, such solutions can also improve the quality and reliability of energy services. In this way, low carbon energy for health care could not only mitigate climate change, it could enhance access to essential health services and ensure resilience.
a For a complete list of references used in the health co-benefits text please see the Climate and Health Country Profile Reference Document, http://www.who.int/globalchange/en/
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EMISSIONS AND COMMITMENTS
Global carbon emissions increased by 80% from 1970 to 2010, and continue to rise.a,b Collective action is necessary, but the need and opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions varies between countries. Information on the contribution of different sectors, such as energy, manufacturing, transport and agriculture, can help decision-makers to identify the largest opportunities to work across sectors to protect health, and address climate change.
Jamaica CO2 EMISSIONS (Gg) FROM 2000–2005 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000
8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
A 2ºC upper limit of temperature increase relative to pre-industrial levels has been internationally agreed in order to prevent severe and potentially catastrophic impacts from climate change. Reductions are necessary across countries and sectors. In order to stay below the 2ºC upper limit it is estimated that global annual CO2-energy emissions, currently at 5.2 tons per capita, need to be reduced to 1.6 tons per capita.c
Gg
Source: The Second National Communication of Jamaica to the UNFCCC [2011].
Greenhouse gas emissions data for Jamaica, indicate that emissions have increased between 2000 and 2005 with a slight dip in 2004. Jamaica has committed to reducing emissions by 7.8% below business-as-usual (BAU) baseline growth using 2005 as the baseline [Jamaica INDC, 2015]. Through intersectoral collaboration, the health community can help to identify the best policy options not only to eventually stabilize greenhouse gas emissions, but also to provide the largest direct benefits to health.
NATIONAL RESPONSE d
2002 2009 2010 2015
THE NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION AUTHORITY (AIR QUALITY) REGULATIONS VISION 2030 JAMAICA NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY, 2009-2030 CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR JAMAICA
a Boden, T.A., G. Marland, and R.J. Andres (2010). Global, Regional, and National Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.A. doi 10.3334/CDIAC/00001_V2010. b IPCC (2014) Blanco G., R. Gerlagh, S. Suh, J. Barrett, H.C. de Coninck, C.F. Diaz Morejon, R. Mathur, N. Nakicenovic, A. Ofosu Ahenkora, J. Pan, H. Pathak, J. Rice, R. Richels, S.J. Smith, D.I. Stern, F.L. Toth, and P. Zhou, 2014: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom c Pathways to deep decarbonization, Sustainable development Solutions Network , 2014 report. d 'Climate Change Laws Of The World’. Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment. http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/ climate-change-laws-of-the-world/?region=all&country=KIR&fromyear=all&toyear=all&emitter=all&income=all&framework=all&execleg=all&category=all&type=law
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NATIONAL POLICY RESPONSE
The following table outlines the status of development or implementation of climate resilient measures, plans or strategies for health adaptation and mitigation of climate change (reported by countries).a GOVERNANCE AND POLICY Country has identified a national focal point for climate change in the Ministry of Health Country has a national health adaptation strategy approved by relevant government body The National Communication submitted to UNFCCC includes health implications of climate change mitigation policies
HEALTH ADAPTATION IMPLEMENTATION Country is currently implementing projects or programmes on health adaptation to climate change Country has implemented actions to build institutional and technical capacities to work on climate change and health Country has conducted a national assessment of climate change impacts, vulnerability and adaptation for health Country has climate information included in Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) system, including development of early warning and response systems for climate-sensitive health risks Country has implemented activities to increase climate resilience of health infrastructure
NA
FINANCING AND COSTING MECHANISMS Estimated costs to implement health resilience to climate change included in planned allocations from domestic funds in the last financial biennium Estimated costs to implement health resilience to climate change included in planned allocations from international funds in the last financial biennium
NA NA
HEALTH BENEFITS FROM CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION The national strategy for climate change mitigation includes consideration of the health implications (health risks or co-benefits) of climate change mitigation actions Country has conducted valuation of co-benefits of health implications of climate mitigation policies a Supporting monitoring efforts on health adaptation and mitigation of climate change: a systematic approach for tracking progress at the global level. WHO survey, 2015.
For further information please contact: World Health Organization 20 Avenue Appia 1211 Geneva 27 Switzerland Tel.: +41 22 791 3281 | Fax: +41 22 791 4853 http://www.who.int/globalchange/en/ © World Health Organization 2018. Some rights reserved. This work is available under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO licence. WHO/FWC/PHE/EPE/15.57
All reasonable precautions have been taken by WHO to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall WHO be liable for damages arising from its use. The estimates and projections provided in this document have been derived using standard categories and methods to enhance their cross-national comparability. As a result, they should not be regarded as the nationally endorsed statistics of Member States which may have been derived using alternative methodologies. To ensure readability, health estimates and projections have been presented without the margins of uncertainty which are available upon request.
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