Jamaica - Education Project

RETURN TO RESTRICTED REPORTS DES} FILE copy Report No. TO-553a WITHIN ONE WEEK This report was prepared for use within the Bank and its affiliated organizations. They do not accept responsibility for its accuracy or completeness. The report may not be published nor may it be quoted as representing their views. INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION APPRAISAL OF EDUCATION PROJECT JAMAICA September 8, 1966 Projects Department  CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS U. S. $1 =O. 357 (7 shillings and 1-1/2 pence Jamaican) E1 = U.S. $2.80 E1, 000, 000 = U. S. $2, 800, 000  JAMAICA APPRAISAL OF EDUCATION PROJECT TABLE OF CONTENTS Paragraphs SUNMARY . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i-xii I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 II. SOCIAL AND ECONOMYIC BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 III. EDUCATION AND TRAINING .... . . . . . . . . . . . 12-48 The Educational System . ... . . . . 12-15 Primary Education ........ ..... . . . . 16-18 Secondary Education ......... . .... 19-25 Post Secondary Education . . . .......... 26-37 Higher Education . . . . . . . .... 38-43 Vocational Training . . . . . . . . . ...... 4-6 Financing of Education . . . . . . . . . . . ... 47-48 IV. THE PROJECT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-105 College of Arts, Science and Technology . . . . . 52-58 Jamaica School of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . 59-69 Junior Secondary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-75 Upper-Cycle Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . 76 Teacher Training Colleges . . . a , . . . . . .0 77-80 Technical Services and Overseas Training . . . . . 8i-85 Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 School Sites . . . . . . . , . , , , . . . , . . 87 School Buildings . . . . .l. .. . I'm.. . . .. . .. 88-92 Instructional Equipment and Furniture . . . . . . 93 Cost Estimates . . . . . . . .. .. . . a .. 94-8 Implementation . . . . . . .. . 99-100 Procurement ......... 101 Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-105 V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOIDENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 106-115 This report is based on the findings of a mission to Jamaica in February 1966 composed of Messrs. Aristides Macris, Sergei Kadleigh, Henry Gassner, and J. C. Jones (Consultant to the Bank).  -2- ANEXES Annex 1 - Chart - The Educational and Training System (1966). " 2 - Chart - Educational Pyramid. " 3 - Table - Pre-School and Primary Education - Government and Government Aided Schools - Enrollments. " 4 - Table - Secondary Level Enrollment - 1964. 5 - Table - College of Arts, Science and Technology, Present and Projected Entry and Output of Full-time Students. " 6 - Table - University of the West Indies - 1965 Enrollment and Admission of Jamaican Students. " 7 - Table - Expenditure on Education and Training 1959/60 through 1965/66. " 8 - Table - Recurrent Expenditure for Education and Training. 9 - Table - Capital Expenditure for Education. " 10 - Table - Educational Expenditure as Percentage of G.N.P. " 11 - Table - Summary of Project Costs. " 12 - Table - Construction Schedule. " 13 - Table - Projection of Teacher Supply and Requirements. " 14 - Table - Projection of Enrollments. " 15 - Table - Assumptions Used in Modified Projection of Recurrent Costs. " 16 - Table - Projection of Ministry of Education Recurrent Expenditure - 1980/81. MAP - Map of Jamaica Education Project.  JAMAICA APPRAISAL OF EDUCATION PROJECT SUMARY i. The Jamaican Government has requested a Bank loan to help finance an educational development project. As revised by the appraisal mission, this project would cost about $19.4 million and would provide: (a) 390 additional places at the College of Arts, Science and Technology to increase enrollment by 110 percent, at an estimated cost of $1.3 million. (b) 330 additional places or an increase by 200 percent of the present capacity of the Jamaica School of Agriculture. Estimated cost is $2.0 million. (c) 675 additional places at four teacher training colleges, increasing enrollment by 50 percent at an estimated cost of $1.1 million. (d) 33,000 places in 50 junior secondary schools as part of a plan to provide effective education to children aged 12 through 14 years, who have completed primary education and are presently retained in the primary schools for lack of secondary level institutions. The estimated cost is $15.0 million. ii. The project includes provisions for the services of foreign specialists to assist in the implementation of the proposed educational develop- ment. Overseas training is also provided for supplementing on-the-job training of Jamaican teachers and school administrators. Of an estimated cost of $1.6 million for these services $0.3. million would be assisted by the loan and the remainder has been committed by US AID. iii. The proposed expansion of training at the College of Arts, Science and Technology and at the Jamaica School of Agriculture would produce techni- cians urgently needed to improve the efficiency of Jamaican industry and agriculture, reduce dependence on expatriates, and staff the Ministry of Agri- culture programs aimed at raising agricultural productivity. iv. The junior secondary school program would (a) improve the quality of the education received by students terminating their education at age 15 so that they may fully benefit from pre-employment and on-the-job training at the levels required by the rapidly advancing economy; (b) increase the number of qualified students for further formal education; and (c) make available workshops and instructors for general up-grading of the skills of the adult population - a badly felt need at this time. v. The proposed expansion of teacher training will ensure qualified teachers for the junior secondary schools and will allow for gradual improve-  ment in the quality of primary education. vi. There are sufficient qualified applicants to fill the additional places at the teacher training colleges, the Jamaica School of Agriculture and the College of Arts, Science and Technc ogy. vii. On the basis of the proposed financial arrangements for the project, the recurrent and capital costs generated by the expansion of the Government education program, including the present project, are within Jamaica's financial capabilities. viii. Four local architectural firms have been selected to design and supervise construction of the post-secondary portions of the project and a foreign firm has been selected to perform similar services for the junior secondary schools. ix. Major contracts for construction and equipment will be awarded on the basis of international competitive bidding. x. The completion of the project is estimated to require approximately three and one-half years and the closing date is expected to be September 30, 1970. xi. In view of the assurances by the government set forth in paragraph 114 the project is suitable for Bank financing. xii. The direct foreign exchange requirements are estimated at $6.2 million of which $1.3 million is expected to be financed through bilateral aid. If the Government were to assume all local costs, however, its capital expenditure for education during the next four years would need to increase by over 90 percent from the present rate. Therefore, a Bank loan of $9.5 million is proposed, representing about 50 percent of the total cost. Even under this arrangement the Government will need to increase its present capital outlay for education by over 50 percent. It is proposed that the loan be for 20 years, including a grace period of 5 years.  JAMAICA APPRAISAL OF EDUCATION PROJECT I. INTRODUCTION 1. At the request of the government, Unesco sent an Educational Planning Mission to Jamaica in September 1964, to assist in the develop- ment of the country's educational program. A report of the Mission's findings was completed in November 1964. 2. After studying the above-mentioned report and in consultation with the Bank Resident Adviser the government decided to formulate a project for possible Bank assistance in the financing of educational development. 3. A member of the Bank staff visited Jamaica in July 1965 for a preliminary review of the proposed educational development and to advise on the preparation of the project for consideration by the Bank. Two Unesco experts - an architect and a technical education expert - discussed details of project preparation during a visit in 1965. The chief of the Unesco Planning Mission (Mr. C. L. Germanacos) had returned to assist the government in preparing the necessary project data. 4. In January 1966, the Government of Jamaica submitted a loan request, and a Bank appraisal mission, comprising Messrs. Aristides Macris, Sergei Kadleigh, Henry Gassner, and J. C. Jones (Consultant), arrived in Jamaica in February. Mr. Germanacos acted as an adviser to the mission. 5. In addition to consulting government authorities, the mission cooperated closely with representatives of other sources of external assistance. Discussions were held with US AID concerning technical assistance in teacher training and in agricultural education, and with representatives of the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany and the U.N. Technical Assistance Board concerning other financial and technical assistance in the field of education.  -2- II. SOCIAL AND ECONOiMIC BACKGROUND 6. Jamaica is an independent country (since 1962) and a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. It is the third largest island in the Caribbean and supports a population of 1.8 million on an area of 4,400 square miles. While the annual rate of natural population growth during the past decade was 3 percent, the net rate of population growth was only 2 percent, due to the high rate of emigration. With emigration to the United Kingdom now largely cut off, continuation of the high rate of population growth poses a serious problem. 7. During the period 1954-1961, Gross Domestic Product at constant factor cost increased at a rate of 8 percent per year. Due to the un- certainties produced by Jamaica's transition to independence, the growth rate fell to 2 percent during 1962 and 1963 but since 1964 the GDP has again been growsing at an annual rate of 8 percent. During the past decade real per capita GNP increased from $250 to $445. 8. The main factors in the rapid growth rate were the discovery of bauxite, the rapid rise in the level of industrial activity, the development of Jamaica into a major tourist resort, and the upsurge of the building industry. Since 1958 Jamaica has become the world's largest producer of bauxite. It has also become an exporter of manufactured goods, mainly clothing,but also cement and industrial machinery. During the past five years tourist earnings increased by over 50 percent. 9. Although the contribution of agriculture to the gross domestic product is only 13 percent, two-thirds of the population live in rural areas and about 40 percent of the labor force is engaged in agriculture. During the past decade agricultural production increased by only 1 percent per year. The cultivable area is only 1.7 million acres and densely populated. About 45 percent of this area is occupied by subsistence farmers cultivating small plots, often on steeply sloping lands, and handicapped by lack of modern knowledge, deficient market arrangements, and inadequate credit. 10. The growing divergence between rural and urban incomes has led to a large exodus of the rural population to the cities. Lacking adequate education and skills, these migrants are the core of the unemployed. An unemployment rate of 15.-20 percent of the labor force is one of Jamaica's most serious economic and social problems. 11. With the rising standard of living and the maintenance of relative monetary and price stability, domestic saving has increased rapidly and has financed the greater part of the country's gross capital formation. Since Independence the government has financed more than two-thirds of its investment expenditure from public savings and non-inflationary internal borrowing.  -3- III. EDUCATION AND TRAINING The Educational System 12. The structure of the educational system and the educational pyramid are shown in Annexes 1 and 2. The Ministry of Education is responsible for educational policy and for the administration of government schools; its supervisory powers also extend to provate and government-aided private institutions. The management of each school is in the hands of a school board. In the case of the public schools the board is appointed by the Ministry while the boards of government-aided schools are appointed by the organizations sponsoring them but include a minority representation of the Ministry. Private schools not receiving government aid had not been subject to any government control but the Education Act of 1965 gives to the Ministry of Education jurisdiction over them, including supervision, recognition and legal action leading to disqualification. 13. All Ministry services are located at headquarters in Kingston with the exception of the inspectorate which is partly decentralized. The inspectors are, in theory, entrusted with supervision and counselling but their time is largely taken by administrative duties. The numerical strength and professional preparation of the inspectorate are inadequate for effective service to the schools. The Ministry appreciates this weakness and is implementing measures to reorganize and strengthen its supervisory services. 14. A small planning unit was established in the Ministry recently. A planning committee comprising representatives of the Ministries of Education, Finance, Development and Welfare, Labor and Agriculture supervises the activities of the planning unit and considers its pro- posals. It is expected that the Committee will facilitate coordination of the educational program with the needs of both the public services and the private sector in agriculture, industry and trade. A special unit in the Ministry collects educational statistics but its efficiency is handicapped by inadequate and insufficiently trained personnel. 15. The Ministry is availing itself of experts at the University of the West Indies. The University's Department of Education offers courses leading to a diploma in education and the Institute of Education participates in the study of educational problems, especially those related to curriculum development. Primary Education 16. Primary education consists of five years of schooling - normally 7 through 11 years of age. After completion, a small number of the students (about 10 percent) enter secondary schools of different types, while the majority of the students attend three "senior" classes appended to practically all primary schools. In 1965, out of a total of 723 primary schools, 26 were "junior" schools, restricted to the  five primary classes, 683 were "all-age'" schools having the five pri- mary years and a three-year "senior" division. Fourteen were "seniorlt schools, catering for the 12 through 14 age group only. 17. Some 223,000 students were enrolled in 1964 in the five primary grades or 87 percent of the age group 7 through 11 (estimated at 256,000); it is assumed that a large portion of the remaining 13 percent of the children attended private schools. The same year, enrollment in the "senior" or post-primary classes was 94,000 or about 75 percent of the age group 12 through 14 (estimated at 125,000). It is noteworthy that enrollment in the "senior" classes and in the three first years of secondary schools totalled some 107,000 and represented about 85 percent of the age group 12 through 14 years. Enrollments by age and grades are available for the year 1963 and are given in Annex 3. 18. The extended primary or "all-age" school has been helping the pupils who are unable to enter secondary schools to consolidate the knowledge acquired in the primary school. The most capable among these pupils are prepared in the "senior" classes for late entry to the secondary level, especially technical, or in further "unofficial" classes for entry into teacher training institutions. However, the system is far from ensuring effective post-primary education; the "senior"t school program, lacking specialized teachers and equipment, fails to appeal to the pupils and leads to marked absenteeism in the upper senior classes. Further, the task assigned to the primary schools to serve both the regular primary and the "senior" division students has aggravated the problems of these schools, namely, a high teacher: student' ratio (1:58), over 40 percent of the teachers being unqualified, and practically all primary schools being overcrowded. Secondary Education 19. Secondary schools are of different categories depending on whether they aim at general (academic) education or at specialized education and training. The number of schools and enrollments are given in Annex 4. 20. Secondary High Schools offering a general program constitute the core of secondary education. There are 41 such schools with some 18,500 students enrolled in Forms 1 to 5. Examinations at the end of the fifth year lead to the General Certificate of Education at Ordinary ("0"1) Level. This certificate qualifies for entrance to such post-secondary institutions as the Teacher Training Colleges, the College of Arts, Science and Technology and the Jamaica School of Agriculture. Some of the high schools offer two more years (lower and upper Form 6) leading to the Higher Level Certificate required for university entrance. About 1,800 students are enrolled in these forms.  -5- 21. The teacher:student ratio is about 1:18; some two-thirds of the qualified teachers hold university degrees and a further 23 percent are trained primary school teachers. WJith appropriate planning it should be possible to increase the number of students by 30 percent or to about 25 students per qualified teacher. It is also estimated that teaching spaces and staff in these schools could handle 20 percent more students than at present. 22. Comprehensive Schools - TAfo schools established in 1964 apply the princTjile of a diversified curriculum to meet the different interests and aptitudes of the students. The diversified program is introduced mainly in the fourth year after a common, exploratory curriculum in the first three years. Enrollment reached some 2,000 in the current year and the Ministry considers these schools as an important experiment in the reform of secondary education. A satis- factory teacher:student ratio of 1:30 has been maintained in these schools. 23. Technical High Schools - Six schools of this type have been established w7ith the purpose of providing a practically-oriented, pre-vocational education to pupils selected from the senior forms of the primary schools at the age of 13 or 14 years. They offer four- year courses, which include both general and technical or commercial subjects. Enrollment (1966) totals about 2,800. In addition, the schools offer evening classes in general subjects to about 3,000 adults and day-release classes to some 400 apprentices. 24. The Technical High Schools have often been used as a substitute for general secondary education. Further, the schools have experienced difficulties in recruiting and retaining qualified teachers of technical subjects. Under the proposed educational reform, these schools would be expected to become technical sections of comprehensive schools and the teacher supply would be also improved. 25. Junior Secondary Schools - The government is in the process of establishing junior secondary schools provided with laboratories and workshops to replace the "senior" divisions of the primary schools. As a first step in this direction, the Ministry is taking action to provide the existing 14 "senior" schools with additional facilities and a revised curriculum to transform them into junior secondary schools. The operation of these schools will provide valuable experience for the expanded program and will help with the training of teachers. The present enrollment in these schools is about 13,000; two more such schools are to begin operations in September 1966. Post Secondary Education 26. Teacher Training Colleges - There are six government-aided teacher training colleges, one non-aided college and one junior teacher training college. IWhile some students entering the training colleges have passed the GCE "0" level examination, the majority have lower qualifications. The course of study is designed for training "all  -6- purpose" teachers, but some 50 students are trained each year for teaching industrial arts and commercial subjects in the secondary level grades. In recent years some trainees have studied one or two subjects in greater depth, and are able to teach in the lower forms of secondary schools. 27. In the past the duration of the course has been three years, but students who enter the government-aided training colleges as from September 1965 receive a twio-year course plus a year of supervised teaching service. The annual output of these colleges is 350 (including some 50 teachers who complete a special two-year course for upgrading untrained teachers). An additional 15 trained teachers per year are provided by the non-aided college. The junior training college offers a 20-week course to some 300 trainees every year; the graduates are not classified as trained teachers, but completion of the short course is recognized in salary classification. Salary increments are also given for the completion of various correspondence courses. 28. The College of Arts, Science, and Technology was founded in 1958 on a site of 35 acres, formerly belonging to the Jamaica School of Agriculture. New construction, including commerce, engineering, science, and social buildings, together with appropriate equipment, have been provided, largely with the help of United Kingdom funds. 29. The College offers day and evening instruction in five main fields: mechanical and electrical engineering; building and structural engineering; science, including pharmacy; commerce, institutional management. The duration of the engineering and pharmacy courses is three years, while the business administration and institutional management courses last for two years and the secretarial course for one year. In 1965, there were some 350 students taking full-time day courses, 500 students in part-time day-release courses, and 800 evening students. Current output from day sessions totals some 115 per year. Wastage has been excessive, and increased efforts are needed to improve the passing rate. This improvement should be assisted by the Government program to raise the standards of secondary education. Present and projected numbers and distribution among the several courses are given in Annex 5. 30. Full-time courses normally require entrants to have passed the Ordinary Level of the General Certificate of Education of the United Kingdom in not less than three subjects, one of which must be English and the others in accordance with the requirements of the separate departments. A good deal of latitude is permitted in meeting these requirements, particularly in science subjects since facilities for science teaching are not uniform at the secondary level. 31. The curricula are considered to be too theoretical and ill- adapted to the objective of producing competent middle-level technicians. The College is seeking advice in developing modern curricula emphasizing practical instruction in industrial processes and organization.  -7- 32. Evening studies have been successfully developed in commercial and general education subjects but, except where combined with part-time day release, have been less successful in engineering and building subjects. For these latter it is interesting to note the absence of an entry examination and the substitution of a class test at the end of eight weeks; failure in the test requires withdrawal from the class. 33. Equipment of the laboratories and workshops is generally of good standard and additional equipment is to be provided from U.K. funds during the next few years. The present staffing consists of the principal (non-teaching, appointed full-time but continuing in private practice), 5 heads of departments, and 35 lecturers of whom 2 are on study leave abroad. The average number of teaching hours, excluding overtime work for which additional payment is made, are 10 hours per week for heads of departments and 20 hours per week for lecturers. These hours are normal as are also the average class size (20) and the overall staffg-student ratio (1 to 12.2, excluding evening classes). 34. The Jamaica School of Agriculture wzas founded in 1910 and is administered by a Board of Trustees under the general supervision of the MIinistry of Agriculture and Lands. This school is the main source of tecluical personnel for the Ministry of Agriculture, and for private agricultural enterprises. In addition, some of the graduates continue further studies with the Faculty of Agriculture of the University of the West Indies or at agricultural faculties in the United States and Canada. The duration of the course is three years. Male applicants who have passed the General Certificate of Education (Ordinary Level) in four subjects, the Jamaica Second Certificate of Education, or any equivalent examination are admitted to the school on the basis of a competitive examination followjed by an interview. The present student body numbers 165 and 40-50 students graduate each year. 35. The school facilities include a 77-acre tutorial farm and a 350-acre commercial farm. Laboratories are also operated for instruction in general sciences, soil chemistry and food technology but additional laboratory space and equipment is needed for the expansion being planned and also for a diversified program to meet the needs for various categories of technicians and for university entrance. 36. The teaching staff include (a) the principal, 4 senior lecturers, 7 lecturers and assistant lecturers - all with university degrees including 4 M.Sc. degrees, and (b) 2 demonstrators with intermediate-level qualifications. The present teacher:student ratio of 1:12 is satisfactory for this type of institution. 37. The Jamaica School of Agriculture has established the reputa- tion of giving effective practical training. However, the present capacitiy,program and output of the school are inadequate to meet the demand of the public services and the private sector for qualified agricultural staff. An expanded program will necessitate additional physical facilities and expatriate specialists to supplement initially the present staff and to train additional teachers.  Higher Education 38. In 1960 only one out of 205 Jamaicans over age 25 was a university graduate. This compares with ratios of 1:118 in Trinidad, 1:146 in Barbados, 1:40 in Greece and 1:13 in the United States. There are probably somewhat more than 3,000 Jamaicans currently enrolled in universities. This estimate includes 1,300 in the University of the liest Indies (1965/66), 1,C50 in the United States (1963/64), 300 in Great Britain (1963/64), and 300 in Canada (1961/62). While current enrollment levels represent close to a 50 percent increase during the past five years, enrollment per thousand of population is still only one-third of the level prevailing in Greece, a country with a similar level of per capita income. The main obstacle to increased enrollment in some faculties is the shortage of qualified secondary school graduates. 39. The University of the TlWest Indies, established in 1948, has its main campus in Kingston, Jamaica, with branches in Trinidad and Barbados. First degrees in arts, natural science and social science, are offered at all three centers; agriculture and engineering in Trinidad; medicine in Jamaica. The University also offers one-year diploma post-graduate courses and one-year certificate courses in education, social work, public administration and trade union studies. Advanced degrees are offered up to the Ph.D. level. (Current enroll- ment of Jamaicans by field of study is shown in Annex 6.) 40. There are currently 56 Jamaicans enrolled in second degree and diploma programs in education, plus a comparable number in similar prograrns overseas. With proper incentives it should be possible to meet the requirements of secondary schools for graduate teachers, although particular subjects, such as mathematics and physics, may continue to require expatriate personnel. The Institute of Education of the University of the West Indies has been given responsibility for standards of training in teacher colleges throughout the region. The University has also made important contributions in the development of textbooks and other instructional materials designed to meet the local needs. 41. Some 30 Jamaicans are enrolled in the Agricultural Faculty of the University, including six following post-graduate study. A Regional Agricultural Research Center is also part of the University. Measures are being taken by the University to integrate the Research Center with the Agricultural Faculty. The agricultural authorities of Jamaica are anxious to coordinate their programs with the university so as to ensure optimum technical support to the island's agricultural industry. 42. About 50 Jamaicans study engineering at the University of the West Indies. It is also estimated that another 100 or more students follow similar studies in the USA, Canada and the UK. 43. The University of the West Indies is financed in large part by government contributions from the English-speaking countries of the  -9- Caribbean. The Jamaican share of these contributions is somewhat over 40 percent, but exceeds 80 percent of the recurrent costs of the University Hospital. Vocational Training 44. The hnockalva Agricultural School and the Caron Hall Vocational School for Girls, operated by the Ministry of Education, offer two-year vocational courses in agriculture and home economics respectively. Enrollment in each school totals about 100 students. The results of the courses have not been satisfactory and the Ministry has planned extensive improvements. 45. Three trade training centers are also operated by the Ministry of Education in St. Andrew (Kingston), Port Antonio and Montego Bay. They offer practical pre-employment training in six tiades. The duration of the training for most trades is one year. Enrollment totals about 360 and annual output is about 250 per year. A small and relatively ineffective apprenticeship scheme is operated under the Ministry of Labor; some 450 apprentices were in the program in 1965 but enforcement of regulations and standards is minimal. 46. Preliminary discussions have been held by the government and the US AID concerning assistance in the development of trade training centers. Consideration is being given to integrating this training with a revitalized apprenticeship program. Financing of Education 47. Between 1959/60 and 1965/66 the government's total expendi- tures on education increased from $16.5 million to $27.9 million, the preponderant increase being in recurrent expenditures. As will be seen in Annex 7, there has been little movement in the period 1959/60- 1964/65 in total annual educational recurrent expenditures as a percentage of total national annual recurrent expenditures; there has been a downward trend in annual capital expenditures on education as a percentage of total capital budget. Total recurrent educational expenditures in 1964/65 amounted to 19.1 percent of the total recurrent budget; capital expenditures to 6.0 percent of the total capital expenditure budget; and recurrent and capital expenditures to 15.5 percent of the total recurrent and investment budget. The distribution of expenditure among the various categories is shown in Annexes 8 and 9. 48. The percentage of the GNP represented by government expendi- ture on education and training has increased from 2.8 percent in 1959/60 to 3.3 percent in 1964/65. Private sector expenditure on education, including fees and overseas grants, adds another 1