Food safety services

PUBLIC HEALTH IN EUROPE 14 REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EUROPE World Health Organization Copenhagen PUBLIC HEALTH IN EUROPE 14 Food Safety Services Edited by R. JOHNSON Fonnerly Secretary Environmental Health Officers Association United Kingdom REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EUROPE World Health Organization Copenhagen 1981 ISBN 92 890 1150 5 © World Health Organization 1981 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Con- vention. For rights of reproduction or translation, in part or in toto, of publica- tions issued by the WHO Regional Office for Europe application should be made to the Regional Office for Europe, Scherfigsvej 8, DK-2100 Copenhagen </), Denmark . The Regional Office welcomes such applications. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries . The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are dis- tinguished by initial capital letters. PRINTED IN DENMARK ISSN 0300-4880 Contents Page Foreword. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v General review . ....... . ....................... . Albania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Algeria Austria Belgium . .. . . ........... ..... ....... .. . ..... . . Bulga ria ...... . ................ . ....... .. . ... . Czechoslovakia ...................... . ....... .. . Denmark ............ ..... . . ..... . .. . . .. ... .. . Finland ............................... . ..... . France .......................... ... ..... .... . German Democra tic Republic .. . ... ... .. . .... . . . ... . Germany, Federal Republic of ....... . ....... ... .... . Greece .. .............. . .................. ... . Hungary ...... . .... . ........ .. .......... . ... . Iceland .. . .. . ...... ........ ... . .. .. ... . . . . .. . Ireland 9 13 19 25 31 37 45 51 57 63 71 75 81 83 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Luxembourg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Malta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 01 Monaco..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 11 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 15 iii iv 'orway. 119 Poland .. 125 Portugal. 133 Romania 135 Spain . . 141 Sweden .. 145 Switzerland 155 Turkey ... 159 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 163 United Kingdom .. 171 Yugoslavia . . . . .. 179 Note: The joint FAO/WHO food standards programme, the principal organ of which is the Codex Alimentarius Commission, develops international food stan- dards and hygienic codes of practice for the safe handling of food. The Com- mission had 117 member states in 1980. In each member state there is a Codex contact point: these are given in the list of addresses at the end of each country presentation . The information on which this publication is based is valid to the end of 1979. Unless otherwise indicated, the figures on population and area at the beginning of each country's report are taken from World health statistics annual, 1978, Geneva, World Health Organization, 1979. Foreword In general, the countries of the European Region of the World Health Or- ganization accept that the apparently increasing incidence of foodbome infections and intoxications could and should be reduced. All have organized services to improve food safety, although they have not followed a com- mon pattern in doing so, the services differing widely in their organization, staffing and scope. Systems of government, geography, history, tradition and political philosophy have determined the forms that services have taken. Because of these wide differences, the need for a guide to the national food safety services of the European Region has become evident, so that the ser- vices may be better understood and communication with and among them may be facilitated. Obviously, food safety cannot be guaranteed solely on a national basis; the standard of food hygiene in one country affects people in other countries. The growth of international travel, the export and import of food, mass cater- ing, and the use of food additives and prepacked and convenience foods are some of the reasons for this. Clear and ready international links are needed to deal with emergencies related to the safety of food. This publication is the outcome of a survey on food safety services in the WHO European Region carried out under the food safety programme of the WHO Regional Office for Europe. The programme deals mainly with preventive and advisory aspects of food safety because, although most coun- tries seem to have adequate food legislation and regulations for food control, in many cases their practical application still needs to be improved. To this end, a meeting on aviation catering was held in 1976 as the first of a planned series of meetings on mass catering problems, and a conference on food control laboratories was held in 1977. Also, the Regional Office, together with WHO headquarters, is setting up a surveillance system for the control of foodborne infections and intoxications. Food safety generally implies measures to protect consumers not only from dangerous and unwholesome food but also from fraudulent practices such as adulteration, misdescription and misleading advertising. A compre- hensive service is necessary to ensure that food is satisfactory and wholesome and does not endanger health. It should cover production , manufacture or import, distribution and ultimate sale to the consumer. Surveillance of meat begins at the slaughterhouse, and of fish at the port where it is landed. Such a service is also concerned with food products and their raw materials: chemi- cal treatment of growing crops can affect their safety as food; diseases of V animals affect the fitness of their flesh for human consumption; and how fish is handled before it is landed can determine how it k eeps. The quality of the environment strongly influences food safety. High standards require a safe and adequate water supply, proper disposal of waste, effective control of pests, and reasonable living conditions. Satisfactory stan- dards are best achieved and maintained when food safety is coordinated with progressive environmental and personal health services. Where the ser- vice is part of the general environmental health services, coordination is readily assured; where separate bodies are responsible, close liaison must be maintained. Whichever form a food safety service takes, it must be adequately staffed. Those who make an important contribution to the service include food in- spectors, physicians, veterinarians, microbiologists, chemists and food scien- tists. However, the bulk of the work consists of inspecting premises where food is prepared, packed, stored or sold, checking processing treatments, examining food, and taking samples. Outbreaks of foodborne disease are investigated to discover the sources of infection or intoxication. The food inspector also has an advisory and educational role in relation to the manage- ment of food businesses and the inst,uction of food workers in hygiene. He occupies a key position in food control and a service cannot operate properly without an officer of this kind. He must be highly trained and, if he is on the staff of the environmental health service, he needs basic training in this broad field as well as specialized training in food science and technology. The food inspector should have ready access to laboratories that per- form routine microbiological and chemical examinations and are involved in epidemiological investigations of outbreaks of foodborne diseases. In addition to local laboratories, regional and central laboratories are needed for more sophisticated and specialized services. There should be close association be- tween the staff in the field and the local laboratories, and good communication between all the laboratories. Although the food inspector should not be regarded primarily as a law enforcement officer, there should be adequate practical and enforceable legis- lation that he can use as necessary. He must be authorized, for example, to enter and inspect food premises, to examine food, to take samples, and to detain food he suspects to be unfit. The standards of hygiene he expects of food handlers should be legally prescribed so that they may be enforced if persuasion fails. How a national food safety service is organized depends largely on the system of government of a country. There is always a central government administration responsible for initiating and developing policy and legisla- tion and coordinating the activities of the local service units. The day-to-day field work must be done in the local communities to ensure close contact with food manufacturers and traders as well as the public. Whether the service units are decentralized organs of the central government administration or local government bodies depends on national policy. The information on individual countries provided in this publication was compiled from various sources and sent for comment to the respect- ive governments, and their replies were used in the preparation of the final vi statements. In a few cases the information obtained was very limited, but has nevertheless been included; it is hoped that in a future edition the gaps will be filled. The Regional Office would appreciate receiving criticism and comments from readers with a view to the preparation of an improved and updated second edition. Correspondence should be addressed to : Food Safety Pro- gramme, WHO Regional Office for Europe, 8 Scherfigsvej, DK-2100 Copen- hagen(/), Denmark. Leo A. Kaprio Regional Director for Europe World Health Organization vii General review The measures that the countries in the European Region of WHO take to en• sure the safety and hygienic quality of foodstuffs distributed within their bor· ders and the services they maintain for this purpose vary considerably , and it is difficult to discern a feature common to them all. This is not surprising, because the systems they now operate have not been created in their present form but have evolved, in some cases over a long time , in response to national needs. The system of government of a country , its geographic characteristics and size, its political philosophy , its economic situation and it s stage of development affect the way that food safety services have developed and how they function. Countries in which the economy depends significantly on food exports have also had to develop services that meet their customers' requirements. The survey that was conducted to obtain information for this volume has therefore revealed a very complex picture . The information obtained is neces• sarily rather ge neral ; to have looked for detailed data would have been impracti· cable . Nevertheless, it should lead to a better understand ing of the ways in which the countries of Europe seek to protect their people from foodborne disease and to ensure that their food is pure and in a satisfactory condition. The government of every country covered by the survey has undertaken responsibility for promoting the health of its people. Basic laws are enacted by the legislature and orders, ordinances and regulations are usually made by the government departments concerned. In some countries a number of depart· ments have an interest in food matters; in a few of these the enforcement of food legislation and the technical and administrative work entailed in the promotion of food safety are carried out directly by officers of the responsible government departments. In other countries services are organized on a stan• dardized basis in accordance with national regulations but are operated in close association with local communities and as self-contained units. In many coun- tries the final responsibility for food safety rests with the local authority. Administration Some countries have a centralized system. In Belgium for example, the Minis• try of Public Health and Family Affairs , which is responsible for all public health activities, h1s the main responsibility for food safety. The manufacture, composition, quality and sale of food are controlled mainly by inspectors of the Ministry, and meat inspection and meat hygiene by the Ministry's vet- erinary inspectorate, except in private slaughterhouses. The Ministry's central Food Safety Services laboratory carries out chemical and microbiological examinations of samples taken by the food inspectorate, but various other laboratories assist. Certain officials of the Min istry of Public Health and Family Affairs can impose fines on those contravening the law on food safety . Food control is centralized in France also; food quality and hygiene , as well as the control of composition and quality, are the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture. Most of the work is perfo rmed by two services: the Ser- vice for the Prevention of Fraud and Control of Quality , and the Vete rinary Food Hygiene Service. In Pa ris, however, food quality is controlled by the Pre- fecture of Police. The Service for the Prevention of Fraud and the Control of Quality is organized on a regional basis and has its own laboratories , but it works in cooperation with departmental and municipal authorities. The Vet- erinary and Food Hygiene Service, which also has a network of laboratories and a central food hygiene laboratory , is responsible for the inspection of meat and other foods of animal origin. In Luxembourg and Malta food services are also centralized; because of the small size of these countries, local se rvices would not be practicable. There is a good deal of similarity among the food safety services of the Eastern European countries. Each country has a service with sanitation and epidemiological functions, which operates at the differe nt administrative levels from centra l government to the local community . In the USSR, the state sanitary and ep idemiological service, founded in 1922, is administered by the Ministry of Health of the USSR through the ministry of health of each republic. The functions of the service have been defined in regulations on state sanitary surveillance in the USSR, and include a wide range of environmental health matters such as air, water and soil pollution, housing, occupational hygiene , drinking-water quality , and foodstuffs. These regulations also prescribe how the service is organized. It operates from more than 4000 sanitary and epidemiological cen tres at different levels. The nature and scope of these centres vary with the size of the population served; they are run by physicians and have a multidis- ciplinary staff, including sanitary feldsher s performing a variety of environ- mental health duties that include food safety and hygiene . Each centre has its own laboratory. The food control systems of Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , the German Democratic Republic, Hungary , Poland and Yugoslavia are similar to that of the USSR as regards central guidance and legal regulations, although there are some differences in enforcement and implementation. In Hun- gary, for instance, a special law has been enacted for food products, setting out rules for the control system and the quality and hygienic requirements of foodstuffs. District food control institutes have been established under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food. Their work is centred on production and trade, as is that of the National Institute of Food and Nutrition under the Ministry of Health. The Institute of Commercial Quality Control under the Ministry of Internal Trade examines products before marketing. 2 General R eview In distinct contrast with the system adopted by the Eastern European countries is that of the Federal Republic of Germany. Basic food legislation is enacted by the Federal Parliament and the Federal Government , but the law is executed by the individual States or Lander. The Lander may themse lves decide on the organization of their food control services , but delegate respon- sibility for this to the local aut horities and issue rules on how the work is to be performed. Three types of officer are engaged in food control: chemists , veterinarians and medical officers, organized into three separate professional inspectorates with their own laboratories. Switzerland has adopted a somewhat similar system. Swiss food legislation is contained in a federal law and in ordinances issued by the Federal Council , and food inspection and the promotion of food hygiene are a function of the cantons and the local health authorities or communes . Each canton has a medical officer, a veterinary office r and one or more chemists; district medical officers are responsible for groups of communes. The organization is quite different in the Netherlands. There are 16 in- dependent food inspection services, 13 attached to municipalities and 3 to provinces but supervised by the Ministry of Health and Environmental Pro- tection. Although they are independent , there is close contact between them, and the Ministry's supervision ensures a centralized approach and coordina- tion of effort. The services are multidisciplinary; the director of each service is a chemist, but the staff includes microbiologists, veterinarians and technical field inspectors. Each service has its own laboratory for analytical, biochemical and microbiological examinations. The services are concerned principally with food, but they also cover various other consumer goods . The State meets half the cost of the food inspection services and the municipality or province the other half, and food firms pay a contribution to the State towards their cost. In addition to the food inspection services, there are some 130 local authority meat inspection services. The United Kingdom has placed the control of food safety, with the ex- ception of milk production, in the hands of local authorities. The role of cen- tral government is mainly to initiate national legislation, the local authorities being responsible for its enforcement and for promoting food safety. They have general environmental health duties also, so that food safety is closely integrated with all environmental health functions. These functions are per- formed very largely by environmental health officers but the services of other professional staff such as medical officers , microbiologists, chemists, vet- erinarians and engineers are available as required. On food matters there is close liaison with the national network of microbiological laboratories. In Denmark also, local authorities play an important part in the control of food safety, as far as the retail sale of foodstuffs is concerned. They may , however , delegate all or part of these duties to local food control units. By 1984 all municipalities will be served by one of these units. Each unit is headed by a veterinarian and has a staff of inspectors who are veterinarians or tech- nicians, and a laboratory for bacteriological examinations. The municipalities are also responsible for milk inspection. Meat, including poultry, is dealt with 3 Food Safety Services by the veterinary services. There are separate state services for dairy products and fish. For chemical analyses there is the National Food Institute with a central laboratory and five regional laboratories . The Institute advises on such subjects as the composition of food, food additives and the pollution of food, and has some administrative functions. In Ireland , eight health boards are responsible for the health services in their areas, including environmental health and food safety. They are composed partly of appointees of local authorities and partly of elected representatives of the health professions practising in the boards' areas of jurisdiction. The boards employ health inspectors whose functions are similar to those of the environmental health officer in the United Kingdom, except that the Irish health inspectors are also concerned with compositional standards. A feature of food control administration in Sweden is that although the Minist1y of Agriculture has general governmental responsibility , prepares basic legislation and deals with general policy and budgetary matters, all other central functions are carried out by the National Food Administration. The Administration is the principal administrative authority on matters concerning food when they are not the concern of any other government agency. It is also the supervisory authority of the veterinary meat inspectorate. It issues regula- tions and sees that they are observed. Apart from certain matters that are dealt with by the National Food Administration , the counties and the muni- cipalities are responsible for food safety, and the work is performed mainly by municipal health inspectors. In Norway, the control of food safety, including meat inspection, is in general a function of the communes. Steps are being taken, however, to co- ordinate this work and to form a combined administration. It is probable that district food control units will be created, each covering a group of communes . In both Italy and Spain the municipalities and communes are responsible for food safety and hygiene. The work is carried out by local health inspec- torates and supervised by the regions or provinces. The Italian Minister of Health may use a special police corps, the carabinieri, in addition to his own agencies, for food control and surveillance duties related almost exclusively to food manufact ure. Legislation For this publication a detailed examination of European legislation on food was neither possible nor necessary. Legislation was examined mainly for in- formation about the form of the food safety services but also to obtain a gen- eral picture of their powers and duties . Some points, however, are worthy of mention. In a number of countries the law requires food wo rkers to undergo medi- cal examinations; this is designed to prevent anyone who has an infection that could be transmitted to food from being engaged in food handling. The exam- inations are usually carried out before employment and periodically there- after, and wo rkers may keep a health booklet or card in which details of the 4 General Review examination findings are entered. Medical examinations for all food handlers are not compulsory everywhere but may be restricted to those in occupations with a particular hazard. Not all European countries insist on these medical examinations, and information on their value in improving food sa fety, based on the experience of those countries that use them, would be of value. In recent years there has been a growing interest in the date -marking of food and the practice is growing. In some countries food manufacturers have adopted it voluntarily, partly to guide consumers but also to assist re tailers in rotating their stock properly. The date on a package may be the date the food was packed or that by which it should be sold or consumed. In Belgium, food for which the compulsory expiry date for consumption has passed is legally regarded as harmfui to health. In Hungary , food must be withdrawn from sale when the expiry date has passed, and in Poland it is classified as un- wholesome when its estimated shelf-life has expired. The Swedish Foodstuffs Law, 1971, provides that food in packages bearing an indica tion of shelf-life may not, when the period has expired, be offered for sale in these packages, relabelled with a prolonged shelf-life, or repacked. Legal provisions of this kind have important implications. It is a uni- versally accepted legal principle that food unfit for human consumption is not sold or offered for sale. However, food that bears an expiry da te does not necessarily become unfit once that date has passed ; if it is not sold it may be wasted. Conversely , food may become unfit before that date; the non- expiry of the prescribed period does not guarantee fitness . If food safety legislation is to be effective it must be drafted with the circumstances and the problems of the country very much in mind. How- ever, no matter how much Jaws take account of reality, if they are not ob- served they are of no value. The service must be so organized and staffed that it can check systematically whether the law is being observed and, where necessary, use official procedures for enforcing it. This can be done only by proper training of inspectors, who will then inspect food premises regularly and be able not only to identify unhygienic conditions and practices but also prescribe suitable remedies. Food safety cannot be promoted merely or mainly by taking samples for laboratory examination; sampling is no substitute for educational, advisory and enforcement work by this type of officer. Overall responsibility for the food safety service must rest with cen- tral government. The survey conducted by the WHO Regional Office for Europe has shown that in most European countries central government respon- sibility is shared by two or more departments. Adequate coordination is therefore important; how the work is coordinated is immaterial as long as it is effective. 5 Albania Albania is situated in the west of the Balkans , along the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. It has boundaries in the north and east with Yugoslavia and in the south-east with Greece . It is a mountainous country, a third of it lying at an altitude of over 1000 metres. The climate is mediterranean throughout most of the country. The average temperature is 14 °C in the north and east and 18 °C in the south and west. The principal crops are wheat, maize, sugar beet, grapes and olives. Beef, mutton, goat meat and poultry are also produced. Canned foods, wine and other beverages, fruit and vegetables are exported. 7 Fo od Safct_l' Services Government The People's Socialist Republic of Albania is governed by a single-chamber legislature , the People 's Assembly. It meets for a few days each year to ratify decisions taken in its name by the Praesidium of the Assembly. The country is divided into 26 local government districts , each under a People's Council. Food legislation No details available. Food control In every district there is a sanitary epidemiological station (sanepid) , each of which contains a food control section with microbiological and chemical laboratories and a qualified staff. The work of these sections is coordinated by the Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology in Tirana. Addresses Ministry of Public Health Tirana Ministry of Agriculture Tirana Codex contact point None 8 r 16 776 000 • Area: 2381 741 km' Algeria Three main areas may be distinguished in Algeria: the north, in which the great majority of the population is concentrated, the high plateaux, and the Sahara which covers an area of more than 2 million km 2. A small area of highly fertile plains and valleys near the coast produces quantities of grapes, cereals, sugar beet and other agricultural and market-garden crops. Most of the country, however, is of limited value for agricultural purposes. There is an important fishing industry. Except for wine and various preserved products made from citrus fruit and dates, the whole of the Algerian food production is directed towards satisfying national needs. However, local production of some foodstuffs falls well short 9 Food Safety Services of demand, and the balance must be imported, either as consumable food- stuffs or as raw materials for manufacturing purposes . The Algerian economy is centrally planned and, to ensure that national food needs are met, the Government determines the kinds of foodstuffs to be produced and the pro- duction targets to be met. Government policy also aims at maintaining a regional balance. Most of the agricultural and food industries are in the hands of State societies, which ensure that the food needed is produced or imported and is distributed throughout the country. The most important of these societies are the Societe nationale des Semouleries et Meuneries , Fabrique de Pates alimentaires et Couscous, the Societe des Eaux minerales algeriennes, the Societe generale de l'Industrie alimentaire, the Office algerien des Peches, and the Office national de Commercialisation. Most of the societies have a monopoly in their particular spheres of activity. The national societies have complete administrative autonomy, but operate under various ministries which control and guide them and ensure that the branches of the food in- dustry concerned conform to Government policy. The societies have expanded remarkably since Algeria gained independence in 1962 and now control about 85% of the country's food industry. The private sector, however, still controls certain branches such as fruit and veg- etable preserves, non-alcoholic drinks, baking flour , confectionery and biscuits , fish, and milk products. These branches also operate under the direction of the corresponding ministries, but their production is much less that that of the nationalized sector. Government The Republic of Algeria is governed by a Revolutionary Council under the President. The country is divided into 15 administrative areas or wilayate subdivided into a total of 75 dairate. The basic units of local government are the 675 communes. Food legislation After independence in 1962, Algeria continued for a time to use the French Law of 1905 on the prevention of fraud, with the addition of a limited number of decrees found necessary from time to time. In 1975, with the object of adapting all existing legislation to the country's circumstances, the French Law was repealed and its provisions incorporated in the Al- gerian Penal Code (Ordinance of 17 June 1975). Penalties for offences were increased. Under the Penal Code, the present legal provisions may be broadened, and strong efforts are being made to develop national food legislation. In respect of health and food hygiene , the Ministry of Public Health ap- plies the Health Code and the various supplementary legal provisions, which are also derived from the French system. General rules on food safety are IO A /geria included in the Public Health Code _a This provides for the protection of food against all physical, chemical or bacteriological contamination at each stage from production to consumption , and for its inspection by health control o fficers of the minist ry responsible for public health ; it also requires that food additives be app roved by the Minister. The Ministry of Public Works has prepared a law on security and hygiene, which applies particularly to urban problems and fixes standards for the construction of buildings and housing hygiene. The Secretary of State has fixed standards for the quality of drinking-water, based on the WHO recom- mendations. Since September 1969 , Algeria has been a member of the Joint F AO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission and attaches great importance to its work . The Commission's standards have provided the basis for regulations on certain products . The Codex standards for limits of contaminants and antibiotics have been considered suitable for the needs of the country. The National Institute of Public Health of the Ministry of Public Health draws up standards, and plans to develop services for information and advice, control, and education . Food control administration Legal control over food is exercised by the Fraud Prevention Service of the Ministry of Agriculture . Its duty is to prevent fraud and ensure the safety and health of the public as far as food is concerned . The Service has a central lab- oratory in Algiers and two others at Oran and Annaba . The central laboratory is equipped for routine biochemical examinations of food. The Pasteur Institute , which has a food microbiology laboratory , carries out particular types of examination for which the Service's laboratories are not equipped. The research laboratories of the University also assist the Service, and the customs service and the municipalities undertake some analyses of foodstuffs. The Directorate of Food Industries of the Ministry of Industry and Energy exercises general supervision over a number of national societies in the food industry, of which the two most important are the Societe nationale des Semouleries et Meuneries , Fabrique de Pates alimentaires et Couscous, and the Societe generale de l' Industrie alimentaire . The Directorate has a staff of about 30, including agricultural engineers, a pharmacist , economists , nutri- tionists, and administrators. It is concerned particularly with administration , production, industrial projects, and the training of middle-level and university- level technical personnel ; it also monitors the quality of the food produced by the nationalized and private industries. a International digest of health legislation, 29: 273-274, 1978 (Ordinance No. 76- 79 of 23 October 1976 promulgating the Public Health Code. Journal officiel de la Re- publique algerienne democratique et populaire, No . 101 , 1976). 11 Food Safety Services The Ministry of Industry and Energy has proposed the establishmen t of a central laboratory for the food industry. This is an urgen tly felt need and would enable a number of common services to be placed at the disposal of the national societies and the general public. Most of the national food societies have their own laboratories for the quality control of their products , usually at the production level, but they vary a good deal in the adequacy of their equipment and personnel. AJmost every wilaya has a public health laboratory and every city has a municipal office of hygiene . The public health laboratories employ phys- icians who are specialists in public health , inspectors, epidemiologists, a vet- erinarian, a pharmacist and dispensers, microbiologists, sanitation technicians, and veterinary technicians. Their control activities include routine analyses and the microbiological examination of water and other samp les, and inspections of restaurants and food manufacturing establishments. There is very little biochemical control of most foodstuffs. The veterinarians are part of the public health service but in certain wilayate their place is taken by veterinary technicians. Laboratory technicians are trained in paramedical schools, but the public health laboratories also train some technicians or assistan t technicians. Assistant medical officers of hea lth receive in-service training in food safety. Addresses Ministry of Public Health Chemin Mohamed Gacem El Mada nia - AJgiers Ministry of Agriculture Fraud Prevention Service 12 Bd Colone l Amirouche Algiers Codex contact point 12 Ministry of Agriculture Fraud Prevention Service 12 Bd Colonel Amirouche Algiers r Austria The Republic of Austria, which is bounded by Czechoslovakia , the Fed- eral Republic of Germany, Hungary, Italy, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, is a mountainous country with a sharply varying climate; the mean tempera- ture is 7 -9 °C. The principal crops are wheat, sugar beet, barley , rye, wine grapes, po- tatoes and pears, and the main livestock products milk, eggs, pork , cheese, butter and poultry . 13 Food Safety Services Government Austria is a federal republic divided into nine provinces (Lander) , each with its own provincial assembly (Landtag). The Federal Parliament has two chambers: the Na tional Council (Nationalrat) and the Federal Council (Bundesrat). The Federal Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Protection is the country's supreme health authority. It is responsible for formulating health policy , for drafting legislation and general directives, and for the technical supervision of health services and training. The Governor of each province implements the directives of the Federal Ministry . Food legislation The basic legislation is the Federal Law of 23 January 1975 ,a which replaced the Federal Law of 1951. The new Law deals with trade in foodstuffs, other consumables, additives , cosmetics and consumer goods . "Other consumables" includes substances that are intended to be eaten, chewed or drunk but are not used primarily for nutritional purposes and are not medicaments. "Consumer goods" includes a wide range of articles and materials , such as receptacles and wrappings intended for use with foodstuffs, other consumables, additives and cosmetics, as well as many household products and articles that come in contact with the human body. Foodstuffs, other consumables and additives may not be sold if harmful to health, if spoiled, unripe o r deteriorated so as to be unsuitable for their nor- mal use , or if adulterated or wrongly described. The sale of food containing un- authorized additives or additives in unauthorized amounts is also forbidden. There are provisions concerning the treatment of food with ionizing radiation. Persons engaged in the marketing of foodstuffs must protect them from external fa ctors that may render them unwholesome . The Federal Minister for Public Health and Environmental Protection may issue ordinances to ensure that the principles of food hygiene are observed. Ordinances may con tain requirements to assure the hygienic condition of food, to regulate the be- haviour and clo thing of pe rsons , to maintain equipment, premises , stalls , trading areas and markets in a clean and satisfactory condition, to specify cleaning methods and methods of pest control, and to indicate the action to be taken to deal with spoiled foodstuffs, other consumables and additives . In the case of agricultural products , ordinances have to be agreed with the Federal Minister for Agriculture and Forestry. When hygiene offences occur the Provincial Governor may order ap- propriate measures to be take n. Where premises or equipment are found to be in an unsat isfactory condition he may order the shortcomings to be a International digest of health legislation , 27 : 233-254, 1976 (Federal Law of 23 January 1975 on trade in foo dstuffs, o ther consumables, additives , cosmetics, and con- sumer goods. Bundesgeserzblart fiir die Republik Osrerreich , No. 33 , I 975). 14 Austria remedied within a given time . If there is imminent danger to health result- ing from failure to comply with the Federal Law or other provisions issued by the authorities, he may order the total or partial closure of an establish- ment, the shut-down of machinery, or other measures to prevent the mar- keting of foodstuffs, other consumables or additives. For the purpose of testing commodities covered by the Federal Law, it was provided that food testing institutes and , in Vienna , a Federal Food Testing and Research Institute should be established as necessary; the Fed- eral Minister for Public Health and Environmental Protection was required to determine their spheres of activity and the regions they must cover. The work of the Federal Food Testing and Research Institute includes : research on the enforcement of the Federal Law on nutrition, food science and food hygiene ; the formulation of testing methods; making expert appraisals on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Protection ; and carrying out tests on behalf of the Austrian Codex Commission. When, in the course of their duties , any of these institutes find that legal provisions have been violated they are required to notify the competent authorities without delay. The Federal Law makes the Federal Minister fo r Public Health and En- vironmental Protection responsible for the publication of the Austrian Food Code (Osterreichische Lebensmittelbuch, Codex Alimentarius Austriacus) . The purpose of the Code is to indicate subject designations , definitions, testing methods and assessment criteria, as well as guidelines for the marketing of commodities covered by the Federal Law. The preparation of the Codex, first published in 191 I, is the responsibility of a Commission appointed by the Minister under the powers invested in him by the Federal Law. The Law also provides for the establishment by the Codex Commission of a Standing Committee on Hygiene and of a Standing Committee to advise the Federal Minister for Public Health and Environmental Protection on matters relating to the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The Austrian Codex requires bodies that are responsible for food control and analysis to perform their duties in accordance with its directives, although this does not apply to proceedings before an examining magistrate. The Codex is, therefore, binding on administrative bodies but not binding on judges, who must decide on particular cases brought before them . Nevertheless, judges are likely to take account of the expert information that the Codex contains. How- ever, where measures are required to ensure satisfactory nutrition or to protect consumers against deception or damage to health, the Federal Minister for Pub- lic Health and Environmental Protection may promulgate parts of the Code in the form of an ordinance. Food control administration The Federal Minister for Public Health and Environmental Protection has a general responsibility under the Federal Law for its enforcement, acting in agreement (in respect of various provisions) with the Federal Minister for 15 0-- I Offices of the nine provincial governments I I Food control departments I I Austria: food control administration Federal Ministry for Public Health and Environmental Protection + Federal food research institutes: 1. Vienna I 2. Linz I Inspection of plants I I Sample-taking I 3. Salzburg I 4. Graz I Referral of samples l 5. Innsbruck I Provincial food research institutes: 1. Vienna 2. Klagenfurt 3. Bregenz I Findings and expert evaluation I In cases of infringement of the food regulations, notification of: • t j District authorities I I Courts I Austria Agriculture and Forestry and other Ministers. At the provincial level, food quality is controlled by the Land authorities. The Provincial Governor is responsible for the surveillance of trade in the commodities covered by the Federal Law. To perform this task he may call on the services of qualified persons of various kinds and may, under certain conditions, delegate his duties. The Federal Minister for Public Health and Environmental Protection may issue ordinances regulating the training of supervisory staff. He issues annual rules for the surveillance of trade in the commodities concerned and the Provincial Governor, who must imple- ment these rules, is required to submit an annual report on the subject to the Minister. The Minister has set up a documentation and information centre to permit the rationalization of surveillance of trade in the commodities covered by the Law. The supervisory agencies can confiscate commodities, as well as containers and advertising material, whenever there is reason to suspect that they are spoiled or harmful to health, contravene legal provisions, etc. A specified legal procedure has to be followed in connexion with confiscated commodities . In the inspection of meat and meat products , veterinarians are obliged to take into account the provisions of the Federal Law and the ordinances made under it. Apart from the work carried out at provincial level, food surveillance is sometimes delegated to the individual municipalities. Addresses Federal Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Protection Stubenring l 1010 Vienna Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Stubenring l 1010 Vienna State food research laboratories Bundesanstalt fur Lebensrnitteluntersuchung und Forschung in Wien Kinderspitalgasse I 5 1090 Vienna Bundesanstalt fur Lebensmitteluntersuchung in Linz Biirgerstrasse 4 7 4020 Linz Bundesanstalt fur Lebensmitteluntersuchung in Graz U niversitiitsstrasse 6 8010Graz 17 Food Safety Services Bundesanstalt fur Lebensmitteluntersuchung in Zweigstelle Salzburg Schopperstrasse 13 5021 Salzburg Bundesanstalt fiir Lebensmitteluntersuchung in Innsbruck Liebeneggstrasse 8 6020 Innsbruck Landwirtschaftlich Chemische Versuchs-und Lebensmitteluntersuchungsanstalt fiir Karnten Lastenstrasse 40 9020 Klagenfurt Chemische Versuchsanstalt des Landes Vorarlberg Montfortstrasse 4 6900 Bregenz Lebensmitteluntersuchungsanstalt der Stadt Wien Viehmarktgasse 3 1030 Vienna Codex contact point 18 Aust rian National FAO Committee Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Stubenring 1 1010 Vienna r • Pop: 9801 000 • Area: 30 513 km' Belgium Belgium is bounded by the Federal Republic of Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the North Sea. It has a temperate climate. The principal crops are wheat , barley, sugar beet, maize and potatoes. Hor- ticulture is also important. The main animal products are pork, beef, milk, eggs and poultry. There is a fishing industry. Belgium is a net importer of food . Government Belgium is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy and is divided into nine provinces. There is a two-chamber Parliament consisting of the Senate 19 Food Safety Services and the Chamber of Representatives. Local government is carried out through provincial councils and communes. Food legislation The legal basis for food control in Belgium is the Law of 24 January 1977 ,a designed to protect the health of consumers and to prevent adulteration and fraud in the sale of food. For these purposes , the King is authorized to make regulations to control or forbid the manufacture, export/import and sale of food, and on the composition, labelling and methods of manu- facture of foodstuffs. The 1977 Law applies to all foodstuffs, i.e. , all products or substances intended for human consumption . Subject to special laws are butter, margarine and other edible fats, wine and similar products, drinking-water and spirits of guaranteed origin. This Law replaced the two previous Acts of 4 August 1890 and 20 June 1964, but certain decrees made under them remain in force. For example, a Royal Decree of 3 January 1975 to implement Section 13 of the 1964 Act specifies va rious conditions that can render foodstuffs harmful to health. These are food which is mouldy or fermented or which con ta ins pathogens or excessive or un- authorized additives, and food for which the compulsory expiry date for con- sumption has passed. It prohibits the sale, or display for sale, of food unfit for human consumption. There are two other sources of legislation: directives issued under the Treaty of Rome and decisions taken under the Benelux Treaty, which were incorporated in the national legislation by the Act of 20 June 1964 or the present Law . Apart from the Law of 24 January 1977, a number of special laws deal with various commodities, including butter and other edible fats and wines. The I 977 Law, however, provided for rationalization of the food control legislation by the repeal by royal decree of all previous legal texts. Thus the 1977 Law is the legal basis for regulations by royal decree on all foodstuffs except drinking- water. The Ministries of Agriculture and of Economic Affairs also legislate on foodstuffs. Thus, the Act of 14 July 1971, on commercial practices, is con- cerned with protecting the financial interests of consumers; and the Act of 28 March 1975, on trade in agricultural, horticultural and fishery products, aims at guaranteeing the soundness of agricultural products and therefore has an indirect effect on the quality of foodstuffs derived from them. An Act of 5 September 1952 is concerned with meat, fish , poultry, rabbits and game and their veterinary control, including standards of hygiene. a International digest of health legislation, 29: 528-530, 1978 (Law of 24 Jan- uary 1977 on the protection of the health of consumers with regard to foodstuffs and other products. Bulletin du Ministere de la Sante publique et de la Famille, No . 2, 1977). 20 Belgium Food control administration The Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs has the main responsibility for the control of food safety. The central administration is composed of the Office of the Secretary-General and seven general administrations . The Public Health Administration has a number of technical inspectorates concerned inter alia with foodstuffs and meat. Control of the manufacture, composition and sale of food is mainly a function of inspectors and controllers of the Ministry. The country is divided into J 5 districts, each with an inspector responsible for food control. The district inspectorates are under the central administra- tion, but each inspector enjoys a considerable measure of autonomy in his routine work. All the inspectors hold university degrees in a scientific field, usually agronomy. Each inspector has under him two to four controllers who have no special qualifications or training but must have had a good general education; the standard required is that of the middle school leaving certificate, generally obtained at the age of 18. They are not recruited by examination, as are the inspectors, but are promoted from the administrat ive grade of clerical officer in the Ministry . The inspectors operate mainly at the manufacturing and wholesale levels of the food trade while the controllers, under the supervision of the inspectors, check food in bakeries, cake shops and other small-scale businesses and in retail premises such as shops, cafes , hotels and restaurants. The Law of 24 January 1977 gave the power to enforce food control measures to officers of the Police judiciaire, mayors or their deputies , and officials and agents appointed by the King for this purpose. The police of- ficers rarely use their powers , and in some large towns the mayors delegate theirs to communal inspectors. General control is exercised by inspectors and controllers appointed by the King. Certain other officials have been appointed by royal decree for spe- cific control tasks , for example: inspectors and controllers of the Meat Trade Inspectorate of the Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs are auth- orized to examine all meat products ; certain officials of the Ministry of Agri- culture (National Office of Dairy Products) have similar powers; other in- spectors and controllers of the Ministry (Service for Plant Protection and Inspectorate of Raw Materials), as well as officials of the National Office of Agricultural and Horticultural Marketing , supervise the observance of decrees on pesticide residues; and inspectors and controllers of the General Economic Inspectorate deal with the labelling of foodstuffs . The Meat Trade Inspectorate of the Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs is responsible not only for meat inspection and hygiene at slaughter- houses but also for the prevention of fraud relating to meat and meat products, and operates down to the retail level. All meat inspection is performed by vet - erinary inspectors and all animals must be examined before and after slaughter. Commercial slaughtering may be carried out only in authorized establishments. 21 Food Safety Services Veterinarians in public slaughterhouses are employed by the municipalities but they work under the general supervision and with the authorization of the Ministry. The inspection of meat in private slaughterhouses is also performed by veterinarians approved by the Ministry , but they are employed by the firm concerned. Although the veterinarians of the Meat Trade Inspectorate are re- sponsible for meat hygiene, from the slaughterhouse to the butcher's shop, premises other than slaughterhouses, such as restaurants and shops, are visited only by inspectors and controllers when particular problems are encountered. Food control is carried out at all stages of production, distribution and sale. The freshness of raw materials is checked and samples may be taken for the detection of undesirable pesticide residues or for microbiological examination. At the manufacturing stage, standards of hygiene are controlled, including the cleanliness of equipment and appliances and of factory premises. Packaged foodstuffs ready for sale or delivery are examined for correct labelling, and samples are taken for analysis to ensure that they conform to the required standards and do not contain contaminants. Sampling may also be carried out at all stages of the wholesale and retail food trade. Foodstuffs found harmful to health may be impounded, and if the court is satisfied that they are unfit for human consumption it may order their con- fiscation. Where a foodstuff is suspected of being unfit it may be held tempor- arily pending the result of an analysis. The sampling, impounding and confisca- tion of foodstuffs and their removal from circulation are subject to regulations issued by royal decree, which all officials engaged in the work are required to observe. The Ministry has a central laboratory, the Institute of Hygiene and Epidemi- ology, which has chemical and microbiological departments that examine samples taken by the Inspectorate of Foodstuffs. Private, commercial and uni- versity laboratories also assist in this work , particularly in the provinces. Officials are sworn in for the purpose of detecting infringements of the law. Control officers may enter any premises used for the sale of food during the hours they are open, and also any public premises used for the manufacture , sale or storage of food products at any time. They may demand the production of all documents relating t o any foodstuff. Persons accused of offences are brought before a district court, as are offenders who refuse to pay an administrative fine. Administrative fines are set by officials of the Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs , who are ap- pointed for this purpose by the King; they must have a legal qualification . If a fine is not paid the details are submitted to the public prosecutor, who takes the matter to court. Addresses 22 Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs Cite administrative de l'Etat Quartier Esplanade 6 10 IO Brussels Ministry of Agriculture Rue Marie-Therese I I 040 Brussels Codex contact point Belgian Codex Alimentarius Committee Ministry of Foreign Affairs Rue des Quatres-Bras 2 I 000 Brussels Belgium 23 r f 8 722000 • Area: 110912km2 Bulgaria Bulgaria is bounded by Greece, Romania , Turkey and Yugoslavia , the Black Sea forming its eastern frontier. There are fairly sharp climatic contrasts be- tween winter and summer. Since the Second World War , agriculture has been organized on a large- scale cooperative and mechanized basis . There are some 170 huge agro- industrial complexes, and about 30% of the population works on the land. Wheat , maize, sugar beet and barley are the chief crops. Agricultural pro- duction increased by 30% between 1970 and 1976, and Bulgaria now exports substantial quant ities of food; exports are much greater than imports. 25 Food Safety S ervices Government Unde r the 1971 Constitution, the supreme organ of state power of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, and the only legislative organ , is the single-chamber National Assemb ly . The National Assembly elects the Council of State as its permanent institution and also elects the Council of Ministers, which is the highest administrative body of the State but responsib le to the National Assembly. For purposes of local administrat ion, the count ry is divided into 27 pro- vinces (okruzi) and 3 municipalities. The loca l au thorities are responsible for all economic, social and cultural affairs of local importance in accordance with the laws of the country. The provinces are subdivided into 136 urban and 1016 rural communes. The capital , Sofia, has a special status corres- ponding to that of a province. Food legislation Decree No. 2431 of 2 November 1973° embodying the Law on public health sets out the present system of administration in Bulgaria . The Minister of Pub- lic Health has the duty of exercising state control through the intermediary of the specialized agencies designated in the regulations to execute this Law . How- ever, he may assign responsibility for exercising sta te control to other health age ncies and officia ls. The Law gives the responsible agencie~ power to inspect , at any time, establishments and facili ties subject to control. In 1974 Regulationsb for the implementation of the Law on public health were issued ; these specify in some detail how the control system should oper- ate. In respect of foodstuffs and beverages they regulate production , storage, transport and trade, and provide for laboratory analyses and investigations in the assessment of sanitary conditions. Health Rules No. 0-58, concerning trade in foodstuffs, were issued in 1972.c According to these Rules, the following are subject to approval by the state sanitary con trol agencies: the nome nclature and the technical and econ- omic fea tures of establishments engaged in the food trade; the construction rules and standards re lating to estab lishments for the storage o f and trade in foodst uffs ; the sites on which such establishments operate ; standard and individual designs for the construction and conversion of establishments for the storage of and trade in foodst uffs ; designs for production lines , automatic a International digest of health legislation . 25: 502-519, 1974 (Decree No . 243 1 of 2 November 197 3 embodyi ng the Law on public health. D 'riaven 1,estnik , No. 88, 1973). b International digest of health legislation , 25: 520-536, 1974 (Regulations for the implementation of the Law on public health. D 'rzaven Pestnik, No. 31, I 974). c International digest of health legislation , 24 : 270-272 , 1973 (Health Rules No. 0- 58 concerning trade in foodstuffs. D'riaven vestnik . No. 8 1, 1972) . 26 Bulgaria devices, machines, installations, means of transport , and portable and mobile equipment for the sale of foodstuffs; and cleaning, disinfection, and disinfec- tion products used in trading establishments. The opening of new or converted establishments is subject to the prior approval of the state sanitary control agencies, in conformity with these regulations. There are detailed provisions on foodstuffs. Trading establishments may accept and offer for sale only those foodstuffs and beverages that meet Bul- garian state standards and the particular specifications that apply to them. Foodstuffs must carry a label indicating compliance with these standards and specifications, and be packaged in accordance with the required stan- dards of hygiene. Imported foodstuffs must comply with standards and specifications and with import licence requirements. Approval must always be obtained from the Ministry of Public Health for the import of foodstuffs that contain additives not permitted by the Health Rules or that are packaged in materials which the Health Rules do not permit to come into contact with foodstuffs. The Ministry may decide whether to permit the import of foodstuffs containing pesticide residues not subject to the provisions of the Sanitary and Veterinary Rules . There are various provisions concerning the transport , storage, handling and sale of foodstuffs (including the prevention of contamination, rules ap- plicable to perishable foodstuffs , etc.) and particular requirements for certain kinds of foodstuffs such as meat and fish, bread and other bakery products, and milk and milk products. The law insists on stringent health safeguards for the storage and sale of food, in accordance with the instructions of the Ministry of Internal Trade and Services. These regulate the employment of persons suffering from certain diseases, and provide for pre-employment and periodic medical examinations of workers and for examinations to detect carriers of intestinal diseases and cases of infestation with intestinal parasites. Health Rules No . 0-14 of 1971 _a made by the State Sanitary Inspectorate of the Ministry of Public Health , lay down sanitary requirements for the design, construction , equipment , maintenance , and operation of communal catering establishments (canteens , restaurants , inns, snack bars, etc.). New or converted establishments must be approved by the State Sanitary Inspectorate. The state veterinary service is responsible for measures to ensure the safety and hygienic quality of meat and food products of animal origin (raw meat, canned and cooked meats , poultry , fish, game and eggs); it regulates their pro- duction, processing, storage, transport and export. The service is organized and directed by the Veterinary Affairs Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry and by the people 's councils. It is required to establish relations and co llaborate closely with the State Sanitary Inspectorate of the a International digest of health legislation. 24 : 19-20 , 1973 (Health Rules No. 0- 14 concerning communal ca tering establishments. D 'rial'en vestnik, No. 50, 1971 ). 27 Food Safety Services Ministry of Public Health and the Sanitary and Epidemiological Institute in the control of food of animal origin in trading and communal eating establish- ments, as weU as in the implementation of measures to control zoonoses . Regulations made in 1971 and approved by Notice No. 114 of the Com- mittee for Economic Coordination of the Council of Ministersa prescribe the organization and functions of the state veterinary service concerning animal health and the wholesomeness of food of animal origin; they contain provisions applicable to meat inspection and to the production , processing, storage and transport of, and trade in, animal products . The basic rights and duties of the specialists of the veterinary service are laid down in the Law on the veterinary service.b This Law specifies the fol- lowing principal tasks of veterinary specialists: (a) to protect the country from epizootic, parasitic and other diseases, to provide curative veterinary care for animals, and to take measures to im- prove the environment; (b) to organize and carry out veterinary health monitoring of animals, products of animal origin, animal feeds and the enterprises producing such feeds , and animals and animal products for import, export and transport; (c) to study the characteristics of and establish economically justified methods for the control of animal diseases, to prepare prognoses and to deter- mine measures for the prevention of such diseases; and (cl) to promote animal health, veterinary health information, and scienti- fic and technological progress in anin1al husbandry and in the production, pro- cessing and sale of products of animal origin. Food control administration Food safety is part of the state sanitary control service, directed by the Min- istry of Public Health. The Minister designates a Deputy Minister of Public Health as Chief State Sanitary Inspector and his deputy , in tum, is the Chief of the Sanitary and Epidemiological Directorate of the Ministry. Decree No. 2 I I of 11 February 1972c states that state sanitary control is designed to pro- mote the preservation of the human environment, the prevention of disease, a International digest of health legislation, 24: 16, 1973 (Notice No. 114 of 11 March 1971 of the Committee for Economic Coordination approving the Regulations concerning state veterinary public health control. D'riaven vestnik, No. 26, 1971). b International digest of health legislation , 19: 58, I 968 (Law of 2 December I 967 concerning the veterinary service. D'riaven vesrnik, No . 96, 1967). c International digest of health legislation, 24: 264-266, 1973 (Decree No. 21 I of 11 february 1972 on state san itary control in the People's Republic of Bulgaria. D'ria1•en 1•estnik, No . 15, 1972) . 28 Bulgaria and the enhancement of health and the working capacity of the population. To this end, the Minister of Public Health draws up draft texts of Government laws, resolutions and ordinances and issues health regulations. supervises the enforcement of the health legislation, and carries out sanitary and hygienic measures and anti-epidemic campaigns. The bodies responsible for state sanitary control include the Sanitary and Epidemiological Directorate of the Ministry of Public Health and the sanitary and epidemiological inspectorates at the district and interdistrict levels. These control a wide range of matters , including compliance with health standards and requirements in the manufacture , treatment, storage and sale of foodstuffs. They work closely with the State Control Committee , the various ministries concerned , the people's councils , the Central Trade Union Council and other bodies . A Sanitary and Epidemiological Council is established in the Ministry of Public Health, composed of senior representatives and specialists from various central administrative departments and scientific and social organiza- tions. Its function is to examine and advise on major problems of health and hygiene. Regulations No. 0-7 of 1973° specify the basic functions of district sanitary and epidemiological inspectorates , their structure and staffing, and their relationship with the Ministry of Public Health and with scientific research centres , institutes and university departments in the field of public health and epidemiology, people's councils , district sanitary services, other health institu- tions, and the country at large . The inspectorates are administered by the public health authorities attached to people's councils. They have wide-ranging sanitary control functions . The regulations made under the 1973 Law on public health lay the responsibility for the direct exercise of state sanitary control on state sanitary inspectors designated by the Minister of Public Health. In performing their duties, inspectors must not reveal trade secrets or confidential information that come to their notice . The regulations specify the procedures for sanitary control for the ap- proval of food establishments, and for banning the storage and use of food- stuffs on health grounds. Addresses Ministry of Public Health 5 Pl. Lenin Sofia Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry Potev 55 Sofia a International digest of health legislation, 24 : 728- 730 , I 97 3 (Regulations No . 0-7 concerning the function and organization of district sanitary and epidemiological inspec- torates. D 'riaven vestnik, No . 11 , 197 3; corrigendum, ibid., No . 20 , 1973) . 29 Food Safety Services Codex contact point 30 Chief, Section for the Codex Alimentarius Commission Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry Potev 55 Sofia r f • Pop: 14 802 000 • Area: 127 869 km2 Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia borders on the German Democratic Republic and Poland to the north, the Federal Republic of Germany in the west , Austria and Hungary in the south and the USSR in the east. It has a continental climate with warm summers and cold winters . The average temperature is 9 °C. Government The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic is a federal state of two republics , the Czech and Slovak Socialist Republics , each with its own government. The supreme organ of federal state power is the Federal Assembly , which has two 31 Food Safe ty Services chambers : the House of the People and the House of Nations. Each constituent republic has its own elected National Council or Parliament , which is respon- sible for all matters except external relations , defence, overseas trade , transport and communications. The republics are divided into regions and districts, which are administered by people's councils, and some IO 000 municipalities of which over 8000 have a population of less than 1000 . Food legislation Law No . 20 of 17 March 1966° states the general principles to be observed in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic for the protection of public health and, in general terms , the measures to be taken to establish and preserve healthy living and working conditions. Included are measures to ensure the whole- someness of food. The Law prescribes a unified health serv ice and the pro- vision of services by (a) establish men ts of the hygiene service, and (b) estab- lishments of curative and preventive medical care. Specialized duties in the field of hygiene and the control of epidemics are carried out by hygiene stations. A 1952 law required the setting up of provincial and district epidemi- ological stations, but this law was repealed by Law No. 20. Law No . 20 provides for the appointment of a Chief Hygienist of the Czecho- slovak Socialist Republic with overall responsibility for the hygiene services. The Deputy Chief Hygienist of the Republic is the Chief Hygienist of Slovakia. The Law also requires the appointment of district and regional hygienists. Further Orders on hygiene sta tions were made by the Minister of Health of the Czech Socialist Republic on 18 November 1974 (Order No. 121 )b and of the Slovak Sociali st Republic on 25 February 1975 (Order_ No . 19 , text worded similarly to that of Order No. 121 ). These Orders specify in detail the organ- ization and functions of hygiene stations. Order No. 45 of l 3 June 1966c defines the term "healthy living condi- tions" to include a healthy and hygienic food supply , and specifies the measures to be taken to secure these conditions. Foodstuffs must be harmless and of the required biological quality . They must not have undergone any microbiological 0 International digest of health legislation , 18 : 25-60 , 1967 (Law No. 20 of I 7 March 1966 concerning the protection of public health. Sbirka zakonf1 Ceskoslovenske social- isticke republiky, No. 7, 1966) . b International digest of health legislation , 26: 744-756, 1975 (Order No. 121 of the Ministry of Health of the Czech Socialist Republic of 18 November 1974 con- cerning the system of health establishments. Sbfrka zakonf1 Ceskoslovenske sociolisticke republiky, No . 22, 1974). c International digest of health legislation , 18: 327-342, 1967 (Order No. 45 of 13 June 1966 of the Ministry of Health concerning the establishm ent and protection of healt hy living conditions. Sbirka zakon fi Ccskoslovenske socialisticke republiky , No. 17 , 1966). 32 Czechos/o vakia or other form of deterioration , must not be repugnant in character , and must satisfy the provisions of the Order and other requirements of the Chief Hy- gienist of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. They must also comply with hygienic or other requirements laid down in technical standards. The Chief Hygienist issues directives from time to time on matters of hy- giene and epidemiology. Examples are Directive No. 50/1978 on foreign matter in food, Directive No. 49/ 1978 on plastic materials or objects coming into contact with food, and Directive No . 25/1961 on supervising the produc- tion and distribution of food and methods of sampling. Order No. 45 obliges workers who come in direct contact with foodstuffs intended for wide distribution , or with articles coming in direct contact with such foodstuffs, to contribute actively to the establishment and protection of healthy conditions. Articles that come in direct or indirect contact with foodstuffs during normal use must be harmless to health. The Order provides that community medical officers of health, medical of- ficers of factory health centres, and other physicians providing services in health communities shall be responsible for the surveillance of the hygiene requirements in food shops and establishments that provide meals to the public. Legislation for the control of communicable diseases was enacted by Order No. 46 of 14 June 1966a as amended by Order No . 17 of 16 Feb- ruary 1973. Further provision was made by the Methodological Directives of 24 April 1974b issued by the Ministry of Health of the Czech Socialist Republic to ensure that a unified procedure is followed in the implementa- tion of the 1966 Order. Workers in the food industry are required to undergo a preventive medical examination before being engaged for work. This rule applies to workers in all branches of the manufacture and sale of food, the provision of meals to the public, the distribution of snacks and refreshments, milking and the collection and transport of milk; those who assist in large-scale activities in which food is prepared, sold or supplied ; and other persons who in the course of their work come in direct contact with food. Workers must also undergo other preventive examinations as required by the hygiene services. In particular, they must be examined if they become infected or are suspected of being infected. All workers to whom the rules on medical examinations apply must have a health booklet. These booklets must be kept by the employer unless a worker operates outside an establishment , a International digest of health legislation, 18 : 342-370, 1967 (Order No. 46 of 14 June 1966 of the Ministry of Health and the Minstry of Justice concerning measures for the control of communicable diseases. Sbirka zizkonll Ceskoslovenske socialisticke republiky, No. 17, 1966). b International digest of health legislation, 26 : 514-518, 197 5 (Methodo logical Directives of 24 April 1974 for the implementation of the Order concerning measures for the control of communicable diseases. Vestnik Ministerstva Zdravotnictvf Ceske socialisticke republiky, No . 12-13, 1974). 33 Food Safety Services when he may retain it. Booklets have to be surrendered when workers develop an infection. Employers are obliged to keep a list of all their workers with a record of their medical examinations, the results, and the date of their next examination. Food control administration Each of the constituent republics of Czechoslovakia has its own Ministry of Health which is responsible for the health services, including the hygiene ser- vices, but the Chief Hygienist of the Czechoslovak Republic has overall super- vision of the establishment and maintenance of healthy living conditions. The health services are decentralized; the people's councils of the regions . and districts are responsible for administering the law and for protecting public health in general. They are responsible for the regional and district hygiene stations and their staff. However, in practice, the regional health services come under the control of the regional national committee and its health commit- tee , which has executive, advisory and supervisory functions , and administra- tive responsibility rests with a health department, which has a medical direc- tor. The regional national institute of health is subordinate to the regional national committee; it assists in the implementation of the Ministry's directives and provides highly specialized services not available at district level. It com- prises medical faculties, regional hospitals, schools for auxiliary health per- sonnel, regional hygiene stations and large specialized institutions. Districts have a similar administrative organization, with a district national committee and a district national institute of health. The hygiene service in each of the two re pub lies is directed by a chief medical hygiene officer and operated by hygiene officers appointed by the regional and district national committees. The practical hygiene work is done by the staff of the regiona l and district hygiene and epidemiology stations, which are equipped with laboratories and subdivided into special sections dealing with , for example , communal hygiene , food hygiene, occupational hygiene , school hygiene and epidemiology. The capital, Prague , has its own hygiene station, which has regional status, and its municipal communities have their district hygiene stations. Three other large cities have municipal hygiene stations. District hygiene stations carry out investigations in the field, including laboratory and other specialized studies. They are divided into three grades according to their size and facilities . Grade I stations have departments of hygiene and epidemiology but no laboratory facilities. Grade II stations have , in general, a hygiene division and an epidemic control division subdivided into a number of departments. Grade III district hygiene stations, in general , have divisions of hygiene , occupational hygiene and medicine, epidemic control and microbiology, and are subdivided into various departments. A regional hygiene station carries out highly specialized work that cannot be done by district hygiene stations and gives them technical guidance; it also undertakes the further training of health workers . A regional hygiene station has (a) a hygiene division with departments dealing with general and communal 34 Czechoslovakia hygiene, foodstuffs and consumer goods, and cruldren and adolescents, as well as laboratories; (b) an occupational hygiene and medical division; (c) an epidemic control division, with a department of epidemic control and a department of disinfection, disinfestation and rodent control; (d) a microbiology division; and (e) an organizational documentation division. In addition to the food safety functions of the hygiene services, food of animal origin is controlled by the veterinary services. Addresses Ministry of Health of the Czech Socialist Republic Trida Wilhelma Piecka 98 12037 Prague l 0 - Vinohrady Ministry of Health of the Slovak Socialist Republic Ceskoslovenskej Armady 6 88305 Bratislava Ministry of Agriculture Tesnov 65 Prague 1 Codex contact point Czechoslovak National Committee for Codex Alimentarius Czechoslovak National FAO Committee Tesnov 65 Prague 1 35 Denmark The Kingdom of Denmark consists of Jutland, the islands of Zealand , Funen and Bornholrn, and a large number of smaller islands. The Faroe Islands and Greenland also form part of the Kingdom. The climate is temperate, with mild summers and cold , wet winters . Denmark is both an agricultural and an industrial country. Danish agri- culture , which is internationally competitive, engages one-tenth of the popula- tion . The typical production unit is the freehold farmer , but the manufacture and marketing of agricultural products are essentially carried out by coopera- tives . Meat, poultry and dairy produce meet the needs of home consumption , 37 Food Safety Services and a substantial quantity of food is exported, mainly to the large industrial coun- tries bordering the North Sea. There is also an important fishing industry. Government Legislative authority is held jointly by the Crown and the single-chamber Parlia- ment (Folketing). Executive power is formally exercised by the monarch through a Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister, which is responsible to the Folketing. Local government is in the hands of 14 counties (amtskommuner), I city and I bor- ough, each with its own elected council, and 277 municipalities. Food legislation Legislation concerning foodstuffs offered for sale on the home market is, in general, promoted by the Ministry of Environmental Affairs; the basic legisla- tion is contained in Law No. 310 of6 June 1973.a However , there is extensive special legislation for particular foodstuffs such as meat, edible offal, meat products, milk and milk products , margarine, eggs and egg products, fish and fish products , poultry and rabbits. The legislation aims to protect consumers from health risks from food and from being misled when purchasing food. Law No . 3 IO contains inter alia rules for the approval of firms , the registra- tion of food importers , and the designation and labelling of food. In accordance with the Law , a list of approved food additives has been established . A substance may be admitted to the list only if it does not present any health hazards and does not serve to mislead the consumer, e.g., by altering the nature or quality of the product. There must also be a technological need for the use of the additive. The list is revised every year. Law No. 310 further requires that the retailing, packing, repacking and transport of food not regulated by the special legislation be approved by the local council. This applies to canteens, and to boarding houses with more than 12 permanent residents. Further approval must be obtained following a change of ownership of the business, major changes in the product or range of products being handled, or important modifications to the premises. In any case, ap- proval and registration may be reconsidered every five years. Order No. 367 of 27 June 1974b made by the Ministry of Environmental Affairs contains various provisions on certain aspects of the wholesale trade in food for which there are no special Jaws. A wholesale business may not begin until the local municipal supervising authority has issued its written approval. a International digest of health legislation , 24 : 755-766 , 1973 (Law No . 310 of 6 June I 973 on foodstuffs, etc. lovtidende for Kongeriget Danmark , Part A, No. 30 , 1973). b International digest of health legislation, 27: 93 , 1976 (Order No . 367 of 27 June 1974 on the sale, etc., of foodstuffs by wholesale. lovtidende for Kongeriget Danmark, Part A, No. 36, I 974 ). 38 Denmark The authority can inspect premises, installations, etc. The Veterinary Service and the National Food Institute have supervisory powers and, if necessary, may order the cessation of deliveries from an establishment. In accordance with the special laws that apply to various groups of food- stuffs such as meat, poultry, rabbits, milk and other dairy produce, margarine, eggs and egg products, and fish and fish products, detailed provisions are pre- scribed in orders made by the Ministry of Agriculture or the Ministry of Fish- eries. They relate to the safeguarding of health and quality, to promoting the sale of the products, and to production, storage and wholesale trade on the same lines as Order No. 367. The special legislation on fish and fish products was last revised in 1975 and covers catching, storage, transport, freezing, preservation and other pro- cessing and treatment. It applies to both exports and imports . Order No. 368 of 27 June 1974,a made by the Minister of Environmental Affairs, deals with the control of the production of foodstuffs for which there are no special laws and of food additives. The production of food- stuffs in undertakings covered by the Order may not begin until authorized by the Veterinary Service , nor of food additives until authorized by the Na- tional Food Institute . The local supervisory authority, the Veterinary Ser- vice and the National Food Institute have powers of inspection and may prohibit the sale of, or confiscate and destroy, foodstuffs considered unfit for human consumption. The retail trade in food, including the serving of food in catering estab- lishments , is subject to the provisions of Order No. 369 of 27 June 1974.b Food may not be sold retail until written approval has been given by the local supervisory authority. Approval is also required when the layout of an estab- lishment has been altered so as to have an appreciable effect on personal hygiene or on the hygienic conditions of sales premises , food preparation rooms or storage areas. The Order contains detailed provisions to ensure hygienic conditions . The health of food-handling staff is also covered and persons who may infect food may be excluded from work. Other provisions relate to the serving of food in restaurants, the sale of food from kiosks , food-vending vehicles and automatic vending machines , and the itinerant sale of food. Local authorities are respon- sible for the enforcement of the Order but they may delegate any or all of their functions to the local municipal food control unit. The Veterinary Ser- vice has general responsibility for supervising compliance with the Order. a Int ernational digest of health legislation , 27 : 93-94 , I 976 (Order No . 368 of 27 June 1974 on the authorization of undertakings producing foodstuffs and food addi- tives. Lovtidende for Kongeriget Danmark , Part A, No. 36, 1974). b International digest of health legislation , 27: 94-96 , 1976 (Order No. 369 of 27 June 1974 on retail trade in foodstuffs, including the serving, etc., of food. Lovtidende for Kongeriget Danmark, Part A, No. 36, 1974). 39 Food Safety Services Meat intended for sale on the home market is covered by Order No. 482 of 27 September 1974° issued by the Ministry of Agriculture. This lays down detailed rules for slaughtering and the inspection of animals, meat and meat products, and makes the Veterinary Service responsible for its supervision. Both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Fisheries may pro- mote legislation on the export of food. The Veterinary Service controls meat and poultry, and there is an Order on the export of meat corresponding to that on its home marketing. The control of meat is regulated by a special Order, No. 190 of 22 May 1975, and that of poultry by Order No. 28 I of 3 July 1963 with amendments. Dairy products, eggs and egg products are controlled by the State Quality Control for Dairy Products and Eggs. Food control administration Denmark has a decentralized food control system; the municipalities are re- sponsible for enforcing the regulations for the retail sale of foodstuffs but can delegate all or part of their duties to the local municipal food control units . These units are to be reorganized in the next few years; there will then be ap- proximately 35 units, and by 1984 every municipality will be served by one of them. All food control units, which are headed by veterinarians, inspect and take samples . The inspectors are veterinarians or locally trained technicians and they deal with manufacturers and retailers. Each unit has a labora tory for bacteriological examinations and some chemical analyses, primarily to judge the microbiological results obtained. Some food control units are specially equipped for complex chemical analyses. The municipalities, with the assistance of their local food control units, inspect milk intended for human consumption. Herds are examined by veterin- arians two to four times a year, and the raw milk is examined in the labora- tories; the milk fat content is also checked, and there is a mastitis control scheme. Samples are also taken in dairies and retail shops. Milk inspection in the municipal laboratories is under the supervision of the Veterinary Service . Slaughterhouses not authorized to export meat must be approved by the Veterinary Service. Meat shops must be approved by the municipality, which is advised by the veterinarian. The Veterinary Service is responsible for meat contro l, including the slaughtering of animals and poultry. The central office is in Copenhagen but inspectors have offices in five cities. The country is divided into four districts and each has a veterinary inspector and one or two veterinary assistants. There is also a laboratory in Copenhagen. Slaughterhouses authorized to export meat (about 99% of the produc- tion) are supervised by a veterinarian, who is responsible to the Ministry of a International digest of health legislation , 27: 101-103, 1976 (Order No . 482 of 27 September 1974 on meat, etc., intended for the home market. Lovtidende for Konge- riget Danmark, Part A, No. 48, 1974). 40 -"' Ministry of the Interior National Health Service District medical officers Structure of the Danish food control administration Ministry of Environmental Affairs National Food Institute Municipalities Local food control unit Veterinary Service Ministry of Agriculture State Quality Control for Dairy Products and Eggs Ministry of Fisheries Inspection Service for Fish and Fishery Products Food Safety Services Agriculture. The chief veterinarian will in most cases have one or more as- sistant veterinarians and one or more technical assistants. In all, 200 chief veterinarians, 200 assistant veterinarians and about 200 technical assistants are engaged in the daily supervision of slaughter- houses and related work. There are also some 600 veterinarians occupied part-time in checking meat. The State Quality Control for Dairy Products and Eggs has its head office in Copenhagen and four district offices in different parts of the country. It has a staff of about 90, including some 50 inspectors . The control of fish and fish products is carried out by the Inspection Ser- vice for Fish and Fish Products, which has its head office in Copenhagen, 30 small offices around the country, and a total staff of abo ut I 00. The National Food Institute The National Food Institute is part of the Ministry of Environmental Affairs and is concerned with problems related to food, e .g., composition, addi- tives and pollution. It has its own laboratory for analytical work and also advises the public authorities and the food industry. The Institute is respon- sible for the administration of the part of Law No. 310 that refers to the matters mentioned above, and the Veterinary Service for provisions on pro- duction and sale. Structure of the National Food Institute I Managing Director I I Secretariat I Laboratory Toxicology Director Director Division of Division of Central Division of Documenta- Food Law Institute of Laboratory Nutrition tion Administra- Toxicology tion 42 Denmark The Institute of Toxicology The Institute of Toxicology carries out toxicological and related experimental investigations on food additives and contaminants to determine whether they are hanTJful to man, and gives expert advice on toxicological matters to auth- orities, consumers, trade and industry. The Institute has three departments, for biological, biochemical and pathological investigations. The investigations are carried out on animals (mice, rats, rabbits and pigs) dosed daily over a period of months to test biological reactions to different quantities of a substance and to establish the quantity that does not give rise to unwanted effects. Organs are examined postmortem for macroscopic and microscopic pathological changes . Studies are made of the metabolism and excretion of the substance, and whether it accumulates . Other investigations test for possible carcinogenic , teratogenic and mutagenic effects . Chemical analysis Chemical analysis is carried out by a central laboratory in the National Food Institute, and five regional laboratories located at five local food control units ; each regional laboratory covers an average of one million people. The regional laboratories analyse residues and other substances that cannot be handled by local laboratories , e.g., pesticides , vitamins and trace minerals ; they also verify analyses done by local laboratories , and share the monitoring organized by the central laboratory . The central laboratory deals with special analytical problems such as may be presented by imported foodstuffs or the need for special equipment , e.g., mass- spectrometry. Its most important control function , however , is to coordinate the work of the local control laboratories and to assure the satisfactory quality of the local and regional laboratory work . It therefore issues guidelines for and standardizes the laboratory work , and prescribes analytical methods . Coordination with environmental and public health services Since the Ministry of Environmental Affairs legislates for both environmental health and most of food safety , and the municipalities must ensure compliance with the law, there is very close cooperation between the food control units and the environmental services. Public health is the responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior. Communi- cation, formal and informal , between the public health and the food safety ser- vices is common at the local level , e.g. , a district medical officer would inform the local food control unit of the outbreak of a foodborne disease. Addresses National Health Service St. Kongensgade 1 1264 Copenhagen K 43 Food Safety S ervices National Food Institute M¢rkh¢j Bygade 19 2860 S¢borg Ministry of Agriculture Slotsholmsgade 10 I 216 Copenhagen K Danish Veterinary Service Frederiksgade 21 1265 Copenhagen K State Quality Control for Dairy Products and Eggs Skt. Annae Plads 3 1250 Copenhagen K Ministry of Fisheries Borgergade 16 1300 Copenhagen K Inspection Service for Fish and Fish Products Dr. Tvaergade 21 1302 Copenhagen K Codex contact point Mr J. Madelung 44 Head of Division 1.5 Ministry of Agriculture Slotsholmsgade 10 1216 Copenhagen K r f 4 707 000 • Area: 337 009 km 2 Finland Situated in northern Europe, Finland has borders with Norway in the far north, Sweden in the north-west, and the USSR in the east. The southern and western shores of the country lie along the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia and the Baltic Sea. The climate varies sharply, with warm summers and cold winters. Government Finland has a republican constitution, which combines a parliamentary system with a strong presidency . The President has supreme executive power but 45 Food Safety Services legislative power is exercised by the single-chamber Parliament in conjunction with the President. A Council of State, headed by the Prime Minister, is respon- sible to Parliament. The country is divided into 12 provinces, each administered by a Gov- ernor. The provincial administration has departments which are subordinate to their corresponding National Boards. Thus, a provincial Department of Social Affairs and Health is subordinate to the National Board of Health and supervises and guides health activities in the province. The provinces are subdivided into 475 communes, each administered by an elected communal council, which appoints local councils for various matters including health. Food legislation The basic law is the Food Act No. 526 of 3 July 1941, under which 23 decrees have been issued on a wide range of foods and commodities for general use or consumption. Separate Acts deal with particular foods: the Meat Inspec- tion Act No. 160, 1960 ; the Milk Inspection Act No. 558, 1946; and the Law of Certain Fat Products No. 1, 1979. In addition, the Public Health Act No. 469 of 27 August 1965 and the Decree on Public Health No. 55, 1967, which contain general provisions on public health matters, have a num- ber of sections on foodstuffs; there are also food hygiene regulations . A further Act, No. 421 of 25 May 1973, established in the Ministry of Trade and In- dustry a central administrative agency called the National Board of Trade and Consumer Interests, which has certain duties relating to food. These Acts have been amended on various occasions and supplemented by many ministerial decrees and decisions . Under the Public Health Act, as amended, the National Board of Health of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health is responsible for the control and supervision of public health in general; however, certain matters come under the Veterinary Department of the Ministry of Agriculture. Provincial councils and provincial medical officers are responsible in their own areas. Ordinance No. I 97 of 20 March I 975 ,a which amended Ordinance No. 408 of 21 Novem- ber 1952,b contains further provisions on the functions of provinces. It makes the provincial administration the district administrative authority for the National Board of Trade and Consumer Interests and requires it to appoint a food inspector to supervise compliance with food legislation. Communes are responsible for public health in their own areas. a International digest of health legislation, 27: 326, 1976 (Ordinance No. 197 of 20 March 1975 amending Sections 27a, 28, and 56 of the Foodstuffs Ordinance. Suomen asetuskokoelma - Fin/ands forfattningssamling, No. 193-200, 1975). b International digest of health legislation , 4 : 683 , 1952-53 (Ordinance No. 408 of 21 November 1952, relating to foodstuffs. Fin/ands forfattningssamling, No. 67, 195 2). 46 Finland A number of sections of the Act deal specifically with measures to ensure proper standards of hygiene in the production , manufacture, storage, sale and other forms of handling of food, including measures relating to the health of food handlers. The Food Act No. 526 of I 941, supplemented by Ordinance No. 408 of 21 November 1952, aims at safeguarding the health of consumers and pro- tecting them from financial loss caused by harmful products. The Act and the Ordinance, both amended, regulate in a general way the preparation , preserva- tion, transport and sale of foodstuffs and specify the authorities responsible for administering the legislation . They prohibit the preparation and sale of food- stuffs that are harmful to health and define the standards for deciding whether a substance is harmful to health. They also specify measures to protect con- sumers from deception, including rules of labelling. Many additional decrees and ministerial decisions have been issued under this legislation on a wide range of foodstuffs and additives. A 1973 amendmenta of the Ordinance of 1952 redefined the authorities responsible for administering food legislation. The Food Administration , under the Ministry of Trade and Industry, has general responsibility in food matters . The National Board of Health , the Veterinary Division of the Ministry of Agri- culture, and any other ministry designated for particular functions by the Council of State are supervisory authorities in their specialized fields . The legislation on meat inspection, contained in the Meat Inspection Act No. 160 of 25 March 1960 , as amended, and the decrees made under that Act, provide as a general rule that meat from cattle, pigs , sheep, goats, horses and, since l July 1975 , reindeer, must be inspected and approved before it is sold or used for human consumption. It applies to all towns except those exempted by the Ministry of Agriculture. Where there is no obligation to inspect meat, the Ministry may impose it at the commune's request. A farmer may slaughter animals on his farm when it is too far away from a slaughter- house but must take the meat to a special inspection point. For meat inspection purposes there must be a Ministry of Agriculture veterinarian at each slaughterhouse. Communes may appoint their own veterin- arians with the approval of the Ministry . Meat for export must come from a slaughterhouse approved for the purpose by the Ministry of Agriculture. Decrees of the Ministry of Agriculture give detailed instructions on inspecting and judging meat. Sausages, canned meat and other meat products may be produced only in processing plants approved by the Veterinary Division of the Ministry of Agriculture. The use of colouring agents in meat products is for- bidden and other additives are very strictly limited. The legislation on milk is contained in the Milk Inspection Act No. 558 of 19 July 1946, as amended, and in decrees and decisions of the Ministry of a Int ernational digest of health legislation , 25: I 06 , 197 4 (Ordinance No. 5 85 of 2 July 1973 to amend the Foodstuffs Ordinance. Suomen asetuskokoelma - Fin/ands J6rfattningssamling , No. 577-587, 1973). 47 Food Safety Services Agriculture. It contains provisions for good standards of safety in the production, processing and distribution of milk. It requires communes to make arrangements for the examination of milk samples and submit them for approval to the Min- istry's veterinary department. It prescribes the action to be taken when milk samples are found unsatisfactory. Where, in particular communes , milk inspec- tion obligations present special difficulties the Ministry may relax them at the commune's request. A 1972 amendment to the Milk Act requires dairies and other milk-producing establishments to take and analyse samples of the milk sup- plied to them, and to communicate the results to the local health council. Food control administration Three ministries share the responsibilities of the central Government for the control of foodstuffs. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, through the National Board of Health, is concerned with the public health aspects. The Board has a Health Division with a Hygiene and Consumer Protection Depart- ment whose responsibilities include food safety and its supervision. The Min- istry of Agriculture and Forestry, through its Veterinary Department, deals with meat and dairy products. The state veterinary medical laboratory is the central food control laboratory for animal products. The Ministry of Trade and Industry, through the National Board of Trade and Consumer Interests , deals with composition, labelling, advertising and the prevention of deception. These national supervisory authorities have the double duty of generally organizing and supervising the administrative functions of their subordinate local control authorities and of developing food legislation. A province has a provincial administration headed by a centrally appointed Governor with a staff of full-time offficials. A Department of Social Affairs and Health is responsible , under the National Board of Health, for the sur- veillance of public health, including food control, and for ensuring that the communal and other authorities fulfil their legal obligations. Food inspectors perform control duties under the Food Law, and provincial medical officers and veterinarians carry out those that come under the Milk and Meat Inspec- tion Laws. They act on behalf of the National Board of Trade and Consumer Interests of the National Board of Health and the Veterinary Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fores try , respectively. Communes are responsible for public health in their districts and for en- forcing the food legislation, including milk and meat inspection. Elected coun- cils of communes or groups of communes appoint local health councils, of which there are about 220, to represent consumers and be responsible for per- sonal and environmental health services. They are subsidized by the Govern- ment and report to the provincial Department of Social Affairs and Health, and to the National Board of Health ; they submit their five-year plans to that Board. The local medical officers with public health duties and the vet- erinary officers are ex-officio members of these councils . Every communal health centre has a unit responsible for food safety; by tradition the chief of this unit is a veterinarian . 48 Finland Communal health councils may appoint food inspectors and food control officials who are supervised by the inspectors ; they perform the same control duties as the police and officials of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health and of the Veterinary Department of the Ministry of Agriculture. Any police officer may exercise food control functions. Inspectors and food control of- ficials appointed by health councils must have certain technical qualifica- tions prescribed by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. The communal health authorities operate a comprehensive countrywide system of milk control. Samples for examination are taken regularly from producers, and at collection points and during processing ; dairy farms, plants and shops are kept under supervision. There are three national laboratories for food control: the Food Labora- tory of the Technical Research Centre of Finland, the Central Laboratory of Public Health and the State Veterinary Institute; there are also 64 com- munal milk control laboratories and 39 approved food control laboratories. To be approved a laboratory has to be properly equipped, and directed and staffed by qualified persons able to undertake analyses in accordance with the food legislation. The Council of State approves laboratories and decides which are to be considered principal control laboratories and what their responsibilities shall be . All meat processing plants are supervised by veterinary officers of com- munal health authorities or, in the case of small processing plants, by local health inspectors. General hygiene and personal health are kept under special observation and the water supply is checked regularly. All food control officials can enter food establishments in their areas, take samples and have them analysed by approved control laboratories, pro- hibit the sale or manufacture of suspect products and seize such products . Sale or manufacture may be prohibited before samples are analysed, in which case the head of the concern or the person in charge must be notified and a report made by the food inspector responsible for the food control official. Should it be established that the foodstuff contravenes the regulations in force, the period of prohibition may be extended until the necessary steps are taken to comply with the law. When a foodstuff is adulterated or harmful to health a food control official may order its seizure, subject to certain rules of procedure being fol- lowed . All seizures of food by officials other than the police must be noti- fied to the police in the public prosecutor's office. The import of meat and meat products is permitted only by a special licence given by the Veterinary Division of the Ministry of Agriculture . All imports are inspected by the State Institute of Meat Inspection . Samples are taken from each shipment for microbiological and chemical examina- tions. Customs officers control imported food at the frontier. They may cause suspicious food to be analysed and prohibit its sale . If the sale of a particular foodstuff would contravene the law they may insist on it being re-exported unless the importer is prepared to modify it so as to comply with the law. 49 Food Safety Services Addresses Ministry of Social Affairs and Health P.O. Box 267268 00171 Helsinki 17 Ministry of Agriculture Hallituskatu 3 Helsinki 17 Codex contact point 50 Chairman of the Finnish National Codex AJimentarius Committee National Board of Trade and Consumer Interests Elinkeinshallitus Haapanienenkatu 4 B 005 30 Helsinki 5 3 r f 52 786000 • Area: 54 7 026 km' France France is situated in western Europe, with coastlines on the North Sea, the English Channel, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered to the north by Belgium and Luxembourg, to the east by the Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland and Italy and to the south-west by Spain. Corsica, which is part of metropolitan France, lies to the south. The climate is temperate in most of the country, but in the south it is of the mediterranean type with warm summers and mild winters. France is one of Europe's leading agricultural nations, with three quarters of the country under cultivation. Since the Second World War, production has risen about 2% per annum; between 1968 and 1976 the number of agricultural 51 Food Safety Services workers dropped from 15% to I 0% of the working population. Animal products form more than 50% of the total agricultural production. There is a small net export of food. Government The Republic of France has a Parliament with two chambers, the Senate and the National Assembly. The President holds executive power and appoints the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, which governs the country and is responsible to Parliament. Metropolitan France has 21 administrative regions comprising 95 departments. Each department is administered by a Government- appointed prefect. The director of health and social welfare of the depart- ment , assisted by medical officers of health, has responsibilities in the health field, including environmental sanitation. The prefect and the director of health and social welfare are advised by a departmental medical inspector. The departments are subdivided into about 36 000 communes, which vary greatly in size and population . At the level of the commune the mayor is responsible for public health under the administrative authority of the prefect. A health office must be established in all towns of more than 20000 inhabi- tants and in all communes of not Jess than 2000 inhabitants that are regarded as thermal spas or health resorts. A health office is directed by a physician, working full-time or part-time according to the size of the area. He is tech- nically responsible to the departmental medical inspector. A local health com- mittee acts in an advisory capacity. Food legislation The matters on which Parliament may legislate are stipulated in the Con- stitution and include fraud and adulteration in relation to food. The Act of I August 1905, which has been modified and expanded a number of times, is the basis for the control of trade and the prevention of fraud; it applies to all goods , and particularly to food and beverages. The term "fraud" implies not only adulteration but also deceit and attempted deceit. The pro- tection of health is not mentioned in the Act as a primary objective , but in practice it is recognized as such. Certain frauds are prohibited only be- cause they constitute a danger to public health , e.g., offering for sale food that is unsound or toxic. Endangering human or animal health is considered an aggravation of the offence of adulteration and therefore carries a more severe penalty. The Executive is empowered by Article II of the Act to issue decrees for its execution, particularly with reference to: (a) the procedures for inspection, taking action , methods of analysis , and the authorities who may make investigations ; (b) the definition , composition and names of goods, labelling and ad- vertising, and conditions of sale ; and 52 France (c) the cleanliness of premises where food is prepared, processed or sold ( except foodstuffs subject to health checks by the veterinary services) and the cleanliness and state of health of persons working in these places. The power given to the Government has been extensively used and over I 00 regulations on food products and conditions of sale have been issued. An Act passed on 8 July 1965 relates, among other things, to the health and quality inspection of live animals, animal feed, and food of animal origin. This Act extended the scope of the Rural Code to the control of the whole- someness and quality of all animal feed or food of animal origin, and to in- spection and supervision of the hygienic conditions under which feed is pre- pared, preserved, transported and offered for sale. The health and quality standards that animals, animal feed and food of ani- mal origin must satisfy are specified by the Ministry of Agriculture or, in the case of sea products, jointly by the Ministry of Agriculture and the min- istry responsible for fisheries. The ministers have used these powers to make a series of enactments on a variety of matters, including the hygiene of fish- ing boats and premises used for the processing and sale of salt- and fresh- water fish, the stamping of meat and meat products, the hygienic handling of milk and dairy products, the preparation and sale of minced meat, the freezing and thawing of animal feed and food of animal origin, the stamping of car- casses, offal or giblets, and the preparation of cut meat. Regulations may also be made by prefects and mayors concerning public order, safety and health. These cover the detection of fraud in the sale of foods by weight or measure and control of the wholesomeness of foodstuffs for sale. In practice, prefects and mayors issuing such regulations are guided by the health standards laid down by the Minister of Public Health and Social Security. These specify conditions for the cleanliness of shops, display counters, storage facilities and markets. Prefects and mayors may use their general police powers to order the closure of food establishments on health grounds at the request of the inspec- tion authorities, but this kind of action is taken only in very serious cases. Food control administration Control of food quality and hygiene in France is the responsibility of the Min- istry of Agriculture. The work is mainly performed by two services of the Quality Directorate, one of the seven directorates in the Ministry, namely the Service for the Prevention of Fraud and Control of Quality and the Vet- erinary Food Hygiene Service. Service for the Prevention of Fraud and Control of Quality The Service has a central directorate and two important sections for inspec- tions and laboratories. It has a staff of some 1250, including 150 in the central directorate, 800 in the inspection section and 200 in the laboratory section. The 53 Food Safety Services central directorate, in Paris, comprises a Chief of Service, staff of the inspection section and of the central laboratory, and a secretariat. The directorate is responsible for ensuring unity of direction and policy, coordination of investi- gation, organization of research, compilation of data, control of the enforce- ment of decisions, and liaison with other administrative bodies and with producer and consumer organizations. It also prepares draft regulations. The inspection section operates through 25 regional divisions, each of which covers several departments and is directed by a divisional inspector with a team of inspectors, controllers and other officers. These regional services not only enforce the food legislation (including the Acts of 1905 and 1963) but also carry out investigations in connexion with their preventive work . They have constant liaison with local consumer organizations. In addition, special inspection teams at the national level deal with par- ticular commodities such as fruit and vegetables, wines and other alcoholic drinks, margarine and flour. The Service has seven national laboratories: a central laboratory at Massy near Paris; interregional laboratories at Bordeaux, Marseilles, Montpellier, Rennes and Strasbourg; and a laboratory at Saint Denis in Reunion. A number of other approved laboratories work for the Service but they are to be gradu- ally incorporated into the national service. The inspection and laboratory ser- vices, whose work is complementary, cooperate closely with one another. Food control in Paris is a duty of the Prefecture of Police; it has its own inspectors who work with the municipal laboratory of Paris. Other officials are empowered to act as agents of the Service for the Prevention of Fraud and Control of Quality; they include police commissioners, veterinary inspectors, technical officers of the veterinary service, sanitary assistants and, in the exercise of their normal duties, customs agents, in- direct taxation officers and inspectors of weights and measures. Local or special officials may also be called on to enforce the food legislation; they include local taxation officers, persons appointed and employed by prefects, staff of departmental administrations and consumers approved by the Min- istry of Agriculture and authorized by the prefect. Fish curing and canning factories are checked by officials of the Scientific and Technical Institute for Maritime Fishery. Thus, although the control of fraud and adulteration in foodstuffs or services under the 1905 Act is centralized at governmental level by the Ser- vice for the Prevention of Fraud and Control of Quality and its regional or- ganization, it is applied in direct cooperation with the authorities of the departments and municipalities. Control comprises mainly taking samples , seizing unfit products, and checking on breaches of the law. Samples are analysed by the laboratories of the Service. The central laboratory makes investigations and analyses but is concerned mainly with technical investigations needed for the preparation of decrees and orders. Laboratories may also be established by departments and communes to cooperate with the national laboratories in making analyses for food control subject to the approval of the Minister of Agriculture . 54 France Control deals also with substances that come into contact with food- stuffs, such as packaging or cleaning materials, and the conditions under which foodstuffs are manufactured and marketed. There are detailed regula- tions on these matters . There are also departmental health regulations that specify the conditions to which manufacturing plants, storage facilities, person- nel, raw materials and various types of equipment must conform. There are particular requirements on, inter alia, itinerant sale of food, sale in the open air , markets, shops and restaurants, and transport. Veterinary Food Hygiene Service This Service has a central directorate with a chief and section heads , depart- mental inspectorates and a network of departmental veterinary laboratories coordinated by the central food hygiene laboratory. The central directorate drafts legislation and regulations, guides and coordinates the activities of the regions, and is responsible for national and international representation. The departmental inspectorates were set up by a decree of 31 March 1967, which demarcated divisions for the veterinary inspectorate in each department of the country. Each division is supervised by a state veterinary inspector. There may also be other veterinary inspectors, supported by technical officers and sanitary assistants. Depending on the needs of a department, some veterinary inspectors or sanitary assistants may be employed on contract or by the hour. They are appointed by the Minister of Agriculture and are sworn in before the courts. In each department the entire inspection staff is under the authority of the departmental director of veterinary services, assisted by an officer of the Veterinary Food Hygiene Service. There are approximately 4000 staff of all kinds, comprising some 1900 veterinary inspectors and 2100 technical and other officers. Nearly all the departments have a veterinary laboratory, financed from the departmental budget. In addition, the Service has four national labora- tories for applied research : the Central Laboratory of Food Hygiene, Paris; the Hygiene Research Laboratory, Nice; the Veterinary Research Labora tory, Ploufragan; and the National Study and Research Centre for Catering, Paris. The Service is responsible for the inspection of animal feed and food of animal origin, and authority is vested in the veterinary staff. The technical and other officers, however, can seize food pending its examination by a veterinary inspector. The work of the Service includes controlling the cleanliness, quality and wholesomeness of various foodstuffs; specifying and checking the condi- tions under which they are prepared , handled, transported and distributed; and organizing the inspection of facilities and cleanliness of staff. The main purpose of the laboratories is to provide the veterinary inspector with additional facilities for the investigation of doubtful cases, e.g., seized sus- pect food. Pending its analysis, the food may be placed under seal. The final decision, however, rests with the inspector. 55 Food Safety Services Training of personnel The Service for the Prevention of Fraud and Control of Quality recruits uni- versity graduates for certain posts such as inspector and head of laboratory. A secondary-school leaving certificate or its equivalent is required for appoint- ment as laboratory technician or supervisor. Recruitment is by competition and successful candidates attend a one-year course at the National Training Centre at Montpellier. This Centre also gives further training to staff. The Veterinary Food Hygiene Service also recruits staff at two levels. Veterinary inspectors are recruited by external competitive examination among qualified veterinarians or by internal competitive examinations among students in national veterinary colleges at the end of their third year. The selected students then complete the fourth year of training at their college in order to qualify. All those recruited as veterinarians are required to complete a year of further training in certain subjects. Technical officers are recruited by competitive examination among can- didates holding the secondary-school leaving certificate or its equivalent. Recruits are given nine months of instruction at a training centre attached to the National Veterinary School, Lyons, followed by a three-month course on a special subject. They are also trained in refrigeration techniques to enable them to give official approval to vehicles for transporting foodstuffs at controlled temperatures, and they receive further training on the hygiene of milk, eggs and egg products. Addresses Ministry of Health and Social Security 20 rue d'Estrees 75700 Paris Ministry of Agriculture 78 rue de Varenne 75007 Paris Codex contact point Secretariat 56 French Codex Alimentarius Committee 44 bd de Grenelle 75015 Paris r • Pop: 16850000 • Area: 108 178 km' German Democratic Republic To the north of the German Democratic Republic is the Baltic Sea; to the west, south-west and south is the Federal Republic of Germany; to the south-east Czechoslovakia; and to the east Poland. It is warm in the summer but cold in the winter. The principal crops are potatoes, sugar beet, barley, wheat and rye. Food is not exported in substantial quantities but appreciable quantities of grain are imported . 57 Food Safety Services Government Under the 1949 Constitution the supreme organ of state power is the People's Chamber (Volkskammer) . The Chamber elects the Council of State (Staatsrat) as its permanent organ . The Chairman of the Council is the Head of State of the Republic . The executive branch of government is the Council of Ministers (Ministerrat), the chairman of which (Minister-President) is appointed by the People's Chamber . For local government the country is divided into I 5 districts (bez irke) and the city of Berlin . Food legislation On 25 September 1975 the Council of Ministers promulgated the Statutes of the Ministry of Public Health,a which prescribe the Ministry's functio ns and the Minister's responsibilities. Among these responsibilities are the im- plementation of measures to promote public health and prevent disease; these include food hygiene and the regulation and supervison of trade in food- stuffs , which includes the licensing of food additives, foodstuffs and new food-production techniques. An ordinance of 11 December 1975b prescribes the constitution and duties of the State Sanitary Inspectorate . It is composed of four bodies: the State Sanitary Inspectorate of the Ministry of Public Health and the District , Local and Urban District Sanitary Inspectorates. It is responsible for food and nutritional hygiene (including trade in foodstuffs) and the supervision of trade in foodstuffs and consumer goods. It must see that its employees are adequately trained , and assist in the training of employees of concerns where compliance with health regulations is of particular importance. With a view to ensuring a healthy environment it must also advise on or evaluate investments affecting: health conditions in dwellings; protection against noise; air, water and soil quality ; and food hygiene. It sets out the conditions under which its inspectors may have access to premises , take samples , impose requirements , etc. Where there is an immediate risk to human health, the director of the inspectorate concerned may stop production and may institute legal pro- ceedings against persons who contravene health regulations . Inspectors can require immediate measures to eliminate unhealthy conditions or to comply with legal provisions. a International digest of health legislation , 28 : 516-518, 1977 (Decision of25 Sep- tember 1975 of the Council of Ministers promulgating the Statutes of the Ministry of Health. Gesetzblatt der Deutschen Demokratischen Repub/ik , Part I, No. 40 , 1975). b International digest of health legislation , 28 : 522-524, 1977 (Ordinance of 11 De- cember 1975 on the State Sanitary Inspectorate. Gesetzblatt der Deutsch en Demokratischen Republik , Part I, No . 2, 1976) . 58 German Democratic Republic The basic legal provisions on food are contained in the Foodstuffs Law of 30 November 1962.a This Law provides that trade in foodstuffs must be car- ried out under conditions that will prevent any harm to human health. Food- stuffs must be free from any foreign matter that may contaminate them, cause them to spoil or otherwise render them noxious. They may contain only those additives authorized by the Minister of Public Health and in the pro- portions laid down by him. The Minister of Public Health , in agreement with the competent depart- ments of the central administration , may make regulations with regard to trade in particular foodstuffs, and consumer goods, food hygiene as applied to trading in foodstuffs, and the health supervision of persons employed in the food trade. Imported foodstuffs and consumer goods must satisfy health regulations. Under the Foodstuffs Law the State Hygiene Inspectorate is responsible for the supervision of trade in foodstuffs and consumer goods, and the vet- erinary services for the hygiene of foodstuffs of animal origin. The Minister has made re\ulations on various aspects of food. The first were issued on 30 April 1963 and dealt with the autonomous control and continuous improvement of hygiene in the food industries . They hold respon- sible for standards of hygiene the managers of all businesses where foodstuffs are manufactured, prepared, treated, processed , measured, weighed , packed , stored, dealt in or otherwise handled, and also those that transport food. Industries were required to be classified into three categories depending on the extent to which premises and equipment met legal hygiene requirements . Plans had then to be drawn up for the improvement of standards in categories II and III in consultation with the Local Hygiene Inspectorate or the local traffic hy- giene inspectorate or, in respect of veterinary food hygiene, with the compe- tent medico-veterinary professional body in the area. The regulations also stipulated that employers in the food industries must be instructed in matters of hygiene every year. Several sets of regulations have been issued on the health of food handlers , the most recent on 24 November 1969.c They contain detailed provisions to a International digest of health legislation, 15 : 115, 1964 (law of 30 November 1962 on trade in foodstuffs and consumer goods (Foodstuffs law). Gesetzblatt der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Part 1, No. 12, 1962). b International digest of health legislation , 15 : 115 -116, 1964 (First Regulations of 30 April 1963 in application of the Foodstuffs Law. Autonomous co ntrol and con- tinuous improvement of hygiene in the food industries. Gesetzblatt der Deutschen Demo- kratischen Republik, Part II, No. 42, 1963). c International digest of health legislation, 22 : 24 7-248, 1971 (S ixth Regulation of 24 November 1969 to implement the Foodstuffs Law. Sanitary req uirements to be satisfied by persons employed in the foodstuffs trade. Gesetzblatt der Deutschen Demo- kratischen Republik, Part 11 , No. 96, I 969). 59 Food Safe ty S ervices prevent infected persons, carriers or contacts from engaging in food handling. Only persons who have had a general medical examination, including a chest X-ray, may be employed in the handling of foodstuffs. An annex lists types of food businesses where foodstuffs are particularly liable to infection, including milk processing, ice-cream manufacture, slaughtering and meat processing, and the sale of unpacked meat and sausages. Their employees are subject to special health surveillance. Before they may be employed, persons whose work would involve a risk of infecting food must submit for bacteriological examination three faecal specimens at intervals of one to two days. In addition to the pre- employment examinations, non-exempted employees must have the full exam- ination and chest X-ray annually. Employers must keep a health card, on which the results of medical examinations are recorded , for every employee of a listed undertaking . Under the Law of 20 June 1962 on the veterinary services an Order (the Meat Inspection Order),a made by the Chairman of the then Council for Agri- cultural Production and Food Economy on 5 November 1971, contains pro- visions on the inspection of animals and meat, and states the principles on which meat should be judged. It also deals with the marking of meat , the supervision of inspectors, and other related subjects. An Order of 14 November 1975b made by the Minister of Public Health on the labelling of foodstuffs specifies those that must be labelled and the particulars to be included. Food control administration As stated previously, the State Sanitary Inspectorate operates at four levels. The State Sanitary Inspectorate of the Ministry of Public Health is directed by the Chief Public Health Officer (Haupthygieniker), who is appointed by the Minister. The District and Local Sanitary Inspectorates are directed by the District Public Health Officer and the Local Medical Officer of Health , res- pectively . In towns , urban district sanitary inspectors may be appointed under the direction of the Urban District Medical Officer of Health. The duties of the State Sanitary Inspectorate cover a wide range of pub- lic health matters . They include the prevention and control of communicable disease, communal hygiene (housing; residential environment and town p Ian ning ; recreation; air, water and soil pollution ; protection against noise ; collection a International digest of health legislation, 24 : 801 -802, 197 3 (Order of 5 Novem- ber 1971 on the inspection of slaughter animals and of meat (the Meat Inspection Order). Gesetzblatt der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Part II, No . 7 5, 1971). b International digest of health legislation , 28 : 519-521, 1977 (Order of 14 Novem- ber 1975 on th e labelling of foodstuffs for trade purposes. Gesetzblatt der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Part I , No. 47, 1975) . 60 German Democratic Republic and disposal of waste; disposal of the dead), and food and nutritional hygiene , including trade in foodstuffs and consumer goods. The supervision of the trade in foodstuffs and the promotion of food hygiene , therefore , form only part of the Inspectorate's environmental health functions . The district sani- tary inspectorates deal with matters and problems of applied hygiene, and have laboratory facilities for microbiological examinations and foodstuffs and other public health analyses. The directors of undertakings and establishments of all kinds are respon- sible for compliance with legal health provisions, for organizing effective sur- veillance and ensuring active cooperation by employees in fulfilling health requirements. They must notify the State Sanitary Inspectorate immediately of conditions in their establishments that might endanger public health and of the immediate measures taken; they must also act at once on the results of official inspections. Health action groups (Betriebshygieneaktivs) may be established in indus- trial combines and other establishments where compliance with health regula- tions is of particular importance . Although the public health services have a general responsibility for pro- tecting the public from hazards to health that may be caused by food, the vet- erinary medical services have a particular responsibility with regard to meat and meat products. The Law of 20 June 1962,a on veterinary medicine, prescribed the public health functions of the veterinary medical services. They must co- operate with the public health services in the maintenance of public health ; this cooperation should comprise: (a) the inspection of food animals and meat ; (b) the protection of the population from diseases communicable from animals to man and from those caused by products derived from animals, especially foodstuffs; (c) the prevention of damage to human health by the deterioration of food of animal origin; and (d) the encouragement of improvement in the quality of these foodstuffs. The Law obliges local authorities to organize and promote planned and coordinated educational programmes on preventive health measures against diseases communicable from animals to man. The veterinary medical services are therefore responsible for the examina- tion and judgement of food animals and of freshly prepared meat, including poultry and game, fish, shellfish , eggs, milk and other foods of animal origin. When diseases are suspected to have been caused in man by foodstuffs of ani- mal origin the public health services and veterinary medical services are re- quired to investigate the causes jointly and to suggest to local authorities, where necessary, the steps they should take. They must act jointly in an epi- demic caused by food of animal origin. a International digest of health legislation, 14: 59-60, 1963 (Law of 20 June 1962 on veterinary medicine. Gesetzblatt der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Part I, No . 5, 1962) . 61 Food Safety Services Addresses Ministry of Public Health Rathausstrasse 3 I 02 Berlin Ministry of Agriculture , Forestry and Food Kopenickerallee 39 -57 1157 Berlin Codex contact point None 62 r 61 832 000 • Area: 248 577 km2 Federal Repub lie of Germany To the north of the Federal Republic of Germany is Denmark , the North Sea and part of the Baltic Sea , to the east lies the German Democratic Repub- lic and Czechoslovakia, to the south is Austria and Switzerland , and to the west France, Luxembourg , Belgium and the Netherlands. The climate is tem- perate , with an average temperature of 9 °C, but there are considerable varia- tions between the north German lowlands and the Bavarian Alps. The country imports substantial quantities of various kinds of food - stuffs. 63 Food Safety Services Government The Federal Republic of Germany is a social and democratic federal State with a two-chamber Federal Parliament : the Upper House (Bundesrat) and the Lower House (Bundestag). The federal states (Lander) execute federal law of concern to them in so far as the basic law does not otherwise provide or permit. Each federal state has its own legislative assembly, which can pass laws except in matters that are ex- clusively the right of the Federal Parliament. Local responsibility for the execu- tion of federal and state laws rests with the city and county authorities. Food legislation Basic food laws The first legal regulations concerning food were issued in Germany about 100 years ago: the Food Act of 1879. Since then special laws have been issued such as the Meat Control Act of I 900, the Mill< Law of 1930, the Poultry Meat Hygiene Lawa of 1973, the Drug Act of 1976, the Feeds Act of 1975 and the Animal Diseases Act of 1912. German food legislation refers expressly or implicitly to the protection of the health of the consumer as well as to commercial honesty. The 1958 Food Law, however, strengthened the power for protecting public health. The latest general food law is the Law on Foodstuffs, Tobacco Products , Cosmetics and other Consumer Goods of I 5 August 1974,b which provides a framework within which the Federal Minister for Youth, Family Affairs and Health may, after consultation with other ministers, issue by-laws that lay down detailed regulations on subjects such as food additives, pesticides, and labelling of food. For expert advice and scientific assistance the Minister may use the services of the Federal Health Office, which is the largest health research institute. German Codex Alimentarius (Deutsches Lebensmittelbuch) The Food Act of 1958 provided for the setting up of a Commission to estab- lish a detailed German Codex Alimentarius. The legal provisions for the Codex and the Commission were re-enacted in the Law of I 5 August 1974. Under them the Commission, in formulating guidelines, must take into account a International digest of health legislation, 25: 747-748, 1974 (The Poultry Meat Hygiene Law. Dated 12 July 1973. Bundesgesetzblatt , Part I, No. 56, 1973). b International digest of health legislation , 26 : 524-548 , 1975 (Law of 15 August 1974 for the revision and emendation of the legislation on trade in foodstuffs , tobacco products, cosmetics and other consumer goods. Bundesgesetzblatt , Part I, No . 95 , 1974). 64 Federal Republic of Germany international food standards recognized by the Federal Government. The Commission comprises food scientists, control officials, and representatives of the consumer societies and the food industry. It lays down standards of com- parison for determining the composition and quality of foodstuffs or classes of food, as well as other characteristics of importance for the marketing of food, and summarizes its conclusions in Food Codes of Practice (Leitsatze). The German Codex Alimentarius Commission issues guidelines to all admin- istrative and legal bodies connected with the food trade and food regulations. The guidelines are also of value to consumers because they indicate what to expect from the food they buy. Though they are not legally binding, they represent standards generally observed in food processing, and are therefore taken into consideration by the courts. Official list of methods of examination The 1974 Law provides that the Federal Health Office shall publish an official list of procedures for sampling and testing foodstuffs, tobacco products, cos- metics and consumer goods. The procedures must be agreed on with admin- istrators, scientists and economists. The list, which is kept up to date, dis- courages the use of several different lists and promotes uniform examination procedures. Food control administration The basic food legislation, and the detailed regulations for specific require- ments of particular foodstuffs and related matters, are enacted by the Federal Parliament and Federal Government. However , the Lander execute federal laws and they are free to decide the form of their own food control admin- istration, and may issue rules for this purpose . For the execution of the Food Act the responsibilities and duties connected with the control of food are shared by chemists, veterinarians and medical officers. Their powers, especially in respect of laboratory investigations, were laid down as early as 1934. The Lander have since issued a number of similar rules concerning such matters as the qualifications of officials or experts concerned with food control, fre- quency of inspection , sampling procedures, and the examination and analysis of samples. For example, it has been specified that five to six samples of food- stuffs and tobacco products per 1000 inhabitants, and at least one sample of cosmetics and other commodities per 2000 inhabitants, should be taken annually. The number of samples to be taken and the place of sampling depend on the sampling procedures, which are specified by inspection institutes alone or with the Land monitoring authorities. The procedures take account of the ca- pacity of the inspection institutes, the results of enquiries by monitoring auth- orities and inspection institutes, and reports on complaints about particular products in other Lander. In the retail trade, samples are preferably taken of food sold loose or packed food suspected of being unfit for consumption. In 65 Food Safety Services addition to the regular samples, the monitoring authorities take additional samples on suspicion, or with a view to prosecution, if there are special findings during a factory check or if complaints are received from consumers. Food control is delegated by the Lander to city and county authori- ties and carried out by local administrations. This service is supported by food scientists, who are also entitled independently to inspect establish- ments that produce, market and handle food ; to take samples; and to de- tain suspect food pending proper examination. These scientists are food chemists of the chemical food control laboratories , veterinarians of the county authorities and the veterinary food control laboratories, and medical of- ficers of the public health offices . Where they do not do the sampling, food inspectors inspect and sample in accordance with the regulations. Samples are tested in chemical, veterinary and medical inspection institutes, mostly run by the Lander. The responsibility for the various inspection organizations is defined by the implementing regulations of the Lander. In the chemical inspectorates food is tested by chemical, physicochemical , microscopic and other methods. In veterinary inspectorates, food of animal origin is tested mainly by histological , microbiological and serological methods. Medical inspectorates examine food trade staff, and test particular foods and consumer goods. Examinations under the Meat Control Act and the Poultry Meat Hygiene Act are carried out by about 4000 official veterinarians and about 15 000 meat inspectors, trichinosis inspectors and poultry meat controllers. Every year 38 million animals for slaughter and 250 million meat poultry have to be examined. Most of the larger slaughterhouses have their own laboratories; others use chemical or veterinary inspection institutes. Owing to the great increase in the scope of the investigations more testing stations with more staff and technical equipment are being set up and , to im- prove the inspection capacity, the Lander have established specialist inspector- ates for various kinds of investigation and are tending to centralize respon- sibility for investigations in one office in each Land. Authorities responsible for food monitoring The government authorities responsible for food monitoring vary. The Depart- ment of Health is responsible in Berlin (West), Bremen, Hamburg and Saar, whereas the Ministry of the Interior is responsible for all food monitoring in Bavaria. In Baden-WUrttemberg, Hesse , Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein responsibility is divided between the Departments of Health and Agriculture , depending on the nature of the food. In Rhineland- Palatinate the responsible authority is the Ministry for Social Affairs , Health and the Environment. In general , the veterinary authorities (Department of Agriculture) are responsible for monitoring food of animal origin, and the health authorities (Department of Health or of the Interior) for vegetable food , tobacco products , cosmetics and other commodities. 66 Federal R epublic of Germany Addresses Federal Ministry for Youth , Family Affairs and Health Directorate-General of Health Postfach 200 490 5300 Bonn 2 Federal Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forestry BonnerstraBe 85 53 Bonn-Duisberg State health authorities Baden-Wurttemberg Ministerium for Arbeit , Gesundheit und Sozialordnung des Landes Baden-Wiirttemberg Rotebiihlplatz 30 7000 Stuttgart Bavaria Bayerisches Staatsministerium des Innern Odeonsplatz 3 8000 Munich 22 Berlin (West) Senator fur Gesundheit und Umweltschutz Ander Urania 12-14 I 000 Berlin 30 Bremen Senator fur Gesundheit und Umweltschutz Bahnhofsplatz 29 2800 Bremen I Hamburg Gesundheitsbehorde der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg TesdorpfstraBe 8 2000 Hamburg 13 Hesse Hessischer Sozialminister Adolfsallee 59 6200 Wiesbaden lower Saxony N iedersachsisches Sozialministerium Hinrich-Wilhelm-Kopf-Platz 2 3000 Hanover 67 Food Safety Services North Rhine-Westphalia Minister for Arbeit, Gesundheit und Soziales des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen Horionplatz 1, Landeshaus 4000 Di.isseldorf Rhine/and-Palatinate Ministerium for Soziales, Gesundheit und Umwelt Bauhofstra8e 4 6500 Mainz/Rhine Saar Minister for Farnilie , Gesundheit und Sozialordnung Hindenburgstra8e 21 6600 Saarbri.icken 1 Schleswig-Holstein Sozialminister des Landes Schleswig-Holstein Brunswiker Str. 16-22 2300 Kiel 1 State veterinary authorities 68 Bad en-Wiirttemb erg Ministerium for Emahrung, Landwirtschaft und Umwelt MarienstraBe 41 7000 Stuttgart 1 Bavaria Bayerisches Staatsministerium des Innem Odeonsplatz 3 8000 Munich 22 Berlin (West) Senator fur Gesundheit und Umweltschutz Ander Urania 12-14 1000 Berlin 30 Bremen Senator for Gesundheit und Umweltschutz Bahnhofsplatz 29 2800 Bremen 1 Hamburg Gesundheitsbehorde der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg TesdorpfstraBe 8 2000 Hamburg 13 Federal Republic of Germany Hesse Hessischer Minister for Landwirtschaft und Um welt Holderlinstra.Be 1-3 6200 Wiesbaden lower Saxony Niedersachsischer Minister for Ernahrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten Calenberger Str. 2 3000 Hanover North Rhine-Westphalia Minister for Ernahrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen RoBstrai:,e I 35 4000 Diisseldorf Rhineland-Palatinate Ministerium fiir Soziales, Gesundheit und Um welt Bauhofstra.Be 4 6500 Mainz/Rhine Saar Ministerium for Familie , Gesundheit und Sozialordnung HindenburgstraBe 23 6600 Saarbriicken I Schleswig-Holstein Minister for Ernahrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten des Landes Schleswig-Holstein Diisternbrooker Weg I 04-108 2300 Kiel I Codex contact point Professor D. Eckert Ministerialdirigent Federal Ministry for Youth , Family Affairs and Health Directorate-General of Health Postfach 200 490 5300 Bonn 2 69 r 9047000 • Area : 131 944 km' Greece The mainland of Greece is a mountainous peninsu la bordering the Ionian, Libyan and Aegean Seas with numerous islands to the sou th , east and west. It has frontiers with Albania , Bulgaria , Turkey and Yugoslavia. The climate is of the mediterranean type , with hot summers and mild winters . Greece has a working population of 3 .3 million , of which 35 .4% is en- gaged in agriculture, 28.2% in industry and construction, and 36.4% in ser- vices. The main agricultural products are wheat , tobacco, cotton, sugar beet, olives, olive oil, figs, currants , grapes, citrus fruit and other fresh fruit. Indus- trial products include texti les , cemen t, alumina , aluminium and electrical 71 Food Safety Services appliances . Important minerals are lignite , bauxite and nickel. The export of industrial products now exceeds that of agricul tural produce . Over 5 million tourists visited Greece in 1978 . Greece has one of the biggest merchant marine fleets in the world. Government The Hellenic Republic has a single-chamber Parliament. Under the Constitu- tion of 1975 the President is Head of State and is elected by Parliament for five years ; Members of Parliament are elected every four years . The President appoints the Prime Minister and , on the latter's recommendations , the other members of the Government. For administrative purposes Greece is divided into 52 prefectures (nomarchies) , which form the administrative arm of the national Government. The basic units of local government are the 256 urban municipalities (demoi) and 5793 rural municipalities (koinotites). Every municipality has an elected council and a mayor who is also the chief executive . As political head of the municipality he is responsible to the council for carrying out not only his own functions but also the decisions of the council. Food legislation The main food legislation is contained in: the Hygiene Regulation (Hygion- omicos Kanonismos, Law 4060/1929) comprising numerous hygiene regula- tions based on laws , acts , decrees , orders , etc .; the Food Codex; and the Mar- ket Control Codex . The production of and the offering for sale of any food , without exception, must have the approval of the Higher Chemical Council and , according to each case , the approval of the Higher Council of Hygiene . Hygiene control includes preventive measures such as permits for various kinds of food shop , their periodic inspection , and penalties for violators of regulations and decrees . The Hygiene Regulation contains detailed provisions to ensure hygienic conditions for the preparation , manufacture, storage , trans- port , distribution and sale of food . The Food Codex (1972) , which was prepared by a committee composed of representatives of the Ministries of Social Services, Agriculture, Commerce, Fi- nance and Industry, deals with food standards , packaging materials , the com- position and quality of basic and optional ingredients, and the use and quality of food additives and colouring substances for each kind of foodstuff. The posi- tive list system is followed , i.e., only substances considered safe are listed. The Food Codex contains inter alia rules for the labelling and advertising of fo odstuffs mainly to protect purchasers from being misled . According to the Market Control Codex Compulsory Law 2520/1940, anyone who sells or distributes for consumption food harmful to public health may be imprisoned and may also have to pay a fine. Authorized sanitary officers may prohibit the production and sale of, or confiscate and destroy, foo dstuffs considered unfit for human consumption . 72 Greece Food control adminstration The responsibility for food control is distributed among the following eight Ministries: Agriculture, Commerce, Employment, Finance , Industry and Energy, the Interior, Public Order, and Social Services; and also the Hellenic Organisation of Tourism. Sanitary Order 2805/1960 based on Compulsory Law 2520/1940 deals with the inspection and control of ail food by authorized hygiene officers of the Ministry of Social Services, such as physicians , hygiene and sanita- tion specialists and health inspectors, accompanied occasionally by police officers. Bacteriological control of foodstuffs is carried out , as necessary , by the Central Public Health Laboratory of the Ministry. Outbreaks of food- borne disease are studied epidemiologically and suspect foods examined. A salmonellosis centre at the School of Public Health is attached to the Ministry of Social Services and collaborates closely with the Central Pub- lic Health Laboratory . The Veterinary Service of the Ministry of Agriculture exercises con- trol over slaughterhouses and butchers' shops, fish, shellfish, brined and cured products, meat and meat products, eggs, and all other products of animal origin. The Market Police Veterinary Service, appointed by the Min- istry of the Interior but acting under the Ministry of Public Order , exer- cises control over all foodstuffs of animal origin, and their prices and weights, in the cities of Athens, Piraeus, Patras and Corfu. The Ministry of Commerce also has responsibility for enforcing regulations concerning foods! uffs of- fered for sale . All physicochemical analyses are carried out by the General State Chemi- cal Laboratory of the Ministry of Finance, and microbiological examinations by the Public Health Laboratory and the Veterinary Laboratory. The Government is considering setting up a central agency for the hygienic control of food. The food legislation is currently being revised with a view to introducing a new Food Codex to conform with the regulations of the Euro- pean Economic Community. The National Tourist Organisation exercises control over hotels , restaurants and other places where meals are prepared and sold to the public. Addresses Ministry of Social Services Public Health Division 17 Aristotelous St. Athens Ministry of Agriculture Veterinary Directorate 2 Acharnon St. Athens 73 Food Safety Services Central Public Health Laboratory 14 Tositsa St. Athens Ministry of Finance National General Chemical Laboratory 16 Tsoha St. Athens Ministry of Public Order Urban Veterinary Service 22 Platia Theatrou Athens Ministry of Commerce Market Prices Control Code Platia Keningos Athens Ministry of Industry and Energy 80 Michalakopoulou St. Athens Codex contact point 74 The Director-General Planning and Agricultural Development Ministry of Agriculture 2 Acharnon St. Athens r Hungary Situated in Eastern Europe, Hungary is bordered in the north by Czechoslovakia , in the east by the USSR and Romania , in the south by Yugoslavia and in the west by Austria. It has a continental climate with long, dry summers and hard winters. Hungary , once a predominantly agricultural country, has developed its industry considerably since the Second World War and it now forms the largest part of the economy. In 1975 industry employed 37% of the working popula- tion and accounted for 47% of net material production. However , Hungary is still a large exporter of meat, fruit and vegetables; much of its exports to Western European co untries consists of agr icu ltural produce and manufactured food products . 75 Food Safety Services Government Under the 1949 Constitution supreme power is vested in Parliament. The Parlia- ment elects from among its members the Presidium as its permanent legislative body and the executive organ of the State , but the Presidium is responsible to Parliament. The Chairman of the Presidium is Head of State. The Council of Min- isters is the supreme administrative body of the State. It is appointed by Parlia- ment on the recommendation of the Presidium. For administrative purposes the country is divided into the capital, Budapest, and 19 counties, 4 towns of county status, 63 towns of district status , 128 large villages , and 3210 villages. Food legislation A new food law, Law No . JV of 1976,a came into operation on I January 1977, replacing the previous Law of 1958. It specifies the conditions to be observed in the production of processed foods, including beverages, food for catering purposes and pastry products , and in the handling, packaging, storage, trans- port and marketing of unprocessed foods. Food production establishments must be so constructed as to ensure the health protection of the workers, food hygiene, and environmental hygiene . Provisions refer to the cleanliness of equipment and utensils , water supply and cleaning. Food may be produced only in establishments licensed for the purpose and which meet the prescribed health and technical conditions. Other provisions relate to production and marketing, and cover such matters as raw materials , additives, fraud and adult- eration. A licence is required for the production of any new food and for certain special types of food. The Law also deals with packaging and labelling. Packets of food with a limited shelf-life must bear an expiry date , and when the expiry date has passed the food must be withdrawn from sale. During storage and transport food must be protected from contamination. A number of ordinances have been issued for the implementation of Law No. IV and making more detailed provisions on various subjects. Ordi- nance No. 25 of 11 July 1976b made by the Minister of Agriculture and Food provides that persons employed in food production must inter alia have had a medical examination . It prohibits the siting of production establishments near plants used for certain processes that may give rise to pollution , specifies health and technical conditions governing food production , and prohibits the a International digest of health legislation, 30 : 60-64, 1979 (Law No . JV of 1976 on food s. Mezogazdasagi es elelmezesugyi ertesito, No . 19, 1976) . b International digest of health legislation , 30: 64-65 , I 979 (Ordinance No . 25 of 11 July 1976 of the Ministry of Agriculture and rood for the implementation of Law No. IV of 1976 on food s. Mezogazdasagi es elelmezesugyi ertesito , No. 19 , 1976) . 76 Hungary use of food additives that may mislead co nsumers. The quality of water used in food production must be monitored by regular laboratory examinations, and natural ice may be used for refrigeration purposes only if it does not come into direct contact with food. All food producers are required to keep a production register. Ordinance No. 4 of 25 June I 97ga made by the Minister of Health deals with the control of the chemical contamination of food. It spec ifies the maxi- mum permitted levels of residues of chemical substances in foods of vegetable, animal or mineral origin, including the resid ues of any process to which food- stuffs have been subjected. A further ordinance made by the Minister of Health, Ordinance No. 6 of 14 July 1978,b concerns the contro l of microbiological contamination of food. It requires the microbiological examination of food, equipment, utensils, and other objects used in food production, and of food handlers, and lays down the conditions to be observed in carrying out the examinations. Samples for microbiological examination must be taken following any case of food contamination or food poisoning and when a food is suspected of being harm- ful to health. The Ordinance prohibits the marketing of, and trade in , any food that has caused food poisoning and any food liable to be harmful to health because of the presence of pathogenic organisms. There are special lega l provisions concerning the preven lion and eradica- tion of infectious diseases. Order No. 3 of 14 October I 965c made by the Minister of Health applies to persons who are found on microbiological exam- ination to be excreting pathogenic organisms. Any persons engaged in the handling of food or beverages supplied direct to the consumer, or employed in a catering undertaking, or employed in a health establishment that includes the supply of foodstuffs , may be placed under surveillance; if they are found to carry pathogenic organisms they may be excluded from work. Food control administration Three government departments , the Ministries of Health , Agriculture and Food, and Internal Trade, are concerned with the control of food and the ap- plication of the relevant legislation. a International digest of health legislation , 30: 65-68, 1979 (Ordinance No. 4 of 25 June 1978 of the Minister of Health on the control of hazardous chemical contamina- tion of food. Egeszegugyi kozlony, No.17 , 1978) . b International digest of health legislation , 30: 69- 70, 1979 (Ordinance No. 6 of 14 July 1978 of the Minister of Health on the co ntrol of microbiological contaminat ion of foods. Egeszegugyi kozlony, No. 2 I , 197 8). c Int ernational digest of health legislation, 18: I 37, 1967 (Order Nu. 3 of I 4 Octo- ber 1965 of the Minister of Health to amend Order No. 3 of 30 October 1964 of the Minister of Health implementing Government Decree No. 24 of 30 October 1964 co ncerning the prevention and eradication of infectious diseases. Magyar kozlony, No. 58 , 1965). 77 Food Safety Services Government Ordinance No . 13 of 12 April J 972a makes the Minister of Health responsible for the maintenance of surveillance over the sanitary and epidemiological condition of the country and for the necessary control measures. His duties are undertaken through central and local agencies directed by the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervisory Service, which was instituted in 1954. Local agencies operate within the framework of local sanitary and epidemiological stations. The Minister is responsible for laying down (a) standards and rules dealing with sanitary and epidemiological matters; and (b) detailed rules concerning the range of duties, powers, field of juris- diction and procedures of the Service and the principles governing organiza- tion and training. The Service is generally responsible for preventing and eliminating hazards to human health and taking appropriate measures for this purpose. Although the 1972 Ordinance does not refer specifically to food, possible hazards to health from food come within the scope of the Service. Its functions include the investigation of foodborne infections ; dealing with questions relating to the setting up of food plants and their hygiene; and close cooperation with other organs in food investigation matters. The Service is directed by the Chief State Sanitary and Epidemiological Inspector; he also directs and controls the national establishments of the Ministry of Health that have sanitary and epidemiological functions, including the National Institute of Public Health and the ational Institute of Food and Nutrition. He has a national inspectorate to assist him and to deal with matters of national importance . The Service is based on a network of sanitary and epidemiological stations (sanepids), which are situated in the capital , Budapest, and throughout the country at the various local administrative levels , operating under the corresponding councils. The sanepids have the right to impose fines for offences against the law and to take other necessary measures. The National Institute of Food and Nutrition in Budapest, which was founded in 1949 , functions under the supervision of the Ministry of Health and is the Ministry 's advisory body. It has two main tasks: (a) to ca rry out scientific research, and (b) to give practical assistance and advice to the food safety control authorities and institutions. The Institute carries out chemical analyses and microbiological examinations, and develops and standardizes laboratory methods and investigation procedures . ft has issued a microbiological guide for food hygienists . It trains food hygienists and bacteriologists and functions as the Chair of Food Hygiene of the Budapest Postgraduate Medical School. It cooperates closely in the drafting of food laws and decrees, and in the prepara- tion of Hungarian and international standards. Two services that come under the supervision of the Ministry of Agricul- ture and Food are authorized to exercise food control. One consists of the a International digest of health legislatio11 , 24 : 509-511, 1973 (Government Ordi- nance No. 13 of 12 April 1972 concerning the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Super- visory Service.Magyarkozlony, No. 27, 197 2). 78 Hungary 17 county institutes for food control and chemistry, directed by the county councils, and the Municipal Instit ute of Budapest for Food Control and Chem• istry ; their activities are coordinated by the Centre for Chemical Analysis and Control of Food of the Ministry. They have control functions in production plants and in the commercial network. Their scope includes quality control of agricultural products for the food industry, raw materials for the canning industry, and pesticides. The other service is the Control Service for Food Hygiene ; it has 20 veterinary stations, 19 in the counties and one in Budapest. These control the marketing of food intended for public consumption ac- cording to the new food legislation and the prescribed standards, food for ex- port , and food produced and marketed in cooperatives. Both services have the right to impose penalties. The Institute of Commercial Quality Control exercises official control for the Ministry of Internal Trade . It controls the quality of products , ensures their proper storage, and checks their fitness for sale. The Ministry of Internal Trade reports the ln stitute's findings to the National Inspectorate of Trade and the commercia l divisions of the councils concerned, and they can impose penalties for offences. Addresses Ministry of Health Akademia Utca I 0 Budapest V Ministry of Agriculture and Food V Kossuth Lagoster 11 I 055 Budapest Codex contact point The Vice-President Hunga rian Office for Standardization Hungarian National Committee P.O. Box 24 1450 Budapest 79 . I r f -,~ • 1 (TJ : ::. :~::km' Iceland The Republic of Iceland consists of one large island and numerous smaller islands and is situated in the North Atlantic Ocean near the Arctic Circle . The main island is 250 km south-east of Greenland, I 030 km west of Norway and 800 km north of Scotland. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and ltas an average te mperature of l0 °C in summer and I °C in winter. The economy of the count ry is very dependen t on fishing which , in 1976, provided 72.6% of the total visible export income and 48.5% of tot.:il receipts from goods and services. It has a modernized trawler fleet which supplies 81 Food Safety Services about 80 freezing plants producing white-fish fillets, frozen shrimps, scampi and cape lin . Other major exports are fish products, such as oil, meal and salted fish. Very little land is available for cu ltivation , but good grazing enables Iceland to be self-sufficient in meat and milk. Government Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected by universal adult suffrage for a term of four years, and the Cabinet consisting of the Prime Minister and other ministers appointed by the President. In practice , in accord- ance with the Constitution , the President performs nominal functions on ly; real executive power is held by the Cabinet. Legislative power rests jointly with the President and A/thing (Parliament). The A !thing chooses 20 of its mem- bers to form the Upper House and the other 40 form the Lower House . For local government purposes the country is divided into 21 districts (sys/a) subdivided into a number of rural municipalities . There are also 14 ur- ban municipalities , each with an elected council. The functions of the urban municipalities are prescribed by the Municipal Act and include water and sanitation se rvices and public health. The rural municipalities perform simi- lar duties. Food legislation No details available. Food control administration No details available. Addresses Minist ry of Health and Social Security Reykjavik Ministry of Agriculture IOI Reykjavik Codex contact point Dr S. Petu rsson 82 Icelandic Codex Alimentarius Committee P.O. Box 7120 127 Reykjavik r I re land 3127 000 70 283 km 2 The Republic of Ireland is si tuated in the Atlantic Ocean west of Great Britain , from which it is separated by the Irish Sea. In the north-east it borders on Northern Ireland. The climate is mild and equable. The economy of the country is based largely on agriculture, which pro- vides about one-sixth of th e national income and nearly 45% of the total exports. Beef and dairy products are the main food exports . 83 Food Sa.(ety Services Government Ireland has a two-chamber Parliament comprising a Senate and a House of Representatives (Dai{). The President is Head of State and is elected by popu- lar vote for a period of seven years. Executive power is effectively held by the Cabinet led by the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President with the prior approval of the Dail. The elected local authorities are 27 county councils, 4 county borough corporations, 7 borough corporations, 49 urban district councils and 28 boards of town commissioners. For the administration of the health services there are 8 health boards, each of which serves several counties. These consist of representatives of local authorities , health practitioners elected by their col- leagues, and 3 nominees of the Minister for Health. Food legislation Food legislation in Ireland is based on two principles: the protection of the health of the consumer and the prevention of fraud. The legal provisions that embody these principles aim to ensure that food is not injurious to health, that it is sound and wholesome, and that it is not adulterated. They also help to maintain fair competition between traders by laying down uniform rules that apply to both the manufacturer and the seller. The first major legislation for the control of food was the Sale of Food and Drugs Act , 187 5, which is still in operation. One of its most important provisions is contained in Section 6 , which makes it an offence for anyone to sell to the prejudice of the purchaser any article of food or any drug not of the nature, substance or quality of the article demanded by the purchaser. The Act has been amended several times between 1887 and 196 1, and more recently by the Food Standards Act, 1974.a The 1947 Health Actb gives the Minister for Health wide powers to ensure that food is free from toxicological, hygienic and compositional hazards to health. These powers have been used to make regulations on additives and contaminants and to specify a compositional standard for ice-cream. The Food Hygiene Regulations , which have been amended, were also made under this Act. The regulations on food additives cover preservation, colouring matters, anti-oxidants, solvents, mineral hydrocarbons and cyclamates. They specify a International digest of health legislation, 26: 799-801, 1975 (An Act (No. 11 of I 974) to enable standards for human food to be established and enforced and to provide for related matters. Dated 12 June 1974 (The f'ood Standards Act, 1974) , 21 pp.). b International digest of health legislation, I: 245-307, 1948-1950 (An Act to make further and better provision in relation to the health of the people and to provide for the making of regulations by virtue of which certain charges may be made. Dated 13 August 1947 (No. 28 of 1947).). 84 Ireland positive lists of the additives that may be used and in some cases the permis- sible levels in particular foods. They also contain provisions on labelling. The contaminants regulations prescribe the maximum levels of arsenic and lead permitted in foodstuffs. The Food Hygiene Regulations 1950-71 contain the legal requirements re- lating to the hygiene of food and food premises. They prohibit the sale of food that is unfit for human consumption because of disease or contamination at all stages during its import, manufacture , storage and distribution . They provide for the registration of food premises and require that they be maintained in a satisfactory hygienic condition. Food handlers are required to observe various hygienic precautions. Food that is unfit may be seized and destroyed. The provisions for the protection of the consumer against fraud , which were originally contained in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act , 1875, were amended several times between 1887 and 1961 and most recently by the Food Standards Act, 1974. This Act provides that the Minister for Agriculture and Fisheries ,0 the Minister for Industry, Commerce and Energyb and the Minister for Health may establish standards for food on such matters as composition and quality, additives, contaminants, hygiene , time limits for consumption, and the disposal of food that has been seized. The Minister for Health has not yet made use of the power given to him by the Act. The Minister for Industry, Commerce and Energy, however, has introduced compositional standards for cocoa and choco- late products and the Minister for Agriculture and Fisheries compositional standards for sugar and honey. Standards for various other foodstuffs were laid down under earlier legislation. When regulations are being prepared, the sponsoring government depart- ment must consult the other two departments to ensure that the proposals are acceptable to them. It also consults trade interests, public analysts, and, where necessary, consumer interests so that their views may be taken into ac- count before the regulations are finally made. The Minister for Health has appointed an expert body, the Food Advisory Committee, to advise him on food matters and on draft regulations; it consists of experts in toxicology, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition and veterinary medicine. Food control administration The various enactments and regulations that constitute the food law of Ireland provide that they are to be enforced by the health boards and by certain auth- orized officers. Health inspectors employed by the health boards routinely take food from retail shops for chemical analysis to check their compliance with the compositional standards in force . There are about 200 health inspectors. a In I 980, the Minister for Agriculture and the Minister for Fisheries and Forestry . b In 1980, the Minister for Industry , Commerce and Tourism. 85 Food Safety Services Consumers who wish to complain about food they have purchased may sub- mit it to their local health inspectors who may have it analysed. The pro- cedure for taking samples is set out in the Health (Sampling of Food) Regula- tions, 1970, made under the Health Act , 1974 and in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875 . Health inspectors are empowered to buy or take without payment samples of any foods required to ascertain whether they comply with the law. Samples may be informal or formal. An informal sample is taken without payment by a health inspector in the course of routine sampling of food; legal proceedings may not be taken in respect of the results of the analysis of an informal sample. A formal sample is purchased, usually when it is suspected that a particular article of food does not comply with the law, but sometimes in the course of routine sampling. In taking a formal sample the prescribed procedure must be followed and legal proceedings can be instituted only if this procedure has been observed. Samples are sent for analysis to the public analyst. At present there are two regional public analysts, one with a laboratory in Dublin serving I 4 counties and a population of 1.8 million, and the other with a labora- tory in Galway serving the rest of the country, with 1.2 million people. A third laboratory is to be opened in Cork and then the geographical coverage will be reorganized. For effective monitoring of the compliance of food with the legislation it is recommended that a minimum of 2.5 samples per JOO inhabitants be taken annually . In the past, sampling has been random with little coordination or overall planning. Recently the Department of Health has taken steps to en- courage the health boards to rationalize their sampling programmes. In this way it is hoped to obtain more comprehensive and reliable information on the quality and composition of food sold to the consumer and to facilitate the identification of foods that do not comply with the regulations. In addition to their sampling functions and the enforcement of legis- lation on composition and quality, and on the prevention of fraud in the sale of food and related matters , the health inspectors are also responsible for checking the wholesomeness of food and its fitness for human consump- tion , and for ensuring that adequate standards of hygiene are maintained. The principal legislation they use for this purpose is the Food Hygiene Regula- tions, 1950-71. Health inspectors take a three-year course of training, including theory and practice, which covers a wide variety of environmental health subjects and leads to a diploma. In addition to their food control duties, health inspectors have a number of other environmental health functions. Addresses 86 Department of Health Food and Drugs Division Hawkins House Dublin 2 Department of Agriculture Agricu lture House Kildare Street Dublin 2 Department of Industry , Commerce and Energy Frederick Building Setanta Centre St Frederick Street Dublin 2 Codex contact point The Secretary Irish National F AO Committee Department of Agriculture & Fisheries Agriculture House Dublin 2 Ireland 87 r • Pop: 55810000 • Area : 301 225 km1 Italy Italy is a peninsula extending from southern Europe into the Mediterra- nean Sea together with a number of adjacent islands, the largest being Sicily to the north-west and Sardinia to the west. Italy borders on France to the north-west , Switzerland and Austria to the north an d Yugoslavia to the north-east. Italy has a Mediterranean climate. Its principal crops are sugar beet , wheat, maize, tomatoes, potatoes and rice; it is a net importer of food . 89 Food Safety Services Government Under the 1948 Constitution, legislative power is held by the two-chamber Par- liament consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies or Lower House. The President, who is elected in joint sessions of both Houses of Parlia- ment, is Head of State; he appoints the Prime Minister and, on the latter's recommendation, the other ministers. Executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers , over which the Prime Minister presides as President of the Council. The country is divided into 20 regions, which have a large degree of auton- omy, 94 provinces and more than 8000 communes. Five of the regions have a special status but the others operate as decentralized units of central Govern- ment . A Government Commissioner in the regional capital supervises the administrative functions of the State and coordinates them with those of the region. The special regions have a governmental structure similar to that of the communes, with a directly elected council, an executive board and a president. The regional council may present proposed legislation for its area to the national Parliament on a range of subjects, including public health. Each province has two separate administrations: the provincial administra- tion , which is the decentralized unit of the central Government with an elected council and a president, and the communes in the province . The coordinator of the central Government's administration of the province is the governor or prefect , who is appointed by and responsible to the Minister of the Interior. His duties include publishing and carrying out national laws and supervising certain public health duties. He is assisted by advisory groups and councils, such as the council for health and hygiene. Each commune, like a province, has three organs of government, the council, the board and the mayor. The functions of the council include the provision of health services and super- vision of the local police force. As an officer of the central Government , the mayor must publish the laws, regulations and announcements of the State and assume certain functions in regard to public works and public health. The communes are subject to strict administrative and financial control by the provincial and central governments. Provincial inspectors examine their organ- ization and administration ; when a commune is not performing its duties the central Government or the province can take appropriate action. Food legislation The basic Italian food legislation is contained in Law No. 283 of30 April 1962,a which made the production and sale of foodstuffs subject to surveillance for a International digest of health legislation , 14: 268-275, 1963 (Law No. 283 of 30 April 1962 amending Sections 242, 243, 247, 250 and 262 of the Unified Sanitary Law approved by Royal Decree No. 1265 of 27 July 1934 : production and sale of food- stuffs and beverages. Gazzetta ufficiale de/lo Repubblica ltaliana , No . 139, 1962). 90 Italy the protection of public health. This Law was amended and supplemented by Law No. 441 of 26 February 1963,a which provided for the appoint- ment of senior health inspectors to the General Directorate for Food Hygiene and Nutrition of the Ministry of Health. Law No. 283 authorizes provincial and communal health authorities to inspect food establishments, to take food samples, and to seize and destroy foodstuffs when necessary to protect public health. It lays down general requirements for the regulation of food hygiene and contamination ; for example , it prohibits the sale , or possession for sale , of food that is in a bad state of preservation, has an excessive bacterial content , or is soiled , infested with parasites or harmful in any way . It also seeks to pro- tect the consumer from fraud or misdescription by prohibiting the sale of food that has been adulterated , is not of the nature , substance or quality described or demanded , or contains manufactured colouring matter , chemical additives or toxic residues . There are , in addition , various provisions on the packaging and labelling of foodstuffs, kitchenware and tableware and containers designed to come into direct contact with food , and on the advertising of foodstuffs. On some of these matters the Minister of Health may issue detailed rules by decree. In 1963 , for example, a decree was issued giving lists of additives permitted for use in the preparation and preservation of foodstuffs. Later decrees have dealt with such subjects as colouring matters and pesticide residues , and another has prescribed in more detail the rules of hygiene applicable to packaging, containers, and utensils for use with food. Law No. 283 provides that establishments used for the production, prep- aration, manufacture or storage of food must be licensed by the health auth- ority. Licences may be granted only if they comply with the standard of hy- giene laid down in the food regulations . Where serious hygiene offences are repeated in a food establishment the health authority may, in addition to prosecuting, order through the Provincial Health Officer or Provincial Vet- erinary Officer the closure of the establishment either temporarily (for up to six months) or permanently. When an establishment has been closed a notice must be displayed outside the building to indicate that this has been done . An appeal against an order to close an establishment may be made to the Minister of Health within 15 days . The Law also requires all persons engaged in the preparation, production , handling and sale of foodstuffs to submit themselves for medical examination. They must hold the appropriate health booklet issued by the health officer. Law No . 441 , in providing for the appointment of a health inspectorate in the Ministry of Health , prescribes among its duties the supervision of hygiene a International digest of health legislation , 14: 65 3, 1963 (Law No. 441 of 26 Febru- ary 1963 amending and supplementing Law No . 283 of 30 April 1962 concerning the rules of hygiene applicable to the production and sale of food stuffs and beverages and Decree No. 750 of the President of the Republic. dated 11 August 1959. Gazzetta ufficiale de/la Repubblica ltaliana, Part I, No. 98, 1963) . 9 1 Food Safety Services in the preparation and production of foodstuffs and beverages so as to pre- vent violations of Law No. 283 and any other standards of hygiene governing foodstuffs and beverages. The inspectorate must make spot checks and in- spections in food and beverage establishments and in warehouses, goods yards and transport vehicles; collect data on the preparation and preservation of foodstuffs and beverages needed to ensure that public health is safeguarded; and suggest suitable action to regional medical and veterinary officers. The Law also provides that the health inspectorate be assisted by personnel authorized to take samples. Physicians who discover cases of infectious disease are required , by Crown Decree No. 1265 of 27 July 1934, to notify the authorities. The notifiable diseases have been prescribed by decrees of the Minister of Health and include typhoid and paratyphoid fevers , other Salmonella infections, botulism and other forms of food poisoning. Although the public authorities have extensive legal powers to deal with foodstuffs that do not comply with the legal standards for the composition , treatment and labelling of foodstuffs , for which penalties may be imposed by the courts, private persons who are prejudiced by the sale of such products may initiate civil proceedings for damages against those responsible . Food control administration The system of food surveillance operating in Italy is not entirely centralized or decentralized but a combination of both . The Government departments concerned are the Ministries of Health and of Agriculture and Forestry. Sur- veillance for health purposes is carried out by the fraud prevention sections attached to the Ministry of Health and operating through the regions . Hygiene and public health, originally dealt with by the Ministry of the Interior, came under the Ministry of Health when it was established by Law No. 296 of 13 March 1958.a The National Health Council was attached to the Ministry and the National Health Institute brought under its authority. The Law also prescribed that the local organs of the Ministry should be the Provincial Medical Officer and the Provincial Veterinary Officer, as well as the health officers of the communes and groups of communes. The Prefect of a province was authorized to make local regulations with respect to public health. How- ever, Decree No. 4 of 14 January 1972 made by the President of the Republic transferred the provincial medical and veterinary officers' departments to the ordinary regions, which also took over the links with municipal health officers. At the same time the powers to inspect and control the production and sale of foodstuffs previously vested in provincial medical and veterinary officers were delegated to the regions. Presidential Decree No . 616 of24 July 1977 transferred 0 International digest of health legislation, 10: 319-322, 1959 (Law No. 296 of 13 March 1958 , to establish the Ministry of Health . Gazzetta ufficiale de/la Repubblica Italiano , Part I, No . 90, 1959). 92 Italy these delegated powers to the regions . The surveillance exercised by the regions is concerned particularly with the general hygiene of production , storage, transport, distribution and sale of foodstuffs. The Minister of Health was given the right, by Article 17 of Act No. 441 of 26 February 1963 , to make use of the carabinieri0 in addition to his own surveillance and control agencies. Since 1 November 1963, a branch of the carabinieri known as the Nucleo Antisofisticazione (NAS) , with a staff of about 200, has been used for food surveillance and control duties , but the whole of the carabinieri is at the disposal of the NAS for confiscations , the closure of premises and related duties . Their work is concentrated almost exclusively on the point of production and on the control of manufacture, rather than on the retail sale of the final products. The NAS has a central head- quarters at the Ministry of Health , three interregional headquarters {in Milan for northern Italy, in Rome for central Italy and in Naples for southern Italy) , and a regional headquarters in each regional capital. In most communes there is a health officer who, in the more important communes and in cooperation with the regional health inspectorate , directs the communal health inspectorate and assists the communal veterinarians and other staff. The regional health inspectors are responsible for the smaller communes with no health officer. The fraud prevention service of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry , which was set up following the promulgation of the Royal Law by Decree of 15 October 1925 (No. 2033) and Royal Law by Decree of I July I 926 (No . 1361 ), has a central coordinating office as well as institutes charged by the Ministry to carry out inspections and control. This service is concerned not with the safety of food but with its quality and genuineness and with safeguard- ing the consumer against fraud and deception . The institutes, which operate on behalf of the Ministry , are not organized on a strictly geographical basis but have interregional responsibilities ; they avail themselves of the services of inspectors for control work and analysts to examine the samples taken. In 1965 , following the promulgation of Law 162, a Coordinating Com- mittee for the Fraud Prevention Service was created within the Ministry of Agriculture, whose purpose was to cooperate with the other Government de- partments concerned with the prevention of food fraud (Ministry of Health and Ministry of Finance) . Special commissions were also set up to prescribe officially the analytical methods for determining adulteration. The Law pro- vides that , if the analysis of a sample indicates that a product is not genuine , the head of the laboratory or of the service should inform the judicial auth- ority and communicate the facts to the trader , who has 15 days to ask a judge to have the analysis repeated. A further analysis is then performed by one of the institutes approved for this purpose. In the case of health surveillance the procedure is slightly different. When an analysis is unsatisfactory the judicial authority is not informed but the trader receives the details and has 15 days to a l talian army corps serving as police. 93 Food Safety Services request the Regional Medical Officer or the Regional Veterinary Officer , de- pending on the type of foodstuff, to take another sample. The second analysis has to be performed by the Higher Institute of Health in Rome. If no request is made for a repeat analysis or if a second analysis confums the first, the admin- istrative authority informs the judicial authority. The health authority has important administrative powers; for example, when in the course of an inspection food is suspected of being a danger to health, it may be seized without waiting for an analysis; if the subsequent analysis confirms the suspicion the food may be destroyed. The law also empowers the Regional Medical Officer and the Regional Veterinary Officer to order, independently of the penal procedure and the penalties that a judge may impose , the temporary closure of an establishment for up to six months . Samples of food are sent for examination to the provincial laboratory of hygiene and prophylaxis. Each of the 94 provinces has a laboratory equipped for chemical and microbiological analysis. The chain of control is completed by other laboratories authorized by the Ministry of Health in accordance with Law No. 283. While the provincial laboratories have been established on a strictly geo- graphical basis and should be able to carry out all analyses, the other labora- tories have been chosen according to their specialist work in commerical technology. For example, certain laboratories have been authorized to analyse food of animal origin, a laboratory at Trento deals with microbiological exam- inations, and other laboratories examine fishery products and determine bio- toxins in fish and molluscs. The provincial laboratories work closely with the Ministry of Health , which uses them for applied studies and research. The Higher Institute of Health gives them technical instructions and , when necessary, organizes practical refresher courses for their staff. The Ministry organizes other refresher courses each year for regional staff such as the regional and communal health in- spectors, and the Ministry and the Institute design special training courses for the officers and sub-officers of the carabinieri assigned to the fraud preventjon sections. These courses comprise three months of theoretical and practical training followed by an examination and, for those who have a particular aptitude, three months of instruction with the sections responsible for sur- veillance and control. In the control of food premises, particularly manufacturing establish- ments, the premises, installations, raw materials, technical procedures and final products awaiting dispatch are carefully examined and commercial documents , such as suppliers' invoices , registers of the receipt and dispatch of raw materials and final products , copies of invoices sent to clients, etc. are scrutinized. This gives a sufficiently precise picture of the operating conditions and it can be checked by consulting the register of analyses carried out routinely by the quality con trol laboratory of the enterprise in question , if it has its own lab ra- tory. To complete the inspection samples may be taken. The specialist sections for the prevention of fraud , which are the centralized control agents of the Ministry of Health, do not confine their activities to food 94 Italy but also cover the production and sale of pharmaceutical products, the pro- tection of the environment against atmospheric pollution, and the protection of water courses. Addresses Ministry of Health Viale della Letteratura 00100 Rome Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 20 Via XX Settembre Rome Codex contact point President , Italian National Codex Alimentarius Committee Via Sallustiana 10 00187 Rome 95 r f Luxembourg Luxembourg is situated to the south-east of Belgium between France and the Federal Republic of Germany. It has a temperate climate . Government The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a hereditary and constitutional mon- archy. Legislative power is held by the Chamber of Deputies , but some legisla- tive functions are exercised by the advisory Council of State appointed by the Grand Duke. Executive power is vested in the Grand Duke but is normally 97 Food Safety Services exercised by the Council of Ministers headed by the President of the govern- ment. The Grand Duke appoints the ministers but they are not responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. For administrative purposes the country is divided into districts and municipalities. The districts serve only as administrative units and are headed by appointed commissioners who provide liaison between the central and local authorities. The organization and powers of the municipalities are laid down in the Constitution and in a number of civil laws. The main organs of muni- cipal government are the communal council, the college of mayors and alder- men, and the mayor. The execution of council decisions is the responsi- bility of the college which , however, has a dual role as it is an agent of both the State and the municipality. In its capacity as agent of the State , the col- lege supervises the execution of decisions of the central government and the Grand Duke. Food legislation According to the Law of 25 September 1953 ,0 which reorganized the control of foodstuffs, beverages and certain other items, supervision of the prepara- tion, processing, trade and distribution of food and beverages is exercised, under the authority of the Minister of Health or his deputy, by experts of the state control services and by officials and officers of the general or local police. The main purpose of the Law is to protect the health of the public by forbid- ding the sale of food unfit for human consumption. There are also provisions concerning adulteration and fraud. The services, officials or experts responsible for enforcement of the law are prescribed by regulations. The 1953 Law was amended by Act No. 2 of 9 August 1971. This states that the inspection of meat and meat products falls chiefly within the juris- diction of the Minister of Health. Local authorities, however, have powers within limits laid down in regulations issued by the Grand Duke. The Law states general principles for the control of foodstuffs and authorizes the Grand Duke to make regulations on food matters. More than 50 regulations have been issued on, inter alia, colouring matter, anti-oxidants, and milk and milk products. Food control administration All health activities, including the control of food and beverages, are the res- ponsibility of the Ministry of Health; the Directorate of Health is both a central a International digest of health legislation, 5: 697-701 , 1954 (Law of 25 Septem- ber 1953 , to make provision for the reorganization of the control of foodstuffs, beverages, and articles in everyday use. Memorial du Grand-Duche de Luxembourg, No. 62, 195 3). 98 Luxembourg administration and an executive body, since the country's public health service is not decentralized. The control of food and drink is carried out by experts and officials of the relevant government departments and by officers of the general police (Gendarmerie et Surete publique) or local police. The following officers were appointed by a Grand-Ducal Decree of 7 September 1954 and a Regulation of21 August 1963 which implemented the Law of 1953. Experts - chemical engineers of the Institute of Hygiene and Public Health - veterinary officers of the Veterinary Medical Laboratory - veterinary inspectors - veterinary officers responsible for meat inspection - medical inspectors - physicians of the Institute of Hygiene and Public Health - inspector of pharmacies - controller of wines Officers - technical staff of the Institute of Hygiene and Public Health and the Veterinary Medical Laboratory - sanitarians or medical inspectors - customs officers Most control of foodstuffs is carried out by the chemical engineers and technical staff of the Food Control Laboratory, which is a department of the Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, in cooperation with the other responsible departments and authorities including local police officers. The responsibility for meat control rests solely with the Veterinary Ser- vice, at all stages from production or import to dispatch of the meat from the abattoir. At the stage of sale this responsibility is shared with the Vet- erinary Medical Laboratory for microbiological examinations, and with the Food Control Laboratory for chemical analysis . The Food Control Labora- tory is the only laboratory of its kind in Luxembourg. Much of the sampling of food and the inspection of food premises is performed by its technical staff, with the assistance of other services, particularly the police . The Veterinary Service, which is under the administrative authority of the Ministry of Agriculture, is responsible, in conjunction with the Ministry of Health, for controlling food of animal origin. It has two divisions: the Inspec- torate and the Veterinary Medical Laboratory. The Inspectorate has four vet- erinary inspectors, each responsible fo r one part of the country. They, together with meat inspectors appointed by the Minister of Health, control the hygienic quality of meat. The Veterinary Medical Laboratory carries out chemical analyses and microbiological examinations of meat and meat products. 99 Food Safety Services The Medical Inspectorate is responsible for the protection of public health; its functions include checking the cleanliness of persons working in the food trade. The officers and experts responsible for food control have the right to inspect premises where items subject to the Food Act are produced, prepared, processed, stored , displayed, sold or distributed. They also have the right to inspect vehicles or other means of transport that contain or may contain food. Samples may be taken for examination or analysis, and any food found to be spoilt or adulterated may be confiscated. Food control is generally carried out by sampling for laboratory exam- ination. Samples of meat and other animal products are sent to the Vet- erinary Medical Laboratory, and other samples to the Food Control Lab- oratory of the Institute of Hygiene and Public Health. Other forms of con- trol are also performed regularly. Premises where food is produced or sold are inspected, labels and advertisements are examined, and documents and ac- companying certificates are inspected . Infringements may be reported direct to the judicial authorities. In principle, all infringements of food regulations should result in legal action. The evidence is sent to the Public Prosecutor who institutes proceedings if they are justified by the nature of the infringement and the evidence. In practice, however , the control and judicial authorities exercise some discretion in deciding whether to take legal action , and in case of minor infringements they may simply warn the offender. Addresses Directorate of Health 1 rue Auguste Lumiere Luxembourg Ministry of Agriculture l rue de la Congregation Luxembourg Codex contact point 100 M. Francois Arendt Institut; of Hygiene and Public Health l A rue Auguste Lumiere Luxembourg r Malta "' I 300000 316km' The Republic of Malta consists of a group of islands in the Mediterranean Sea, comprising mainly Malta , Gozo and Camino . It is 97 km south of Sicily and 290 km north of the African coast. The climate is warm, with an average temperature of 22 .6 °C in summer and 13 .7 °C in winter. Agricultural exports include potatoes, onions and tomatoes , but the country imports considerably more food than it exports , particularly meat and cereals. 101 Food Safety Services Government Under the 1974 Constitution, legislative power is held by the single-chamber House of Representatives. The Head of State is the President, who appoints the Prime Minister and, on the latter's recommendation, the other ministers. Executive power is exercised by the Government. The island of Malta is governed direct ly by the central Government and has no system of local government. Gozo, which has a population of 27 000, has had local government since 1961. There are no large municipalities; the largest is the capital, Valletta, with a population of 14 000. Food legislation The main food law is the Food, Drugs, and Drinking-Water Act, 1972° which repea ls the Food, Drugs, and Drinking-Water Ordinance. The Act is a com- prehensive measure dealing not only with food safety but also with the pre- vention of fraud, misdescription and false labelling of food and drugs. Apart from general provisions there are speical sections on water, meat and milk. Several regulations have been made under the Act on matters such as specific items of food, licensing, permitted colours, and additives. It is an offence to sell , to offer or expose for sale, or to have possession of or to deposit for the purpose of sale , any food unfit for human consumption or that was prepared, stored or conveyed under insanitary conditions. It is also an offence to pre- pare, store or handle foodstuffs under insanitary conditions. The Minister of Health and Environment is empowered to make regulations in respect of food hygiene but regulations made in 1969 under an earlier ordinance re- mained in force when the new Act became law. The Act prohibits the employment of food handlers suffering from certain diseases that might be transmitted through food. Authorized officers can pro- hibit the sale of food suspected of being infected pending investigations and seize food if it is found to be likely to cause food poisoning. The sale of food , to the prejudice of the purchaser, that is not of the nature, substance or quality demanded by the purchaser is an offence. The Act provides for the establish- ment of a Food Standards Board , and the Minister of Health and Environment, with the advice of the Board or Council of Health, is empowered to make regu- lations prescribing the minimum permissible standards for the quality, com- position or other property of food. Besides the mandatory standards, certain optional standards are applied to particular food produced locally, with a view to meeting requirements of the Malta Boards of Standards. Quality is controlled a International digest of health legislation , 25: 351-356, 1974 (An Act (No . XL of 1972) to provide for the hygienic and other control of food, drugs and drinking-water. Dated 29 September 1972. (The Food, Drugs, and Drinking-Water Act, 1972.) Laws made by the Legislature during the year 1972 published by the Government of Malta and its Dependencies, Vol. 105, Part I, 1973). 102 Malta by the Malta Boards of Standards Act and orders made under it. This aspect of food control is the responsibility of the Department of Industry. There are special provisions relating to slaughterhouses and meat. Slaughter- houses must be licensed by the Government's Superintendent of Public Health, and government veterinary surgeons are responsible for ensuring that pub- lic slaughterhouses are maintained and operated properly. The Minister of Health and Environment, by virtue of his power to make regulations for slaughterhouses and meat inspection, issued in 1977 the Meat Regulations.a These deal mainly with meat inspection, conditions under which animals are to be slaughtered, and slaughterhouse organization. Milk is also covered by the Act, with provisions for the licensing of dairies and dairy farms and the registration of milk shops by the Superintendent of Public Health. The Minister is empowered to make regulations regarding the processing, treatment, grading, composition, quality and sale of milk and has exercised this power to make the Dairy Farms Regulations, 1976.b The Food Hygiene Regulationsc were made in 1969 by the Minister of Health and Environment under the earlier Food, Drugs, and Drinking-Water Ordinance. They contain many general requirements relating to food hygiene. For example , it is an offence for a food business to be conducted in insanitary premises or where the food is exposed to the risk of contamination, or to use a vehicle for the delivery of food that is in such a condition or in which the food is so exposed. Food handlers have an obligation to protect food from contamination. There are provisions concerning toilets, water supply, first-aid material, waste removal, lighting and ventilation , and the transport of food. The temperatures at which certain foods are to be kept are prescribed, and there are special provisions regarding the manufacture and sale of ice-cream. The Minister of Trade, Industry , Agriculture and Tourism, under Section 15 of the Hotels and Catering Establishments Regulations , 1972d has made regula- tions regarding food hygiene and the control of communicable diseases, which apply to hotels and catering establishments. No-one operating a hotel or cater- ing establishment may employ in any capacity any person who has not , im- mediately before commencing work, been medically examined and certified to be free from any contagious illness or disease and not be a carrier of any such illness or disease. Details are given of the procedures to be followed by a Food and agricultural legislation , 26(2): 26 (Legal Notice No . 15 of 1977 : Meat Regulations, 1977. Government gazette, No. 13 323, 1977). b Food and agricultural legislation, 25(2) : 18-19 (Legal Notice No . 28 of 1976: Dairy Farms Regulations, 1976. Government gazette, No. 13 189, 1976). c International digest of health legislation, 22 : 331-333, 1971 (The Food Hygiene Regulations. Subsidiary legislation for the year 1969, Vol. 102, Part II, 1970). d International digest of health legislation, 25: 356-357, 1974 (Hotels and Catering Establishments Regulations , I 972 . L.N 67 of 1972. Date of commencement 1 January 197 3. Subsidiary legislation for the y ear 1972, Vol. 105 , Part II, 1973) . 103 Food Safety Services medical practitioners examining any such employees. An employee suspected of being infected or a carrier must be examined immediately and the case reported in writing to the Superintendent of Public Health. Food control administration Environmental health, including the public health aspects of food, is the responsibility of the Department of Health and Environment. The Medi- cal and Health Department (Constitution) (Amendment) Act , 1969° lays down the structure of the Department and the responsibilities of the various officers. The Department's health inspectors perform duties in relation to food, including the inspection of food premises, and submit samples to the Public Health Laboratory. They are responsible to the Medical Officer of Health who is the executive health officer of his region. The Chief Govern- ment Medical Officer, who is the Chief Adviser to the Government on health matters, is advised by principal medical officers and senior medical officers on the planning, development and administration of the services for which the Department is responsible. There is also a Superintendent of Public Health. The country is divided into three administrative regions, with a Senior Medical Officer in charge of each. Together with the Superintendent of Pub- lic Health, the district medical officers of health and the health inspectors in each region, they are the executive officers of the Department of Health and are responsible for a number of subjects in addition to food safety and food inspection, including environmental and public health services. They are referred to collectively in the Food, Drugs, and Drinking-Water Act, 1972 as the "sanitary authority", which is responsible for the enforcement of the Act as well as the Food Hygiene Regulations, 1969. The Ministry of Agriculture is also, to some extent, concerned with food, through the Directors of Fisheries and Agriculture. The Director of Agriculture employs veterinary surgeons who inspect animals before and after slaughter at the abattoir. Although the Department of Health is res- ponsible for controlling the import, manufacture , preparation, storage and sale of all food, the Department of Agriculture may, from time to time, ad- vise against the import of meat and meat products from certain countries with a view to preventing the spread of animal diseases. The control of pesticides is the joint responsibility of the Departments of Health and Agriculture. a lnternatiol1i11 digest of health legislation, 22: 3 30, 1971 (An Act (No. XIV of I 969) further to amend the Medical and Health Department (Constitution) Ordinance. Dated 3 June 1969. (The Medical and Health Department (Constitution) (Amendment) Act, 1969.) Laws made by the Legislature during the year 1969 published by the Govern- ment of Malta and its Dependencies, Vol. 102, Part I, 1970). 104 Addre~s Ministry of Health and Environment 15 Merchants Street Valletta Ministry of Agriculture 4 Old Mint Street Valletta Ministry of Trade and Industry Lascaris Valletta Ministry of Tourism The Palace Valletta Codex contact point Mr V. Gatt Standards Laboratory Industrial Estate Marsa Malta Monaco The Principality of Monaco lies on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of France, near Italy. Government Monaco is a constitutional hereditary principality. Executive power is vested in the Prince and legislative power in a National Council elected by universal suffrage. The Government is composed of a Minister of State and three Govern- ment Counsellors, public health being the responsibility of the Government Counsellor for the Interior. 107 Food Safety Services The country comprises a single commune, with a Communal Council elected by universal suffrage and chaired by the Mayor. The allocation of responsibilities between the Government and the commune is established by law. Food legislation Legislation includes acts, sovereign orders, ministerial decrees and municipal decrees on public health, hygiene and foodstuffs, which are published in the official journal of the Principality. The Directorate of Health and Social Services functions under the auth- ority of the Government Counsellor for the Interior with the support of a Higher Committee for Public Health (established by Order 2962 of 16 Feb- ruary 1963), which has a section responsible for: health regulations, water supply and sanitation; epidemiology, including vaccination; social hygiene; housing and food hygiene ; industrial and occupational health; epizootic and zoonotic diseases; bathing places and swimming pools ; and marine and sani- tary services. Another section of the Higher Committee deals with all matters relating to the medical and allied health professions. Regular health examinations are provided for all employees by the Office of Occupational Health, established many years ago , and for all schoolchildren and persons engaged in sport by a medical screening service. Under Order No. 4724 of 11 May 1971 , the responsibilities of a tech- nical committee set up within the Department of Public Works and Social Affairs by Order No. 2327 of 22 September 1960 were broadened to include pollution control in addition to the maintenance of public safety, hygiene, health and order. - There is substantial legislation dealing with alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, preserved food , fruit and vegetables , sanitation , and the food and restaurant trade. The Office of the Mayor and the Municipal Hygiene Service cooperate in the work of the above bodies and in the enforcement of food legislation. Food control administration Control is carried out by the national services in cooperation with the com- petent municipal services, i.e., the Municipal Hygiene Service and the Municipal Police. The legislation includes : 108 - an Order of 27 June 1907 on the fraudulent sale of goods and adultera- tion of foodstuffs ; - Act No. 89 of 3 January 1925 on the detection and prevention of fraud in relation to foodstuffs ; - an Order of 2 August 1928 specifying officials and staff qualified to conduct investigations for the detection and prevention of fraud in relation to foodstuffs, to take samples and impound goods (staff of the Monaco fraud prevention service, police inspectors, Municipal Police officers, authorized veterinarians, and authorized officials of the Directorate of Taxation); - an Order of 2 August 1928 specifying procedures for collecting samples and impounding goods and for testing goods and substances sus- pected of adulteration ; - a Ministerial Decree of 25 January 1932 on the prevention of fraud in relation to foodstuffs (liquids , fats , substances packed in jars, solid or powdered substances, and preserved food); - an Order of 30 January 1932 specifying penalties for infringement of the legislation on fraud prevention; - Order No. 2580 of 15 January 1942 on specified frauds in the food trade ( control of liqueurs, vermouth and aperitifs based on wine , sweetening and concentration of unfermented and fermented wine, and the manufacture of liqueurs and aperitifs based on wine) ; - Order No. 3103 of 12 December 1963 on the manufacture and sale of ice-cream; - Ministerial Decree No. 68-156 of 8 April 1968 on the hygienic quality and bacteriological control of ice-cream; and - Ministerial Decree No. 68-157 of 8 April 1968 on hygiene requirements applicable to procedures and equipment for the handling of ice-cream and to premises for its manufacture , storage and sale. Much of the legislation is based on that of neighbouring countries. Some of the older provisions are being redrafted or adapted . Addresses Directorate of Health and Social Services Department of the Interior Monaco Codex contact point None 109 r • Pop : 17 305 000 • Area : 446 550 km2 Morocco The Kingdom of Morocco, in North Africa, is bounded in the north by the Mediterranean Sea and in the west by the Atlantic Ocean; to the east it ad- joins Algeria and to the south Mauritania. The climate is temperate in most of the country. Agriculture has an important role in the economy, with citrus fruit and early vegetables promi- nent among its exports. Government Morocco is a constitutional monarchy. The legislature, representing the whole political spectrum, is composed of deputies elected either directly or indirectly 111 Food Safety Services through chambers of commerce , industry, agriculture and the provincial councils. Executive power is exercised by the Government. The King, as Head of State, appoints the Prime Minister. The Kingdom is divided into 35 prov- inces, each under a governor appointed by the King. For health and environmental sanitation, each province is under the auth- ority of a chief medical officer appointed by the Minister of Public Health. The provinces are subdivided into urban municipalities and rural communes. In municipalities , the mayor is responsible for municipal administration in coop- eration with the local authorities . The municipal services include a health office, which deals with all matters relating to environmental sanitation, under the supervision of a medical director. In rural communes, the district medical officer is responsible for health matters . Environmental sanitation activities in rural areas are carried out by sanitary technicians and assistants. Food legislation Regulations on fraud and adulteration of foodstuffs fall within the jurisdiction of the executive and legislative authorities. The law on regulation of trade and prevention of fraud is based on dahirs0 and decrees , most of which date back to the time of the protectorate. Because of the current growth of the food industry and the emergence of new needs, the Government has drafted laws for submission to the legislature ; any fraud or attempted deceit or sale of toxic or unhygienic food is subject to civil or criminal prosecution. Food control administration The Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Public Health are responsible for food control. The Fraud Prevention Service of the Ministry of Agriculture is concerned especially with fair trading and its control activities relate to the qual- ity and quantity of foodstuffs . There are inspectorates in the provinces and sub- inspectorates in small towns, sectors and villages. Control is based on taking samples during commercial distribution. When tests are positive, reports are sub- mitted to the public prosecutor. The Directorate of Animal Husbandry also comes under the Ministry of Agriculture, and its veterinary services are responsible for the control of food of animal origin and for the control of contamination by mycotoxins . For 90% of food of animal origin , the inspection is carried out by a veterinarian. For the rest the services of the Veterinary Research Laboratory in Casablanca are availab le. It has departments of food bacteriology, medical bacteriology , food histology, chemistry , immunology and serology. It is proposed to estab- lish regional laboratories at Fez, Tangiers and Agadir. a Laws signed by the King. 11 2 Morocco The Ministry of Public Health is responsible for the safety of food other than that of animal origin. In the towns, control is carried out by the municipal health offices, and elsewhere by the provincial environmental sanitation services. Such control applies to foodstuffs, premises where they are sold, and staff handling them. Chemical analysis and bacteriological examination of samples are at present performed by the National Institute of Hygiene, but will in future be the responsibility oflaboratories for diagnosis, epidemiology and environmen- tal sanitation. Provision has been made for 15 laboratories and some are about to become operational, at Marrakesh, Tangiers, Oujda, Meknes and Kenitra. The Central Environmental Sanitation Service is currently studying the organization of hygiene control in the food industry; this includes surveying industries, and standardizing inspection techniques and records. An interministerial committee on food and nutrition has been established to improve coordination between the services and increase efficiency. The committee group responsible for food legislation is engaged in coordinating, promoting and harmonizing food control measures. Training of personnel Training programmes have been established for the technical staff of the Ministry of Public Health engaged in environmental sanitation, including food hygiene. Senior sanitary engineers are trained in a course, started in 1971, at the Sanitary Engineering Centre, Mohammedia Engineering School, Rabat. It is open to civil and chemical engineers and takes 18 months. It provides the national administration with staff who can supervise the environ- mental sanitation services, including food hygiene. Technicians specialized in environmental sanitation are trained in a two- year course at the Management School of the Ministry of Public Health. They supervise technical staff working in the field, including sanitary tech- nicians and assistants. Candidates are selected by competitive examination among sanitary technicians. Sanitary technicians carry out field work in environmental sanitation, including food hygiene. Their training lasts two years. Candidates are selected by competitive examination among students in the seventh year of secondary education. Holders of the secondary-school leaving certificate are admitted without examination. The category of sanitary assistant was established in 1962 to provide an adequate number of field workers for environmental sanitation. Training for this category was replaced in 1968 by the sanitary technican course . Assistants may be selected by competitive examination for training as technicians. Addresses Ministry of Public Health 335 avenue Mohammed V Rabat 113 Food Safety Services Ministry of Agriculture 1 7 rue de Sete Rabat Codex contact point Fraud Prevention Service Ministry of Agriculture 17 rue de Sete Rabat 114 r • Pop: 13653000 • Area: 40 844 km 2 Netherlands The Kingdom of the Netherlands is bounded by the Federal Republic of Ger- many to the east, by Belgium to the sou th and by the North Sea to the west and north . It has a temperate climate. Since the Second World War agriculture has been mechanized and de- veloped, with the result that the agricultural labour force has dropped from 20% to 7% of the working population . There is a surplus of agricultural pro- duce , and seed crops, bulbs, and horticultural and dairy products constitute a quarter of all exports . The main food exports are meat , meat and dairy prod- ucts , fruit , and vegetables. The food industry is the most important branch of industry and constitutes about 28% of total industrial production . 115 Food Safety Services Government The Netherlands is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with legislative power vested in the Crown and a two-chamber Parliament or States-General (Staten Generaal). Legislation must be approved by both chambers. The Sovereign appoints and presides over the Council of State and, with the Cabinet, consults it on legislation and administrative policy and on the issuing of decrees. The Council is the highest Court of Appeal in administrative disputes. For local government the Netherlands is divided into 11 provinces, each of which has its own directly-elected representative body , the Provincial States. Each Provincial States elects from its members a college of "Deputy States" to act as the executive committee of the province. A Commissioner is appointed and may be discharged by the Crown, and is the representative of the Crown in the province . He acts as chairman of both the Provincial States and the Deputy States. Provincial States have a constitutional right to make their own decisions on measures in the interest of the province. There are also about 840 municipalities, each governed by a Burgomaster appointed by the Crown and assisted by aldermen (chosen from and by the Council) and the elected Council . Municipalities may make local regulations. Food legislation The present basic food act is the Commodity Act , 1935 which came into force on 1 January 1936 and replaced the Act of the same name of 1919 . It is still the most important act on food and food inspection. It is very short and provides a legal framework that is supplemented by decrees and ordi- nances. Many foodstuffs are regulated in separate decrees that specify the requirements they must satisfy, how they have to be labelled, and the methods of analysis. The objects of the Act are public health and fair trade. It deals with all articles of food and drink and other consumer goods such as cosmetics, soaps and detergents, and cooking utensils . With regard to meat it deals with its chemical composition, designation and packaging ; other aspects of meat in- spection are covered by the Meat Inspection Act , 1977 and the Veterinary Cattle Act , 1976. Veterinary services come under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agricul- ture and Fisheries. This enables the veterinary inspectors to act as officers of public health as well as of agriculture. The Ministry also has a General Inspec- tion Service for market regulations, plant protection , and the control of pesti- cides, feedstuffs, animal drugs, etc. The Pesticides Act , I 972 is designed to ensure safety in the use of pesticides. Only those that are officially authorized may be used and a list of tolerances for residues in food is kept permanently up to date in the Residues Order. In making statutory regulations , the Crown is advised by a Commodity Act Advisory Committee appointed by the Crown and representing business , consumers, scientists and official circles . Besides being consulted by the Crown, the Committee makes suggestions on its own initiative . I I 6 Netherlands The municipal inspection by-laws provide that only merchandise that is in good condition and not injurious to health may be offered for sale, and they indicate penalties for contravening them. Food control administration The responsibility for national public health rests with the Minister of Health and Environmental Protection, who is assisted by a Secretary-General, three Directors-General and several state public health control bodies and national institutes. Technical advice is provided by Inspectors-General con- cerned with state supervision of public health, who deal with public health and medical inspection, mental health, pharmaceutical problems, food- stuffs, environmental hygiene , veterinary health and the provisions of the Licensing Act. To enforce the Commodity Act there are 16 food inspection services, independent bodies of which 13 are municipal and 3 (in Groningen, Fries- land and Drenthe) provincial. They serve districts each with about 700 000 to 1.2 million inhabitants, and although they are independent they follow directions laid down by law. Their state supervision is vested in the Inspector- ate of Public Health of the Ministry of Health and Environmental Protec- tion, which also on occasion coordinates their activities and indicates action to be taken. The director of each service, who is a chemist with a university degree or equivalent qualification, determines his service's policy. The food in- spection services maintain close contact with each other, and their directors meet every month as a board to discuss common problems. The food inspection services are multidisciplinary, staffed with analyti- cal chemists, microbiologists, veterinarians, and teams of technical field in- spectors. The field inspectors, who are of medium technical level, take special courses for the required diplomas. In 1978 the total number of staff was 643. The number of personnel in a district is based on the number of in- habitants. As a rule there is approximately one officer per 25 000 inhabi- tants. Each service has a laboratory for analytical, biochemical and micro- biological examinations. The most important task of the food inspection services under the Com- modity Act and its regulations is the control of food processing and handling, and the inspection of ingredients and additives. They also have functions under the Pesticides Act and the Residue Order aimed at preventing harmful pesti- cide residues in fruit and vegetables . Almost every firm to which the Commodity Act refers must contribute, according to its size, towards the cost of the food inspection services, and this meets about one quarter of total costs. The money is paid to the State, which in return pays half of the costs of the services; the other half is met by the municipalities and provinces. The meat inspection services inspect animals both before and after slaugh- ter. Regulations made under the Meat Inspection Act control standards of hygiene in slaughterhouses and in the transport, processing, handling, storage 117 Food Safety Services and sale of meat. There are now about 130 local authority meat inspection services similar to the food inspection services, but they are being reorganized to bring about a more centralized service. When violations of the Commodity Act or the Meat Inspection Act occur, the director of the relevant inspection service decides the action to be taken. This may be a warning or, if the offence is serious or occurs repeatedly, the person responsible may be prosecuted. Goods may be seized and fines imposed. Also, findings may be made public and establishments may be closed . Addresses Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection Postbus 439 Dokter Reijersstraat 12 2260 AK Leidschendam Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries I e van de Boschstraat 4 The Hague Codex contact point 118 Dr C.C.J.M. van der Meijs, Director Nutrition and Quality Affairs Services Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries P.O. Box 20401 2500 The Hague r f 4007 000 • Area: 324219km' Norway The Kingdom of Norway 1s m the western part of Scandinavia with Sweden to the east; inside the Arctic Circle it borders on Finland and the USSR. The Gulf Stream significantly influences the climate. Western coastal areas have mild winters and fairly wet and cold summers; inland areas have cold winters but relatively warm summers. Total cereal production in 1977 was approximately 1.7 million tonnes, of which only 7 8 000 tonnes was wheat. The main crops are barley, oats and potatoes. There is a large fishing industry, the total annual catch being about 3 mil- lion tonnes. Substantial quantities of fish and fish products are exported. The 119 Food Safety Services main imports are cereals, sugar, and fruit and vegetables. Norway is almost self- sufficient in meat and milk , the present degree of self-sufficiency as a whole being 40% on an energy basis (corrected for feed concentrate imports). Government Norway is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy, legislative power be- ing held by Parliament (Starting). Executive power is nominally held by the King but is exercised by the Cabinet (Council of State) led by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is appointed by the King in accordance with the will of the Starting. The country is divided into 454 communes, which are self-governing in a number of matters . Food control is decentralized and is administered by the individual communes, aided by the police and customs authorities. Several communes may cooperate and establish common food control administrations, including common laboratories and inspectors. Food legislation Law No. 3 of 19 May 1933 (The Food Inspection Act) is a general, compre- hensive Act concerning the manufacture, composition and treatment of food. Its main object is the protection of public health, although it is also aimed at ensuring fair practice in the food trade . General food regulations , as well as a large number of specific regulations, have been issued under it. Law No. 2 of 12 April 1957° (The Meat Inspection and Slaughterhouses Act) covers public meat inspection and slaughterhouses as well as meat estab- lishments. Public meat inspection comprises inspection and judgement, trans- port (a Royal Decree on the transport of meat and meat products is to be issued shortly), supervision of production , distribution and sale , and the con- trol of raw meat before processing. The Agricultural Products (Quality) Act contains provisions concerning the quality of a large number of specified agricultural products (processed fruits and vegetables , fresh fruit and vegetables, dairy products , etc.). A num- ber of general and specific regulations have been issued . Law No. 12 of 28 May 1959 (The Fish and Fish Products (Quality) Act) includes requirements on the quality control of fish and fish products. The object of this Act is to ensure that fish distributed in Norway or exported is handled in the best possible manner and fulfils hygiene and quality require- ments. Here again, specific regulations under this Act have been issued cover- ing a wide range of fish products. 0 International digest of health legislation , 10: 121-131, 1959 (Law No . 2of12April 1957 , relating to slaughterhouses, the meat industry, and official meat inspection, etc. Norsk lovtidend, Part I, No. 17 , 1957). 120 Norway The Law of 24 May 1968 (The Consumer Goods (Labelling) Act) lays down the framework for making labelling regulations for consumer goods , in- cluding food . General labelling regulations for prepackaged food were issued in pursuance of this Act in 1975. However, food labelling requirements have also been included in the general Food Inspection Act and in the specific legislation referred to above. Law No. 6 of 17 March I 978° (The Food Control (Coordination) Act) is a new Act which aims at ensuring that food control is coordinated as far as possible . Moreover, it requires all communes to establish food control admin- istrations either individually or in cooperation with neighbouring communes and makes county administrators responsible for the supervision of food inspection. The Crown is empowered to appoint a Food Inspection Board and to issue rules governing its organization, composition, working procedures, etc. When appointed, the Board will be responsible for the coordination of all food inspection. Food control administration The Food Inspection Act is administered by the Ministry of Social Affairs, which issues regulations through the Directorate of Health . In general, food control and public meat inspection are the responsibility of the individual communes, the two control functions being carried out by the same local control body. The new law on the coordination of food control requires all communes to establish such a combined administration for the control of food in general and for meat inspection . All the 454 communes are likely to cooperate on a district basis; about 65 - 70 combined district food control units are envisaged . The communes bear the cost of the control service. The Meat Inspection and Slaughterhouses Act is administered centrally by the Veterinary Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, which issues regu- lations in relation to the inspection and judgement of meat. Regulations on the transport of meat and meat products, the supervision of production , distribution and sale of meat, and the control of raw meat before processing are issued by the Ministry of Social Affairs. The commune is responsible for the control measures required by the Meat Inspection Act, except for reindeer, whale and poultry meat. Part of the cost of control is refunded to the com- munes by means of a levy on meat presented for control. The Agricultural Products (Quality) Act is administered by the Agricul- tural Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, which has established separate control institutions for the purpose. The cost is met by a control levy on the products concerned. a International digest of health legislation , 30 : 109, 1979 (Law No. 6 of 17 March 1978 on coordinated food inspection. Norsk lovtidend, Part I, No. 8, 1978). 121 N N ._ I l Ministry of Fisheries Fish and Fish Products - (Quality) Act Quality control of -canned fish Directorate of Fisheries (control of fresh and - dried fish) Central Fish Laboratory Regional fish inspectors Norway: food control administration I l Food Control (Coordination) Act Ministry of Agriculture I l Ministry of Social Affairs Veterinary Division Directorate of Health Meat Inspection and -Slaughterhouses Act Food Inspection Act Agriculture Division Agricultural Products - Local health board (Quality) Act I I Ministry of Consumer Affairs and Government Administration Consumer Division Consumer Goods (Labelling) Act Quality control laboratory (dairy Communal meat and food I ction units ... inspe tiproducts) Quality control laboratory {processed fruit and vegetables) Qua I ity control laboratory (fresh fruit and vegetables) I Norway The Fish and Fish Products (Quality) Act is the responsibility of the Min- istry of Fisheries. In practice , it is divided among three institutions: the Nor- wegian Quality Control Institute for Canned Fish Products , the Quality Inspec- tion Division of the Directorate of Fisheries, and the Fish Oil and Fish Meal Research Institute . All three have laboratories. Partly because of the large proportion of fish products exported , they exercise extensive control of pro- duction premises and raw materials as well as products . The Consumer Goods (Labelling) Act is administered by the Ministry of Consumer Affairs and Government Administration. The control exercised in pursuance of the Act is carried out mainly by the local food control authorities and to some extent by the Committee on Informative Labelling. Addresses Ministry of Social Affairs Directorate of Health Akersgt. 43 Box 8128 Oslo 1 Ministry of Agriculture Akersgt. 42 Box 8007 Oslo 1 Government Quality Control Institute for Processed Fruits and Vegetables Gladengveien 3 B Oslo 6 The Dairy Laboratory Breigt. 10 Oslo 1 State Plant Inspection Service (l)kern torgvei 1 Oslo 5 Ministry of Fisheries Drammensveien 20 Box 8118 Oslo 1 Directorate of Fisheries M~llendalsveien 4 Box 185 5001 Bergen Norwegian Quality Control Institute for Canned Fish Products Box 329 4001 Stavanger 123 Food Safety Services Fish Oil and Fish Meal Research Institute 5033 Fyllingsdalen Bergen Ministry of Consumer Affairs and Government Administration Akersgt. 42 Box 8004 Oslo 1 Committee on Informative Labelling Munkedamsveien 53 B Oslo 2 Codex contact point 124 Norwegian Codex Alimentarius Committee Box 8139 Oslo r Poland f 34020000 312677 km' The Polish People's Republic extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to Czechoslovakia in the south and from the USSR in the east to the German Democratic Republic in the west . Poland has a temperate climate and is one of the world's leading agri- cultural countries. Although there are cooperative and State farms , over 60% of all agricultural land is in private hands. Llvestock production is very important and meat and meat products, such as ham, bacon and sausages , make a significant contribution to exports. The principal crops are rye , wheat, barley, oats, sugar beet and potatoes. Polish farming provides about 8% of 125 Food Safety Services European agricultural production. However, the country is now undergoing in- tensive industrialization and more than 70% of the population are employed in industry and non-agricultural work. Government Under the 1952 Constitution the supreme organ of State power is the single- chamber Parliament (Seym). The Seym elects from its members the Council of State to be its permanent organ . The Council of State is the supreme execu- tive authority but is responsible to the Seym The Supreme Board of Control exercises surveillance of national and local administration. It is responsible to the Seym and to the Council of State but is independent of the Government , whose activities it supervises. Since 1975 there has been a two-tier system of local government, with the country divided into 49 provinces (voivodships) subdivided into about 350 dis- tricts. At both tiers each administrative unit has its own representative body or elected People's Council. This system of local administration ensures that the general policy of the State is applied at the appropriate level. Food legislation The basic food legislation is contained in the Law of 25 November 1970a on the health requirements applicable to food products and food supply. It pro- vides the legal basis for regulating the conditions under which food is prepared and sold, so as to safeguard public health. It also contains provisions for protecting the public from any danger that may arise from machinery, equip- ment, utensils, instruments, packaging, and other materials with which food may come in contact in the course of manufacture or sale. Food must not be harm- ful to health, be in a deteriorated state or be adulterated, and must comply with any other conditions laid down for the protection of health. The Law provides for regulations to be issued on various subjects, including the presence of hormones and antibiotics in food of animal origin and the irradiation of food, and for standards of composition to be set. Other matters covered are the labelling of food , the information to be given on labels , and misleading advertisements. Required labels may indicate the production date or the latest date on which the commodity should be con- sidered fit for consumption. Premises used for food production and trading must be suitable for the purpose and be properly equipped so as to ensure that the food remains safe and not subject to deterioration or contamination. Food handlers who may infect food may be excluded from work. a International digest of health legislation , 22 : 988-997 , 1971 (Law of 25 Novem- ber 1970 on the health conditions applicable to food products and food supply . Dziennik ustaw Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, No. 29, 1970). 126 Poland The Council of Ministers lays down general principles for quality con- trol in the food-processing industry and for supervising maintenance of hy- giene in food establishments. These principles have to be issued in agree- ment with the Minister of Health and Social Welfare and, in matters con- cerning food of animal origin, the Minister of Agriculture. The Council of Ministers may also lay down the hygienic conditions to be observed during milk production . The Minister of Internal Trade, in agreement with the Minister of Health and Social Welfare , is required to specify by ordinance the health require- ments for itinerant trade in foodstuffs, and may prohibit such marketing of specific commodities. The Council of Ministers , under the Law of 25 November 1970, issued an Ordinance on 13 April 1973a concerning the procedures for dealing with foodstuffs that fail to meet the required standards. It classifies a wide range of circumstances under which food may be regarded as unwholesome. These include taint, the deterioration of the organoleptic characteristics to such an extent as to render the food unfit for human consumption, the presence of living pests, the presence of dead pests in amounts exceeding those per- mitted by relevant regulations or standards, and the expiration of the pre- scribed shelf-life of an article of food. Decisions on wholesomeness must be based on laboratory analyses carried out on samples, unless the conditions justifying confiscation can be detected without laboratory examination. Authority is given for the confiscation of unwholesome food, and if it is harmful to health it may be destroyed. An Order made by the Minister of Health and Social Welfare on 16 Decem- ber 1970b defined a number of terms used in the 1970 Law. They include "additives", "technical impurities" and "unintentional impurities". A food- stuff is harmful to health when "its consumption under normal conditions and for the purpose for which it is intended is liable to produce an adverse effect on human health and, in particular, when it harbours pathogens or toxic substances of any origin whatsoever". A foodstuff has deteriorated "if, as a consequence of the action of natural agents, such as moisture, weather, temperature, or light, or the presence of micro-organisms or parasites, its composition or characteristics have undergone modifications such as to render it unfit for consumption for the purpose for which it is intended". Foodstuffs are "adulterated" if their composition or other basic characteristics have been modified without the consumer being expressly informed of it. a International digest of health legislation , 26 : 198-200, I 975 (Ordinance of 13 April 1973 of the Council of Ministers concerning the procedures applicable to foodstuffs and stimulants failing to meet the required standards of wholesomeness. Dziennik ustaw Polskiej R zeczypospolitej Ludowej, No. 19, 1973). b International digest of health legislation, 24 : 3 72-374, I 97 3 (Order of 16 Decem- ber I 970 of the Minister of Health and Social Welfare concerning the definition of certain terms used in the Law on the health conditions applicable to food products and food supply . Monitor Polski, No. 2, I 97 I). 127 Food Safety Services An Ordinance of 26 July 1973a made by the Minister of Land Use and Environmental Protection and the Chairman of the Central Commit- tee on Physical Culture and Tourism prescribes requirements for regulating hygiene in hotels and other establishments providing overnight accommo- dation, and in restaurants and other eating-houses. Establishments to which the Ordinance applies must possess a suitable supply of drinking-water. They may employ only persons possessing a valid health booklet and they must keep a health control register of their employees. The occupational safety of workers in restaurants and other catering establishments is dealt with in another Ordinance issued by the Minister of Trade on 9 April 1966,b and it also contains provisions relating to hy- giene. It requires the premises to be provided with cloakrooms, sanitary facil- ities and first-aid materials for the workers. Certain classes of catering worker must have a pre-employment medical examination and details are given of the nature of the examination, the procedure to be followed, and the circum- stances under which workers may be excluded from work . A similar type of Ordinance was issued by the Minister of the Food In- dustry and Purchasing on 12 January 1967c concerning industrial safety in meat establishments, and it also contains requirements relating to hygiene. It applies to such premises as slaughterhouses and factories for the manu- facture of meat products. Among the hygiene and sanitation requirements are provisions for workers who come into contact with zoonoses and for the medical examination of workers. Food control administration The Minister of Health and Social Welfare, in agreement with the Minister of Agriculture with respect to matters within his province, is responsible for the overall supervision of food control. The State Sanitary Inspectorate, with certain exceptions, carries out the work necessary to ensure the safety of foodstuffs and the observance of hygienic conditions in the production, pro- cessing, distribution and sale of food. a International digest of health legislation, 26: 200 , 1975 (Ordinance of 26 July 1973 of the Minister of Land Use and Environmental Protection and the Chairman of the Central Committee on Physical Culture and Tourism concerning the hygiene and sanitary require- ments to be fulfilled by hotels and other establishments providing overnight accommoda- tion . Dziennik ustaw Polskiej Rzecyzpospolitej Ludowej, No. 33, 1973). b International digest of health legislation , 18: 792, 1967 (Ordinance of 9 April 1966 of the Minister of Internal Trade concerning occupational safety and hygiene in restaurants and establishments of the catering industry . Dziennik ustaw Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej ludowej, No. 22 , 1966). c International digest of health legislation, 19 : 831-832, 1968 (Ordinance of 12 Jan- uary 1967 of the Minister of the Food Industry and Purchasing concerning industrial safety and hygiene in the undertakings of the meat industry. Dziennik ustaw Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, No. 4 , 1967). 128 Poland The State Sanitary Inspectorate was created by Decree No. 160 of 14 August 1954.a Its powers and duties and the principles governing the arrangements for its work are set out in Ordinance No. 161 of the Council of Ministers of 14 August 1954.b It works from sanitary and epidemiological stations, under the direction of the Chief Sanitary Inspector who is an Under-Secretary of State responsible to the Minister of Health and Social Welfare in all matters pertaining to sanitation and epidemiology. The Chief Sanitary Inspector is appointed by the Council of Ministers and has a Sanitary and Epidemiological Council to advise him. The members of the Council include the Director and heads of departments of the National Institute of Hygiene and the chiefs of some of the sanitary and epidemiological stations. The Ministry has a sani- tation and epidemiology department headed by a physician with the title of Sanitary Inspector. Each voivodship has a sanitary and epidemiological station (sanepid) and each district a local station. The current provisions relating to their organ- ization are contained in an Order of 14 August 1962c of the Minister of Health and Social Welfare made under the Decree of 14 August 1954 on the State Sanitary Inspectorate. Instruction No. 35/62d issued by the Minister specifies the structure and powers of these stations. The staff of the voivodship sanepids are appointed and paid by the voivodships but function as the executive units of the State Sanitary Inspectorate . Each sanepid is directed by a sanitary in- spector who is a physician and is responsible to the Chief Sanitary Inspector of the State. The staff employed on food control include physicians, pharmacists, microbiologists, veterinarians , chemists , laboratory technicians and hygiene instructors. Hygiene instructors receive two years of training at three special in- stitutes. A Sanitary and Epidemiological Council attached to each sanepid acts as an advisory body to the sanitary inspector. The voivodship sanepids perform a variety of duties relating to hygiene , sanitation and epidemiology , and are divided into a number of departments a International digest of health legislation , 7 : 313-317 , 1956 (Decree No. 160 of 14 August 1954 on the State Sanitary Inspectorate. Dziennik ustaw Polskiej Rzeczypos- politej Ludowej, No . 37 , 1954). b International digest of health legislation, 7 : 317, 1956 (Ordinance No . 161 of the Council of Ministers of 14 August 1954, relating to the powers and duties of State sanitary inspectors and to the principles governing , and arrangements for , their work. Dziennik ustaw Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej, No . 37 , 1954). c International digest of health legislation, 15 : 801-803, 1964 (Order of 14 August 1962 of the Minister of Health and Social Welfare relating to the organization of sanitary and epidemiological posts. Dziennik urzedowy Ministerstwa Zdrowia i Opieki Spotecznej, No. 18, 1962) . d International digest of health legislation , 15 : 803, 1964 (Instru ct ion No . 35/62 of the Minister of Health and Social Welfare relating to the special field of activities of the sanitary and epidemiological posts and to the duties of their workers. Dziennik urzedowy Ministerstwa Zdrowia i Opieki Spolecznej, No. 4 , 1963). 129 Food Safety S ervices with different functions. One department is responsible for the promotion of food hygiene, particularly in the larger production establishments. Sanepids also deal with the safety of consumer goods, including toys. They have laboratories for microbiological and chemical examinations of samples taken by the hygiene instructors of foodstuffs and consumer and household commodities. In their food control work, laboratory and field sanepid staff follow stan- da rdized procedures developed by the National Institute of Hygiene, a state in- stitution under the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare that supervises the sanepids and trains their laboratory staff. Each voivodship sanepid is visited about every four years by Institute staff to see that the procedures are being followed. The Institute prepares five-year plans for the sanepids to follow in the monitoring of foodstuffs. The results of the examinations and analyses performed are sent to the Institute, which submits reports to the Minister. Each year sanepids are given a special food problem to investigate . In the promotion of food safety, plans of new food premises and of those to be altered or modernized are examined , and premises must be ap- proved by the sanepid before they can be opened for business. All food prem- ises are inspected regularly. In manufacturing premises samples are taken at various stages for chemical and microbiological examination . Every factory is classified annually on a points scale based on its structure and equipment and the standard of hygiene it maintains. Food handlers have periodic medi- cal examinations and must keep a health book in which the results of these examinations are entered. The district and port sanepids are subordinate to those of the voivodships. Of the approximately 350 district sanepids, about 150 have laboratories. The district laboratories perform a much more limited range of work but can do microbiological and chemical tests. District sanepids are concerned particu- larly with the smaller food manufacturing establishments and retail shops. Their laboratory work consists mostly of checking routine samples. Districts with no laboratory use the voivodship laboratory . The Minister of Agriculture has certain responsibilities with regard to food, which are carried out by the veterinary service . This service is concerned with the health of animals before slaughter and their post-mortem inspection in the slaugh- terhouse. When the meat leaves the slaughterhouse it becomes the responsibility of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. There is a similar division of re- sponsibility for milk and fish. The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for the control of pesticides used on crops but the Ministry of Health and Social Wel- fare is concerned with pesticide residues in foodstuffs. The veterinary service of the Ministry of Agriculture has laboratories at both voivodship and district levels for the chemical and microbiological examination of meat. Addresses 130 Ministry of Health and Social Welfare Miodowa 15 00-923 Warsaw Ministry of Agriculture Fbolna 30 Warsaw Codex contact point Ministry of Foreign Trade Central Institute for Standardization Zurawia 32/34 00-950 Warsaw Poland 131 r f Portugal Portugal is on the Atlantic side of the Iberian Peninsula and in the north and east borders on Spain. It has a mild, temperate climate with an average tem- perature of 16 °C . The weather in the interior is drier and hotter. Portugal is traditionally an agricultural country and its major exports in- clude wine . Its fishing industry is also very important. Government The Republic of Portugal adopted a new Constitution in 1976 under which it is governed by the President, the Council of the Revolution, the Assembly of 133 Food Safety Services the Republic and the Government. The President is elected by popular vote for a period of five years. He appoints the Prime Minister after consultation with the Council of the Revolution and the Assembly, and appoints the other mem- bers of the Government on the proposal of the Prime Minister. The country is divided for administrative purposes into 11 provinces, each with a provincial council of indirectly elected members who represent the municipalities and other organizations. The provinces are subdivided into urban and rural municipalities. All municipalities have a common structure and are governed by a council, a board and a mayor. The mayor is appointed by the central Government , and the council members are indirectly elected by various groups in the municipality. The board is the executive body of the municipal- ity and is elected by the council from its own members. The mayor appoints committees presided over by board members; they collaborate with the munici- pal authorities in special matters such as hygiene and art. Municipalities are divided into submunicipal units or parishes. Food legislation Food legislation was first introduced in Portugal in 1901. In 1957 the legisla- tion relating to offences of a public health or economic nature was revised and brought up to date. There is no food code at present , but there are standards on the composition of specific foodstuffs and methods of analysis. Food control administration The inspection and control of foodstuffs is exercised by four Ministries: those of Social Affairs (Directorate-General of Health); Commerce and Tour- ism (Directorate-General of Economic Control) ; Industry and Technology (Directorate-General of Quality) ; and Agriculture and Fisheries (Directorates- General of Veterinary Services, Agricultural Food Industries, and Fisheries). Addresses Directorate-General of Health Alameda D. Afonso Henriques 45 Lisbon 1 Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Praca do Comercio 1100 Lisbon Codex contact point 134 Codex Alimentarius Sub-commission National F AO Commission Ministry of Foreign Affairs Lisbon r f 21 245000 • Area : 237500km2 Romania Romania is situated in south-eastern Europe. To the south-east is the Black Sea , to the north and north-east the USSR, to the north-west Hungary, and to the south-west Yugoslavia. Romania has hot summers and cold winters. In the summer the average temperature is 21 °C and in winter -2 °C. Since the Second World War the economy of the country has changed , and it is now dominated by industry . However , agriculture is still important : 60% of the land area is agricultural and 38% of the working population are employed in agriculture. 135 Food Safety Services Cereals and fruit make a large contribution to the export trade, Romania being an important grape-producing country . Other important products are wheat, maize, rye, sunflower seed, sugar beet, potatoes, plums, apples, and eggs. The food industry accounts for about 15% of total exports. Government Under the 1965 Constitution the supreme organ of state power is the single- chamber National Assembly. The Assembly elects the President of the Repub- lic and, from its own members, the State Council and the Council of Ministers, which is the highest state administrative body but responsible to the Assembly. In 1968 the local government structure was reorganized, and the country was divided into 40 regions or provinces (including the capital, Bucharest , which has a special status and structure), 242 towns and some 2600 rural municipalities and communes. Bucharest has 8 municipalities, each with a population of ap- proximately 170 000, and 12 suburban communes each with about 7000 in- habitants. The councils of the municipalities are subordinate to the City Coun- cil , which is responsible direct to the National Assembly and the State Council. Each of these administrative units has an elected council and committees for various subjects. Following the 1968 reorganization, the councils and other governmental bodies were changed in order to increase local autonomy and encourage broader public participation. Food legislation The Minister of Health is legally responsible for implementing Government and Parliamentary public health policies. This is laid down by Decree No. 452 of 22 May 1969,a as amended , which deals with the organization and functions of the Ministry of Health. One of its specific functions is to direct and super- vise the uniform application of sanitary and epidemiological control standards and corresponding measures. The Ministry has a number of directorates, in- cluding one for the Central State Sanitary Inspectorate. Decree No. 974 of 30 December 1965b established the State Sanitary Inspectorate to supervise , guide, and take measures for the application of the regulations relating to hygiene and the control of epidemics, and to investigate environmental factors that may affect health . It specifies the duties of the Inspectorate, among which is that of ensuring that the hygiene regulations are a International digest of health legislation, 23: 112-114 , 1972 (Decree No . 452 of 22 May 1969 concerning the organization and function s of the Ministry ofHealth.Buletinul oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania, Part I, No. 59, 1969). b International digest of health legislation, 17 : 939-943, 1966 (Decree No. 974 of 30 December 1965 relating to the establishment, organization and operation of the State Sanitary Inspectorate. Bu/etinul oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania , Part I, No. 24, 1965). 136 Romania observed in the production and distribution of foodstuffs. The Inspectorate can prohibit, or impose conditions on, the distribution of food that does not meet prescribed hygiene standards, and the use of objects , materials or sub- stances that could endanger the public. The duties and powers embodied in the Decree are to be exercised by the State Sanitary Inspectorate at central, regional, district, or town level. In pursuance of, inter alia, Decree No . 974, the Ministry of Health issued Order No. 91 of 21 February 1974a to establish health standards for food- stuffs and beverages . The health standards are binding on planning organiza- tions when preparing studies and plans , on state organizations and coop- eratives, and on individuals who produce , prepare, store , transport , or sell foodstuffs and beverages. The Order required ministries , other central state administrative agencies, central agencies of cooperative organizations, and the executive committees of the people's councils of the districts and of the Municipality of Bucharest to prescribe measures for its implementation. The Central State Sanitary Inspectorate and the sanitary and epidemic control centres of the districts and of the Municipality of Bucharest were made re- sponsible for ensuring compliance with its provisions. The standards are arranged in a number of parts which refer to : the physical condition, facilities, and equipment of food premises in general ; the production and preparation of foodstuffs and beverages, the quality of raw materials, the use of additives , compliance with Ministry of Health standards, packaging, special requirements for meat and meat products, etc.; the storage and conservation of foodstuffs , refrigeration, and protection against insects and rodents ; the transport of food products ; the sale of foodstuffs ; the main- tenance of hygiene in food establishments, including bacterial standards for assessing the state of cleanliness of establishments ; and food workers and their health and personal cleanliness. All personnel to be employed in food establishments of any category are required to be medically examined before employment and approved by the urban or communal dispensary of the area in which they live . The nature of the examinations is specified . Periodic medical examinations are also required as prescribed in special instructions issued by the Ministry of Health. Further provisions concerning the pre-employment and periodic medical examina- tions of workers are contained in Order No. 190 of 25 May 1975 b made by a International digest of health legislation, 27: 821-826, 1976 (Order No . 91 of 21 February 1974 of the Minister of Health establishing health standards for the pro- duction, preparation, storage , transport, and sale of foodstuffs and beverages. Buletinul oficial al Republicii Socia/iste Romania , Part I, No. 30, 1974). b International digest of health legislation, 27: 826-829 , I 976 (Order No. 190 of 25 May 1975 of the Minister of Health establishing requirements for medical examina- tions of persons intending to take up employment and for periodic medical examinations. Buletinul oficial al Repub/icii Socialiste Romania, Part I, No . 55 , 1975). 137 Food Safety Services the Minister of Health. It is basically a general occupational health measure, but contains specific provisions on persons working in the food industry. Persons working in food establishments where there are particular health hazards, such as premises where raw meat is processed or kitchens of catering establishments, are required to undergo a medical examination monthly or every three months according to the nature of their work. Workers in certain other food premises must be examined annually. Standards of wholesomeness for foodstuffs and beverages were pre- scribed by the Minister of Health in Order No . 184 of 4 April 1972 ,a to prevent bodily harm and to ensure optional nutritive values corresponding to the natural composition of the products. The Order specifies physical and chemical standards for a range of foodstuffs and for additives, heavy metals, pesticides, etc. It also Jays down standards of bacteriological quality for foodstuffs and beverages (with a table indicating the permissible amounts of various micro-organisms). Food control administration The State Sanitary Inspectorate is responsible for ensuring the safety and wholesomeness of foodstuffs sold to the public and the maintenance of proper standards of hygiene in their production, preparation, distribution and sale. It operates at various levels: as the Central State Sanitary Inspec- torate in the Ministry of Health; as regional and city State Sanitary In- spectorates in the regions and the cities of Bucharest and Constanza ; and as district and town State Sanitary Inspectorates. The regional, district and town inspectorates are subordinate to the executive committees of the re- spective people's councils. In a district or town without an inspectorate the Minister of Health, on the advice of the executive committee of its people's council, may appoint one. Addresses Ministry of Health 6 rue Ilfov Sector VI Bucharest Ministry of Agriculture 24 Bd Republicii Section IV Bucharest a International digest of health legislation , 25 : 433-434, 1974 (Order No . 184 of 4 April 1972 of the Minister of Health prescribing standards of wholesomeness for foodstuffs and beverages. Buletinul oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania , Part I, No. 5 3, 1972). 138 Codex contact point Romanian Institute for Standardization Edgar Quinet 6 Casuta Postala 10 Bucharest I Romania 139 r f 35472 000 • Area : 504750km' Spain The Kingdom of Spain occupies more than four-fifths of the Iberian Peninsula in south-west Europe. It is bounded by France and the Bay of Biscay to the north, by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and by the Mediter- ranean Sea to the south and east . The climate is less temperate than that of most countries in western Europe, with hot summers and , in the hilly interior , cold winters. By tradition, Spain is an agricultural country and its principal products are cereals , vegetables and fruits, mainly citrus. However , the proportion of the working population engaged in agriculture has dropped in recent years , even though the industry's share of the gross national product has risen. 141 Food Safety Services Government Spain is a hereditary monarchy with the King as Head of State. He appoints the President of the Government (Prime Minister) and, on the latter's recom- mendation , the other members of the Council of Ministers. The Parliament has two chambers, the Congress and the Senate. The Council of Ministers initiates legislation for discussion by Parliament. For local government, the country is divided into 50 provinces , each with an Assembly and an appointed Civil Governor. Authority in health matters rests with the Governor, who is assisted by the Provincial Delegate Committee of Public Health and the Provincial Directorate of Health . The Provincial General Councils are responsible for the organization of the provincial health and hygiene services. Provinces are subdivided into municipalities headed by mayors . The mayor is the health authority and is assisted by an advisory body, the local health council , and by the local chief of public health who receives technical direc- tives from the provincial di rec tor of public heal th . Food legislation The first legal provisions of a general nature relating to food were contained in a Royal Decree of 22 December 1908 and dealt with fraud . A Royal Decree of 17 September 1920 approved technical directives which defined "foodstuffs" and also dealt with packaging, apparatus , utensils and receptacles connected with food . From then until 1967 legal provisions on food were numerous, lengthy, and sometimes even contradictory. As the legislation grew the Govern- ment realized it had to adopt a food policy that would take account of new knowledge and technology, the frequency of fraud , the need for uniform criteria, public participation , the diversity of the services, Jack of objective information for the consumer, and the difficulty of establishing the respon- sibilities of persons engaged in the food trade. An Interministerial Commission on food control, created in 1966, laid the foundations for the Spanish Food Code (Codigo Alimentario Espanol) , published in 1967 ; this marked the introduction of a food control policy and initiated the coordination of Spanish food legislation on the basis of uniform criteria . However , the Code contains only a statement of fundamental principles intended to provide a basis for regulations, for specific standards, and for the criteria to be used in inspection and control. The provisions on food hygiene in the Code , for example , are in general terms, and detailed requirements for the particular trades are contained either in additional regulations or in local by-laws. In 1974, under Decree No . 25 I 9 ,a the Commission was reorganized and its functions redefined as follows: a International digest of health legislation , 26 : 603-604 , 1975 (Decree No . 2519 of 9 August 1974 on the entry into force , implementation , and enforcement of the Spanish Food Code. Boletin oficial de/ Estado , gaceta de Madrid, No . 220 , 1974; corrigendum, ibid., No. 242, 1974). 142 Spain (a) to establish precisely the provisions relating to the application, en- forcement and amendment of the Food Code; (b) to formulate all proposals relating to food; (c) to keep up to date documentation and information, both national and international , relating to food; (d) to study the problems of food control ; and (e) to create expert or working groups to study practical problems in the operation of the Food Code and to prepare guidelines for the responsible administrations. The Commission consists of representatives of the Prime Minister and of the Ministries of Public Health and Social Security, Agriculture, and Industry, as well as of the trade unions representing the food industry. Its functions were amended by Crown Decree No . 3452 of 16 December 1977.a It is now required to issue mandatory recommendations aimed at the coordination of technical , health , commercial and consumer-information aspects of food control, and to draw up provisions to implement , enforce or amend the Food Code. In addition to national food legislation , the municipalities can make local by-laws on a range of matters including standards of hygiene in various types of food premises. Such premises must have an annual licence from the municipality, and their inspection before the licence is renewed takes account of the local by-laws and national regulations. Food premises may be closed where conditions are part icularly bad. Local by-laws may also contain instruc- tions to officials on taking food samples for analysis. Food control administration Responsibility at the national level for food control administration is shared between the Prime Minister , the Ministry of Public Health and Social Security , the Ministry of Trade and Tourism (General Directorate of Food) , the Min- istry of Industry (General Directorate of Food and Related Industries) and the Ministry of Agriculture (General Directorate of Agricultural Production In- dustries). The specialized services of the Ministries of Agriculture, Trade and Tourism , and Health and Social Security control the application of standards and regulations. A Fraud Control Service established in 1941 tests and analyses agricul- tural produce during production and distribution to eliminate any kind of fraud in its production and sale. Decrees were issued in 1972 and 1973 to standardize agricultural and ani- mal products. Standards for each product are issued in orders made by the a International digest of health legislation, 29: 812-813, 1978 (Crown Decree No. 3452 of 16 December 1977 regulating the lnterminsterial Commission for Food Regulation. Boletfn oficial de/ Estado, gaceta de Madrid , No. 20, 1978). 143 Food Safety Services President together with the Ministers of Public Health and Social Security, Agriculture, and Trade, on the advice given by the Interministerial Commission on Food Control. A standard is at first a "recommended standard" and does not come into force for three years. The Under-Secretariat of Health of the Ministry of Public Health and Social Security is responsible for the health aspects of food ; the General Directorate of Public Health and Veterinary Health deals with environmental health and the production and distribution of foodstuffs, and the General Directorate of Pharmaceutical Regulation deals with the analysis and inspection of particular foodstuffs. The structure of the Ministry was prescribed by Crown Decree No. 1918 of29 July 1977 .a The municipal authorities and the local chiefs of public health, under the supervision of the provincial directors of public health, are responsible for en- vironmental health, including food. Each provincial health office has a full- time staff of doctors , pharmacists and veterinarians who advise and, at times, supervise municipal officers. Each province has a laboratory for bacteriologi- cal examinations and chemical analyses of foods and other substances, and their facilities are available to the municipalities . Each municipality is obliged to employ a physician, a veterinary of- ficer and a pharmacist. The larger authorities each employ a number of full- time and the smaller authorities part-time private practitioners . Medical and veterinary officers are concerned with food hygiene and inspection and phar- macists with food sampling and analysis. Very small authorities are usually grouped together for health services, and the various officers cover several districts. Addresses Ministry of Public Health and Social Security Paseo del Prado 18 Madrid 14 Ministry of Agriculture Paseo de lnfanta Isabel 1 Madrid 7 Codex contact point Mr D.D. Roberto Conty Larraz Ministry of Public Health and Social Security Paseo del Prado 18 Madrid 14 a International digest of health legislation, 29: 800-801, 197 8 (Crown Decree No. 1918 of 29 July 1977 on the structure of the Ministry of Health and Social Security. Bolet{n oficia/ de/ Estado , gaceta de Madrid , No. 181, 1977). 144 r f 8193000 • Area : 449 964 km2 Sweden Sweden covers the eastern and southern parts of the Scandinavian peninsula , bordering on Norway to the west and Finland to the north-east. Owing to the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean and the influence of the Gulf Stream and westerly winds, the climate is temperate, even though the latitude is similar to that of the south of Greenland. Eight per cent of the area of the country is arable and grazing land. An increasing proportion of the population, now more than 80%, live in ur- ban areas. About 5% of the working population are employed in agriculture. Meat, poultry and dairy produce meet the needs of home consumption. A surplus of grain is produced , but Sweden is a net importer of some foodstuffs 145 Food Safety Services and animal fodder, mainly varieties that for climatic reasons cannot be pro- duced in the country , e.g., rice, fruit, vegetables , sugar, vegetable oils and fats. The value of these imports is about 700 million Swedish crowns per year; that of exports of agricultural products and manufactured foods was about 250 mil- lion crowns in January 1978. Government Sweden is a representative and parliamentary democracy . The King is Head of State but has representational and ceremonial duties only. The Parliament (Riksdag) has 349 members elected by universal suffrage for three years. The country is governed by the cabinet, which is responsible to Parliament. Government and administration are two separate functions. The ministries concern themselves mainly with the preparation of new legislation to be sub- mitted to Parliament. Central administrative agencies and the 24 county admin-- istrations execute the law . County councils are popularly elected; they can im- pose taxes, and are mainly responsible for health and medical care. Each council appoints an executive committee. At the next level are the communes of which there were 277 in 1975. Each has a directly elected council which is the decision- making body and appoints boards for administrative and executive duties. Each commune is required to appoint certain special local bodies , including a public health committee, on which are devolved particular responsibilities . Food legislation The Foodstuffs Law of 18 June 1971 a provides the basic framework. It states that food offered for sale may not have such composition, or quality in other respects , that it may be deemed injurious to consume, infected, or otherwise unfit for human consumption. Only those food additives may be used that have been approved for the food in question. General rules are given for the handling of food to prevent it becoming contaminated or unfit for human consumption , and for labelling of prepackaged food , staff hygiene and food premises. The National Food Administration (Statens Livsmedelverk, SLY) supervises the observance of the Law and its regulations. The Law lays down penalties, which include fines or imprisonment for up to one year, for violation of the Law or its regulations . Further detailed regulations have been issued in Crown Order No . 807 of 5 November I 971,b and by the SLY in its various ordinances. a International digest of health legislation , 24: 386-387, 1973 (foodstuffs Law (No. 5 I I) of 18 June 1971 . Sam ling av forfattningar och cirkuliir m. m. angtiende medi- cinalviisendet, No. 43 , 1971) . b International digest of health legislation , 24 : 387-394, 1973 (Crown Order No. 807 of 5 November 197 I on foodstuffs (The Foodstuffs Order) . S vensk forfattningssamling, 3 December 1971) . 146 Sweden Under the Foodstuffs Law a number of important implementation orders have been made. Food additives A food additive is defined as an enrichment substance intended to be added to a foodstuff to increase its nutritive value, as well as any other commodity or substance intended to be added to a foodstuff to influence its durability, consistency , colour, taste or flavour , unless the enrichment commodity or sub- stance is itself a foodstuff. Additives may be used only by special permission ("positive list" system). The list of permitted additives issued by the SLY once a year indicates the kinds of food to which an additive may be added and usually its permitted level. For approval, the suggested amount of additive must be shown to have no harmful effects on man , and to be of value to the consumer or necessary for the handling or processing of the food. The labels of prepackaged food must show the additives used. Food contaminants A foreign substance in food is defined as a substance other than a food additive which, if present in the food, may be injurious to health or change the nonnal composition of the food or its quality in other respects. Packaging material or any other equipment used in the handling of food may not be of such a character that the food is at risk of being exposed to foreign substances, contaminated, or made unfit for human consumption. When stored, food must be kept well separated from substances that are in- jurious to health. Labelling Prepackaged food offered for sale must be labelled to indicate the kind of food, its composition , its net weight or volume when packed, storage instruc- tions, estimated durability if Limited , and the name and address of the firm , packer or producer. The SLY also issues special regulations with more details about the labelling of prepackaged foods . Staff hygiene Before they are employed and at least once a year afterwards, food workers , e.g., in food-processing industries , restaurants or food shops , must be medi- cally certified free from any disease or infection that could be transmitted to other humans through the food they handle . The rules for these examina- tions are laid down jointly by the SLY and the National Board of Health and Welfare. 147 Food Safety Services Food premises Food premises should be equipped and maintained in such a way that there is no risk of the food being exposed to foreign substances, con laminated, or made unfit for human consumption. The SLY inspects and approves slaughter- houses, dairies, food production establishments with more than I 00 em- ployees, ships, railway cars, and aircraft. Communal public health committees approve and inspect all other food premises. The approving authority may cancel the approval if the stipulated conditions are changed or disregarded. Other places that offer food for sale must be licensed by their communal public health committee. Notification of foodbome disease Cases of some foodborne diseases must be notified according to the Commu- nicable Diseases Order.a Other foodborne infections and intoxications must be reported to the county medical officer by any medical or veterinary of- ficer who has reason to suspect that food poisoning has been caused by con- tamination of food, pathogenic bacteria or foreign substances during com- mercial handling. Import regulations The guiding principle is that food regulations are applied equally to all types of food products, domestic and imported. Any person who imports food commercially into Sweden must be regis- tered at the SLY, which prescribes conditions for import, having regard to the nature of the food and the hygienic conditions in the country of origin or during transport to Sweden. It may lay down that the food should come from establishments approved following inspection by the SLY itself or on the basis of reliable information on food regulations, food control and pro- duction conditions in the country concerned. Special treatment of food Food may not be treated with ionizing radiation without a licence from the SL V. Heat treatment (pasteurization) of milk or milk products intended for sale as food or used in the production or preparation of food must be carried out according to directions issued by the SLY. a International digest of health legislation, 20: 14 2-148, 1969 (Crown Order No. 234 of 26 April 1968 on the control of communicable diseases (The Communicable Diseases Order). Svensk f6rfattningssamling, No. 231-235, 1968). 148 Sweden Food standards If it is specially important for public health, nutritional or other consumer in- terests, the SLV can prescribe a certain composi tion or quality standard for a certain kind of food. Up to 1979 such food standards had been pre- scribed for 14 groups of food products. Food control administration The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for food con tro l administration . It prepares basic legislation, lays down general policy and deals with the budgetary aspects of food control. All other work at central leve l is carried out by the SLV, which issues regulations and must see that they are observed . It also directs and coordinates food safety work, gives advice and issues recom- mendations on food matters, ca rries out investigations and research on the general quality, composition and nutritional value of food and on the oc- currence and effects of food contaminants and additives, and authorizes laboratories to ca rry out food analyses. CENTRAL REGIONAL LOCAL Swedish food control administration: central, regional and local organization National Food Administration I I Meat inspection service I I Export inspection service I I Authorized laboratories I 1 I Approved laboratories I I ~ County administration I I I County veterinarian I 4 Public health committee I I I I I Health Authorized Commune Import inspectors laboratories veterinarians inspectors 149 Food Safety Services The SLV has 4 laboratories, with about 150 employees, which supervise and authorize all other public laboratories and approve private laboratories. They develop methods and carry out certain complicated chemical analyses, such as monitoring for pesticide residues. Few counties have their own lab- oratories. The communes pay for their local laboratories but can also use the public laboratories authorized by the SLV. There are at present 46 authorized and 8 approved laboratories. The SLV is headed by a board consisting of its Director-General and 11 other members representing the National Board of Health and Welfare , consumers , trade unions, the food industry, the food trade, agriculture, and SLV employees. It has as an advisory body a Scientific Council of about 45 scientists on whom it may call for advice on specific problems and who themselves may bring certain matters to the board's notice. The SLV is the Swedish contact point for the FAO/WHO Codex Alimen- tarius Commission, and it has a special council , the Swedish Codex Ali- mentarius Council, to advise it on matters related to the Commission's work. The food hygiene department consists of three divisions. I . The food production division supervises manufacturing processes, products and premises in connexion with the industrial production of food, deals with food export questions and inspects food processing plants abroad that export products to Sweden , and supervises the inspection of meat at slaughterhouses. 2. The food handling division is primarily responsible for matters relating to the handling of food outside industrial manufacturing , e.g., transport , distribu- tion, storage and premises where food is offered for sale (including all types of catering establishment). The division also deals with questions concerning the im- port of food (import licences , etc .) and the health control of food handlers. 3. The food standards division deals with food standards and other mat- ters concerning the composition and quality of food, matters regarding food additives, foreign substances in food, labelling and packaging materials and Codex Alimentarius questions. The food research department consists of four laboratories . I . The food laboratory carries out chemical analyses for food contami- nants, food additives and naturally occurring food constituents , and elaborates and evaluates methods of analysis . 2. The biological laboratory investigates the occurrence and development of micro-organisms in food , analyses natural contaminants, develops and tests new methods for the routine analysis of moulds , yeasts and bacteria in food, and develops microbiological specifications for food . 3. The nutrition laboratory carries out chemical, microbiological and biological analyses of the nutritive value and vitamin content of food and the 150 Structure of the National Food Administration (SL V) Board of Administration Codex Alimentarius Director-General Scientific Council Council Food hygiene Food research Administrative department department department I I I I Food Food Food Food Biology Nutri- Toxi- Admin- lnforma-produc- handling stan- labora- labora- tion cology istrative Legal tion tion division dards tory tory labora- labora- division division unit division division tory tory u, Food Safety Services vitamin content of drugs and animal feeds . It also investigates the food con- sumption patterns of different population groups, and prepares material show- ing the nutritional value of foodstuffs. 4. The toxicological laboratory evaluates the toxicity of food con- taminants and food additives and carries out research into food toxicology; it has developed a computer-based system for registering additives present in food sold in Sweden. The administrative department consists of three parts. 1. The administrative division is responsible for economic planning and coordination , personnel admjnistration, and planning for national emergencies. 2. The legal division is responsible for drawing up new legislation under the Foodstuffs Law, for interpreting Swedish food legjslation , and for appeals made against decisions taken under its provisions. 3. The information umt supplies the general public with information and publishes the periodical of the SLV, var foda (Our food). Regional control of food safety is carried out by the 24 county councils and local control by the public health committees of the 277 communes. Their officials can enter areas, food premises or any place where food is kept to in- spect them and take food samples , and can obtain the information and docu- ments they need for their work. The cost of taking and examining samples is borne by the food producer or seller, according to a system laid down by the SL V. County inspectors must approve motor vehicles used for the sale or de- livery of food. Communal public health committees approve food premises that are outside the scope of the SLV or the county administration . Appeals against decisions of the public health committees have to be submitted to county administrations , and appeals agrunst their decisions to the Administra- tive Court of Appeal. Guidelines, codes of practice, and advisory standards The SLV issues guidelines and advice to promote food safety and the umform application of the food legislation, often in collaboration with other auth- orities, e.g., the National Board of Health and Welfare, the Environment Pro- tection Board, the Board of Agriculture and the Board for Consumer Policies. Internationally agreed standards and guidelines, e.g ., those of the Codex Ali- mentarius Commission, are being considered. Training of personnel The SLV arranges food control courses at different levels, and regular refresher training for the various categories of food control staff, e.g., veterinarians, 152 Sweden physicians, microbiologists , chemists, public health inspectors and different categories of middle-level personnel such as laboratory technicians. Addresses Ministry of Health and Social Affairs Fack 103 33 Stockholm Ministry of Agriculture Fack 103 20 Stockholm National Board of Health and Welfare Linnegatan 8 7 106 30 Stockholm National Food Administration Box 622 7 51 26 Uppsala Codex contact point National Food Administration Codex Alimentarius Contact Point Box 622 751 26 Uppsala 153 r • Pop : 6403 000 • Area : 41 288 km 2 Switzerland The Swiss Confederation is situated in the centre of Europe with the Federal Republic of Germany to the north, Austria and Liechtenstein to the east, Italy to the south and France to the west. The climate is generally temperate , but there are wide and sudden variations due to differences in altitude , aspect and gradient. The principal crops are potatoes, wheat, barley, apples and pears; the country imports more food than it exports. 155 Food Safety S ervices Government Switzerland is a federal republic with 26 cantons and half-cantons subdivided into 3034 communes. Legislative power is exercised by a two-chamber Federal Parliament consisting of the Council of States representing the cantons and half-cantons and the National Council directly elected by the people. The Federal Assembly elects from its members the Federal Council, and the Federal Council chooses from its members the President of the Confederation, who holds office for one year. The Federal Council holds executive power. Although power at national level is exercised by the Federal Government, considerable power is vested in the cantons. Each canton has its own written con- stitution, government and parliament. In most communes all citizens may participate directly in the government of the commune through periodic meetings of the Assembly of Electors, which is the supreme organ of the commune. In the most populous communes or municipalities the communal assembly is replaced by an elected Council. Food legislation The basic legislation on food is contained in the Federal Law of 8 Decem- ber 1905 , which deals with trade in foodstuffs and in household and other consumer goods. It charges the Federal Council with the duty of legislating on the protection of public health and the prevention of fraud. Under it, the Federal Council has issued ordinances on foodstuffs in general, consumer goods, and meat and meat products . Swiss legislation is equally applicable to the Principality of Liechtenstein . The Federal Government maintains general supervision of the application of the legislation, but the cantons and cantonal officers enforce it. At the fron- tiers, however , customs officers and the frontier veterinary service exercise federal control of foodstuffs. The Ordinance of 26 May 1936° governing trade in foodstuffs and con- sumer goods is still in force , although it has been amended a number of times . It deals inter alia with the declaration of ingredients and additives , labelling and advertising. The Federal Ordinance of 11 October 1957 ,b also amended several times, deals with meat and meat products; premises, installations and vehicles used in the trade and persons engaged in it ; and slaughtering, meat inspection , the handling of meat, and the manufacture of meat products. It was most recently amended in 1973 _c a Bulletin de / 'Office international d'Hygiene publique, 29 : 12 (1937). b International digest of health legislation , 9: 812-838 , 1958 (Federal Ordinance of 11 October 1957 on meat inspection. Sammlungdereidgenossischen Gesetze, No. 4 7, 1957). c International digest of health legislation , 25 : 438, 1974 (Federal Ordinance on meat inspection. Amendment of 10 August 1973. Recueil des lois federales, No. 32 , 1973). 156 Switzerland Food control administration At the federal level, the Federal Office of Public Health of the Ministry of the Interior is responsible for the control of foodstuffs . The cantonal health administration is attached to one of the depart- ments of the Council of State and comprises various administrative and tech- nical services, including particularly the control of foodstuffs and environ- mental hygiene . Each canton has a medical officer, a veterinary officer, and one or more chemists. There are also district medical officers responsible for groups of communes. The communes are the local health authorities and the more important communes have organized their health services on the same lines as those of the can tons. The Ordinance of 26 May 1936 provides that the cantonal authorities for the supervision of the food trade, the cantonal and municipal chemists , and the cantonal and regional inspectors and experts are authorized to carry out all neces- sary enquiries, investigations and inspections as to merchandize put on sale, in their respective areas of responsibility. These officers' qualifications are stipu- lated by the Federal Government. They can enter for purposes of inspection premises used for the manufacture and sale of food, catering premises such as hotels, cafes and restaurants, public and private premises such as hospitals, schools and houses, transport vehicles, warehouses, ports, etc. They can also check the state of work places, apparatus and utensils used in the manufacture , production, handling, preservation and sale of food . Every canton has a laboratory for the chemical,physical and bacteriological examination of food. Several cantons may share a laboratory. Although labora- tories are administered by cantonal governments the Federal Government pays part of the cost of establishing them. In addition, important districts, with the consent of the cantonal government, may set up and maintain their own lab- oratories. The Principality of Liechtenstein maintains a food inspection service but has analyses carried out by the laboratory of the canton of St Gallen. The surveillance of foodstuffs in the cantons consists mainly of taking samples. A sample is not purchased, but if it is found satisfactory the owner may claim reimbursement of its cost. Samples are sent to the cantonal lab- oratory for examination. When food is found defective, and especially when it is shown to be dangerous to health, adulterated or falsified, the cantonal authorities may seize it; it may then be held or destroyed. Installations and utensils found to be defective are also subject to seizure. The 1936 Ordinance authorizes cantons to make rules for controlling the itinerant trade in food to ensure satisfactory standards of safety and quality. It also requires producers of food in tended solely for export to hold a special licence if the food does not conform in all respects with Swiss legislation . Responsibility for the execution of the 1957 Ordinance on meat inspection has been placed on the cantons, cantonal veterinary officers, local health auth- orities and meat inspectors and their deputies. In discharging their duties the of- ficers concerned act as officers of the Criminal Investigation Department. 157 Fo od Safety Services The Federal Veterinary Officer is required to ensure uniform standards of meat inspection and to give technical instructions. Instructions have been issued on inter alia the training, duties and powers of meat inspectors, and meat inspection and the judgements to be made. Cantonal veterinary officers are required to supervise the application of the Ordinance. Local health authorities are responsible for the application of the Ordi- nance and for controlling the trade in meat and meat products. Where veterin- arians are available they must perform the meat inspection; otherwise meat inspectors holding a qualification awarded by the canton may do so . Addresses Federal Office of Public Health Post Box 2644 3001 Bern Division of Agriculture Department of Public Economy Mattenhofstrasse 5 3000 Bern Codex contact point 158 Secretariat , Swiss National Codex Alimentarius Committee Federal Office of Public Health Haslerstrasse 16 3008 Bern r 39180000 • Area : 780576km2 Turkey Part of the Republic of Turkey (Thrace) is in Europe and part (Anatolia) in Asia, the two parts being separated by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles , which Link the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Most of Turkey is in Asia , where it is bordered in the east by Iran and the USSR and in the south by Iraq , Syria and the Mediterranean Sea . The small European part is bounded by Bulgaria and Greece. In Asia the interior climate is one of great extremes . On the Mediterranean coast it is more equable , with mild winters and warm summers. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy and employed 60% of the working population in 1975 . In that year 63% of the country's 159 Food Safety Services export earnings came from agricultural products and 29% of the gross na- tional product was from agricultural sources. Government Turkey is a democratic republic , legislative power being vested in the two- chamber Grand National Assembly consisting of the Senate and the National Assembly . The President appoints the Prime Minister , who appoints the Coun- cil of Ministers. The country is divided into 67 provinces (vilay et) , which are subdivided into 572 districts (kaza) and about 1800 municipalities or communes. Food legislation Food legislation is contained in a number of laws enforced by three different ministries : Law No. 1593 of 1930 on public health,a for which the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance is responsible; a law to protect the health of animals , for which the Ministry of Food , Agriculture and Animal Husbandry is responsible ; and a law dealing with commercial fraud , a responsibility of the Ministry of Commerce. ln addition , the Ministry of Industry and Technology is concerned with quality standards of processed agricultural products. The principal regulations have been made under Law No . 1593 , and inter alia they specify minimum standards of hygiene and quality for all foodstuffs. The Turkish Standards Institute prepares standards of various kinds and the ministries enforce them. The Ministry of Food , Agriculture and Animal Hus- bandry and the Ministry of Industry and Technology have issued regulations on meat hygiene and quality marking schemes. The Ministry of Health and Social Assistance regulations set minimum standards for domestic products ; the standards of the Turkish Standards Institute are higher and are designed for the export market. Food control administration Under Law No . 1593 , the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance is respon- sible for food control activities. In municipal areas the municipalities exercise the control functions ; elsewhere these are performed by officers of the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance. The Ministry has established 6 hygiene insti- tutes , 48 public health laboratories and 150 enterobacteria units for food control ; they form a major part of preventive medicine and are closely con- nected with public health and nutrition . By 1983, each of the 67 provinces is expected to have a public health laboratory and each of the l 6 regions a hygiene institute. a Bulletin de /'Office international d'Hygii ne pub/ique, 23 : 57 5 (I 931 ). 160 Turkey In 1979 a project was agreed between the Government of Turkey and the United Nations Development Programme for the strengthening of the food control services of the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance. In accordance with this agreement WHO, as the executing agency of the project, is cooperating over a period of three years with the Ministry to improve the organization and technical efficiency of the food control services. The Ministry of Food , Agriculture and Animal Husbandry has three General Directorates: of Food Affairs, of Veterinary Affairs, and of Plant Protection and Agricultural Quarantine, all of which are concerned with food control. The General Directorate of Food Affairs was formed in 1971 to deter- mine food consumption and food production levels and to organize food storage. It has set up food control laboratories with a multidisciplinary tech- nical staff. It enforces Act No. 1705 and Act No. 30 I 8 on behalf of the Min- istry of Commerce and the Ministry of Industry and Technology. It also sets quality standards for food; to date, 29 such standards have been enforced. It is responsible on behalf of the Ministry of Customs and Monopoly for the control of breweries , under Act No . 4250. The General Directorate has three regional institutes with laboratory facilities which, in addition to their quality control activities, act as food technology research centres. Addi- tional quality control laboratories will soon be in operation. The General Directorate of Veterinary Affairs controls animal products and feed in the distribution chain, particularly for the prevention of zoonoses. It has 23 veterinary health control laboratories for regional research into zoo- noses, with four more planned, and a Department of Control and Technology of Animal Products. By arrangement with the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance , municipal and provincial health authorities may send samples of food of animal origin taken under the Law on public health to the veterinary lab- oratories for analysis. Veterinarians submit samples under the Health Pro- tection of Animals Act , and samples are also sent in by manufacturers and consumers. The General Directorate of Plant Protection and Agricultural Quarantine acts under Law No. 6968; it issues licences for chemical materials that are used against pests, plant diseases and insects. It has two laboratories, in Ankara and Istanbul, which make residue analyses of agricultural products, as well as continual surveys on residues. The Ministry of Commerce, through its Standardization Department, con- trols the standards of agricultural products for export, for which there are compulsory standards , and of olive oil for the domestic market. The Depart- ment has 13 export control centres, two of which, in Istanbul and Izmir, have laboratories. The Ministry has about 250 inspectors. Under Law No. 1705, the Ministry of Industry and Technology is respon- sible for the control of quality and standards of processed agricultural products in the factories and the domestic market. Owing to this Ministry's lack of technical staff and laboratory facilities the control functions are carried out by the General Directorate of Food Affairs. I 61 Food Safety Services Municipalities have been made responsible for food control, and ten have established laboratories to assist in this work . The Ministry of Health and Social Assistance assists those without laboratories by examining their food samples free of charge. Municipalities are concerned mainly with the control of food marketing, and their responsibilities include the inspection of food and food es- tablishments. Environmental health technicians are employed for food in- spection duties but their level of education and public health training varies. Each year the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance sends municipalities pro- grammes of work and provides a manual to guide the inspection staff on procedures and to assure uniformity. The Turkish Standards Institute was founded in 1960 and is authorized by Law No. 132 to deal with the preparation of standards. It is an autonomous body with its own General Assembly, which draws up its general programme of work annually. The General Assembly consists of representatives of min- istries, scientific groups, industry, chambers of cornn1crce, and other interests. A smaller Standards Council discusses and approves draft standards , and decides whether standards shall be mandatory or voluntary and which Ministry should administer them. There are also an Executive Board elected by the General Assembly, a Technical Committee, and special committees. The General Assembly deter- mines the number of preparation groups according to need. The Agricultural Products Preparation Group consists of nine specialists representing various agricultural and health disciplines. It has prepared over 300 standards, mainly for exports; 29 are mandatory and are enforced by the Ministry of Commerce and the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Animal Hus- bandry (General Directorate of Food Affairs) which controls food quality and standards on behalf of the Ministry of Industry and Technology. The standards take into account hygienic and compositional requirements, particu- larly those of the European Economic Community, the Codex Alimentarius, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and the Inter- national Organization for Standardization. Addre~es Ministry of Health and Social Assistance Ankara Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry T .C. Tarim Bankanligi Ankara Codex contact point 162 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Disisleri Bakanligi Ikinci Iktisat Dairesi Genel Ankara USSR The USSR, which stretches from the Baltic Sea in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east, and extends 4800 km from north to south, is the largest country in the world. Its western frontier runs from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea in the south. The country is bordered in the west by Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Norway, Poland and Romania, in the south by Afghanistan, China, Iran, Mongolia and Turkey, and in the east by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. a 1979 census. 163 Food Safety Services The climate shows considerable variations; over most of the territory it is continental, while other parts have a climate ranging from severe to sub- tropical. In winter, temperatures can fall to - 70 °C in north-eastern Siberia, and in summer they can reach 50°C in the plains of central Asia and southern Kazakhstan. Agriculture is a major and technically welJ equipped branch of the econ- omy, consisting of collective and State farms. The chief grain crops are wheat, rye, oats and maize . Other crops include sugar beet , cotton and oil-bearing plants. The main form of trade in the USSR is State trading, in addition to which there is cooperative and collective farm trading. Foreign trade is a State monopoly. Government Under the 1977 Constitution , the USSR is a single federal State comprising 15 Union republics of equal status. Some of the Union republics contain autonomous republics, regions (oblasts) and okrugs. For example , the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) has 16 autonomous republics and 5 autonomous oblasts. The highest legislative organ is the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which consists of two equal chambers , the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. At a joint session the members elect the Praesidium of the Supreme Soviet as the permanent working body. The Chairman of the Praesid- ium is Head of State . The Supreme Soviet appoints the Council of Ministers, headed by a Chairman, which forms the supreme executive and administra- tive organ of State authority and is responsible to the Supreme Soviet. Each of the Union republics has its own constitution and administrative and territorial structure , with a single-chamber Supreme Soviet and a Coun- cil of Ministers that deals with matters coming within the jurisdiction of a Union republic. The Supreme Soviets of the USSR and of Union and autonomous repub- lics are elected for a period of five years. The 15 Union republics are divided into 120 oblasts, 20 autonomous re- publics, 6 territories (krajs), 8 autonomous oblasts and IO national okrugs, 3117 districts (rayons), 2040 towns , 41 249 rural councils and 3784 urban- type settlements. Self-government is exercised in these administrative areas. Although they differ considerably in population and the area they cover, their structures, organization and responsibilities are all similar. The local councils, comprising deputies elected every 2½ years, constitute the organs of State authority in these administrative units. The rights and re- sponsibilities of the councils are prescribed by law. Within the limits of their powers the local councils deal with matters of local importance , implement the decisions of higher State organs , take part in discussions on subjects of concern at the republic and Union levels, and put forward their own proposals. Each council elects an executive committee from among the deputies. This committee is the executive and administrative organ of the council and 164 USSR implements its decisions. Each of the larger executive committees has depart- ments and divisions that exercise direct control over the various services in a given area, such as health, social security and education . Food legislation The USSR has a State system of health care. State policy for the protection of the health of the people was laid down in the Fundamental Principles of legis- lation of the USSR and the Union republics in the field of health, adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on 19 December 1969 _a In accordance with this legislation, the health care of the population is an obligation of all State agencies, undertakings, institutions and organizations. Their powers in respect of the health care of the population are determined by the legislation of the USSR and of the Union republics . The Law of 19 December 1969 contains provisions relating to a wide range of environmental health subjects, including food. The production, storage and transport of food products and of machinery for the preparation and pro- cessing of food, the production of containers, packaging materials and utensils for food products, and the marketing of food products are permitted only if health standards and rules are observed. The use of new chemical substances and methods in the production of food products, the use of agents to promote the growth of crops and animals, the use of chemical methods of plant protection and the use of polymers, plastics and other chemical products is allowed only with the permission of the Ministry of Health . Pre-employment medical inspections and subsequent periodic inspec- tions are compulsory for workers in the food industry, public catering and the food trade. There has been a sanitary service in the USSR since 1922 , but the current regulations for the service were laid down in Decree No. 361 of31 May 1969 of the Council of Ministers . They specify that the fundamental task of the service is to ensure the implementation by State organs, undertakings, institu- tions, organizations, officials and private citizens of legislation pertaining to sanitary and epidemiological matters. The regulations state that the sani- tary and epidemiological service shall be directed by the following officials, as appropriate: - Chief State Medical Officer of Health of the USSR (Deputy Minister of Health of the USSR) ; - Chief State medical officers of health of the Union republics ( deputy min- isters of health of the Union republics); a International digest of health legislation , 21 : 407-427, 1970 (Law of 19 Decem- ber 1969 of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to approve the Fundamental Prin- ciples of the Health Legislation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and of the Union Republics. Vedomosti Verhovnogo Soveta Sojuza Sovetskih Socialistii:eskih Res- publik, No. 52, 1969). 165 Food Safety Services - Chief State medical officers of health of autonomous republics, krajs, regions, okrugs, towns and municipal districts; - Chief State medical officers of health of rural districts; - Chief State medical officers of health of rivers, ports and water trans- port sections. The sanitary and epidemiological stations (sanepids) of the republics and the authorities at the various administrative levels form an important part of the service, whose functions are prescribed in the legislation. Their duties include deciding whether production conditions and the quality of food pro- ducts conform with the required standards of hygiene, as well as determining storage conditions and time-limits for the sale of food products. Food control administration The public health services of the USSR as a whole are directed by the Ministry of Health of the USSR, headed by the Minister , who is a member of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The Ministry , through the republic ministries of health, directs all medical institutions within its competence as well as the pub- lic health administrative authorities and services throughout the country. In each of the Union republics and autonomous republics there is a minis- try of health, which directs the work of the local public health administrative authorities in the territory within its jurisdiction . In most rural districts the responsibility for public health, including sanitary and epidemiological matters, lies with the chief physician of the central district hospital . This system ensures unity of public health administration and the implementation of the principles of planned development in line with the plans for the socioeconomic develop- ment of the country as a whole. The sanitary and epidemiological service, headed by the Deputy Minister of Health of the USSR ( the Chief State Medical Officer of Health) is also or- ganized according to territorial and administrative divisions. There is a central service in the Ministry of Health , and similar services exist in the ministries of health of each republic. In addition, the sanepids form the basic unit of the ser- vice in republics, regions, districts, towns, and marine and river basins. These stations supervise measures relating to the health protection of the environ- ment, and the prevention of communicable and occupational diseases. There are more than 4000 such stations, each equipped with its own hygiene and bacteriological laboratory and staffed by specialists in various disciplines, such as public health physicians , epidemiologists, bacteriologists, biologists and engineers. These experts specialize in various branches of hygiene , such as com- munal , food, industrial , and child and adolescent hygiene . The stations also have middle-level and junior medical staff. The chief physician of a sanepid is the chief State medical officer of health of the corresponding territorial unit. The training of physicians is subdivided according to branches and is conducted in various faculties: 166 USSR general medicine , paediatrics , public health, stomatology and biomedicine. Medical hygienists and epidemiologists are trained in medical institutes. They include specialists in occupational health, food hygiene and com- munal hygiene. Each sanepid has an advisory council that operates according to a plan approved by the chief medical officer of health of the district in which the sanepid is based. The principal task of the council is to assist the sanepid to resolve problems relating to the improvement of its services. The councils are composed of experienced public health workers , together with specialists from establishments for medical treatment and prophylaxis , scientific re- search institutions, industry , trade unions, and social organizations. Under Soviet health legislation and in accordance with State regulations, the construction of catering premises, the production, storage and transport of food products, technical equipment for the preparation and subsequent processing of food products, the production of packaging materials , and the sale of food products must conform with health and hygiene standards and rules . No new chemical substances or materials can be used for the produc- tion or processing of food products without the approval of the Ministry of Health of the USSR. Every food product must meet the requirements laid down in the relevant technical standards, which include : (a) State standards ratified by the State Committee on Standards and the Council of Ministers of the USSR and compulsory for all ministries , institutions and undertakings engaged in the production and sale of food products through- out the country ; and (b) All-Union standards and technical requirements ratified by a ministry or department that controls the plant producing a given product. The preparation of the health standards and rules that apply throughout the USSR is the responsibility of the Ministry of Health of the USSR. The Ministry of Health of the USSR and the ministries of health of the Union republics examine and reach agreement on proposed standards and tech- nical requirements relating to food products , containers and equipment, in connexion with the hygienic aspects of new types of raw materials , foodstuffs and packaging materials. These standards and technical requirements are sub- ject to ratification by the Ministry of Health of the USSR, or by the ministries of health of the Union republics acting on its behalf. The sanitary and epidemiological service supervises all State and coopera- tive food enterprises, including all branches of the food industry, communal catering enterprises and the food marketing network, in accordance with exist- ing rules , standards and legislation relating to health and hygiene. Control is exercised through both preventive surveillance and continuing health surveil- lance. Preventive surveillance is concerned with commissioning of food prem- ises and the introduction of new technology, equipment, methods of food pro- duction, packaging materials, etc. Continuing health surveillance includes 167 Food Safety Services specific tests to check compliance with hygiene rules and standards in the preparation, production, storage, transport and sale of foodstuffs. In addition to the system of State health surveillance maintained by the sanitary and epidemiological service, food production plants have their own departmental laboratories, which carry out a constant check on their products. Laboratories of this kind have a wide range of duties. On the production site they analyse raw materials, carry out chemical and microbiological tests and organoleptic assessments of the items produced, and are responsible for the of- ficial certification of product quality . There are also main control laboratories in charge of the activities of specific works laboratories . Their duties include testing food products, assist- ing industry to modernize production and introduce more advanced technol- ogy, carrying out research work in conjunction with scientific research insti- tutes, and preparing and introducing new standard methods. When disputes occur over particular products , checks for arbitration purposes are made by these laboratories or by the sanepid laboratories. The number of products for which there are microbiological standards is increasing, and microbiological indicators are being used to an ever greater degree in food standards to establish the standard of hygiene in production. The indicators used are counts of total bacteria and E. coli per gramme or per milli- litre. The main products for which such microbiological indicators have been specified are milk and dairy products, drinking-water and beverages. To make provision for the possible risk of contamination by substances injurious to health during the cultivation or processing of raw materials and food products , the standards stipulate maximum admissible levels of substances such as heavy metals, admixtures of weeds and poisonous plants , residual quantities of pesticides, etc., in food products. The use of pesticides in agriculture and the fishing industry is agreed with the Ministry of Health of the USSR and is governed by special documents laying down codes of good practice in agricultural technology. The Ministry of Health of the USSR establishes maximum permissible residues for pesticides in food products and methods of determining them. These standards are binding on farms and undertakings within all ministries and departments. The documents currently in force lay down maximum residue levels for more than 160 pesticides in various food products of vegetable and animal origin . Special health rules govern the use of food additives in individual or groups of products. The corresponding standards for food items specify the permitted levels of food additives. All imported food products are subject to special tests. Quality control of such products is carried out by experts of the All-Union Chamber of Trade. The quality of imported products is tested in accordance with special instruc- tions approved by the Praesidium of the All-Union Chamber of Trade . Where necessary, controls are made of their quality and conformity with certificates. Within the framework of State sanitary surveillance, the control of imported products is carried out at the points of import by the sanitary and epidemio- logical service. 168 Addres.5es Ministry of Health of the USSR Rahmanovskij pereulok 3 101431 GSP Moscow K-51 Ministry of Agriculture Orlikov pereulok 1 -11 Moscow Codex contact point None USSR 169 r 54 962000 • Area: 244 046 km' United Kingdom The United Kingdom comprises England, Wales , Scotland, and Northern Ire- land . It has a temperate climate. Although agriculture has been extensively mechanized half of the coun- try's food has to be imported . Government The United Kingdom is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The two- chamber Parliament , comprising the House of Commons and the House of Lords, is the supreme legislative authority. Primary legislation may be initiated 171 Food Safety Services in either House ; it is usually introduced in the House of Commons but in any case requires the approval of both Houses . Executive responsibility rests with the Government headed by the Prime Minister . Many Government func- tions affecting Scotland are carried out by the various departments of the Scottish Office. Local government throughout the United Kingdom has been reorganized considerably in recent years, with the general effect of substantially reducing the number of local authorities and rearranging their functions to some extent. In England (except London) and Wales there are 53 counties subdivided into 369 districts. The Greater London area is divided into the City and 32 London Boroughs. Each county and subdivision has its own elected council. Scotland has 9 regional councils subdivided into 53 elected district councils . There are also 3 all-purpose island councils . Northern Ireland is divided into 26 districts, each of which has an elected district council. Food legislation England and Wales , Scotland , and Northern Ireland each has a separate Act of Parliament containing its basic food legislation. These Acts have the dual object of safeguarding the health of consumers and protecting them from fraud and exploitation. The Act for England and Wales is the Food and Drugs Act , l 955;a very similar legislation was enacted for Scotland in 1956 and for Northern Ireland in 1958. In addition to this basic legislation, there are a number of other Acts dealing with particular aspects of food such as the slaughter of animals . The Food and Drugs Act , 1955 is a detailed and lengthy legal text con- taining 137 sections and 12 schedules; it states the principles to be observed concerning the composition, labelling and safety of food in its preparation and sale. The main principles are : (a) no person may add any substance to food, use any substance in the preparation of food , abstract any constituent from food , or subject food to any process or treatment so as to render the food injurious to health ; (b) anyone selling to the prejudice of the purchaser any food not of the nature , or not of the substance, or not of the quality demanded by the pur- chaser, is guilty of an offence ; ( c) it is an offence to describe a food falsely on a label or in an advertisement ; a International digest of health legislation , 7 : 507 -5 20, l 956 (An Act to consolidate the Food and Drugs Act, 1938 , the Food and Drugs (Mille, Dairies and Artificial Cream) Act , 1950 , and the Food and Drugs Amendment Act , 1954, together with certain other enactments amending and supplementing Part V of the said Act of l 938 in relation to slaughterhouses and knackers' yards (Food and Drugs Act 1955). Dated 22 November 1955. Public general acts and measures of 1955) . 172 United Kingdom (d) it is an offence to sell, or offer or expose for sale, or to have possession for the purpose of sale or of preparation for sale, any food intended for but unfit for human consumption; (e) any authorized officer of a local authority may examine food intended for human consumption and may seize any which appears to be unfit. While the Act contains extensive legal provisions, the detailed legislative control of food is exercised through regulations made by the Secretary of State for the Social Services, the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the Secretary of State for Wales in accordance with the power giveri to them by the Act. Over 40 main sets of regulations have been made under the Act to con- trol the composition and labelling of food and food hygiene and safety. There are, for example, regulations on food hygiene, contaminants, additives , compo- sitional standards, meat inspection , labelling and milk. The drafting of regula- tions on such matters as slaughterhouses, meat, milk and milk products, food additives and contaminants and the composition and labelling of food is the re- sponsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Other regula- tions on health and hygiene aspects of food and food trading are drafted by the Department of Health and Social Security. Finally, however, regulations in all fields are made by both ministers and the Secretary of State for Wales acting to- gether ( there is close cooperation between their departments) and then laid before Parliament. This legislation applies only to England and Wales. Regulations relating to Scotland are signed by the Secretary of State for Scotland. The Scottish Home and Health Department and the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland fulfil roughly the same delegated legislative functions as the Department of Health and Social Security and the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, respectively. There are separate departments in Northern Ireland. The Food and Drugs Act, 1955 established a Food Hygiene Advisory Council consisting of an independent chairman and members appointed by the Secretary of State for the Social Services, the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the Secretary of State for Wales acting jointly. The membership comprises persons qualified to represent the interests of the public generally in relation to food hygiene and associated matters, and representa- tives of the food trade and of workers in the food trade. The ministers may refer to the Council for consideration and advice matters relating to food and the application of the Act. They are , however, obliged to refer certain matters to the Council , principally regulations in draft form on food hygiene and re- lated matters. There is a separate Scottish Food Hygiene Council. A separate, wider obligation to consult is imposed on ministers. They are required, before making regulations or orders on milk, the composition, label- ling and description of food , additives and contaminants, food hygiene, food premises and vehicles, and the fitness of food, to consult organizations that represent interests substantially affected by their proposals. To advise the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, the Secretary of State for Scotland, the Secretary of State for Wales, the Secretary of State for 173 Food Safety Services the Social Services and the Head of the Department of Health and Social Services for Northern Ireland on the composition, description, labelling and ad- vertising of food and the making of regulations on these subjects there are the Food Standards Committee and the Food Additives and Contaminants Com- mittee. The membership of both these expert committees includes people from universities, from the food and chemical industries and from consumer bodies , and the secretariat consists of officials from the Government departments con- cerned. Members of the committees serve in a personal capacity and do not represent particular interests. Food control administration Local authorities While the making of legislation is a function of Parliament and the ministers concerned, the enforcement throughout the United Kingdom of national legis- lation relating to food safety and hygiene, including the inspection and sampling of food intended for human consumption at all stages of production, distribu- tion, storage and sale to the consumer, is the responsibility oflocal government. The only exception is milk production, for the control of which the Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food is responsible (except in Scotland , where the food safety and hygiene aspects of milk production are the responsibility of district councils). Local government is also responsible for the enforce- ment of legislation on the composition, labelling and advertising of food. In most cases the responsible authorities are not the same as those that deal with food safety and hygiene. In England and Wales food legislation is enforced by three kinds of local government agency: food and drugs authorities, district councils and port health authorities. County councils and London borough councils are food and drugs authori- ties and as such are responsible for enforcing legislation on food quality, com- position and labelling. In county councils these duties are carried out by con- sumer protection or trading standards officers as part of their general consumer protection work. In London, however, environmental health officers carry out all work on food law enforcement. The regional councils in Scotland admin- ister food standards and labelling legislation, while the district councils under- take food hygiene functions. District councils and London borough councils are responsible for the surveillance and promotion of food safety and hygiene. These duties are part of their general environmental health functions carried out by their environmental health officers. This ensures a close integration of all aspects of environmental health work, including food safety and hygiene and the control of those environmental factors of significance in food poisoning. The professional staff of environmental health departments consist very largely of environmental health officers of which there are about 6000 in the United Kingdom. They have a comprehensive training of 3-4 years lead- ing to a university degree or the Diploma in Environmental Health (Certificate 174 -..J Vl England and Wales : food control administration MINISTR Y OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD DEPARTMENT OF HEAL TH AND SOCIAL SECURITY WELSH OFFICE Responsible for food safety and quality, composi - tion and labelling by virtue of the Food and Drugs Act, 1955 and regulations made under it Acts as agent for Secretary of State for Wales who has joint responsibilities with Minister of Agricul- ture , Fisheries and Food for England and Wales Responsible for food hygiene and the fitness of food for human consumption by virtue of the Food and Drugs Act, 1955 and regulations made under it FOOD AND DRUGS AUTHORITIES (county councils and London borough councils) Enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act , 1955 and provisions and regulations mocte under it relating to food composition (including additives and con- taminants) , food quality and labelling LABORATORY OF THE GOVERNMENT CHEMIST DISTRICT COUNCILS AND LONDON BOROUGH COUNCILS Enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act, 1955 and provisions and regulations made under it relating to food hygiene and food fitness Enforcement of the Imported Food Regulations, 1968 when inspection of imported food is deferred PUBLIC ANALYSTS PORT HE AL T1-l AUTHORITI ES Enforcement of the Imported Food Regulations, 1968, and additives and contaminants regu lat ions made under the Food and Drugs Act, 1955 in rela- tion to imported food PUBLIC HEAL TH LABORATORIES Food Safety Services of Sanitary Science in Scotland). Medical advice and assistance, as needed, is provided to local authority environmental health departments by physicians appointed for the purpose from the National Health Service . In England and Wales they are known as medical officers for environmental health and in Scot- land as community medicine specialists (communicable disease and environ- mental health). In Northern Ireland medical advice and assistance is given by medical officers of the area health and social service boards. In the en- vironmental health departments there are also technical support staff, including meat and poultry inspectors, and some departments include veterinary and other professional officers on their staff. • These local authorities have extensive legal powers to enforce satisfactory standards of food hygiene, and the courts can inflict heavy penalties for breaches of the Jaw, including the closure of food businesses, where conditions are par- ticularly bad. There is great reliance on regular routine inspection of establish- ments to achieve these standards. Advice and persuasion and the education of food handlers form a large part of the work of environmental health officers in this field. Another important function is the investigation of foodbome in- fections. In England and Wales physicians have a legal obligation to notify local authorities of any cases they discover, and every effort is made to trace sources of infection. In Scotland the notification is to the Chief Administrative Medi- cal Officer of the health board and in Northern Ireland physicians are required to notify cases of food poisoning to the Chief Administrative Medical Officer of the area health and social services board in whose area the outbreak oc- curred. Statistics of food poisoning are compiled nationally and these are valuable in indicating trends and providing other data. Port health authorities are responsible mainly for enforcing the Imported Food Regulations and the various additive and contaminant regulations de- signed to ensure the fitness of food brought into the country, its freedom from prohibited additives , etc. Inspection of food can be deferred to an inland depot , in which case the Regulations are enforced by the district council in that area. In mainland Scotland the regional councils administer food standards and labelling legislation, while the district councils undertake food hygiene func- tions. The island councils carry out all work on food Jaw enforcement. In Northern Ireland the 26 district councils deal with the whole field of food control, including imported food. Laboratory services Microbiological laboratory services are provided by the Public Health Labora- tory Service Board, an official organization financed by the Department of Health and Social Security and appointed by the Secretary of State for the Social Services. Its services are provided free to all local authorities and phys- icians in general practice . The Public Health Laboratory Service has more than 50 local laboratories in England and Wales, all of which have special facilities for the microbiological 176 United Kingdom examination of food. The Service also has a specialized food hygiene laboratory at the Central Public Health Laboratory , Colindale where other specialized lab- oratories such as the Division of Enteric Pathogens and the Virus Reference Laboratory are also situated. These laboratories provide a service for the whole of the United Kingdom, which includes phage-typing , serotyping and toxigenicity testing. There is efficient and rapid communication between the local and central laboratories and all collaborate with the Communicable Diseases Surveillance Centre, Colindale to provide a data-collection , research and advisory service. All the laboratories' work concerns human infections and the detection of po- tential sources of infection. An important part of the work is the investigation of foods that may be a public health hazard. Because the laboratories are widely distributed and closely associated with medical diagnostic microbiology, they can recognize and respond to situations in which a widely distributed food presents a hazard to health. The Public Health Laboratory Service does not extend to Scotland , where the microbiological examination of food is undertaken in the lab- oratories of the National Health Service . Reports from these laboratories are among the data collated by the Communicable Disease (Scotland) Unit , Ruchill Hospital, Glasgow, which itself performs a very similar role in Scot- land to that of the Communicable Diseases Surveillance Centre throughout England and Wales. In Northern Ireland most food samples for microbiological examination are sent to the Central Laboratory at Belfast City Hospital, but some are examined at other hospital laboratories. The local authorities responsible for the control of the quality and compo- sition of food - the food and drugs authorities - are required to appoint public analysts who are qualified and equipped to carry out the necessary analyses of samples. For chemical analyses there are about 50 public ana- lysts' laboratories in England and Wales. More than half are owned by the food and drugs authorities concerned and the remainder are private labora- tories that charge local authorities for the work they do for them. There is also the Laboratory of the Government Chemist, which acts as a refer- ence laboratory for the United Kingdom when the findings of other lab- oratories are disputed. Public analysts' laboratories in Scotland are similar to those in England and Wales. In Northern Ireland one Public Analyst's Laboratory performs all chemical examinations. State Veterinary Service The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food provides an advisory and de- velopment service to agriculture in England and Wales, part of which consists of the State Veterinary Service. Veterinary officers of the Service are respon- sible for the control of notifiable diseases of animals. They have particular responsibilities for diseases such as tuberculosis, brucellosis and salmonellosis, 177 Food Safety Services which are transmissible to man; they monitor ( on behalf of the central Govern- ment) the standards of slaughterhouse hygiene and meat inspection enforced by local authorities, and they are available to advise local authorities if required. There are 24 veterinary investigation centres in England and Wales with their own laboratories and a Central Veterinary Laboratory at Weybridge. Although the main function of the laboratories is the investigation of animal disease they have , through their responsibility for certain zoonoses, an important role in reducing hazards to human heaJth. In Scotland , the nine veterinary investiga- tion centres are not under direct Government control but are attached to agricultural colleges. They play the same role as their counterparts in Eng- land and Wales. No formal link exists between the veterinary investigation service and the Public Health Laboratory Service, but in practice the two organizations co- operate closely at both national and local level. Each service makes use of the other's specialized laboratories and, at locaJ level , directors of veterinary in- vestigation centres, directors of public health laboratories, medical officers for environmental health, community medicine specialists, chief environmental health officers and local officers of the State Veterinary Service work together in the prevention and control of zoonoses and ensuing human infections. Addre~s Department of Health and Social Security Alexander Fleming House Elephant and Castle London SE I 6BY Welsh Office Health Services I Division Pearl Assurance House Greyfriars Road Cardiff CF I 3JL Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Great Westminster House Horseferry Road London SWIP 2AE Codex contact point 178 Miss G.D. McELnea Food Standards Branch Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Great Westminster House Horseferry Road London SWIP 2AE r f 21352000 • Area : 255804km' Yugoslavia Yugoslavia has a long western coastline on the Adriatic Sea . It has boundaries with Austria, Hungary and Italy in the north, with Bulgaria and Romania in the east, and with Albania and Greece in the south. It has a continental climate in the hilly interior, but in the coastal areas the climate is mediterranean with steady rainfall throughout the year. The average temperature in Belgrade is 22 °C in summer and O °C in winter. Since the Second World War there has been a rapid development of heavy and light industry, which has reduced the proportion of the working popula- tion in agriculture from 80% to less than 40%. In recent years agricultural pro- duction has been assisted by mechanization . The main crops are maize , wheat, 179 Food Safety Services sugar beet, sunflower seed , and potatoes . There are many orchards and abun- dant livestock. Imports of food are rather higher than exports. Government The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia comprises the republics of Serbia , Croatia, Macedonia , Montenegro , Slovenia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, and the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina within Serbia . It has a collec- tive Presidency consisting of one representative of each republic and autonomous province, and this body exercises the rights and duties of Head of State . The Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has 2 cham- bers. The Federal Chamber consists of 30 delegates from each republic and 20 from each autonomous province ; the Chamber of Republics and Auton- omous Provinces consists of 12 delegates from the assemblies of each republic and 8 from the Autonomous Provinces. The Assembly elects the President of the Federal Republic . In the Federal Chamber there is a Committee for Labour, Health and Social Welfare, which deals with problems related to health, social policy , labour relations , etc. Each republic has its own Assembly of three chambers. Republics are sub- divided into municipalities or communes, all of equal legal status. The Com- munal Assembly, in every municipality, has three chambers: the sociopolitical chamber of directly elected representatives of the inhabitants; the chamber of associated labour elected by the employees of the economic, cultural, health, and welfare organizations and a variety of other organizations; and the chamber of local communities, elected by the communities. A communal assembly can deal with all matters of interest to its population except those that have been assigned to other bodies. In municipalities with a number of villages and in large cities such as Belgrade, local committees may be formed to discharge business of direct local concern. As regards health the Federation, through its organs, is responsible for the protection of the lives and health of citizens from contagious diseases that en- danger the whole country, the provision of drugs, the control of poisons and the production and sale of narcotic drugs, and the protection and improvement of the environment of interest to the whole country and the international com- munity. All other matters relating to health care are within the competence of the republics, provinces and communes. Food legislation The basic food legislation is the Law on the safety of foodstuffs and consumer goods.0 It replaced the Law of 29 November 1972, which it modifies and amends in various ways necessary to improve the health control of foodstuffs 0 Sluibeni list Socijalisticke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije, No . 55 (1978). 180 Yugoslavia and consumer goods. One of its basic principles is the protection of the con- sumer's health. It therefore prohibits putting on the domestic market foods and consumer goods that do not fulfil the prescribed health standards. The other important principle is equal treatment of all concerned in the production, im- port and distribution of food. This is ensured by uniform health and safety standards for foods and certain types of consumer goods . Another principle of the Law is that consumers be informed about the pro- ducts they purchase; it is expressed in provisions for the obligatory indication on the packaging of various products, and of information on composition and on the presence and proportions of colouring agents, preservatives ·and other ad- ditives. Other provisions prohibit the advertising of alcohol and tobacco. Authority is given for the introduction of more specific regulations on the hygienic quality of drinking-water supplied to the public and water used for the production of food for sale. All foodstuffs and certain consumer goods on the domestic market must comply with the conditions prescribed by the federal regulations on the pro- tection of health. The use of colouring agents, preservatives and other additives is also regulated, as well as general health conditions. Inspectors are authorized to take samples for analysis and other examinations. The conditions that could be regarded under the 1972 Law as rendering food unwholesome have been extended to include the presence of antibiotics, hormones and mycotoxins. However, the new Law provides for a reduc- tion of the previous requirements for the declaration of additives in the label- ling of food because of lack of public interest in this information; this re- moves technical difficulties for manufacturers without endangering con- sumers' health . In the past, customs duty could not be paid on imported food until a federal health certificate had been issued and this caused serious delays at border crossings. Under the new Law, importers may pay customs duties on certain shipments before the results of examinations are known, with the approval of the frontier veterinary inspector. Importers pay a fee to cover the cost of the health examination. The 1978 Law provides that the public information media must an- nounce the seizure and destruction of foodstuffs unfit for human consumption and that those responsible for the unsatisfactory condition of the food must bear the cost of the announcements. • A number of regulations made under the 1972 Law, on such matters as methods of analysis of various types of product, bacteriological standards, and food hygiene, were annulled by the new Law and are being replaced by new regulations. Food control administration There are about 135 laboratories attached to public health, veterinary health, and other kinds of institution officially designated for food control work by federal, republic and local administrative bodies, and to sanitary, veterinary 181 Food Safety Services health, agricultural , and market inspectorates. These inspectorates take action on the results of the laboratory examinations of the samples they take. About 65 veterinary laboratories assist in the control of foods of animal origin , and some 58 public health laboratories of health institutions, com- munity health centres, and pharmaceutical , medical and technological faculties assess the commercial and hygienic quality of foodstuffs , drinking-water , and some consumer goods. Central republic laboratories perform more complex analyses that need special equipment , such as determinations of pesticide residues and food additives and assessments of the biological value and hygienic quality of foodstuffs. A Decree of 15 March 1965° requires industrial concerns that produce foodstuffs to inspect their raw materials , their products in the course of manufacture , and their final products before they are put on the market. For this they must have laboratory facilities with trained technicians. Two or more small undertakings may combine to provide a joint service. The inspection service ascertains whether the finished products satisfy the rel- evant regulations in all respects and certifies their good quality and whole- someness. The agency of the health or veterinary service may install its own inspection service in certain undertakings if the nature of the product in- dicates such a need. The undertaking must provide the premises, and the agency can claim reimbursement of expenses in providing the service. Addresses Federal Committee for Labour, Health and Social Welfare Bulevar Avnoj-a 104 11070 Belgrade Ministry of Agriculture Bulevar A vnoj 104 1110 Belgrade Codex contact point Institute for Standardization Slobodana Penezica-Krcuna 35 Belgrade a International digest of health legislation , 17 : 169-171 , 1966 (Decree of 15 March 1965 to promulgate the Law to amend and consolidate the Basic Law· on the sanitary inspection of foodstuffs . Sluibeni list Socijalisticke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije, No . 13 , 1965). 182 No. I No. 2 No. 3 No.4 No.5 No.6 No. 7 No .8 No .9 No. 10 No. 11 No.12 No. 13 PREVIOUS ISSUES IN THE SERIES PUBLIC HEALTH IN EUROPE Health planning and organization of medical care. 1972, 131 pages, price Sw.fr. 15 . Chronic diseases. 1973 , 198 pages , price Sw.fr. 20 . Communicable diseases. 1974, 96 pages (out of print). Glossary of health care terminology, by J. Hogarth. 1975, 434 pages, price Sw.fr. 25. Myocardial infarction community registers. 1977, 232 pages, price Sw.fr. 22. Coordination of health and welfare services in four countries: Austria, Italy, Poland and Sweden, by R. Kohn. I 977, 53 pages, price Sw.fr. 7. The training and use of dental auxiliary personnel, by H. Allred. 1977, 70 pages , price Sw .fr. 9. Health and the environment. 1977, 161 pages,price Sw.fr. 18. Guide pratique d'hygiene du tourisme. 1978, I 31 pages, price Sw.fr. 14 (French only). Psychogeriatric care in the community. 1979, 119 pages (out of print). Crisis admission units and emergency psychiatric services, by J.E. Cooper. 1979 , 118 pages, price Sw .fr. I 1. National drug policies. 1979, 99 pages , price Sw .fr. 10. Information sy stems for health services. 1980, 132 pages, price Sw.fr. 11. 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LAHOIU .l 1ho11/d h,· uddr.·11t·d w th,· World Health Organ11at1on. Dl\lrohu11on PAPLJA Nt:W GlilNt'.A: The Wit() Pn~ramme C"oordinalur. PO and Sale,. I:! I I G•,1 "'" :!?. S"'-11,erland &.," '.'k%. 8oRoKo C-IIINA: China ~a11onal Pu~lo<Jllon, lmpon Corp<>ralum, PO llox HK PIIIUPPINt~'i: World llealth Organi1a11un. R~1onal Ofha, fur the Bfu1,<, (Ptt-..1,<;) WC\IC'rn Pal·1hc. PO Bo-. 29.l:?. MA,nA - The Modern Book ('om• c·o1.0MBIA: D"1nhhrc.l\ Lid. Pio Alr,1n,o Garcia, Carrera 4a. 1'-o, .\~ pany Inc. PO &.lx 6J:?. 9:?2 R11al A,enue. MA"'ILA 2800 11'1. C-•kl.C,t'- POI.AND: Sktadnic-J Ks,~gar>ka, ul Ma,u-.,ecka Q, 00052 W••"" C\"PAl 1S: Puhh,hcr,· Dt\tnhuwr, C)Jnu, . .\0 l>cmc.lC"raua, A,c A,·,o\ 1nn·p1 flt'n,JJ,n,/,J - BKWZ Ru,:h. ul Wron1a :?J. (X)840 W.\R\A\lo Dhomc11ou,. PO Bt,11. 41~~- '\KO\I" • r,,.,n,..Juu/., ,m/1) ('Zt:OU>SI.0\'AKIA: Ania. \'e Smedach .10. 11127 PRA<,t, I PORTIIG,-1.: l.1Har1a Rodrigue,. IH/1 Rua d,, Ouro. 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(iencral Mo\C.1trdo 29. MADRIi> :?O - Librena D1a1 de 10 San11 ... Lagasca 9\ y Maldonado 6. MAlllttll I>; llalme, 417 y 419. t·RA~( t:: I 1hramc Arnc11c. ~ rue C'a\lm1r-l>cla,·1ttnt. 7~006 PARIS BARt·uo,A 22 (;t:RMAN nt:M()('RATIC Rt:Pl'BI.Ke lluchhau, Leipllg. Pmtfach SRI I.ANKA: 11·,• India. WIIO Regional Office I-NI. 7111 1 ttP/IC, SWEDEN: Ak11eholage1 C" I'. h111e, Kungl llovhokhandel. Regc,r,ng.,. (;t:RMA-.\, H:llt:RAI. RU'l BU{ (>t·: (;,,.,.Verlag (imhll. (imn- gatan 12. 10.127 St<HklkHM heimc"trJ,,c W. P,"tfJch ~.160. 62.11> b< H811R, _ W ~ Sa.trhach. SWrr/.t:RI.AND: Med11rn1...:her Verlag !Ian, llul>cr. Uingga" Stra\\c, P<1,1fach 11111>111. l"ller>trJ,se l. <IXXI Kill, I - Alex llorn. Spie!l"I- 71> • .10l2 Ru-. 9 it,l\se ~- l'o,,tf,1<h .1.1-Nl. 621WI "°"'"""' S\RIAN ARAB Rt:Pl!BU(': M hrra, Kekhia. PO, II<» No. ~221. (iltA~A: t-idc!ii I ntcrJm\C',. P <) &1, 161X. Ac< RA AUPPo (;Rt:H t: C, C l-ldther,1udJk1> SA . l.,hramc, rnterna11,,nale. rue ntAll.4ND: ..,., India. 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('om.•Jpo11,lrnn' nmu•m,nK .1uh.u npllmn IRA!'rii: Jr.iniJn Amalpm,lll'd Ui,inhution Agcnq, I ~d Khiahan Sora)-a, 'iho,,IJ he· addrr.u«·d to tht' World Health Organization. D1\lnhu1ic.,n lut1RA' and ~le,. 1211 (jpr,1n,·4 27. Sv,,i11crland. PuM1c·"1mn.1 ""Ill.to'"'"'' .. IRAQ: \1ini,1r~ (If Jnformau,111 _ '\'Jtional HtlU\C for Puhll\htntt. l>l\tri• ahlc· from th,• United Nallon, Hoohhop. Nf\\' Y<,aK, N.Y. 10017 hu11n!,! and Ad,c-rt1,1ntt. ffAt,tfl>AI> "•''"''on/\' IR.:l.A!'riiD: (he SIJllt1ner) Orfil·C'. l>l BIi' 4 l"S.'iR: for n·adn'i ,n 1hr l-'S.\"R rt·qum11K Ru.uian edttwn, Korn ... ~ ISRA•:t: Hc,hllcr & Cti., ,~llhJn Strau,, SI reel, JIRI \Alt\l mol,ktJ pnl\pckl IK. Mcd1cin\kaJa Kn1ga, McJS<U\\' - f(,, rt'Odc·n U..\l .\: I J111on1 \1incnJ \1edtcJ. Ct1r...1 Bramante Kl-8S. IOl.:!b ,mtodt" the• l -S.SR ""lumnK Ruuiat1 ,·Jmum Kuzncck1J m~l\l IK. f I Ml' . \ 1a t.umJrmora J, ~OIINI \1ll A' \1('}'JunarndnaJa Kmga. 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