Land degradation in Tanzania : perception from the village

WORLD BlANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 370 @wpU WTP370 for pubilo d1souselon July 1997 Land Degradation in Tanzania Perception from the Village is~- A/emneh Dejene Elieho K Shishira Pius Z. Ya.na Fred H Johnsen  RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 286 Tavoulareas and Charpentier, Clean Coal Technologiesfor Developing Countries No. 287 Gillham, Bell, Arin, Matthews, Rumeur, and Hearn, Cotton Production Prospects for the Next Decade No. 288 Biggs, Shaw, and Srivastiva, Technological Capabilities and Learning in African Enterprises No. 289 Dinar, Seidl, Olem, Jorden, Duda, and Johnson, Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs No. 290 Weijenberg, Dagg, Kampen Kalunda, Mailu, Keterna, Navarro, and Abdi Noor, Strengthening National Agricultual Research Systems in Eastern and Central Africa: A Frameworkfor Action No. 291 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Errazuriz and Francisco, Surveillance of Agricultutral Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Chile No. 292 Gorriz, Subramanian, and Simas, Irrigation Management Transfer in Mexico: Process and Progress No. 293 Preker and Feachem, Market Mechanisms and the Health Sector in Central and Eastern Europe No. 294 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Sturzenegger and Bebczuk, Surveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Argentina No. 295 Pohl, Jedrzejczak, and Anderson, Creating Capital Markets in Central and Eastern Europe No. 296 Stassen, Small-Scale Biomass Gasifiers for Heat and Power: A Global Review No. 297 Bulatao, Key Indicatorsfor Family Planning Projects No. 298 Odaga and Heneveld, Girls and Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Analysis to Action No. 299 Tamale, Jones, and Pswarayi-Riddihough, Technologies Related to Participatory Forestry in Tropical and Subtropical Countries No. 300 Oram and de Haan, Technologies for Rainfed Agriculture in Mediterranean Climates: A Review of World Bank Experiences No. 301 Mohan, editor, Bibliography of Publications: Technical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to April 1995 No. 302 Baldry, Calamari, and Yameogo, Environmental Impact Assessment of Settlement and Development in the Upper Leraba Basin No. 303 Heneveld and Craig, Schools Count: World Bank Project Designs and the Quality of Primary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 304 Foley, Photovoltaic Applications in Rural Areas of the Developing World No. 305 Johnson, Education and Training of Accountants in Sub-Saharan Anglophone Africa No. 306 Muir and Saba, Improving State Enterprise Performance: The Role of Internal and External Incentives No. 307 Narayan, Toward Participatory Research No. 308 Adamson and others, Energy Use, Air Pollution, and Environmental Policy in Krakow: Can Economic Incentives Really Help? 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Yanda Fred H. Johnsen The World Bank Washington, D.C  Copyright (D 1997 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1997 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the proce- dures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. 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ISBN 0-8213-3993-1 ISSN: 0253-7494 Alemneh Dejene is a consultant and Coordinator of the Soil Fertility Initiative in the World Bank's Africa Region. Elieho K. Shishira is Director of the Institute of Resources Assessment, University of Dar-es-Salaam. Pius Z. Yanda is a Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar-es-Salaam. Fred H. Johnsen is Asso- ciate Professor at Noragric, the Agricultural University of Norway. Cover photo by Alemneh Dejene "Cattle grazing in Ethiopia." Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Land degradation in Tanzania : perception from the village / Alemneh Dejene ... [et al.]. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper : no. 370) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-3993-1 1. Soil degradation-Tanzania-Kondoa District. 2. Agriculture- Environmental aspects-Tanzania-Kondoa District. 3. Land degradation-Control-Government policy-Tanzania-Kondoa District. 4. Farmers-Tanzania-Kondoa District-Attitudes. 5. Land use, Rural-Tanzania-Kondoa District. 6. Farms, Small-Tanzania-Kondoa District. I. Alemneh Dejene. II. Series. S625.T3L35 1997 97-18344 333.76'137'09678-dc21 CIP  CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENT. ......................................................................................vi ABSTRACT ....................................................... vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................ viii 1. BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY.....................1 The Context.1................................................. Major Causes .............................................2 Nexus of Poverty, Loss of Soil Fertility, and Low Productivity ................3 Data Availability .............................................4 Need for Practical Approach .............................................4 Objectives of the Study .............................................7 The Setting ..............................................8 Methodology of the Study ............................................. 15 2. SOIL DEGRADATION.....................................................................................17 Soil Erosion ............................................ 17 Soil Fertility ............................................ 22 3. FARMING PRACTICES......................................................................................30 Cropping Systems ............................................ 30 Fuelwood ............................................ 32 Livestock Keeping ............................................ 34 4. LAND AND INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES. ...........................37 Land Availability ............................................ 37 Land Tenure ............................................ 41 Local Organization and Extension ............................................ 44 5. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATION.................................................47 REFERENCES .54 . .  APPENDIX A Household Questionnaire to Assess Land Degradation in Kondoa District, Tanzania .............................................. 66 Map Location of Kondoa District and the Study Area .......................................9 TABLES 1. Highlights of key ecological and socio-economic characteristics of sample villages in the study area .............................................. 14 2. Farmers' awareness of the existence of soil erosion on their land ........... 17 3. Types of soil erosion control measures being practiced ........................... 19 4. Vegetation specimen collectedfrom Kondoa Irangi Hills indicating different levels of soil degradation ............................... 21 5. Farmers'perceptions of soilfertility decline ............................... 23 6. Soilfertility enriching practices ............................... 25 7. Farm implements usedfor tillage practices ............................... 31 8. Average distance to collect wood ............................... 33 9. Average number of people in the household and producer/consumer ratios for the four sample villages ............................................. 41 10. Perception and Response Gap to Major Land Degradation Problems ............... 47 iv  FOREWORD Inadequate farming practices, deforestation and overgrazing are the primary reasons for declining agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa. These factors, driven by socio-economic forces, manifest themselves in market, policy and institutional failures. This study examined the dynamics of the loss of soil fertility and low productivity at the village level. In addition, it looks at the perception and response gap between officials and local land users in the diagnosis and remedy of land degradation. This gap often results in conflict, and is a major constraint to the successful implementation of policies and projects to address land degradation. The study's findings underscore that sustainable use of land resources and successful policies and programs require appropriate enabling policies and institutional arrangements to encourage intensification of smallholder farming systems. This would, for example, include, increasing the proper use of inorganic and organic amendments, the development of low-cost soil cover and moisture management techniques, and expanding draft power. Policies would also require incorporating proven indigenous practices and knowledge into technical approaches, and ensuring local participation in decision-making. This study was undertaken by the Environment Group, Africa Region, as a component of the Africa Region's Soil Fertility Initiative. Its findings will help shape investment programs to enhance land productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Kevin Cleaver Technical Director Africa Region v  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A large part of the credit for the successful completion of this study must go to the support of Narendra Sharma at the World Bank who provided overall guidance and supervision and made valuable inputs at all stages. We are also thankful to Cynthia Cook, Isabel Valencia, Simon Rietbergen, and Chirstian Pieri at the World Bank. Walter Lusigi, at the Global Environment Facility (GEF), helped considerably in initiating the study. At Noragric, Norway, we have benefited from the inputs of Jens Aune and Athanasio Minjas. We are indebted for the valuable contributions and support of Professor Idris Kikula, Director of the Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA), University of Dar-es-Salaam. We are also thankful for the inputs of government agencies such as Land Use Commission, Planning Commission, National Environment Management Council, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment, National Soil Service, Regional and District Natural Resource and Livestock Development Office, Regional Commission Office in Dodoma, Soil Conservation Project in Dodoma Region (HADO), and to the World Bank Resident Mission in Tanzania. The manuscript was carefully reviewed by Professor Hans Hurni at University of Bern, Switzerland, Dr. Sara Scherr, Research Fellow at International Food Policy Research Institute, and Dr. Carlos Baanate, Director of Research and Development at the International Fertilizer Development Center. We are grateful for their valuable comments. The comments of Robert Brinkman and Jeff Tschirley at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations were helpful. We are also thankful for the editorial assistance of Lawrence Mastri and P.C. Mohan at the World Bank. It is difficult to acknowledge individually all those who have assisted us during fieldwork. But HADO staff and the Ministry of Agricultural field extension officer were instrumental in the successful completion of the field research. We are grateful to all of them. Alemneh Dejene vi  ABSTRACT Local land users often have different perceptions and responses than officials to the land degradation problem. This has resulted in conflict with officials in diagnosing and solving the problem and is a major constraint to the successful implementation of policies and projects to address land degradation. The study's findings underscore that sustainable use of land resources and successful policies and programs require appropriate enabling policies and institutional arrangements to encourage intensification of smallholder farming systems. Policies would also require incorporating proven indigenous practices and knowledge into technical approaches, and ensuring local participation in decision-making. vii  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Official and local land users often have quite different perceptions and responses to land degradation problems. This situation impedes successful implementation of policies and projects to address land degradation. Land degradation is also influenced by local ecological and socio-economic forces, and understanding the dynamics of these interactions at the local level would contribute to remedy the problem. Hence, this study examines the most significant issues affecting levels of productivity and land quality at the community and village level, where local land users take decision on cropping and livestock management. The specific objectives of the study were to examine farmers' perceptions, particularly their understanding and interpretation of factors and indicators which they link to soil erosion and fertility decline, the level of degradation of crop and pastureland, and the institutional capacity to implement soil conservation and fertility measures -- with particular regard to land tenure policies, local organizations and extension service. The investigators also sought to identify the technologies, best practices and indigenous knowledge used by households to control erosion, enhance soil fertility, and increase crop and livestock productivity among smallholders. Restoration of Soil Fertility Farmers are aware that soil degradation, in various forms, is taking place on their farms as well as in the surrounding areas. This is based on their perception and interpretation of indicators that reveal certain conditions regarding crop and pastureland. The major indicators farmers cited included rill and gully erosion, water absorption capacity (level of run-off), exposure of roots, crop yield, change in color of crop leaves, stunted crops, emergence of weeds and unpalatable species, appearance of termite mounds, and the disappearance of grass. Most physical and plant species indicators are local and site-specific. One approach to mitigate land degradation involves intensification of farming using sustainable production systems (such as intercropping, composting, farmyard manure, strip cropping, ploughing crop residue, and agroforestry), and increasing productivity on the same unit of land. The proper use of chemical fertilizer is important for the restoration of soil fertility as well as in the intensification of smallholder farms. Macroeconomic factors, particularly pricing policy, have eliminated fertilizer subsidies, and drastically reduced the demand for and use of fertilizer. There is a linkage between high population density and greater incentives to improve soil productivity since investment in soil fertility and measures to maintain productivity becomes more rewarding and profitable as the scarcity value of land increases with respect to labor. Another approach involves extensification of agriculture by clearing new land, often in an unsustainable way. Extensification is also a means of gaining ownership to new land. Poverty can be a disincentive to undertaking improved land management practices and intensification. Poor farmers living in villages are often engaged in cash labor at the time viii  of field preparation and their land tends to suffer most from soil erosion and fertility decline. Farming Practices Several important aspects of farmer behavior were revealed through the examination of farming practices. For example, deforestation was primarily a result of increasing the area under cultivation, not fuelwood gathering. The use of fire as a land- management tool is widespread. It is a means of reducing the incidence of livestock disease and is also used in clearing new land for agricultural expansion. But it has negative effects -- the destruction of vegetation cover, soil organic matter, lowering the diversity of soil fauna, and increasing erosion. The government's efforts to initiate communal tree planting were not widely accepted, and farmers indicated their preference for individual tree planting on their farms. Overgrazing Officials view large herd size and overgrazing as major causes of land degradation. Villagers see livestock as a sign of wealth, and would like to maximize their herd size for their own social, cultural, and economic reasons. This perception tends to encourage overgrazing and.land degradation. Officials and extension agents have attempted to solve this problem by enforcing destocking policies. This policy has been unpopular among farmers and difficult to implement. Livestock were temporarily moved into another area, thereby merely transferring the problem. Another unintended outcome of the removal of livestock was a substantial increase in the incidence of malnutrition. Officials tried to alleviate this program by introducing the zero grazing method which focused on improved dairy cows for milk production, and a stall-feeding system. However, this alternative has not been well received since it does not take into account the multiple roles and value of livestock in the farning system. Land Tenure The majority of farmers feel secure about the land they cultivate. Customary land tenure authority is vested in local leaders. It is not subject to regulation and can be held in perpetuity by farmers, and thus has not been an impediment to investing in land. Indeed, most farmers have invested in, or improved their land in terms of tree planting, buying fertilizer, using farmyard manure, constructing terraces and water ways, etc. The lack of investment has been more influenced by poverty rather than an unwillingness to invest because of any insecurity of tenure. A more pertinent issue seems to be conflict over grazing rights involving predominantly crop producers and pastoralists. This conflict is more acute where large-scale operators are expanding into traditional pastoral and grazing areas. In areas where there is a large tract of common property resources, the current laissez-faire approach is enhancing conflict and the degradative process. ix  Extension and Local Organizations Farmers are reluctant to participate in local associations mainly due to their negative experiences with government-initiated, top-down conservation efforts (such as destocking and labor-intensive conservation measures) and the belief that such an association could be used as a rubber stamp to promote unpopular measures. Furthermore, there are few extension agents at the village level and visits from the extension service are infrequent. Farmers are suspicious of extension agents as they often see their objectives as being the conversion of communal lands into government managed protected areas, which they will not be able to use. The crucial challenges facing extension services are (a) developing a technical package in improved crop and livestock practices tailored and fine-tuned to a specific farming system and agro-ecological conditions; (b) incorporating tested indigenous knowledge and land management practices into the technical packages; (c) increasing nutrient uptake efficiency by developing the best combination of organic and inorganic fertilization methods; (d) involving civic society and the appropriate local organizations before launching conservation measures; and (e) working closely with research institutions in developing and introducing early maturing and drought-resistant crops. Conclusions The sustainable use of land resources and the successful implementation of policies and programs to address the land degradation problem would require enabling policies and institutional arrangements to encourage intensification of the smallholder farming systems. This would include such means as increasing the proper use of inorganic and organic soil amendments, provision of permanent watering points, development of low-cost soil cover and water harvesting techniques, expanding draft power, and strengthening local organization and extension services. At the same time, there is also a need for policies that discourage environmentally damaging land use practices, such as uncontrolled extensification in communally-held land and pastoral areas. An improved system will also require taking into account land users' perspectives, local variations in ecology and socio-cultural conditions, incorporating proven indigenous practices and knowledge into technical approaches, and ensuring local participation in decision-making. x  CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY The Context Fertile land is crucial to provide a livelihood for most people in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Agricultural land is under enormous pressure from soil degradation, deforestation, inappropriate farming and grazing practices, population growth, fuelwood shortage, land tenure conflicts, lack of effective extension service and local organization, and other institutional and policy shortcomings. Agricultural production in SSA increased at about 1.5 percent per annum between 1965 and 1990, while population growth averaged close to 3 percent over the same period. This agricultural growth rate is well below the estimated 4 percent per year which is essential for many SSA countries to reduce poverty and attain sustainable growth (Cleaver 1994; Badiane and Delegado 1995). The dismal performance of the agricultural sector (which must be the engine for overall economic development) is being increasingly attributed to the land degradation problem facing many African countries. A recent study (Scherr and Yadav 1996) has identified several subregions in Africa (such as the densely populated highlands in east and central Africa) as "hot spots" where land degradation -- in terms of nutrient depletion and erosion -- pose a serious threat to food security and local economic activity. The terms "land degradation" and "soil degradation" are often used interchangeably. However, land degradation has a broader concept and refers to the degradation of soil, water, climate, and fauna and flora. Soil degradation refers more to water erosion and wind erosion, as well as chemical, physical, and biological (loss of organic matter) degradation (Hurni, 1996). This study addresses various forns of both land and soil degradation, which is crucial to any real effort to ensure productivity, food security and environmental sustainability. Declining agricultural productivity and the increasing number of countries devastated by drought in SSA over the past two decades have raised serious concerns among African policy makers about whether the land can support the expanding population, and produce enough to combat poverty and food insecurity. Hence, at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, African leaders appealed for an International Convention to Combat Desertification. The Desertification Convention, which is now being ratified by the United Nations member countries, focuses on combating land degradation in the dryland areas of Africa. African countries are now faced with the urgent task of addressing land degradation problems in both marginal and high potential areas. 1  Major Causes Socio-economic and political factors have forced many countries in SSA to bring new land under cultivation and to reduce fallow periods to meet the food and fiber needs of the rapidly increasing population. This extensive approach is reflected in low cropping intensity and poor yields per hectare (ha) in SSA. Cropping intensity is 55 percent in SSA -- compared with 1 10 percent in South Asia -- and the average yield of cereals is about 1 ton per ha in SSA while it is 2.3 tons per ha for the rest of the developing countries (World Bank and FAO 1995). Much of the unutilized land in many parts of SSA is of marginal quality in fragile ecosystems, and extensification of agriculture often results in depletion of soil fertility and in land degradation. In the densely populated areas of SSA, intensification of agriculture is reducing fallow periods and increasing the farming intensity on crop land. A major part of the cultivable land in SSA (72 percent) suffers from low fertility, loss of soil nutrients, poor soil drainage and steep slopes, and is unlikely to support the population (FAO 1993). Soil degradation is widespread in SSA: about 320 million ha of land have been degraded moderately or severely by overgrazing, deforestation, and poor farming practices, while about 5 million ha are degraded beyond rehabilitation (Oldeman, Hakkeling, Sombroek 1990). The land degradation process is not well understood, and most studies have centered on the physical aspects of this process. The most significant study on extent and nature of land degradation was that of the Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) study by Oldeman, Hakkeling, and Sombroek. GLASOD defines land degradation as a process that lowers the present or future capacity of the soil to produce goods and services. The most significant single contributor to soil degradation in all regions, including SSA, is water erosion. Other damage comes from wind erosion, chemical degradation, and physical degradation -- in order of importance (Oldeman, van Engelen, and Pulles 1990). Degradation occurs over time, and could have either a negative or a positive impact on land productivity. Certain types of soil degradation, such as geological erosion, are part of the natural process. This study focuses on degradation caused by human activities, and, which, therefore, can be prevented. In sum, the major causes of land degradation in SSA are overgrazing, inadequate farming practices, and deforestation. Dryland areas, which cover 65 percent of the total land area in SSA, are highly susceptible to erosion and various forms of land degradation. In the dryland areas, overgrazing affects 49 percent of the land, poor farming practices 24 percent and deforestation 27 percent (Oldeman, Hakkeling, and Sombroek 1991). These causal factors, driven by socio-economic and political forces, manifest themselves in market, policy and institutional failures, inadequate technologies and practices, population pressure, poverty, cultural values, and individual behavior (Sharma, Denning, and Cleaver 1995). 2  Nexus of Poverty, Loss of Soil Fertility, and Low Productivity In many localized areas of SSA, there is a synergy linking declining food production, high population growth, and natural resource degradation. This nexus dynamic creates a negative synergy that depletes soil productivity and results in a vicious cycle of poverty and food insecurity (Cleaver and Schreiber 1994). Nutrient loss on arable land is significant in areas strongly affected by the nexus dynamic. Estimates show a net loss of 700 kg of nitrogen(N), 100 kg of phosphorus (P), and 450 kg of potassium (K)per ha in 100 million ha of cultivated lands over the past 30 years (Sanchez, Izac, Valencia, and Pieri 1995). Crop residue and manure, which were once a major source of enriching soil fertility, are being used as fodder and fuelwood. This considerable nutrient loss is reflected in the widening gap between the actual and potential yield for all the major food crops in SSA. For example, average farm yield for maize, sorghum, and wheat is 1.6 mt/ha (metric tons per hectare), 0.5 mt/ha, and 1.5 mt/ha, while the potential yield is 5mt/ha, 2.5 mt/ha and 3.5 mt/ha respectively (Sharma, Denning, and Cleaver 1995). Loss of soil productivity leads to reduced farm income and food insecurity, particularly among the rural poor. Over 60 percent of the world's poorest people live in marginal areas and face a trade-off between short-term needs and the long-term conservation of natural resources (Leonard 1989). In managing land resources, the poor often have a "short time horizon", and will resort to maximizing their immediate gains and overexploitation of natural resources to secure their basic necessities (World Bank 1992; Holmberg 1991). The poor also face financial and socio-economic constraints. These factors seriously impede improved land management practices and innovations, which lowers the productivity and income of the poor and reinforce the "vicious cycle". Hence, narrowing this productivity gap between actual and potential yield is essential to avoid the poverty and natural resource degradation trap. Soil degradation incurs substantial loss to productivity. The average loss in crop yields due to erosion for SSA is estimated at 6 percent, and in 1989, 3.6 million tons for cereals, 6.5 million tons for roots and tubers, and 0.36 million tons for pulses were lost by erosion (Lal, 1995). If this erosion level continues, yield loss by the year 2020 would be 14.4 percent (Scherr and Yadav 1996). Based on the data generated by Dregne and Chou on the areas of dryland by categories of land use and degradation level ( Dregne and Chou 1992), the average productivity loss for irrigated land is 6.8 percent, for rainfed cropland, 14 percent and for rangeland, 45 percent (Crosson and Anderson 1995). 3  Data Availability Until recently, there was no reliable data on the rate and extent of land degradation. Part of the problem has been measuring the impact of change on land productivity. GLASOD completed the most significant assessment, which indicated that cropland and pasture degradation are more widespread in Africa than other regions. About 65 percent of the cropland area and 31 percent of the pastureland in SSA are affected by degradation (Oldeman, Hakkeling, and Sombroek, 1991). These figures, however, are only indicative, since the methodologies for such assessment are still under development. There is also very little data available on lands being improved or rehabilitated. A new initiative coordinated by the University of Berne is under way, the World Overview of Conservation Approaches to Technologies (WOCAT), which attempts to assess soil and water conservation experience worldwide using a decentralized approach (Humi and others 1995). Land degradation is often inferred from other features (such as soil characteristics, land use, rainfall, slope) which may have an impact on land degradation. This method is plagued by sampling, extrapolation, and calibration errors. Some of the advanced methodologies used to assess land degradation, such as remote sensing, GIS, and aerial photography, emphasize easily observable features and indicators of change (such as gullies, landslide, encroachment of undesirable species), and link these changes to the active process of land degradation. Approaches that compare existing land use practice with "ideal" utilization assumes the ideal to be better. For example, the concept of carrying capacity is derived from such a comparison and has been used by officials to formulate policies and implement projects on rangeland degradation. Yet, the notion of carrying capacity does not explain the variation in local circumstances and has resulted in conflict with local land users (Biot 1991; Abel and Blaikie 1989; Behnke and Scoones 1993; Bartels, Norton, and Perrier 1993). Many countries in SSA lack a systematic framework in assessing soil and land degradation. Data on land resources are not reported periodically, making assessment difficult. This is partly due to the lack of institutional capacity and is a serious impediment to formulating conservation projects and restoring soil productivity. At the Earth Summit, nations agreed to implement the Agenda 21 document (blueprint for Sustainable Development) which makes several references to monitoring, reporting, and taking appropriate action regarding land (UNCED 1992). This has sparked a corresponding interest in developing indicators and several studies are underway on environment and land quality indicators (Pieri and othersl995, Hammond and others 1995; OECD 1994; Adriaanse 1993). Need for a Practical Approach The diagnoses of and the solutions to the land degradation problem vary greatly across disciplines and among stakeholders. The literature shows at least three major policy paradigms (Biot and others 1995). The first is a classic approach which assumes 4  that technical solutions to land degradation are available and that the problem is implementation-related. The emphasis of this approach has been on technical fixes and expert opinions, and little merit has been attached to local land users' practices and participation (Clay and Schaffer 1984). The second paradigm, often referred to as populist, links poverty and environmental degradation. It emphasizes the participation of local people by using their knowledge and practices as a guide for policy and action (Chambers 1983; Blaikie and Brookfield 1987; Mascarenhas and others 1991; Richards 1985; Hudson 1991). The third approach, often called neo-liberal, draws from both the classic and populist approaches. From the classic approach, it takes the idea that technology to control land degradation exists, and from the populist approach, it borrows the notion of empowerment of the people. It then argues that the major degradative causes are institutional failures, and the lack of adequate incentives for the adoption of appropriate conservation technologies among land resource users (Binswanger 1989; Repetto and Gillis 1988; World Bank 1992). Many soil conservation and land reclamation projects have been influenced by the classic approach, which has often resulted in conflict between technology and local farming and socioeconomic conditions. Official and local land users often have different perceptions about the land degradation problem. This continues to be a serious impediment to successful land degradation control projects ( Blaikie and Brookfield 1987; Fortman 1989; Biot, Lambert, and Perkins 1991). A great deal of literature supports the idea that indigenous knowledge and practice are often well-informed and should be seriously considered in the development of technologies and intervention measures to address land degradation (Chambers, Pacey, and Thrupp, 1989; Fujisaka 1989; Toulmin 1991; Huijsman and Savenije 1991; Critchely, Reij, and Willcocks 1994; Sconnes 1993; Kruger and others 1995). While the official view is drawn from references to the little data available (often derived from science), farmers' views are based upon their observations, values, and experiences. These factors help them to interpret changes on indicators of soil and land degradation and to make decisions about specific actions. Land degradation symptoms must be seen within the political, institutional and socioeconomic forces under which local land users operate. The "short-time horizon" of the poor is often due to policy and institutional failures such as absence of clearly defined property rights, limited access to markets and credit, and lack of safety nets. For example, the drought and environmental crisis in SSA in the 1980s is partly attributed to high military spending, government-dominated marketing and distribution systems that squeezed the surplus from peasants, and inappropriate land and forest management policies which stifled incentives for production and protection of the environment (Timberlake 1986). Such broader analysis offers deeper insights into the land degradation problem, suggesting appropriate policy measures that should be applied before the process becomes irreversible. The cost of rehabilitating already degraded land is prohibitively expensive -- about ten to fifty times higher than that of preventive measures taken at an earlier stage (World Bank 1992). 5  The interpretation of change in some indicators, and the assessment of its impact on land resources, adds to the perception gap. For example, there is a common assumption among officials that land degradation is widespread. This perception is not shared by local land users. Local technical knowledge is based on experience and tradition, and has low risks and external inputs. It is accumulated slowly and cannot keep pace with changes that impact the farming system (Ravnborg 1992). Thus, enhancing farmers' ability to interpret changes according to the new circumstance, and improving local knowledge and integrating it with scientific knowledge, is a significant challenge. Soil and land degradation has diverse effects on individual farmers, local communities, society, economic activity, and the environment (Humni 1996; Glantz 1987; Brown and Wolf 1985). This study will present various options that could bring positive synergies to restore soil productivity, enhance food security, and avert the vicious cycle of poverty and natural resource degradation. Some of the key elements will include: (a) technical innovation based on proven practices and indigenous knowledge, e.g. increasing biomass production through intercropping, manure, composting, minimum tillage, agroforestry, improved soil cover and moisture management, strip cropping, contour tillage and planting, low-cost erosion control and soil conservation techniques; (b) enabling policies, e.g. pricing policy, fertilizer subsidy, incentives to ensure farm-level profitability; (c) institutional capacity, e.g. extension service, local organization, land tenure and conflict management, and data generation and reporting; (d) implication for policies and investment programs; and (e) priority areas of research to restore soil productivity and increase food security. Policies and actions to address land degradation are enacted at various levels (farm, community, district, regional, national, and international). Most conservation and land resource management projects are initiated, administered, and managed at the district level (Izac and Swift 1994; Pieri and others 1995). The success of such investment programs partly depends on capacity and effective management at the district and village level. The most significant linkage between levels of productivity and land quality is observed at the village level where local land users take decisions on cropping and livestock management, with these decisions having a direct impact on land productivity. Insights about farmer perceptions about land degradation, response to changes, technologies and best practices, and indigenous knowledge are gained at the village level. Understanding the dynamics of these interactions at the village and farm level enhances the success of policies and programs to address land degradation. Hence, the level of intervention selected for this study is at the district and village level. Because land degradation is influenced by local ecological and socioeconomic forces operating in a society (Spooner and Mann 1982; Chambers 1983; Watts 1985; Blaikie 1982; Hare 1985; Anderson and Grove 1987; Little and Horowitz 1987; Dejene 1990; Biot and others 1995), the study tries to examine this complex process (in Chapters 2, 3 and 4) through case studies at the district and farm (village) level. The implementation of policies and projects to address land degradation has generally faced 6  serious difficulties at the farm level. Thus, by focusing on the farm and village level, this approach could help in diagnosing as well as finding more responsive solutions to local ecological and socio-cultural conditions. This approach could also facilitate the participation of local land users in policy formulation and help implement investment programs in land resources management. Objectives of the Study Understanding the land degradation process requires a deep understanding of local realities. Based on a systematic household survey, field observation, and interactions with farmers and local extension agents, this study has generated data on farmer perceptions of key land and soil degradation issues (such as soil erosion, soil fertility, livestock, farming practices, land tenure, land availability, and extension) affecting crop and livestock production. The study examines farmer observations, interpretations of change indicators, and responses made by farmers to land and soil degradation. It also assesses the impact of farmer response on productivity and environmental sustainability. Such an analysis would enhance our understanding of both the local degradative and beneficial process, promote local participation, and help in the design of strategies, investment programs and projects to enhance soil fertility and food security. Furthermore, the analysis contributes to the general literature on land and soil degradation. This is essential to long-term progress because of the scarcity of primary data at the farm and household level to address land degradation. The specific objectives of the study are to: * examine farmer perceptions of land degradation, particularly their understanding and interpretations of factors and indicators related to soil erosion and soil fertility decline and the level of degradation of crop and pastureland; * identify technologies, best practices and indigenous knowledge used by households to control erosion, enhance soil fertility, increase crop and livestock productivity among smallholders; * assess the impact of cropping, tillage, livestock, land, and fuelwood management practices on soil productivity and the sustainability of the smallholder farming system; * examine policies that could bring positive synergies to enhance soil productivity and food security, create incentives for intensification of the farming system, and control environmentally damaging land-use practices; * examine the institutional capacity issues -- particularly land tenure, local organizations and participation, and extension service -- that promote strategies and activities to restore soil fertility, increase farm productivity, strengthen local organization, and improve the delivery of extension service; and 7  contribute to better policies, investment programs, identification of priority areas of research, and understanding of the land degradation problem. Chapters 2 and 3 present the farmers view of land degradation and provides insights about why local land users think and respond as they do. This could help narrow the perception gap between officials and local land users in diagnosing and finding solutions to the land degradation problem. These chapters also generate relevant information on the process, indicators and response to land degradation (at the district and farm level), and investigate the reasons for farmers adopting or not adopting recommended technologies. Policies affecting the use and availability of fertilizer and tree planting (agroforestry) are also presented in Chapter 2, while policies on water availability and the use of animal traction are discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 discusses policies influencing land availability, extensification of agriculture through clearing of new land, land fragmentation, and land tenure and conflict. It also probes ways to build and incorporate sound indigenous technical knowledge as part of the recommended technical practices. The summary of the major findings with policy implications is presented in Chapter 5. The Setting The study was conducted in Kondoa District, located in Dodoma Region on the central plateau of Tanzania (Figure 1) between latitudes 40 30' and 50 36' south, and longitudes 350 10' and 360 27' east. It covers an area of 13,207 km2 and has a pojulation of 340,000 (67,797 household). Its population density is about 28 people per km (Bureau of Statistics 1988). While this figure indicates no shortage of land in the district; the human and livestock population distribution in the district is uneven, owing to variations in rainfall and availability of suitable land for farming. The highland areas are more densely populated and more seriously affected by soil degradation than the surrounding plains. According to the Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources, and Environment, which has a leading role in defining the National Environmental Policy, land degradation is a serious problem in Tanzania (Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resource and Environment 1994). This problem is more serious for land used by smallholders and agro-pastoralists in semi-arid areas such as Kondoa District. Of the 94.3 million ha of surface area of mainland Tanzania, smallholders utilize some 5 million ha in crops, pasture and forest. About 22 million ha of land ( 23 percent of the total area) are allocated for reserves. This is the largest share of land resources allocated for reserves in Sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural land with good cropping potential is estimated at approximately 10 million ha (6.5 million ha outside reserves and another 3 to 4 million ha 8  IBRD 28476 TANZANIA Vk& KENYA LAND DEGRADATION STUDY j f KANDO KONDOA DISTRICT r,,.DISTRCTW t TANZANIA ) to Baboti e ko -4e30'S ZAMBL'_ N*. $NCA O 10 20 30km. / km .a /' 9 )\\ISABE F.S. d Au map do .aI.py - A. pa ,lm ~4dS. i ga~aadA.gI_ .sh of /n .ooy m~ad,om F5-G'~~~ sa'v 107 ~~~-KOKO >(R / S1ONiA FORESTi I j -\,,d< E SERVE' y >, l sSkK;SEV j~~ -j/W - I ) f .a~~~ I J_, . 1 Liii KzndoQ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L L - , . .+~~~~~~~~~c cdoma r,' ndoG eroded are; ( '\ / Xi L _t Forest Reserve ! * Surveyed ViiQgq 35-.-WOC December 1996 9  within reserves), while areas actually under crop are estimated to be 3.5 million ha. About 85 percent of the cultivated area is used for food crops requiring good land husbandry conditions (World Bank 1994). With the rural population growing at 2.6 percent annually, agricultural expansion is a viable option for smallholders to address population pressure and declining productivity in most areas of Tanzania. However, in areas where rainfall pattern is variable and inadequate, and soil poor (as is often the case in Kondoa District, which is mostly semi-arid), bringing new land into subsistence production, without improved crop and animal husbandry practice, damages land resources. It can also undermine the sustainability of smallholder farming systems. Rainfall in Kondoa District is generally low and unreliable. In addition, Kondoa District has one of the highest rates of evapotranspiration in the country (1,500 mm/year). Rainfall comes from highly erosive storms which arrive when the protective crop/vegetation cover is at its sparsest. For example, 70 percent of the erosive rains occur in the thirty days after the onset of the rainy season, when the soil surface is sparsely covered with vegetation (Moore 1979). This underscores the severity of soil erosion in certain localities. There are two marked seasons: the hot dry season (June to November), and the cool wet season (December to May). During the hot dry season, domestic and livestock water supplies in the district become so scarce that people must travel long distances in search of water. The main sources of water supply at this time of the year are from the few boreholes, earth dams (locally known as "charcos"), and shallow dug-out wells on dry sand rivers. Concentration of livestock at these water source points is a major cause of land degradation (see for example Murray-Rust 1972 and Christiansson 1981). There are a number of forest reserves and government and mission-owned forest plantations in Kondoa District, particularly in the highlands. Most of the forest reserves comprise of woodlands, except for the one closed forest at Kome. Until the early 1970s, Kondoa District had been the main source of timber in Dodoma Region, which accelerated deforestation and soil erosion in the Kondoa hills. Most of the people in Kondoa District are engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry for their livelihood. Indeed, the non-farm population is negligible, and even those residing in the urban areas may be indirectly engaged in agriculture, mainly through the distribution of agricultural products. On the whole, Kondoa District can be divided into two main agro-ecological zones: (a) the Kondoa Hills and (b) the Surrounding Plains. 10  The Kondoa Hills This zone extends northwards from the centre of the district and is comprised of the Kondoa Eroded Area (KEA). This is probably the most eroded part of the country, and has been subject to several soil and water conservation schemes. The zone is rolling to hilly, and dissected by several fault scarps, with numerous tributaries of the Bubo and Kelema rivers. The zone lies between 1,000 and 1500 m above sea level. It is relatively wet with rainfall of over 750 mm/year and features of sub-humid areas. The soil are generally less fertile and intensively cultivated and more vulnerable to erosion because of relief (Payton and others 1992). The current vegetation in the Kondoa Irangi Hills are mainly forms of degraded savanna composed of degraded low tree and shrub savanna and degraded savanna woodland (miombo), often comprised of low bushland or regenerating scrubs, and (locally) semi-evergreen montane forest. The degraded low tree and shrub savanna is found in the drier parts of the area in the southwest, dominated by Acacia sp. The degraded savanna woodland is commonly found on moderate slopes, particularly in more moist north and northeast, with a dominance of Brachystegia sp. The semi-evergreen forest covers the elevated slopes in the northeast. The Kondoa hills zone can be further sub-divided with reference to the physiographic and ecological details into: (i) the more dissected terrain in the south, which is represented by Haubi village in the study; and (ii) the less severely eroded hilly terrain in the north which, in this study, is represented by Bereko. Surrounding Plains This zone consists of an undulating plain, with a few isolated hills and some large swamps. It is generally dry (rainfall below 700 mm/year) with relatively fertile soil, lying between 500 and 1,200 m above sea level. The geology of the area is more similar to the Kondoa Hills zone. According to Conyers (1971), this zone is an area of relatively recent settlement (since the 1 940s) with people from the Kondoa highlands still moving into the area. Similarly, this zone may be sub-divided into two sub-zones: (i) the dominant livestock-keeping area as represented by Goima village; and (ii) the dominant extensive crop production area represented by Mrijo Chini. Some of the key physical, ecological, and socio-economic features of the two sample villages representing the Kondoa hills are presented below. 11  Haubi village * Dissected terrain with severe water erosion features. This is in the Kondoa Hills and lies between 1000 - 1500 m above sea level. Cultivation takes place in the infertile sandy alluvial soils and sandy river valleys. This is necessary because the pediments are dissected by erosion. Average annual rainfall in Haubi is about 900 mm. Typical soil is shallow, stony and not suited for cultivation. These are remnants of ancient soils on slopes, which are presently uncultivated because of erosion. There are bleached sands and loamy sands which developed from a colluvium of foot slopes and cracking clays (vertisols) and are infertile. * Old settlement areas where agro-pastoralism (integrated cropping and livestock activity) has been the dominant farming system for centuries. High population and livestock pressure have resulted in severe land degradation which prompted the introduction of government-supported conservation measures (including destocking of livestock from the village in 1979). * A serious land shortage leading to expansion in marginal areas within the village, and outward migration to the surrounding plains. Bereko village * This area has a topography similar to the Haubi area but without the severe water erosion features. There are sandy alluvial fans and sandy river valleys. Cropping and livestock are well integrated into the farming system, but the area is not destocked. * Average annual rainfall in Bereko is 750 mm. * The typical soil profile resembles that of Haubi, but cultivation is mainly practiced in the pediment and footslopes which are relatively more fertile and not as highly eroded as Haubi. * Increasing land shortage due to population growth within an area confined by forest reserves; and incipient soil erosion because of increasing deforestation. Similarly, the key physical, ecological, and socio-economic features of the two sample villages representing the surrounding plains are presented below. Goima village * Gently undulating to rolling plain surfaces at an altitude between 500-1200 m above sea level (referred to as Masai Plains). * Physical properties of the soils on the crests and pediments slopes which resemble those of Bereko. * There are expansion areas on the dry Masai Plains where the displaced livestock from the Kondoa destocked area (represented by Haubi) were to be sent. While agro- pastoralism is practiced, livestock rearing is more dominant. Soil erosion features are increasingly evident, indicating the unsustainability of the farming practice. 12  Mrijo Chini * More flat and represents the other variant of the Masai Plains which occurs within the same latitudinal range as Goima. * Soils are similar to those of Goima, but with wider topographic depressions occupied by readily cultivable soils developed from young alluvium. * Represents an expansion area on the drier Masai Plains with extensive cultivation and seasonal migration influx. Migrants may originate from far away (as far as Singida and Arusha). * Large-scale farming involving cash crops is widespread. Cropping is the main activity. 13  Table 1: Highlights of key ecological and socio-economic characteristics of sample villages in the study area (April 1997) Key Ecological Name of Selected Villages and Socioeconomic Characteristics Haubi Bereko Goima Mrijo Chini Topography * Hilly with * Hilly area * Rolling Masai * Flatter type of dissected terrain surrounded by plain Masai plain * 1000-1500 m forest reserve * 500 - 1200 m * Relatively similar above sea level * Similar altitude above sea level altitude to Goima as Haubi _ Level of erosion * Noticeable * Moderate * Severe erosion * Moderate erosion severe erosion erosion features features features such as features gullies Land scarcity * High * High * Limited * None Population density * High * High * Low * Low Type and scale of * Traditionally * Predominantly * Agropastoral * Predominantly farming mixed farming crop farming with emphasis crop farming by but more * Smallholders on livestock large-scale emphasis on * Considerable operators cropping after number of * Some of the land destocking pastoralists used by * Smaliholders pastoralists Settlement pattern * Very old * Moderately old * Newly opened * Newly cleared settlement and area by settlers land due to cultural area from densely agricultural populated areas expansion mainly particularly by large-scale Haubi farmers Use of chemical * Moderate use of * Currently very * Almost none * Almost none fertilizer chemical limited but fertilizer even considerable after elimination use before of subsidy elimination of subsidy Use of organic * High-level use * High-level use * Limited use * Limited use fertilizer Conservation * High level of * High level of * Limited level of * Limited level of practices involvement involvement involvement involvement Source: Authors 1997 14  Methodology of the Study The major land degradation issues affecting Tanzania were identified and discussed at a technical workshop organized by the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar-Es-salaam. The workshop was held in January 1996 in Dar-Es-salaam, and involved a multidisciplinary group of local experts representing key govermnent agencies, national agricultural and livestock research institutes, regional and district level agricultural and livestock officers, NGOs, middle-level land use and conservation managers, and scientists. Participants at the technical workshop identified the land degradation issues affecting the various agro-ecological zones in Tanzania. The participants' inputs focused on the most serious problems of small farmers and herders in the largely semi-arid area of Kondoa District where the field study was conducted. These major land degradation issues include soil erosion, soil fertility, land availability, farming practices, livestock, land ownership, household energy, and institutional capacity. A case study approach helps to contextualize the physical, biological, and socio- economic factors that cause land degradation in a particular locality. Kondoa district was selected as a case study for the following reasons: (a) it represented the more severely degraded areas of Tanzania with widespread poverty and frequent food shortages; (b) the district was relatively accessible to conduct field work with limited financial resources and time constraints; and (c) there are ongoing activities addressing the issue of land degradation in this area which could provide some data/information for the present research to build upon. Taking Kondoa District as a case study, a survey questionnaire was used to gather primary household data at the village level. The questionnaire was prepared, pre-tested and administered by the field investigating research team (Dejene, Shishira, and Yanda). Primary data was also generated by interviewing local extension agents and through field observation and verification by the same team. Both stratified and random sampling approaches were used to collect primary data on the major ecological and socio-economic causes of land degradation identified during the technical workshop (see Appendix A). Intensive fieldwork within the Kondoa District was concentrated in four villages carefully chosen through stratified sampling based on the major ecological zones of the district. The villages representing the various agro-ecological zones were selected by expert opinion including local farmers, local extension agents, agricultural officers, livestock officers, and IRA staff members with extensive experience and knowledge of the area. Through this process, the four villages -- namely Haubi, Bereko, Goima, and Mrijo Chini -- were selected to represent the major socio-economic strata and agro-ecological zones in the Kondoa District. The total 15  number of households for Haubi village is 1106, for Bereko 931, Goima, 488, and Mrijo Chini, 311. Households in each village were interviewed through random sampling. In order to minimize gender biases, both husbands and wives were encouraged to respond to the questions. Since the questionnaire did not aim to gather information on gender sensitive issues such as income, the assertion that women may not offer factual information in front of their husbands was not an issue. Fifty households were interviewed in each village. The sample size is adequate to provide policy-relevant insights and answers to the main objective of the study, without involving large-scale survey and rigorous statistical analysis (Cemea 1985). The field investigating research team felt that the combination of stratified and random sampling was appropriate for this study and would generate reliable information in a cost-effective way. To enhance the participation of local communities and to gain the confidence of farmers, as well as for logistical purposes, the actual household questionnaire work in the field was done largely with the assistance of extension agents living among the farmers. A concerted effort was made to verify the information gathered through the survey questionnaire by making field observations and cross-checking with local extension staff. The survey questionnaire was translated into Swahili, and a one-day seminar was held in the field in order to familiarize field interviewers with the objective of the study and the questionnaire. The questionnaire was pre-tested during the first week of February 1996, and necessary adjustments were made in the second week of February 1996 in Kondoa District. The data collection in the four villages was undertaken from the middle of February 1996 to the first week of April 1996. Most of the statistical analysis of the data was done from July 1996 to September 1996 in Dar-es-Salaam. 16  CHAPTER 2 SOIL DEGRADATION Soil degradation commonly manifests itself through soil erosion and soil fertility decline. Tanzania is one of the developing countries increasingly affected by these two forms of soil degradation. Indeed, all the major agro-ecological zones encounter this problem, with varying intensity. The semi-arid areas such as Kondoa District are particularly vulnerable to these kinds of soil degradation, given the inherent low soil fertility, low productivity, unreliable rainfall, and improper land and livestock practices. The majority of the people who work these lands are agro-pastoralists, who depend on subsistence agriculture and cattle. Soil degradation in Tanzania has been a growing concern since the late 1920s when evidence of soil erosion, such as gullies, were first observed in many parts of Central Tanzania (Gillman 1930). Initial efforts to understand the process focus on the collection of quantitative data on run-off and soil loss (Staples 1936, 1939; Van Rensburg 1955). Other studies on the assessment of soil erosion (e.g. Gillman 1933, 1934; Rapp and others 1972 ) collected data on reservoir sedimentation and sediment yield in selected catchments in Tanzania. These studies showed that improper cultivation practices, deforestation, and overgrazing are the major causes of soil degradation in the semi-arid parts of central Tanzania (Rapp, Berry and Temple 1973). They also illustrated the nature of the problem and the need to take action. Consequently, the ongoing Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma (HADO) - Dodoma Soil Conservation Project was initiated in 1973. The project promotes soil conservation practices, conservation of grazing land, stabilization of gullies, destocking, afforestation, and education. The project is implemented by the Government of Tanzania with the support of the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). SOIL EROSION Most farmers in Kondoa District are aware of soil erosion on their land (Table 2). Table 2: Farmers' awareness of the existence of soil erosion on their land Village Yes (%) No (%o) Total (lo) Goima 90 10 100 Haubi 82 18 100 Bereko 72 28 100 Mrijo Chini 70 30 100 Source: Authors'data, 1997 17  The highest number of farmers reporting an awareness of soil erosion on their fields was in Goima (Table 2). However, based on field observation and discussion with local extension agents, the level of awareness should have been highest in Haubi, followed by Goima, Bereko, and Mrijo Chini. The higher percentage of awareness in Goima as compared to Haubi is most likely because Goima is a relatively new settlement area and most of the accelerated soil erosion processes may be taking place only now. Most people in Goima moved from the Kondoa Eroded Area because of the destocking measures introduced by the government in 1979. In contrast, Haubi is an old settlement area and farmers in Haubi may feel that erosion and badlands are a part of their landscape. Development of gullies and rill and top soil erosion due to rain are the common indicators acknowledged by a considerable number of farmers in all the villages. Farmers also reported other soil erosion indicators such as exposure of roots, deposition of sediments on the farm, color change of crop leaves, soil becoming reddish or sandy, and increased water run-off in the fields. But there was variation from one village to another in the number of farmers acknowledging these indicators. For example, soil becoming reddish and the color change of crop leaves were only acknowledged as indicators in Goima. A significantly higher proportion of farmers in Goima (72 percent) reported the development of gullies. This is more than for any other village including Haubi (36 percent). This again suggests that farmers may recognize the degradative process more in Goima than any other village. Awareness, however, has not resulted in action to address the problem in Goima since field validation showed that most farmers are not actually practicing soil conservation measures. This might be attributed to the negative attitude most farmers have towards conservation measures, many of which have forced them to move into areas (such as Goima itself) where conservation is not enforced. It could also be explained by the affordability factor since conservation may require capital or labor investment. The overwhelming majority of farners in the study area (Bereko, 100 percent; Haubi, 98 percent; and Goima, 76 percent; with the exception of Mrijo Chini 28 percent), reported practicing some type of conservation measure to deal with soil erosion (Table 2). However, these responses have to be examined cautiously since a cross-examination during field work of the soil conservation measures that farmers indicated they were practicing, showed that these responses were exaggerated in some villages -- perhaps for good reason. Still, people in the Bereko and Haubi have been influenced for more than two decades by various land conservation schemes which were initiated by central authorities and supported by donor agencies. Examples of such schemes are the Dodoma Soil Conservation Project (HADO) and the Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) in Kondoa District. 18  Table 3: Types of soil erosion control measures being practiced Types of measures Haubi (%) Goima (%) Bereko (%) Mrijo Chini (%) Cultivation along contour 5 76 30 2 Terracing 84 4 6 10 Strip-cropping 84 10 100 0 along contour Bunding 32 0 6 6 Wind-breaks 42 19 40 2 Vegetation and crop cover 32 2 4 0 Grasses waterway 24 34 16 0 Tree Planting 14 10 42 0 Re-fill rills and gullies 0 8 0 0 Construction of check 0 0 32 12 dams Planting hedges on field 0 0 2 0 boundaries Source: Authors' data, 1997 There was a discrepancy between farmers' responses as indicated in Table 3 and field validations by the core investigating team. The proper verification of farmers' response has enhanced the reliability of survey data. For example, terracing is reported to be widespread in Haubi. In fact, terracing in the proper sense is seldom seen in Haubi village. Since terracing is one of the technical packages recommended by HADO, most farmers would not like to admit not practicing it. The cost of terracing, particularly in terms of labor, is high, and there is a labor shortage in many of these villages. Depending on the type of terrace, a study in Kenya has shown that it could require 50 - 400 man days/ha for construction and 5 - 72 man days/ha for maintenance (Kassam and others 1993). Instead of terraces, the field investigating team observed bunded fields, which involves putting crop residue along the contour as well as raised beds around Lake Haubi area, which are meant to protect fields from waterlogging. On the other hand, many farmers in Haubi dig trenches along contours, which for practical purposes serves as check dams to trap sediments and run-off. Farmers may have overlooked reporting these conservation measurers in Table 3 because these trenches once constructed could last up to ten years. There is also widespread cultivation along the contours in Haubi, particularly where draft power is used as reported in Table 3. Similarly, observations revealed that the high number of respondents practicing conservation measures in Goima does not correspond to actual field observation or discussions with local extension agents. For example, cultivation along contours is not as widespread in Goima as reported by farmers in Table 3. It seems that Goima farmers may have been untruthful in responding to this question. This does not mean, however, 19  that they were unreasonable, since farmers in general are suspicious in giving information which they fear can be used against them. Admitting to not practicing conservation measures enforced in the Kondoa Eroded Area (where most of them originally came from) by HADO is to admit to transferring the degradation process to a new area. This is likely to invite unpopular measures such as destocking, which may force them to move again to another area. Farmers are also aware of plant species that signify the severity of soil erosion. The following plant species are identified by vernacular names: Lumumbu, Irenda, Nyafybyafu, Mbigiri, Ngolo, Ifumdankuku, Malungulu, Ifefere, Chilori, Sorghum hymathica, Songeya, Monilankumbi, and Ngumbea. The plant species indicators are, however, site-specific, and their significance as indicators may be applicable only within a specific locality. For example, in Bereko, 32 percent of the farmers cited Sorghum hymathica as an indicator, while this species was not reported in Haubi, Goima and Mrijo Chini. The findings also revealed that the largest number of farmers aware of plant species indicators are in Bereko, followed by Haubi, and then Goima and Mrijo Chini. This could be because most of the people in Goima and Mrijo Chini have only recently moved to the area and are thus not as knowledgeable about local plants. It would seem that the more information there is regarding plant indicators in an area, the easier it would be for local key informers (particularly elderly people) to identify them. For example, in Haubi, one key informer pointed out that two plant species, Kinyafunyafu (Rhynchelytrum repens) and Mjirojiro (Chrysanthemoides monilifera) indicated an extreme stage of erosion. In cross-checking it was confirmed that indeed these species grew on sub-soil on heavily eroded pediment surfaces and along gully margins. This shows a wealth of local knowledge which can be tapped and utilized in the development of reliable plant indicators. In fact, through a quick consultation with a few key informants, the following list of plant indicators of soil degradation were identified (Table 4). 20  Table 4: Vegetation specimen collected from Kondoa Irangi Hills indicating different levels of soil degradation No. Species Names Vernacular Names Family Names Indicator Description (Ki-rangi) 1 Ocimum basilicum Idumbasi LABIATAE Plant not eaten by animals and consequently dominates in overgrazed areas. 2 Oxygonum stuhlmannii Mbigiri POLYGONACEAE Appearance of the plant in a farm indicates beginning of decline in soil I _________________________ fertility. 3 Tagetes minuta. Bangibangi COMPOSITAE Grows on exhausted soils. 4 Dipcadi longifolium Inyerya LILIACEAE Indicates soil exhaustion. Occur mainly on sandy soils. 5 Sesamum angustifolia Mlenda BORAGINACEAE Indicates decline in soil fertility. 6 Wahlenbergia denticulate Kinyamsongo CAMPANULACEAE Indicates decline in soil fertility. 7 Vernonia lasiopus Ngolo CURCUBITACEAE Indicates poor soil fertility. Occurs on sandy soils. 8 Melinis repens Kinyafunyafu GRAMINEAE Occurs on heavily eroded surfaces. Indicates extreme soil erosion. Grows well on the sub-soil - mainly along gully margins on pediment and on rocky sites. 9 Chrysanthemoides Mjirojiro COMPOSITAE Occurs on heavily degraded gully sides on pediment slopes as in the case of monilifera all the above species. 10 Conyza pyrrhopappa Msongorera COMPOSITAE Medicinal plant. Occurs on argillic horizon on similar sites to species 8 and 9. above. Unpalatable plant species growing on cultivated land or around biomass. 1 I Spermacose senensis Njulai/Lukalanga RUBIACEAE A weed which spreads quickly, difficult to eradicate, and rapidly depletes fertility around the area it grows. 12 ? Chiloki GRAMINAE Indicates extreme lack of fertility, and may indicate poor land management and lack of inputs. 13 Bidens pilosa Mpumbugi COMPOSITAE Indicates fertility deficiency. 14 Vernonia glabra Ipuma COMPOSITAE Indicator of high soil fertility. Often occur s on termite mounds. 15 Clerodendrum Ifiwi VERBENACEAE Indicator of high soil fertility. Often occurs on termite mounds. rotundifolium 16 Hibiscus sp. Choya MALVACEAE Occurs on sand fans. 17 Digitaria sp. Kivumba GRAMINAE Occurs on pediment and sand fans. 18 Indigofera cuniata Kirima sengo (Fagio) PAPILIONACEAE Occurs on sand fans. 19 Mellines repreis Ijenga nche Occurs on pediment and sand fans. 20 ? Lumumbu Occurs on sand fans. Source: Authors', 1997 21  Farmers are aware of the emergence of unpalatable plant species signifying the degradation of pasture land. The following plant species were given by vernacular names, Ibangi, Idumbasi, Kikokora, Mpumbuji, Kurivariva, Manyauki, Ijenganchee, Ikindu, Isinjavudu, Hadai, Athaigumachuchi, Chekenchela, Gugutho, Kuruwiri, Manaye, Lushinde, and Injenkambi. Similar to the observation made regarding plant species signalling soil erosion, most of the above plant species were not reported in more than one village. One of the few exceptions is Ibangi which was reported in Haubi and Mrijo Chini. Again, this suggests that plant species indicators are site-specific. With respect to the level of stoniness as an indicator of soil erosion, the majority of farmers in all four villages felt that there was no change in the level of stoniness on their farms, suggesting that the level of stoniness is not a good indicator in these localities. This is largely because most of the stones are found on uncultivated hilltops. Most cultivation is now concentrated on lower pediment and sandy alluvial deposit areas. In some areas, notably Goima and Haubi village, a few farmers pointed out that exposure of roots, deposition of sediments in the farms, and exposure of subsoil are indicators which signify the severity of erosion. Soil Fertility Soil fertility refers to the availability of plant nutrients (particularly N, P, and K) and soil organic matter in the soil. Soil fertility decline occurs when the use of soil nutrients exceeds their replenishment. Most soils in SSA have a low nutrient content (particularly in nitrogen and phosphorus) and a low level of soil organic matter. Soil degradation results in the depletion of these nutrients and loss of soil organic matter. Net nutrient removal exceeds replenishment by a factor of 3 to 4 in many Sub-Saharan countries (Stoorvogel and Smaling 1990). This is considered one of the major reasons for a decline in food production in these countries (Yates and Kiss 1992; Borlaug and Dowswell 1994; Sanchez and Leaky 1996; IFPRI 1996). Part of the reason for soil nutrient loss is a very low use of mineral fertilizer, estimated at 10 kg/ha per hectare in SSA, the lowest in the developing world (Bumb 1995). Similarly, most smallholder farming systems in Tanzania do not use adequate external inputs to compensate for the loss. Although there is no available data on soil fertility, nutrient loss on smallholder farms is believed to be considerable. There is also no major improvement in farm and land management practices to avert this trend. This is even more the case in the study area, which is mostly in semi-arid zones and has low natural fertility. 22  Table 5: Farmers perceptions' of soil fertility decline Villages Yes (