Report to the President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association on India's economic development effort (Vol. 4 of 14) : Agricultural policy : appendices VI - X

 AGRICULTURAL POLICY -i dPIostmembers Appendices a r e and workre- Note: indiv ual of t h e of t h e Mission the are of 1 f e r r e d t o a s such i n Volume 1 , which i s t h e main t e x t on l r A g r i c u l t u r a l Policy". Accord- i n g l y , t h e l i s t i n d i c a t e s t h e authors hip. For 2n expl?,na.tion of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e Appendices t o t h e Report, s e e paragraph 15; of Volume 1 . 1 Page No. VI. Typical Features of I r r i g a t i o n Development i n I n d i a Louis Garnier V I - 1 t o VI-33 VII. Buffer Stocks and Grain Storage FJ. David Hopper VII-1 to VII-11 VIII. A Brief Note on A g r i c u l t u r a l Prices 1. David Hopper 1. VIII-1 t o VIII-15 -- IX. Agrarian &form i n India. tlolf Lade jinsky IX-1 t o Ix-55 X. Community Development end Agri- -. c u l t u r a l Production IJolf h d e jinsky X-1 t o X-39  TYPICAL F F A T U S S OF IRRIGATIOIJ DNELOPNENT I If IIDIA L o u i s Garnier  APPENDIX V I - - TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. INTRODUCTION AND S W R Y 1 .I. REVIEFJ O THE PRESENT SITUATION O IRRIGATION I N I N D I A F F A. itatural Conditions, as Basic Factors for:;.Xrrigation Development 3 B. Present I r r i g a t i o n Patterns 5 F H 11. THE DEVELOFHENT O IRRIGATION I N T E FIVE-YEAR PLANS A. Achievements and Related Outlays During the F i r s t , Second and Third Plans 10 B. Trends and Targets P r ~ p o s e df o r the Fourth Plan 12 A R BE 1 1 THE MI P O L M 1. N A. The S t i l l I n s u f f i c i e n t Impact of I r r i g a t i o n on A g r i c u l t u r a l Production 14 B. Possible Explanations 17 IV. E'AJOR R3CO~NDATIOi'JS 22 V. SUNdNRY AND CONCLUSIONS 27  V APPENDIX 'I TYPICAL FEATURES OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT - INTRODUCTION AND - SUPDIARY 1. Because of its l a t i t u d e , i t s topography and i t s t r o p i c a l climate, i r r i g a t i o n has been, and n e c e s s a r i l y w i l l continue t o be, one of t h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r s i n increasing I n d i a ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l production. From 80 t o 90 m i l l i o n acres a r e already i r r i g a t e d , which i s equivalent t o 3 times t h e i r r i g a t e d area of t h e United S t a t e s and about 20 percent of the t o t a l i r r i g a t e d land of t h e world. The land under i r r i g a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s over one-fif-th of t h e t o t a l c u l t i v a t e d area of t h e country and i s expected t o exceed one-quarter of t h a t area by about 1970. 2. Sustained e f f o r t s t o promote i r r i g a t i o n have been made, p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e f i r s t Five-Year Plan began i n 1951. The r e l a t i v e importance of investment i n i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e Fourth Plan a s well a s t h e choice of options among various types of p r o j e c t s r a i s e s complex problems and sometimes l e a d s t o the voicing of divergent opinions in government c i r c l e s . 3. The problem of i r r i g a t i o n in I n d i a has t h e r e f o r e been a major question under examination by t h e IBRD/FkO ~ ~ E s s i o n , has been the s u b j e c t of d i s - and cussions among t h e members of t h e Nission team responsible f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l a f f a i r s . 11r. L. Garnier, t h e main author of t h i s appendix, spent s e v e r a l weeks studying t h i s matter, although t h i s i s obviously i n s u f f i c i e n t time t o do f u l l j u s t i c e t o such a topic. 4. Therefore t h i s paper cannot be considered a general review of i r r i g a - t i o n o r i r r i g a t i o n prospects in India, p a r t i c u l a r l y because t h e country i s so v a s t and n a t u r a l conditions a s well a s s o c i a l and economic f a c t o r s vary g r e a t l y from one region t o another. The purpose of t h i s appendix, therefore, i s much more modest, namely, t o give a succinct p i c t u r e of the leading f e a t u r e s of i r r i g a t i o n i n India, including: ( 1 ) a b r i e f review of t h e present s i t u a t i o n ; ( 2 ) prospects of and trends f o r t h e Fourth Plan (1966 t o 1971); and (3) some of t h e main problems involved i n t h e expansion o r improvement of i r r i g a t i o n . r' 2 The main conclusion t h a t can be drawn from t h i s very b r i e f review i s t h a t India has reached a crossroads in i r r i g a t i o n . Despite the immense e x i s t - ing p o t e n t i a l , t h e r e i s t h e danger t h a t even by the end of the Fourth Plan achievements may n o t have reached t h e required s c a l e nor have met the basic requirements of a g r i c u l t u r a l production. It i s t h e r e f o r e e s s e n t i a l t h a t progress be accelerated by defining t h e main o b j e c t i v e s more c l e a r l y , arranging t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l framework, t r a i n i n g t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a f f and improving methods . 6. n The task to be accomplished is neither unrealistic i scope nor beyond the Government's means and very appreciable achievements can be expected. There is little doubt that very few other spheres of action offer the sane opportunity to give more important or lasting results i n increasing agricultural production. This task requires first and foremost a sharp awareness of the requisites for sound irrigation policies, practices and pa-Lterns at all levels; for full success, it also requires the same balance of the various factors involved and the same harmonious organization as does any other successful human undertaking. -- N.B. In %is study the term ltirrigationtt employed i its broadest sense, is n n - - given it i Anglo-Saxon countries, that is to say, embracing all w agricultural hydraulic vorks : irEigation works proper; surface and subsurface drainage; flood control; coastal protection, etc.  P R I : REVIEW O THZ P R S N IRRIGATION SITUATION AT -- F II--. P EE T A - Natural Conditions, as Basic Factors f o r I r r i g a t i o n Development - -w (1) Topography and S o i l s 7 The subcontinen-L of I n d i a (810 m i l l i o n a c r e s a l t o g e t h e r approximately) i s divided, topographically speaking, a s follows: ( i ) mountains - 10.5 p e r cent of which about 35 per cent i s uncultivable ; ( i i ) h i l l tracts - 18.5 per cent of which about 3/h per cent i s uncul t i v a b l e ; ( i i i ) plateaus - 28.0 per cent of which about 1/4 per cent i s uncul t i v a b l e ; ( i v ) plains - 43.0 p e r cent of which about 1/20 per cent i s uncultivable . 8. From t h i s it w i l l be seen t h a t t h e maximum amount of land a v a i l a b l e f o r c u l t i v a t i o n in I n d i a i s about 475 m i l l i o n acres, t h a t i s , a'host 60 per cent 1/ of the country's t o t a l area. Nost of t h e p l a i n s o r f l a t land s u i t a b l e f o r - i r r i g a t i o n a r e located i n t h e northern p o r t i o n ( the Indo-Gangetic p l a i n ) and along p r a c t i c a l l y the e n t i r e coast i n t h e c e n t r a l and southern p a r t s of t h e subcontinent. 9. I n t h e v a l l e y s of the e a s t e r n Indus t r i b u t a r i e s and the Ganges valley, almost a l l of the cropland c o n s i s t s of deep a l l u v i a l s o i l s of f l u v i a l o r i g i n , r a t h e r l i g h t and e a s i l y workable, of v a r i a b l e permeability and on t h e whole s u i t a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n (provided t h a t they do riot contain excessive q u a n t i t i e s of s a l t o r a l k a l i ) . O t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n s , most cropland i s composed of n a l l u v i a l s o i l s of marine o r i g i n , a l s o r a t h e r l i g h t and f a i r l y permeable. - - ( 2 ) Climate 10. The a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s of I n d i a a r e almost e n t i r e l y f r o s t - f r e e and t h e r e i s p r a c t i c a l l y no low temperature l i m i t even i n winter below which i t i s r i s k y t o grow s t a p l e crops. 1.1 The s i n g l e determining c l i m a t i c f a c t o r a s regards i r r i g a t i o n prospects and p a t t e r n s i s r a i n f a l l . Almost a l l t h e r a i n f a l l s during t h e monsoon season from June t o October (90 per cent of the t o t a l ) i n t h e northern, c e n t r a l and western p a r t s of t h e country. I n the s o u t h e a s t (?ladras), the main r a i n s from the r e t r e a t i n g monsoon occur between October and December. - 1/ The corresponding proportions a r e about 25 per c e n t i n the U.S.A. 75 p e r cent in I t a l y . and 12. Differences i n r a i n f a l l between one p a r t of t h e country and t h e o t h e r a r e very g r e a t : i n the northern par-t of t h e Assam Valley r a i n f a l l may exceed 100 inches whereas i n c e r t a i n e a s t e r n p o r t i o n s of t h e Indus Valley it may. only be 5 inches. I t i s u s u a l l y considered t h a t approximately one-third of the country has ample r a i n (over 50 inches), one-third receives s u f f i c i e n t r a i n f o r c e r t a i n crops (30 t o 50 inches) while the remaining t h i r d does n o t have enough ( l e s s than 30 i n c h e s ) . I r r i g a t i o n seems advisable when t h e average r a i n f a l l i s l e s s than 50 inches and indispensable when i t i s below 15 ikehes. Generally, marked drouzht occurs one y e a r i n f i v e and severe drought one year i n ten. 13. I n conclusion, r a i n f a l l i s inadequate over a l a r g e portion of India; moreover, i t i s concentrated w i t h i n a s h o r t season of about t h r e e months a year; and f i n a l l y , t h e amount of r a i n f a l l and t h e time the r a i n s begin and end during t h e monsoon season vary considerably. Therefore, the r e g u l a r supply of water by means of i r r i g a t i o n i s t h e d e c i s i v e f a c t o r i n geographic expansion and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of crops a s w e l l a s in r e g u l a t i n g and i n t e n s i f y - i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l production. (3) Water Resources Available f o r I r r i g a t i o n 14. The water resources a v a i l a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n c o n s i s t of s u r f a c e waters ( r i v e r s ) , and ground waters ( a q u i f e r s ) . They o r i g i n a t e from r a i n f a l l over t h e e n t i r e subcontinent and from snow melt on a l a r g e p o r t i o n of the Himalayan range. Surface Water Resources 15 Rivers f e d by both r a i n f a l l and snow melt have the most important discharges ( t h e Brahmapubra; t h e Ganges and most of i t s t r i b u t a r i e s ; and t h e e a s t e r n t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e Indus). I n aCdition, even when t h e r i v e r s a r e a t t h e i r lowest level., t h e i r discharge i s s t i l l considerable s o t h a t they a r e a source of i r r i g a t i o n water i n t h e dry season. I n c e n t r a l and southern India, on the o t h e r hand, discharge i s very s n a l l o r p r a c t i c a l l y n i l lahen t h e r i v e r s are a t t h e i r lowest stage. 16. The average annual discharge of a l l t h e r i v e r s of India t o t a l s approximately 1,360 m i l l i o n a c r e - f e e t , of which 400-450 m i l l i o n a c r e - f e e t i s considered usable and 140 t o 160 m i l l i o n a c r e - f e e t ( 3 5 per cent usable) i s p r e s e n t l y used f o r i r r i g a t i o n . -- Groundwater 17. Groundwater resources a r e as y e t n o t very w e l l known. The main a q u i f e r s o f f e r i n g t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l supply a r e in the Ganges Valley on t h e l e f t bank of t h e r i v e r , and in the Punjab. 18. According t o estimates a t o t a l of about 300 m i l l i o n a c r e - f e e t of the s u r f a c e water goes t o r e p l e n i s h the a q u i f e r s and i s t h e r e f o r e , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , a v a i l a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r e . I t can be assumed t h a t only about 20 per cent of t h e s e resources (50 t o 60 m i l l i o n a c r e - f e e t ) i s a c t u a l l y being used f o r i r r i g a t i o n purposes. 19. Summarizing, in order t o give an i d e a of t h e order of magnitude, t o t a l r a i n f a l l over t h e e n t i r e country i s estimated t o amount t o an average annual volume of 3,000 m i l l i o n acre-feet (versus 4,640 m i l l i o n f o r t h e U.S.A.); water resources t h e o r e t i c a l l y a v a i l a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r e and other requirements (water supply an2 industry) amount t o about 1,650 m i l l i o n acre-feet, divided between 1,350 m i l l i o n a c r e - f e e t from surface water and 300 m i l l i o n a c r e - f e e t from groundwater; of t h i s t o t a l t h e r e a r e about 700 m i l l i o n acre-feet s t i l l t o be tapped; an o v e r a l l annual volume of about 200 rnillion a c r e - f e e t might be used a t t h e present time f o r i r r i g a t i o n ( t h a t i s , almost 30 per cent of t h e t o t a l usable surface and groundwater resources) . 20. From t h e s e approximations w i l l be seen t h a t I n d i a s t i l l has immense p o t e n t i a l resources f o r i r r i g a t i o n and i t s development i s n o t l i k e l y t o be harnperetl even over a long-term period, by t h e problem of water a v a i l a b i l i t y . B - P Present I r r i ~ a t i o n a t t e r n s 21. Indiz i s among those countries, c i v i l i z e 6 i n a n t i q u i t y , r ~ h i c hcan l a y cla-im t o having been t h e f i r s t t o p r a c t i c e i r r i g a t i o n . From time immemorial innumerable 1- ells were dug t o supply drinking water, water f o r t h e 7)addy f i e l d s and f o r vegetables. 22. I r r i g a t i o n on a l a r g s s c a l e did n o t develop u n t i l l i t t l e more than a century ago with t h e construction of major diversion canals tapping water from the r i v e r s i n t h e Indus and Ganges basins, and a few r i v e r s i n the southern p a r t of t h e country. 23. A t t h e time of F a r t i t i o n (1947), the t o t a l i r r i g a b l e land amounted tc about 70 m i l l i o n a c r e s of which 50 m i l l i o n remained in India. 2k. I n I n d i a (today), i r r i g a t e d areas a r e u s u a l l y c l a s s i f i e d a s follows: eikher (i) according t o the source of t h e water and t h e n a t u r e of the i r r i g a t i o n works, i n trhich case t h e d i v i s i o n i s approximately a s follows: (a) area irrigated. by canals - 41 per cent; (b) area i r r i g a t e d by wells. - 31 per cent; (c) area irriga-Led by t a n k s - 19 per cent; (d) area i r r i g a t e d by c t h e r sources - 9 percent; (ii) depending on the c o s t of t h e i n i t i a l i n s t a l l a t i o n when i t i s customary t o speak o f :  (a) rriajor schemes, c o s t i n g more than Rs. 5 crores (approximately U: 10 m i l l i o n ) ; S; (b) medium-sized schemes, c o s t i n g between R s . 10 lakhs (al?proxihately US$ 200,000) and R s . 5 crores; (c) minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes, c o s t i n g l e s s than R s . 10 lakhs. The f e a t u r e s of each type of scheme a r e somewhat d i f f e r e n t and an attempt is here made t o describe the main ones. (1) - YsXnor I r r i g a t i o n Schemes 25. About two-thirds of a l l I n d i a ' s i r r i g a t e d land i s under such schemes and, in some S t a t e s (Rajasthan, Gujarat and Assam, f o r i n s t a n c e ) f o u r - f i f t h s . Eiey include systems supplied by shallovr wells, tube raells, tanks o r o t h e r sources (water d r a m froin srcall r i v e r s , s?rings, e t c . ) . 26. The main advantages of minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes a r e w e l l Inown; easy p a r t i c i p a t i o n of farmers i n t h e framing, construction and management of t h e schemes; r a p i d i t y of construction; low c o s t per scheme; a s h o r t period between t h e comple-tion of t h e works and when they a r e brought i n t o f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n ; easy i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t,he l o c a l economy. Furthermore, shallow w l l s o r tube ~ r e l l s make perennial i r r i g a t i o n p o s s i b l e , and hence i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , b ~ h i l ea t t h e same time serving t o d r a i n t h e s o i l s i n depth. 27 The main drawbacits a r e t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of schemes a r e undertaken without adequate preliminary surveys o r any o v e r a l l plan; t h a t c o s t s p e r u n i t a r e a a r e o f t e n much higher than c o s t s i n major schemes and t h a t maintenance i s o f t e n neglected. Furthermore, i n t h e case of tanks, very f r e q u e n t l y t h e water reserves a r e found t o be i n s u f f i c i e n t in abnormally er dry years, j u s t when ~ ~ a t requirements a r e g r e a t e s t . 28. It i s thouzht, ho~~rever,h a t a t !:resent i n I n d i a t h e advantages of t minor schemes outweigh t h e i r disadvantages, and t h i s holds t r u e especial.ly f o r shallow w e l l s and privately-armed tube wells. The main a r e w e n t advanced i n t h e i r f a v o r i s t h a t they have a r a p i d irnpact on a g r i c u l t u r a l production. The enormous r i s k of d r i l l i n g anci equipping hunc'reds of thousands of w e l l s i n only a f e n y e a r s ' time ~ c i t h o u ta proper preliminary i n v e s t i g a t i o n of underground a q u i f e r s must be emphasized; however, t h e resources of such a q u i f e r s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y l i m i t e d and any excessive tapping thereof immediately r e s u l ~ s n an o v e r a l l l o a ~ e r i n gof t h e water table, and progressive, slow but i s u r e d e p l e t i o n Iha-(Iu l t i m a t e l y l e a d s t o the drying o u t of many w e l l s during t h e dry season. 29. floreover, s o i l preparation p r a c t i c e s a s v e i l a s i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s a r e n s u a l l y of the same mediocre standards followed in canal i r r i g a t i o n schemes mentioned below.  .-2 ) i,!a jor (.---- -7 and llediunl Schemes 30. These i r r i g a t i o n schemes, usually supplj.ed by simple diversion of river t ~ a t e r have been devised and b u i l t essent,iaily i n order to overcome t o some extent water shortages o r poor d i s t r i b u t i o n of summer r a i n f a l l . Fundamentally, therefore, they were b u i l t merely t o provide supplementary i r r i g a t i o n during t h e lnonsoon season, thus guaranteeing more regular paddy o r cotton crops. 31 Since t h i s was t h e main objective, engineers b u i l t very widely spread syst.erns, so designed as t o d i s t r i b u t e very small supplementary volume of t7a-ter over as l a r g e an area as possible, raifvhout any expectation a t a l l of providing adequate i r r i g a t i o n a t a l l points every summer t o s a t i s f y f u l l water requirements of t h e crops. 32. I n these circumstances it i s understandable t h a t the engineers merely conducted water as f a r as t h e o u t l e t t o areas from 100 t o 500 acres i n s i z e , without concerning themselves with the small d i s t r i b u t i o n channels which c a r r y water t o individual p l o t s . 3uring the monsoon season and when i r r i g a t i o n i s by s u h e r s i o n o r flooding ( b a s i n i r r i g a t i o n ) , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e water passes from one paddy f i e l d t o another located immediately beside o r below i t i s not a ~narlceddra~rbac!~. 33 I t i s therefore not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t u s u a l l y t h e r e has been no attempt t o prevent water l o s s e s by c o s t l y l i n i n g of canals o r s p e c i f i c s t r u c t u r e s f o r neasured d i s t r i b u t i o n of the water. It is a l s o understandable t h a t the uay i? which systems a r e managed seems l e s s and l e s s s u i t a b l e f o r mixed crops i which sometimes d i f f e r g r e a t l y i n t h e i r water requirements. It is n o t surprising, moreover, t h a t nany l a r g e canals were b u i l t without any preliminary lanu consolidation o r sinultaneous construction of drainege schemes. 340 I n many cases canals s t i l l receive water a f t e r t h e monsoon season from the recession streamflow u n t i l , s t a r t i n g in February, discharge p r a c t i - c a l l y stops. The farmers can thus sow grains i n October o r November under f a i r l y gooL conditions, although they a r e never c e r t a i n t h a t they w i l l have enough water f o r the f i n a l waterings i n February and ikiarch. 35 Water nanagement and operation i n t h e major i r r i g a t i o n schemes are di s o m c ~ ~ h a t f f e r e n 5 from S t a t e t o State. 4 a rule, the i n t e r v a l between s , tuo successive i r r i g a t i o n s i s very long, from two t o t h r e e weeks, a s they were i f i i t i a l l y intended only f o r supplenlentary i r r i g a t i o n during t h e monsoon season. Furthermore, t h e r e i s no pre-arranged water d i s t r i b u t i o n plan, season by season, f i t t e d t o t h e a c t u a l crop-groising p a t t e r n o r t o t h e corresponding demands of farmers. The resulL i s t h a t the farmers can never be c e r t a i n , e i t h e r a t sorring o r planting time, t h a t they w i l l have enough water a t t h e r i g h t tirnes t o obtain gcod crops. I n the circumstances, the farmers have t o be extremely cautious about expanding t h e i r dry-season crops; furthermore, they use only small volumes of water per u n i t area, u s u a l l y f a r below a c t u a l plan5 requirements (and about one-quarter of the i r r i g a t i o n water volumes used i n Europe o r the U S A ) .... 36- The percentage of double cropping i s t h e r e f o r e very low (about one- f i f t e e n t h of t h e i r r i g a t e d a r e a by major and medium-size schemes), and n approxiaately equal i i r r i g a t e d zones and i n dry-farming areas. 37. To sum up, most of t h e l a r g e canals now in operation provide only supplementary seasonal i r r i g a t i o n over excessively l a r g e a r e a s , t h e r e being no properly planned water d i s t r i b u t i o n . The r e s u l t i s both low e f f i c i e n c y and an enormous w a s t ~of water, vhich l e a d s t o a r i s e in t h e water t a b l e , somet,imes causing t h e formidable problem of waterlogging and s a l i n i t y over v a s t c u l t i v a t e d areas. 38. It must, h.owever, be emphasized t h s t some progress i s being made i n t h e promotion of permanent i r r i g a t i o n schemes through t h e construction of a few l a r g e s t o r a g e dams, a s w e l l a s t h e digging of many tube wells. Further- more, sone canals a r e being l i n e d and major drainage f a c i l i t i e s i n s t a l l e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Punjab. F i n a l l y t h e need t o improve t h e present s i t u a t i o n and t h e prknary ways of doing so are, on t h e whole, common knowledge i n c @ v e m ~ e n t ircles. ( 3 ) Flood Control and Surface Drainage 39. The violence of monsoon st,orms, a s w e l l a s t h e i n t e n s i t y of r a i n f a l l , f r e q u e n t l y l e a d s t o t h e r i v e r s overflouing t h e i r barllcs and t h e inundation of v a s t expanses of l a n e , mainly in t h e S t a t e s of Asszn and t h e Funjab, v i t h t h e consequent tremendous l o s s e s i n human l i f e , l i v e s t o c k , crops (hf u l l o r i n l p a r t ) , housing and f a c i l i t i e s , e t c . 40. I n t h e l a s t decade t h e r e has been a s e r i e s of c a t a s i r o p h i c f l o o d s due t o a periou of years with e x c e p t i o n a l l y heavy r a i n f a l l , no doubt aggra- vated b;r t h e ?henonenon of s o i l erosion over l a r g e areas. Because of t h i s , a l z r g e - s c a l e program of construction of r i v e r embanlunents, c a n a l i z a t i o n of n a t u r a l streams (choes) and s u r f a c e drainage systems has been i n i t i a t e d . 41. By :iay of i l l u s t r a t i o n , i n %he Punjab alone, a b u t 3 m i l l i o n a c r e s were flooded i n 1962, t h e correspondins darnage being appraised a t approxi- mately R s . 32 c r o r e s , and a t t h e end of Narch, 1965, about R s . 21 c r o r e s ( e q u i v a l e n t t o US$ 42 m i l l i o n ) had already been spent on flooe. c o n t r o l and s u r f ace drainage rt~orlcs. ----Platerlogging ( 4) - and S a l i n i t y k2. Secause of t h e geological s t r u c t u r e of the v a s t r i v e r basins such a s t h e Indus and t h e Ganges, and t h e g e n e r a l l y s l i g h t s l o p e of t h e i r e n t i r e middle reaches, t h e r e e x i s t groundwater a q u i f e r s , some of them s a l i n e . Their r a t h e r f r e q u e n t replenishment from g r e a t f l o o d s , ar,d t h e o b s t a c l e s t o s u r f a c e drainage of engineering works (such a s roads, r a i l ~ t ~ a y scanals, e t c . ) b u i l t , with no thought of adequate drainaze out,lets, a s w e l l a s -the spreading of enormous volumes of i r r i g a t i o n water over v a s t a r e a s during t h e monsoon season, again wi.th inadequate drainage f a c i l i t i e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e excessive seepage l o s s e s from canals, have o f t e n l e d t o t h e over-replenishment of subsurface a q u i f e r s and a c o n s e q ~ e n tdangerous r i s e i n t h e water t a b l e . I n t h e lowest p o r t i o n s , o r those n a t u r a l l y poorly drained, t h e water t a b l e has r i s e n t o t h e surface, arable, l a y e r of s o i l , making any crop-growing inore and more d i f f i c u l t and hazardous. Sometimes t h i s replenishment of t h e a q u i f e r s i s accompanied by t h e 3 i s s o l v i n g of enormous q u a n t i t i e s of s a l t contained i n t h e l a y e r s of s o i l through which t h e groundwater flows, l e a d i n g t o a. gradual i n c r e a s e i n s a l i n i t y of l a r g e a r e a s of farmland which i n t h e long run become waterlogged. b3 Thus, m i l l i o n s of acres .of e x c e l l e n t cropland have already been rendered u s e l e s s , mainly i n t h e S t a t e s of t h e Punjab and U t t a r Pradesh. It i s f u r t h e r estimated t h a t an a d d i t i o n a l 30,000 a c r e s a year a r e made uncultivable a s a r e s u l t of s o i l degradation due t o waterlogging and i n c r e a s e in s a l i n i t y . 4.4 Such waterlogging i s obviously much more widespread a t the end of the r a i n y season (October) than a t t h e end of t h e d r y season ( June) . Thus i n t h e Punjab, f o r instance, t h e area where t h e water t a b l e l i e s a t depths of l e s s than 5 f e e t below t h e surface, v a r i e s from 3 m i l l i o n a c r e s t o 1 m i l l i o n , according t o t h e season. . cos1,l~rt a s l a , ofc aexcessiver surfacel water r e n t measuresi z a(deep drainage, b.5' and Con-trol lling f o severa diffe and d e s a l i n t i o n a r e complicated leaching out of excessive s a l t s by l a r g e - s c a l e flooding, l i n i n g of canals, flood control, e t c . ) . That t?ork must be based on a thorough study of t h e main causes of t h e s e two phenomena, in p a r t i c u l a r a long and meticulous h y d r o ~ e o l o g i c a lsurvey. I'Ieaszres taken i n I n d i a have n o t been adequate e i t h e r i n scope o r in complexity t o meet t h e s c a l e of t h e problem. Therefore, yearn a f t e r year, more and more agri.cultural land i s being waterlogged o r ruined by an i n c r e a s e i n s a l i n i t y . Other Hvdraulic Problems 46. Under t h i s heading, c o a s t a l p r o t e c t i o n works and experimentation and research i n hydrology and h p l r a u l i c engineering should be mentioned. Coast.al Protection bjorks- 47. The combination of sea t i d e s and storms causes t h e i n t r u s i o n of sal-Ly, ocean water on l a r g e expanses of c u l t i v a t e d land, mainly i n t h e S t a t e s of Kerala, Iiysore, llahashtra and Drissa. I n t h e S t a t e of Kerala alone, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e i s need t o extend c o a s t a l dikes and levees over approximately 200 miles, a t a s o s t of from R s . 25 t o 30 crores SO t o 60 m i l l i o n ) . -Experimentation and - Elessarch. 7- 48. Each S t a t e conducts i t s otm surface water resources surveys, measurements and 2ischzrge o b s e r v a ~ i o n s , and then t h e f i n d i n g s a r e c o l l a t e d on a f e d e r a l l e v e l by t h e l I i n i s t r y of I r r i g a t i o n and Power. For groundwater resources, t h e N i n i s t r y of Fooii and Agriculture has a f e d e r a l body (Exploratory has Tube y e l l Organization) ~ ~ h i c h already undertaken very u s e f u l borings and t r i a l s i n s e v e r a l p a r t s of t h e subcontinent. 49- O t h e whole, however, t h e study of water resources i s being c a r r i e d n o u t by t h e most d i v e r s i f i e d methods and with d i f f e r e n t degrees of accuracy. Furthermore, and above a l l , t h e r e i s no s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o c o l l e c t a l l t h e d a t a on s u r f a c e and groundb~atersand draw up a water budget f o r t h e major watersheds. 50. For experimentation and research i n t h e f i e l d of hydrology and h y d r a u l i c engineering, t h e r e a r e now about 20 s t a t i o n s in I n d i a , of which 2 a r e f e d e r a l ( a t Poona and N w elh hi), while t h e o t h e r s belong t o t h e e S t a t e s in which they a r e located. 51 The general impression i s t h a t most of t h e s e s t a t i o n s have research programs overloaded with too many and too d i v e r s i f i e d t o p i c s , compared x i t h t h e rneans a v a i l a b l e t o them. I n a d d i t i o n , only v e r y few of them have properly t r a i n e d i r r i g a t i o n e x p e r t s who a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o design and c a r r y through s c i e n t i f i c t r i a l s and experiments commensurate with t h e problems b e s e t t i n g t h e i r r i g a t i o n engineers and agronomists. P R I1E AT TJE DEVELOPIIE?JT O I R R I G A T I O N I N THE FIVE YEAR PL,.AitS F , - A - -- Achievexents and Related Outlays D u r i n ~t h e Fi_.rst. Second and Third Plans 52 A t t h e b e e m i n g of the F i r s t Plan (1951) t h e r e were about 51.5 m i l l i o n a c r e s under i r r i g a t i o n and b.5 m i l l i o n a c r e s were being double croy:etl., giving a [.ross u t , i l i z e d area of 56 m i l l i o n acres, of which 23.5 were includecf i n inajor and medium-size schemes and 32.5 i n minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes. 53. Tables 1, 2 and 3 appended show t h e changes i n a r e a i r r i g a t e d i n the f i r s t t h r e e Five-Year Flans and demonstrate an i n c r e a s e of approximately 160 p e r cent i n gross i r r i g a t e d a r e a w i t h i n 15 years; i n o t h e r words, t h e i r r i g a b i e a r e a has been enlarged by about 34 m i l l i o n a c r e s (13 t o 14 m i l l i o n hectares, o r a l i % t l e l e s s than 1 nlill.ion h e c t a r e s per y e a r ) . 5$. This expansion i s considerable, f a r g r e a t e r than t h a t in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s of t h e world ( c h i n a excepted, probably). I n order t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e magni~udeof t h i s e f f o r t , i t may be mentioned t h a t during t h e same 15-year period, t h e area i r r i g a t e d i n I t a l y was increased by about only 1 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s , a n 4 i n t h e U.S.A. by 2 t o 3 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s . 55. I n f a c t , t h e f i g u r e s given i n Tables 1, 2 and 3 should be considered merely a s o r d e r s of magnitude, no doubt e r r i n g by exaggeration. For instance, i n some e s t i m a t e s supplied by c e r t a i n S t a t e s , t h e f i g u r e s may correspond n o t t o a r e a s a c t u a l l y watered a r t i f i c i a l l y b u t t o t h e t o t a l a r e a s commanded by major canals o r supplied by tube w e l l s . However, t h e average discharge of S t a t e tube w e l l s i s such a s t o supply, a t t h e very b e s t , only one-quarter o r o n e - f i f t h of i t s commanded area. 56 The t a b l e s show a more r a p i d expansion of minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes than major and medium schemes. The explanation no doubt l i e s in t h e f a c t t h a t , i n t h e l a t t e r case, major engineering works (dams, l a r g e canals, e t c . ) must f i r s t be constructed, which t a k e s e v e r a l years, before canal d i s t r i b u t i o n systems a r e extended t o p r o j e c t areas. 57. The t a b l e s demonstrate t h a t only a very small percentage of land i s double-cropped. This underlines both t h e very extensive nature of t h e i r r i g a t i o n systems (which, a s has been s a i d before, were intended p r i m a r i l y t o supply supplementary i r r i g a t i o n during t h e mansoon season) and on t h e o t h e r hand, u n c e r t a i n t y regarding water s u p p l i e s during t h e d r y season. Even i n a r e a s where t h e r e a r e S t a t e tube wells, such u n c e r t a i n t y p r e v a i l s , no doubt because of poor organization. 58 I n 1951-52, t h e area under minor i r r i g a t i o n (about 32.5 m i l l i o n a c r e s ) was made up a s follows: 55 per cent from s u r f a c e water systems and 45 per cent from groundwater schemes. These proportions a r e now roughly i n v e r t e d because emphasis has been put more and more on deepening and boring w e l l s during t h e l a s t f i f t e e n years. 59. Particu.larly, many tube wells were constructed. S t a t e tube wells very o f t e n have an average discharge of about 1.5 cusec although cooperative or p r i v a t e tube wells have a lower discharge ( i .e., from 0.3 t o 0.7 cusec) Sometimes tube w e l l s c o n t r i b u t e a l s o to lower t h e water t a b l e and then t o . improve land a f f e c t e d by waterlogging. 60. F i n a l l y t h e t a b l e s s e t f o r t h f i n a n c i a l al.locations f o r i r r i g a t i o n works i n r e l a t i o n t o t o t a l investment under each plan ( p u b l i c s e c t o r ) and t o t h e funds reserved f o r t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r as a whole. The s e r i o u s diminution i n percentage of funds earmarked f o r major and niedium i r r i g a t i o n schemes ( 8 per cent f o r t h e Third Plan a s compared with 13.3 per cent f o r t h e F i r s t Plan) i s t o be noted while percentage investment i n minor i r r i g a t i o n s chemes has remained f a i r l y cons t a n t . 61. The n w b e r of major and medium-size schemes undertaken o r proposed has been r e l a t i v e l y high, about 200 under t h e Second Plan (1956/61) and 400 under t h e Third Plan. This excessive d i s p e r s a l of funds and e f f o r t has e n t a l l e d considerable delays i n completion of i r r i g a t i o n systems, s o t h a t the a r e a a c t u a l l y i r r i g a t e d was f a r l e s s than intended when o r i g i n a l t a r g e t s were s e t . Thus, f o r example, t h e a r e a s newly i r r i g a t e d under t h e Third Plan amount t o about. 7.5 m i l l i o n a c r e s under major o r medium schemes as compared with an a n t i c i p a t e d 12.5 m i l l i o n a c r e s . 62. During the 15 years of t h e f i r s t t h r e e Plans (1951/66), l a r g e r and l a r g e r appropriations were spent on flood c o n t r o l work, anti-waterlogging measures and consolidation of landholdings, although i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o gather exact f i g u r e s from t h e a v a i l a b l e documents. 63. Fiegarding flood control, anti-waterlogging and a n t i - s e a erosion measures, about 1 t o 1 2 m i l l i o n a c r e s should b e n e f i t from works constructed 1 between 1951 and 1966, a t a c o s t , by t h e end of 5he Third Plan, of about R s . 140 crores ( t h e equivalent of US$ 280 m i l l i o n ) . 6b. A s regards consolidation of land holdings, i t i s estimated t h a t from 50 t o 55 m i l l i o n a c r e s , o r 1 7 per cent of t h e c u l t i v a t e d land of the country, were consolidated during t h e sane period. 65. Altogether, the achievements made, encouraging a s they are, a r e s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y modest i n the f i g h t a g a i n s t waterlogging and i n land consolidation. B - Trends and Targets Proposed f o r the Fourth Plan - 66. S t a r t i n g in 195b, surveys were made by t h e Central Power and Vater Commission t o determine t h e maximum a r e a s u i t a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n . The conclusions reached were t h a t t h e r e a r e a maximum of about 100 o r 110 rnillion a c r e s which could be served by major and medium schemes and about 70 o r 75 m i l l i o n a c r e s by minor schemes; t h e combined t o t a l of about 175 m i l l i o n a c r e s would be t h e equivalent of over one-third of t h e p o t e n t i a l a r a b l e land of India. Considering t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of double- cropping, the gross i r r i g a t e d area reaches a maximum of about 200 m i l l i o n acres. 67. Tine t a r g e t f o r t h e Fourth Plan proposed i n October 196b c a l l e d f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e gross i r r i g a t e d a r e a from 90 m i l l i o n a c r e s ( t h e f i g u r e f o r 1966) t o about 110 m i l l i o n a c r e s by 1971, of which 50 by major and medium sche~nesanc: 60 by ininor i r r i g a t i o n schemes. During the next Five- Year Plan, t h e increase i n gross i r r i g a t i o n a r e a would t h e r e f o r e be about 20 m i l l i o n acres, of which one-half approximately would be by minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes. 08. The o u t l a y per u n i t area i s expected t o average 600 rupees per acre f o r major a d medium schemes and 500 rupees f o r minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes. These seem t o be uaSerestimates; f o r instance, f o r two major i r r i g a t i o n schemes i n the S t a t e s of Xaharashtra r e c e n t l y approved by the Central govern men^ t h e c o s t per acre i s estimated a t 800 t o 900 rupees, while f o r minor i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s t h e S t a t e of Gujarat gives estimates of 800 t o 1200 rupees per acre, f o r the preparation of i t s new Plan. 69. For minor i r r i g a t i o n , any average c o s t per a c r e i s of l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e because t h i s c o s t v a r i e s considerably according t o the various c a t e g o r i e s of minor schemes; hey include works f o r t h e inprovement o r r e s t o r a t i o n of e x i s t i n g schemes a s w e l l a s b:orks f o r t h e construction of new tanks, t h e digging of new wells o r t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of pump s e t s . 70. Even assuining an average of about 700 t o 800 rupees per acre f o r a l l kinds of i r r i g a t i o n schemes, t h i s would s t i l l i n any case be f a r below average c o s t s of modern g r a v i t y i r r i g a t i o n systems in southern Europe o r the U.S.A. The main reason f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t the Indian estimates do not include t h e c o s t of farm d i s t r i b u t i o n systems, t h e construction of which i s l e f t t o t h e i n i t i a t i v e of the v i l l a g e s o r the farmers themselves. Another reason l i e s i n the very low percentage of l i n i n g of canals and i n the very simple s t r u c t u r e s adopted f o r c o n t r o l l i n g water l e v e l s and water discharges i n the canals. 71- A t the present stage of preparation of t h e Fourth Plan i t i s n o t y e t knovm how many new p r o j e c t s w i l l be undertaken between 1966 and 1971. Some p r i o r i t y w i l l be given t o t h e continuation and c o m ~ l e t i o nof works already s t a r t e d ( t o which about f o u r - f i f t h s of t h e a l l o c a t i o n s f o r major and medium schemes w i l l go) and t o t h e deepening of e x i s t i n g wells (minor i r r i g a t i o n works). 72. The question whether it i s b e s t t o refuse loans t o i n d i v i d u a l fanners who wish t o d i g t h e i r own wells in s e c t o r s supplied with water by canals i s more and more under discussion. Some S t a t e s a r e now wondering whether it would n o t be advisable t o draw up p r i o r i t y schedules f o r construction of S t a t e tube wells in these o f t e n very extensive sectors. This trend. i s one i n d i c a t i o n of t h e o r i e n t a t i o n , though sometimes confused, in favor of perennial i r r i g a t i o n . Another i s the ever more systematic search than i n t h e p a s t f o r s i t e s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e construction of storage dams. Obviously t-his outlook is highly d e s i r a b l e from t h e standpoint both of a g r i c u l t u r e and of economics. 73 According t o t h e present i n t e n t i o n s f o r t h e Fourth Flan, the main emphasis w i l l be l a i d on minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes, nainly w e l l s and p r i v a t e tube wells ( b u i l t with t h e help of loans). I f t h i s trend continues t h e t a r g e t would be t o reach an i r r i g a t e d area of about 60 m i l l i o n acres o u t of t h e p o t e n t i a l a r e a i r r i g a b l e by minor schemes of 75 m i l l i o n acres. 74. I n these c i r c u ~ s t a n c e s , it might be feared t h a t marginal schemes, more and more c o s t l y Fer u n i t area and perhaps l e s s and l e s s w e l l planned, w i l l be undertaken. For instance, i t i s intended t h a t t h e t a r g e t s f o r t h e Fourth Plan would include: construction of about 680,000 new open wells, r e s t o r a t i o n of about 160,000 old wells, boring of about 200,000 wells, deepening of about 200,000 e x i s t i n g wells, construction and equipment of more than 10,000 S t a t e tube wells. These f i g u r e s represent an average increase cf more than SO per cent over t h e t a r g e t s t o be achieved i n t h e Third Plan. I n addition, about 260,000 e l e c t r i c o r d i e s e l engine pumpsets would be i n s t a l l e d , against a t o t a l of about150,OOO during t h e present Five-Year Plan. - 13. fA Tne need cannot; but be emphasized t h a t a s many minor schemes a s possible should be incorporated i n a comprehensive program of work c a r e f u l l y worked o u t on the b a s i s of thoroughgoing land and water resources surveys. However, u n t i l these preliminary s t u d i e s have been completed it would on t h e contrary be advisable, a s things stand a t present, t o go slow both in granting of loans t o i n d i v i d u a l s as w e l l a s in the execution of c o l l e c t i v e works (such a s S t a t e tube w e l l s ) . 76. For l a r g e and medium i r r i g a t i o n schemes t h e emphasis would be put i n the Fourth Plan on t h e completion of many p r o j e c t s already implemented ,during t h e f i r s t t h r e e Plans. A t the same time t h e construction of s e v e r a l storagedams would be achieved thus giving a good opportunity f o r i n t e n s i f y i n g perennial i r r i g a t i o n on l a r g e areas. 77 The experience gained i n other countries i n t h e world shows t h a t l a r g e and medi.um i r r i g a t i o n schemes, when they a r e w e l l designed, constructed and operated, can be t h e source of tremendous economic developments and of permanent progress i n c i v i l i z a t i o n f o r the whole region concerned. Through d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t b e n e f i t they can i n c r e a s e n o t only the a g r i c u l t u r z l production but they f o s t e r many o t h e r kinds of investment and equipment. m e r e f o r e , they c o n t r i b u t e , much nore than minor schemes, t o a l a r g e c r e a t i o n of new einyloyments. l~ioreover, i t i s always e a s i e r f o r any Government t o i n t e n s i f y i n l a r g e i r r i g a t e d a r e a s a g r i c u l t u r a l research and extension, and t o o r i e n t a t e t h e crop p a t t e r n s towards n a t i o n a l goals and i n d u s t r i a l requirements (raw m a t e r i a l s ) . 78. Therefore, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e Government would a l s o l i k e t o follow-up i n t h e Fourth Plan a r a t h e r important attempt i n favor of l a r g e and medium i r r i g a t i o n schemes. 79. According t o i n i t i a l f o r e c a s t s of expenditure, a t o t a l of about R s . 1,450 c r o r e s w i l l be required, of which 450 (i.e., 31 per cent) w i l l be f o r minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes. 80. The t o t a l of R s . 1000 c r o r e s proposed under t h e heading "Major and ffedium Schemes" includes t h e f i n a n c i n g of flood c o n t r o l and s u r f a c e drainage t ~ o r k s(Rs. 125 c r o r e s ) , anti-waterlogging measures and c o a s t a l p r o t e c t i o n works. I n comparison with t h e grand t o t a l f o r each of t h e Five-Year Plans, t h e s e R s . 1000 c r o r e s a r e equivalent t o only 6.4 per cent of t h e t o t a l funds f o r t h e Fourth Plan, whereas i n t h e F i r s t Plan, 13.3 per c e n t ( o r more than double t h a t amount) were a l l o c a t e d f o r t h e same t-ype of works. 81. I n t h e t a b l e s attached t o t h i s study, i t i s s t r e s s e d that because of c o n f l i c t i n g sources of documentation, t h e f i g u r e s given should be con- s i d e r e d oniy a s probable orders of magnitude. A c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i c a l terms mentioned i n s t a t i s t i c s , such a s I1potential i r r i g a b l e area," " i r r i g a b l e area," " i r r i g a t e d area," " u t i l i z e d area under i r r i g a t i o n , " etc., does not appear a s o f t e n a s necessary. Similar d i f f i - c u l t i e s happen i n many o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . 82. However, i t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r any progress o r improvement t o have more accurate f i g u r e s . For t h i s purpose, a u s e f u l new approach would be t o progressively complement t h e s t a t i s t i c s r e l a t e d t o i r r i g a t i o n by i n d i c a t i o n s on amoufits of water r e a l l y d e l i v e r e d f o r i r r i g a t e d crops, a t l e a s t i n s e v e r a l well-selected areas. Then, i t would be p o s s i b l e t o a s c e r t a i n whether water requirements a r e f u l f i l l e d with a b e t t e r approximation. -- T 111: PR A THE NAIN PROBLEM A - The S t i l l I n s u f f i c i e n t Impact of I r r i g a t i o n on A g r i c u l t u r a l Production 83. The s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y low proportion of investments earmarked f o r major and mediuln i r r i g a t i o n schemes merely r e f l e c t s t h e p r e v a l e n t f e e l i n g . .  i n Government c i r c l e s t h a t t h e f a i r l y i n t e n s i v e development of i r r i g a t i o n in t h e l a s t 15 years has n o t produced t h e hoped-for r e s u l t s i n terms of higher a g r i c u l t u r a l production. O what i s t h i s opinion based and i s it n justified? 8b. I n general, those who disparage i r r i g a t i o n seem t o found t h e i r arguments on samplings in i r r i g a t e d areas and on miscellaneous a g r i c u l t u r a l t r i a l s and y a r d s t i c k s devised f o r t h e implementation of the Fourth Plan. 85. I t should be noted f i r s t of a l l t h a t t h e attempts t o f i n d y a r d s t i c k s , a s t h e authors themselves acknowledge, have i n most cases n o t included comparative and simultaneous t r i a l s with and without i r r i g a t i o n . ldhen such t r i a l s have been made on i r r i g a t e d land, they have simultaneously r e f l e c t e d o t h e r f a c t o r s such as f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n s and b e t t e r q u a l i t y seeds; p r a c t i c a l l y speaking t h e r e have been no t r i a l s t o determine t h e impact of i r r i g a t i o n along.l/ t Furthermore, m ~ s of these t r i a l s have been aimed s o l e l y a t f i n d i n g y a r x s t i c k s f o r foodgrains, t h a t i s t o say, "poor1' crops f o r rrhich people i.n many countries do not consider i t worthwhile employing i r r i g a t i o n . 86. t Comparatively f e r ~ r i a l s have been made i n i r r i g a t e d areas; they r e f e r s o l e l y t o y i e l d s of i r r i g a t e d foodgrains; they n e i t h e r show t h e e f f e c t of i r r i g a t i o n by i t s e l f nor accurate,-y r e f l e c t current i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s . Obviously f i n d i n g s vary g r e a t l y , depending upon whether i r r i g a t i o n water was applizd a t t h e proper times and in adequate q u a n t i t i e s . 137. I n addition, a s y e t very few economic surveys with cost/benefit c a l c u l a t i o n s have been nade, even f o r t h e most r e c e n t major i r r i g a t i o n schemes. The few s t u d i e s undertaken, i n p a r t i c u l a r those by t h e U n i v e r s i t i e s of Pladras an6 Poona, e f f e c t i v e l y show t h a t under present circumstances, t h a t i s t o say, with present-day i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s , gains have been r e l a t i v e l y low, and too much time eiapses between t h e construction of major i r r i g a t i o n works and t h e i r f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n . 88. Furthermore, t h e q u a l i t a t i v e impression of f o r e i g n e x p e r t s g e n e r a l l y corroborates t h i s r a t h e r severe judgment as regards t h e i n p a c t of i r r i g a t i o n on a g r i c u l t u r a l production, which i s g e n e r a l l y based on comparisons of d a t a from major i r r i g a t i o n schemes verslls those from small s e c t o r s i r r i g a t e d from i n d i v i d u a l wells. I n t h e l a t t e r , i n c r e a s e s in average y i e l d s a s well as crop d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n a r e apparently much g r e a t e r than in t h e a r e a s i r r i g a t e d by S t a i e tube wells. These e x p e r t s a l s o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e dangerous spread of waterlogging and t h e i n c r e a s e in s a l i n i t y on m i l l i o n s of a c r e s can be blamed on i r r i g a t i o n . 89. Finalvy, t h e r a t h e r widespread impression t h a t i r r i g a t i o n does not pay i s a l s o due t o t h e poor f i n a n c i a l r e s u l t s from c o l l e c t i v e i r r i g a t i o n schemes, notably S t a t e tube w e l l p r o j e c t s . For instance, i n 1962/63 t h e n e t l o s s e s f o r about 7,000 S t a t e tube wells i n Uttar Pradesh came t o 45 m i l l i o n rupees (equivalent t o US$ 9 m i l l i o n ) o r an average l o s s of n e a r l y 6,500 rupees p e r tube w e l l - comanded area. A l o s s of t h e same order of magnitude has been found t o have occurred i n o t h e r S t a t e s (Gujarat, f o r - , ;u- l llDeveloprnent of Agriculture - I n d i a 1960/61 t o 1975/7611 by t h e Planning Commission, January, 196L. i n s t a n c e ) . This i s because i n i n s t a l l i n g S t a t e tube wells f o r minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes t h e very same p o l i c i e s and p r a c t i c e s a s were followed in sec5ors i r r i g a t e d by canals have been repeated. 90 An a d d i t i o n a l f a c t , which t o some e x t e n t seems t o support t h e opinion of low e f f i c i e n c y of i r r i g a t i o n i n India, i s t h a t t h e t a r g e t s of successive plans have n o t been a t t a i n e d d e s p i t e higher investments than were i n i t i a l l y anticipated. Hot- ever, t h i s i s a l s o t r u e i n most o t h e r s e c t o r s of the econoimy, a s the t a r g e t s s e t have almost always proved too optimistic. 91. However, most Indian a g r i c u l t u r i s t s recognize t h a t the development of i r r i g a t i o n has helped overcome t h e hazards of r a i n f a l l and thus r e g u l a r i z e harvests. The b e n e f i t s of i r r i g a t i o n , although not y e t t r a n s l a t e d i n t o accurate s t a t i s t i c s , a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y noticeable during d r y years. Moreover, i t i s n o t i c e l t h a t when farmers a r e assured t h a t they w i l l have enough water they t r y t o u t i l i z e t h e b e s t crop-growing techniques and d i v e r s i f y t h e i r crops. l/ The remarkable expansion of sugarcane growing i s c e r t a i n l y a t t r i b G t a b l e mainly t o the development of perennial i r r i g a t i o n i n c e r t a i n S t a t e s , f o r example, Uttar Praaesh and Madras. 92 Finally, s t a t i s t i c s on a g r i c u l t u r a l production cover only 28 main crops, o r 90 per cent of t h e c u l t i v a t e d area. These 28 crops do not include fodder crops, f r u i t orchards o r market garden crops which have developed g r e a t l y i n the p a s t 15 years p a r t i c u l a r l y around urban centers and supply them with food, e s p e c i a l l y the so-called h e a l t h foods, m i l k , f r u i t and vegetables. 93- I n conclusion, an objective examination of the f a u l t found with major and medium i r r i g a t i o n schemes, namely t h e i r r e l a t i v e inefficiency, does not explain how f a r t h i s adverse opinion i s j u s t i f i e d . 94. Probably t h e impact of i r r i g a t i o n on a g r i c u l t u r a l production i s s t i l l low. Now, while the Fourth Plan i s s t i l l being prepared, a c r u c i a l question must be faced a s t o whether these r a t h e r poor r e s u l t s should lead t o the condemnation of major and medium schemes, and therefore a reduction i n inves-criients envisaged f o r t h i s s e c t o r , i n favor of minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes o r o t h e r means of pror!mting a g r i c u l t u r a l development ( l e r t i - . l i z e r s , etz.) 95 I t i s an undeniable f a c t , however, t h a t conditions of topography and climate as w e l l as n a t u r a l land and water resources in India a r e such t h a t i n general i r r i g a t i o n i s one of the e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r s f o r rapid and permanent increase i n a g r i c u l t u r a l production. This i s corroborated f o r instance by the spectacular r e s u l t s obtained i n some s e c t o r s i r r i g a t e d from individual wells. The r e l s % i v e i n e f f i c i e n c y of the Government-built and managed i r r i g a t i o n schemes i s due t o other causes, which need t o be reviewed b r i e f l y . - 1/ See, f o r instance: ttEconomics of I r r i g a t i o n and Water Rates, under Cauvery Met t u r Fro jec ttl - University of Padras , 1961.  B - Possible E x p l a n a t e 96. Some of the causes of t h e low e f f i c i e n c y of i r r i g a t i o n schemes have already been mentioned i n t h e preceding sections. I n t h i s s e c t i o n they a r e explained more f u l l y , and an at-tempt i s made t o c l a s s i f y them l o g i c a l l y . (1) Technical Causes (i) Cons~tructionof most of t h e major schemes began over a century ago, without adequate study of t h e physical conditions of the n a t u r a l environment. Therefore the s e r i o u s danger of a r i s e i n the water t a b l e over considerable areas due t o water l o s s e s from canals an2 extensive i r r i g a t i o n systems was not appre- ciated. A s a r e s u l t , waterlogging and increased s a l i n i t y occurred, aggravated by man-made obstacles i n the form of engineering s t r u c t u r e s which prevent f r e e run-off of r a i n f a l l because these works were b u i l t without a t t e n t i o n t o .the maintenance of n a t u r e ' s equilibrium. (ii) For the major i r r i g a t i o n schemes, basic data were usually assembled with a view t o extending supplementary i r r i g a t i o n water over as wide an area a s possible i n order t o safeguard t h e crops of t h e monsoon season during dry years. For t h i s reason most i r r i g a t i o n systems have no peren- n i a l water supply. Furthermore, t h e i r design and operation a r e i l l - s u i t e d t o crops other than paddy and cotton, p a r t i c u l a r l y during t h e "rabi" season (October t o I'larch) when t h e r e i s s t i l l sor;ie r e s i d u a l discharge i n the r i v e r s . It i s therefore not possible t o expect regular, high y i e l d s . :;hen S-bate tube wells were constructed sirnilar c r i t e r i a were used, even though tube wells assure a permanent, regular water supyly. For t h i s reason economic r e s u l t s were equally poor. (iii) Because of t h s nain objective f o r which the rnajcr i r r i g a t i o n schemes werg b u i l t , viz., f o r extensive i r r i g a t i o n , i r r i g a t i o n engineers have, both i n the p a s t and today, only been responsi- b l e f o r the works a s f a r a s t h e o u t l e t s which a r e capable of ?*?livering a discharge of 1 t o 2 cusec and command areas from 200 t o 500 acres in s i z e . The taslc of spreading t h i s water and conducting i t from these o u t l e t s t o each c u l t i v a t e d plot, has been l e f t t o the farmers thenselves. Not having l e g a l means t o acquire r i g h t s of way f o r t h e watercourses on reasonable terms, not the proper technical ineans t o construct them, they met considerable d i f f i - c u l t i e s and construction of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n systems i s there- f o r e ex.tremely slow. The r e s u l t i n g systems have a most irregu- l a r layout and, s i n c e t h e casement i s always too narrow f o r the construction of proper banks t o t h e watercourses, the consequent  water l o s s e s are serious. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e p l o t s f u r t h e s t from the o u t l e t s receive only an i n f i n i t e s i m a l portion of t h e discharge, f a r too l i t t l e f o r adequate i r r i g a t i o n , hence t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y crop yields. Floreover, because of t h e complexity of t h e system excessive time, a s y e l l a s water, i s l o s t . The r e s u l t s of t h i s s i t u a t i o n a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y noticeable during t h e llrabill season, when l e s s e r and l e s s e r q u a n t i t i e s of water become available. These shortcomings i n construction and management of the farm d i s t r i b u t i o n networks a r e c e r t a i n l y among the leading reasons f o r the present low e f f i c i e n c y of i r r i g a t i o n . (iv) There i s s t i l l much t o be done i n the way of preparation cf farm p l o t s and s o i l s f o r i r r i g a t i o n ; basin i r r i g a t i o n (flooding) has been practiced from time immemorial i n paddy f i e l d s . This method i s s t i l l t h e one most widely employed, even during the dry season and f o r crops which would do b e t t e r i f other methods were used (bench border, furrow and corrugation methods) . Furthermore, s o i l preparation p r i o r t o sowing o r trans- planting often r e s u l t s i n an excessivelj. crumbly t o p s o i l layer, and the formation of a p r a c t i c a l l y impervious hardpan not f a r beneath t h e surface which n e i t h e r water nor r o o t s can penetrate readily. (v) The major i r r i g a t i o n schemes a r e operated i n accordance with r i g i d r u l e s usually frame6 t o d e l i v e r maximum discharge a t t h e end of t h e monsoon season and f o r technical reasons r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r naintenance (closure of l a r g e canals during heavy floods t o prevent t h e i r s i l t a t i o n , f o r instance). Unlike tine p r a c t i c e followed in many other countries, the operation program f o r a system i s n o t drawn up i n advance f o r each season t o niesfy t h e demands of the farmers themselves based on t h e i r crop-growing intentions. Consequently farmers have no advance assurance tha% -they w i l l receive enough i r r i g a t i o n water a t t h e time they need it, p a r t i c u l a r l y during t h e d r y season. Hence Inany of them a r e r e l u c t a n t t o expand o r i n t e n s i f y t h e i r crops under i r r i g a t i o n or, in part,icular, t o undertake double- cropping. Piany of them t r y t o overcome t h e g r e a t disadvantages of t h i s rlanagement system by digging t h e i r own wells. They a r e therefore obliged t o spend a g r e a t portion of t h e i r time and means on animal power i n or?er t o r a i s e a very small discharge. However, t h i s discharge i s perennial and can be u t i l i z e d when and a s i t i s needed.  (2) Land Tenure System (i) S i z e of landholdings v a r i e s g r e a t l y both w i t h i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n s and w i t h i n t h e S t a t e s . Because of p r e s s u r e of population, laws have been promulgated on t h e one hand t o s e t c e i l i n g s i z e s ( u s u a l l y of about 30 a c r e s ) f o r landholdings, and, on t h e o t h e r hand, t o make i t e a s i e r f o r farmers and farm workers t o o b t a i n t i t l e t o land. Land reform i s under way a t p r e s e n t , b u t has n o t y e t a f f e c t e d more than 15 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l a r e a involved. Most i r r i g a t e d a r e a s a r e an i r r e g u l a r mosaic of holdings and p l o t s of g r e a t l y d i f f e r i n g s i z e t h u s enormously complicating t h e t a s k of l a y i n g o u t o r d e r l y farm d i s t r i b u t i o n and drainage systems. Furthermore, c u l t i v a t i o n of t h i s multitude of farm p l o t s i s extremely inconvenient due t o .the l a c k of access roads. 1:Iost farmers have t o c r o s s s e v e r a l o t h e r p l o t s a l l bordered with d i k e s o r bunds, i n o r d e r t o reach t h e i r own f i e l d s t o b r i n g seeds and f e r t i l i z e r s , and then t o c a r r y away t h e harvest. (ii) The many inconveniences of t h i s l a n d tenure system have n o t escaped t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e Government, which has launched an e q u i t a b l e land reform canpaign and undertaken t h e consolidation of t h e many landholdings. The p r e s e n t bad i s s u e s of land tenure a r e extremely s e r i o u s handicaps t o i r r i g a t i o n , in view of t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of p r o p e r l y planned and operated schemes. Yet it seems t h a t a b s o l u t e p r i o r i t y has n o t been given t o improvement of t h e l a n 3 t e n u r e system in t h e exis'cing i r r i g a t e d a r e a s . This i s another fundamental reason f o r t h e low e f f i c i e n c y of i r r i g a t i o n . (iii) Ever s i n c e t h e promulgation of l a n d reform laws f o r new i r r i g a - t i o n schemes, l a n d reform and consolidation of landholdings should have been i n s t i t u t e d concurrently with t h e planning of t h e i r r i g a t i o n and drainage f a c i l i t i e s . This would have r e s u l t e d i n p r o j e c t a r e a s comprising l a r g e p l o t s of r e g u l a r shape each with i t s own supply c a n a l and roadway. Easements f o r t h e f a c i l i t i e s would have been acquired f r e e of charge a s a compensation f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n of landholdings. There would thus have been c o n s t i t u t e d , a s soon a s t h e maior h y d r a u l i c engineering works had been b u i l t , modern p r o p e r l y managed i r r i g a t i o n schemes which could have been p u t t o a g r i c u l t u r a l use much more r a p i d l y and i n t e n s i v e l y . This has not, however, y e t been done.  (3) I n s t i t u t i o n a l and Lezislative Causes (i) Obviously the construction of i r r i g a t i o n systems i s not an end i n i t s e l f ; the purpose i s t o help create more favorable condi- tions f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l production. Their necessarily costly construction opens new pros- pects f o r farmers. The farmers should, however, w a n t them, know t h e i r value and be capable of using them properly. Consequently, it i s necessary t o create f i r s t of a l l a proper psychological a t t i t u d e toward i r r i g a t i o n , mainly by trying t o induce qualified representatives of the farmers t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n providing accurate data and i n planning i r r i g a t i o n projects. It i s also necessary to frame and implement i n good time a simultaneous program of a g r i c u l t u r a l development within the same d i s t r i c t (by the provision of credit, training and extension services, f e r t i l i z e r s , improved seeds and marketing f a c i l i t i e s , etc.). Such a policy requires close cooperation between a l l administrative agencies responsible f o r i r r i g a t i o n and agriculture and with the farmers themselves. Such cooperation has been lacking f o r many years, which is another major reason f o r low efficiency i n the f i e l d of i r r i g a t i o n . However, i t must be emphasized t h a t considerable progress has been made i n cooperation between the main governmental departments i n recent years. Nevertheless, Ind.ia s t i l l does not have land development agencies f o r the management of i r r i g a t e d areas (such as i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t s , l o c a l water boards, i r r i g a t i o n authorities, etc.) l i k e those created i n other modern countries f o r the coordination of a l l a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o i r r i g a t i o n , development of agriculture and organized marketing of farm crops. (i i ) !.hereas major and medium schemes are the responsibility of the i r r i g a t i o n department of each S t a t e and a t federal level, minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes are i n the hands of many d i f f e r e n t adminis- t r a t i v e bodies such as the PJinistries of Agriculture (in charge of wells), the Rural Development Department ( Panchayats) , o r Cooperative Department, Public !:Jerks Department, etc. There i s thus i n each S t a t e no central autvhority responsible f o r coordination of investigations, programs and works. Hence there are delays, overlapping of work and compli- cations, a l l of which also reduce efficiency i n the f i e l d of irrigation. (iii) Furthermore, neither a t the f e d e r a l l e v e l nor in each S t a t e i s there any single administrative body i n charge of an a l l - inclusive water resources survey which can draw up a water budget or balance f o r each and every watershed. The appraisal  of surface water resources i s one of the t a s k s of the Irrigati~n Department, whereas groundwat~rresonrces a r e under t h e i ~ 5 n i s t r yof Food and Agriculture. It i s therefore not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t development plans f o r i r r i g a t i o n and drainage have been framed without 2ccurate knowledge of water resources as a whole and r a t h e r o f t e n without appropriate laws f o r t h e i r conservation. It i s a l s o not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e r e a l causes of waterlogging and s a l i n i z a t i o n , g r e a t handicaps t o a g r i c u l t u r e in several S t a t e s , have not y e t been f u l l y analyzed. and therefore the attempts t o c o n t r o l -them have n o t been very e f f e c t i v e . (iv) These shortcomings have thus f a r impeded the formulation of sound plans f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and optimum u t i l i z a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e water resources. The l a c k of such plans would become nore and more s e r i o u s as i r r i g a t i o n is extended and i n ~ e n s i f i e d . The use of water resources should be guided by i n t e l l i g e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l and economic c r i t e r i a , f o r instance, p r t o r i t y reservation of groundwater resources f o r areas with favorable s o i l s but i:r~possible t o reach by gravi5y canals because of t h e i r elevation o r remoteness. Finally, t h e proper u t i l i z a t i o n of groundwater i s s t i l l dependent upon t h e adoption of sound l e g i s l a t i o n by t h e various S t a t e s . 97. To summarize, t h e reasons f o r t h e low c f f i c i e n c g in t h e f i e l d of i r r i g a t i o n a r e many and only t h e main ones have been mentioned, viz., t h e l o w proportion of perennial schemes, t h e excessive fragmentation of r u r a l landholdings and t h e poor arrangements f o r 6 i s t r i b u t i o n of water t o individual farm p l o t s i n a l l S t a t e schemes. 98 , ~ e v e r t h e i e s s ,d e s p i t e t h e foregoing, the o v e r a l l impression should not be too pessimistic f o r the following p r i n c i p a l reasons: (1) Firs<ly, i t should be emphasize? thatv i n a l l countries of the world t h e r e i s a long perioc! (solnetirne:: ranging from 20 t o 30 years) between the s t a r t of i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s and t h e i r f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n by farmers. The changeover fro:n dry farming t o i r r i g a t i o n farming e n t a i l s a considerable revolution i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s , crop-growing sys tems, ernplopent of labor, commercial dealings. etc. Such a transformaLion i n e v i t a b l y invalves a long delay even i f a whole s e r i e s of concurrent measures a r e duly planned and executed. (2) Investments i n i r r i g a t i o n raorks a r e intended f o r permanent improve- ment of l o c a l conditions and t h e more i n t e n s i v e and s t a b l e develop- ment of a g r i c u l t u r e . They must therefore be considered t o a l a r g e extent. as p a r t of t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ( b a s i c equipment) of a country, somewhat under t h e same heading as investments i n public works, communication f a c i l i t i e s , e t c . Not only a r e d i r e c t b e n e f i t s procurecl by such investments but, i n addition, a g r e a t v a r i e t y of  i n d i r e c t b e n e f i t s stem which a r e sometimes d i f f i c u l t t o show on a f i n a n c i a l balance sheet, such as, f o r instance, production of nore d i v e r s i f i e i and :iiore n u t r i t i v e foods which help improve the h e a l t h of the e n t i r e popula.tion, a11 of which a r e traceable t,o i r r i g a t i o n . Therefore, no hasty and a l l too s u p e r f i c i a l comparisons should be made between investmen5s i n i r r i g a t i o n and i n other means of improving a g r i c u l t u r e of a l e s s fundamental and l e s s permanent character, the immediate r e t u r n s from which may a t f i r s t glance seem greater. 3 ) liodern i r r i g a t i o n technology has developed only r e c e n t l y in the b~orld; the most s t r i k i n g progress has occurrec'. only i n the l a s t 30 years so t h a t India i s n o t alone a s regards unsatisfactory r e s u l t s from i r r i g a t i o n ; s i x i l a r c r i t i c i s m might be levied i n many other advanced countries t h a t have not been able t o b e n e f i t from the l a t e s t advances of t h i s science. \$hat i s important i s t o note t h a t t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e progressive trend i n most S t a t e s of India; moreover, government a u t h o r i t i e s a l s o recognize the deficiencies and wealmesses i n the present i r r i g a t i o n s i t u a t i o n and a r e doing t h e i r best t o overcome them. Great s t r i d e s forward have already been made and t h e Fourth Plan may pr0vid.e an opportunity t o put t h i s awareness t o p r o f i t . I t i s in t h i s s p i r i t t h a t a few major recommenda-Lions seem ~rortilpresenting in order t o help speed and f u r t h e r t h i s evolution. ~-. PART I V : ?iA.JOR *ECOi*Z,S;;PTi3ATIONS 99. IJumerous documents prepared i n the l a s t few years by c e r t a i n universi- t i e s and the n r i n c i p a l Goverr~ment agencies show c l e a r l y t h a t the reasons f o r the poor i r r i g a t i o n siiuazion i n In5ia a r e well understood. So, also, a r e the improvemenks required. It i s therefore p e r t i n e n t t o ask i f a?y purpose i s served by making s t i l l f u r t h e r major recommendations, a-L t h e r i s k of repeating vhat the i r r i g a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s of India already know very well. 100. There i s no denying, however, t h a t progress i s s t i l l very slow, t h e scope of i r r i g a t i o n projects i s s t i l l limited. and r e g r e t t a b l e mistakes continue o L be repeated on a l a r g e scale, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the operation of systems. 101. It might,therefore, be useful t o t r y t o o u t l i n e c e r t a i n fundamental recommendations deriving f r o n on-the-spot observations and experience r e c e n t l y acquired i n other i r r i g a t e 4 p a r t s of the world. Even i f some of these recom- mendations merely zonfirrt! and strengthen the views and support the plans of the i r r i g a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s , they v i l l have served some purpose. 102. F i r s t of a l l , i t appears necessary f o r a new o v e r a l l i r r i g a t i o n policy t o be c a r e f u l l y defined and expressed in precise terms by the Government and then widely disseminated a t a l l l e v e l s . 103. A t the p r e s e n t s t a g e of I n d i a ' s development it should be emphasized t h a t the e s s e n t i a l purpose of the major and medium i r r i g a t i o n schemes should n o t be merely t o o f f s e t t h e inadequate summer r a i n f a l l b u t p r i m a r i l y t o promote a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l production and t h e d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n t h a t i s so necessary. 104. Such a r a d i c a l d e f i n i t i o n of new o b j e c t i v e s implies and should t h e r e f o r e l e a d t o profound changes i n t h e preparation of t h e Fourth Five-Year Plan, in the framing of p r o j e c t s and in t h e operation of i r r i g a t i o n systems. Thus : (i) P r i o r i t y should henceforth be given t o research and p r o j e c t s aimed a t securing perennial i r r i g a t i o n ( s t o r a g e dams, tube wells, e t c ) ; . (ii) P r o j e c t s should a l s o include t h e construction of farm d i s t r i b u t i o n systems reaching each i n d i v i d u a l p l o t ; (iii) Land reform and consolidation of landholdings should be given h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y , and be backed by g r e a t e r funds, i n i r r i g a t e d areas, i n new i r r i g a t e d areas. I n zones with excessive fragmentation of holdings, no Government i r r i g a t i o n system should be b u i l t u n t i l perservering e f f o r t has been made f o r b a s i c a l l y improving t h e land tenure system; (iv) Operation of i r r i g a t i o n networks should be modernized. s o t h a t t h e water supply i s b e t t e r adapted t o t h e proposed crops and t o t h e demands of the users; (v) The major i r r i g a t i o n schemes i n c e r t a i n S t a t e s ( t h e -jab, Uttar Pradesh) should be modernized and completed by appropriate drainage systems in order t o avoid f u r t h e r waterlogging o r i n c r e a s e i n s o i l salinity; (v i ) The i r r i g a t i o n development programs should be d i r e c t e d towards cropping p a t t e r n s with high-value crops. I n t h i s new policy, i r r i g a t e d foodgrain production i n the d r y season should p l a y a progressively smaller p a r t . 105. For t h e preparation of sound development plans based on t h e p r i n c i - p l e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l hydraulics and f o r t h e i r sound implementation it i s necessary . henceforth t h a t preliminary s t u d i e s be i n t e n s i f i e d and above a l l t h a t comprehensive s o i l and water resource surveys be undertaken. 106. Any major i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t b r i n g s about a far-reaching upheaval i n t h e n a t u r a l equilibrium t h a t has become e s t a b l i s h e d over c e n t u r i e s between climate, water, s o i l s , fauna and f l o r a , a g r i c u l t u r a l and commercial p r a c t i c e s , e t c . A s soon a s major i r r i g a t i o n and drainage works have been completed, environmental cond-itions evolve r a p i d l y towards a new equilibrium. Only with a f u l l e r understanding of i n i t i a l environmental conditions can one hope t o d i r e c t t h i s evolution i n such a way t h a t the new equilibrium w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y b e n e f i c i a l . Otherwise, we s h a l l merely look on while t h e havoc i s progressively wrought by waterlogging and i n c r e a s e i n s a l i n i t y of l a r g e areas, widespread erosion, widening f i n a n c i a l d e f i c i t s , and t h e l i k e . It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important t o i n t e n s i f y t h e study of water resources and t o e s t a b l i s h a water balance f o r l a r g e n a t u r a l watersheds. Such s t u d i e s should be pursued using t h e most r e c e n t methods of science and technology. 107. Vith t h e present; land tenure system and excessive fragmentation of landholdings i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible t o effect; a r a t i o n a l system of water d i s t r i b u t i o n . The very smallness of many farm p l o t s (sometimes l e s s than 1/10 of an a c r e in s i z e ) , t h e i r i r r e g u l a r shapes, and t h e i r enclosure i n an i n e x t r i c a b l e l a t t i c e w o r k of dikes and bunds, hedges and small canals a b s o l u t e l y prevent any change-over t o a more i n t e n s i v e , modern type of agriculture. 108. It i s necessary, t h e r e f o r e , t o a c c e l e r a t e land reform operations and land consolidation, giving p r i o r i t y t o i r r i g a t e d areas. I n zones with excessive fragmentation of landholdings, no government i r r i g a t i o n system should be b u i l t u n t i l such time a s t h e land tenure system has been reorganized. The experience already gained i n I n d i a shows t h a t t h e adminis.tration i n charge of a g r a r i a n reform and land consolidation has succeeded in surmounting problems which i n too many c o u n t r i e s postponed t h e necessary improvement of t h e land tenure system; t h e r e f o r e , i t would be b e t t e r , i f necessary, t o postpone f o r one o r two y e a r s (average d u r a t i o n of land consolidation o p e r a t i o n s ) the c o n s t r ~ l c t i o nof l a r g e i r r i g a t i o n schemes, which can a f t e r ~ r a r d sb e n e f i t from a goor: land tenure system during c e n t u r i e s . 109. This reorganization should be c a r r i e d o u t i n a r e l a t i v e l y a u t h o r i - t a r i a n way s i n c e i t i s i n t h e general p u b l i c i n t e r e s t . It should l e a d t o t h e formation of landholdings s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e t o be p r o f i t a b l e and t o ensure adequate employment f o r farriers, even i f thereby some f r a c t i o n of t h e r u r a l population has t o be d i r e c t e d t o o t h e r occupations. F i n a l l y , t h e consolidation of landhole.ings, an o p e r a t i o n of which t h e farmers themselves a r e t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s , should allow f o r t h e f r e e a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e necessary r i g h t s of way f o r canals and d r a i n s of a l l types a s w e l l a s access roads. 110. Such land management is fundamental. I r r i g a t i o n cannot be expected t o make any considerable impact on a g r i c u l t u r a l production without l a r g e - s c a l e land reform conceived i n t h e public i n t e r e s t and t h e r e f o r e a t some sacrifice to private interests. lli . The p r e s e n t gap of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y between t h e o u t l e t s of t h e secondary o r t e r t i a r y i r r i g a t i o n canals and t h e i n l e t s t o i n d i v i d u a l p l o t s of lanc! unquestionably must be f i l l e d by t h e i r r i g a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s a t p u b l i c expense. 112. I n o t h e r words, t h e t a s k of b u i l d i n g and t a k i n g care of farm d i s t r i b u t i o n canal systems must n o t be l e f t e i t h e r t o t h e v i l l a g e r s o r t o i n d i v i d u a l farmers b u t must be recognized a s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e Government, j u s t a s i s t h e b u i l d i n g and bringing i n t o use of t h e main primary and secondary canals. The same a p p l i e s to drainage systems. 113. Designs f o r t h e i r r i g a t i o n and arainage systems should be drawn up hand i n hand with land reform plans. The b e s t r e s u l t s w i l l be obtained i f such systems a r e l a i d out immediately following the i.nplementation of t h e plans f o r consolidation of landholdings. 114. Farmers must a l s o be acivised and helped i n t h e management of t h e i r i r r i g a t e d cropland (land l e v e l l i n g , contouring, furrowing and use of machinery, e t c . ) . Finally, water d i s t r i b u t i o n should be so organized a s t o supply enough water f o r t h e plants, taking i n t o account s o i l q u a l i t y and the danger t h a t the water t a b l e may r i s e . 115. I n short, the i r r i g a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s must become acutely conscious of the tremendous significance of problems of land and water use and s u i t a b l e farm management practices. 116. I n the preparation of development plans, and i n the granting of investment c r e d i t , t h e following measures a r e urged: (i) More adequate means should be provided f o r t h e study of n a t u r a l resources (land and water) and environmental conditions i n i r r i g a t i o n scheines. (ii) Appropriations f o r land reform and consolidation of landholdings should be increased since i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t they should be given p r i o r i t y i n i r r i g a t i o n schemes. (iii) P r i o r i t y should be given t o p r o j e c t s aimed a t perennial i r r i g a - - t i o n systems whether major and minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes. (iv) o N new p r o j e c t s should be approved u n t i l such time a s those already underway have been allocated s u f f i c i e n t funds t o ensure t h e i r completion a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y r a t e . Taking i n t o account the considerable number of major and medium i r r i g a t i o n schemes s t a r t e d during e a r l i e r Five-Year Plans and s t i l l not com- pleted, a l l o c a t i o n s f o r t h e i r completion within the Fourth Plan would perhaps have a f a s t e r and bigger impact on a g r i c u l t u r a l production than equal a l l o c a t i o n s f o r minor schemes. I n many cases, the main s t r u c t u r e s have probably already been constructed eiving the opportunity now t o extend the d i s t r i b u - t i o n syst,em over l a r g e areas i n a s h o r t space of time and without heavy expenditure. (v) Nor should new major p r o j e c t s be accepted u n t i l thorough economic s t u d i e s have been made t o determine t h e i r prospective profitability. (vi) New p r o j e c t s should be accepted only a s p a r t and parcel of careful2.y planned, i n t e g r a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l development programs. (vii) o N ambitious programs f o r minor i r r i g a t i o n schemes should be approved o r financed, even i f already submitted as may be the case f o r most S t a t e s , unless based on t h e findings of thorough preliminary s t u d i e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , covering water resources and water balance. 117. I n the d i v i s i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s between m i n i s t e r i a l departments and a l s o i n the terminology of i r r i g a t i o n , i t i s highly d e s i r a b l e t h a t the d i s t i n c t i o n between llmajor, "medium, and "minorI1 i r r i g a t i o n schemes be eliminated. Whatever the s i z e of schemes, t h e problems of water management and i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s a r e in the f i n a l a n a l y s i s the same. 118. I t i s therefore much more l o g i c a l t o d i s t i n g u i s h between: (i ) !la j o r hydraulic works ( dams, barrages, l a r g e embankments, major canals and major drains, e t c . ) which a r e e s s e n t i a l l y the f i e l d of the c i v i l engineer and a r e v e p j o f t e n multi-purpose; f o r both flood control and surface drainage; f o r i r r i g a t i o n and power, etc.; and (ii) I r r i g a t i o n and drainage systems proper, t h e s o l e purpose of which i s t o bring water t o p l o t s of land and draw off excess water, and therefore which have s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s whether they be f o r l a r g e o r small aress. For t h e deaign, l a y o u t and management of such syst,ems not only c i v i l engineering technology but a l s o t h e p r i n c i p l e s of a g r i c u l t u r e in the broadest sense of t h e term must be applied. 119. The problems involved should be considered as c l o s e l y linked with land reform and t h e r e should be close cooperation bei;ween the a g r i c u l t u r a l s e r v i c e s and representatives of r u r a l communities. 120. It, i s highly d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h i s new d i s t i n c t i o n between major hydraulic works p r o j e c t s and irrigation-and-drainage systems be r e f l e c t e d i n the s t r u c t u r e of t h e Government i t s e l f . I n t h i s respect and following the example of 3any other countries, each S t a t e should s e t up a s p e c i a l department o r agency responsible f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l hydraulics. This new agency should f i l l t h e void t h a t now e x i s t s between t h e present i r r i g a t i o n departments which a r e co~lcernedwith c i v i l engineering problems, and de-part,ments of a g r i c u l t u r e , land reform and cooperatives, whose s t r u c t u r e does n o t enable then1 t o d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y with problems of water management, i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s and land use. Such new departments could be organized at, t h e beginning n o t bj engaging additional o f f i c e r s , but mainly by s p e c i f i c assignnent of present i r r i g a t i o n engineers and i r r i g a t i o n agronomists, selecteci with g r e a t care i n t h e e x i s t i n g departments. 121. r b e t h e r o r not the preceding recommendation i s taken i n t o considera- t i o n , i t i s of prime importance t h a t t h e i r r i g a t i o n systems themselves be studied, b u i l t and u t i l i z e d i n accordance with The needs of the crops. As has already been said, they should be planned and l a i d out hand i n hand with land reform and consolidation of landholdings. 122. Problems of a g r i c u l t u r a l hydraulics as a whole, in conjunction with land reform can be solved competently only by technologists t r a i n e d f o r t h i s s p e c i f i c task. Experience i n other countries shows t h a t i t i s highly advisable t h a t t h e s e technologists should hold u n i v e r s i t y degrees i n a g r i - c u l t u r e supplemented by advanced s t u d i e s in c i v i l engineering. I n most European countries, f o r example, people holding degrees in both f i e l d s a r e given the t i t l e of a g r i c u l t u r a l engineers.  EVOLUtlON OF ALLOCATIONS PERCENTAGE ALLOCATIONS TO IRRIGATION IN FIRST FOUR PLANS PLAN -71 123. Therefore, i t i s highly d e s i r a b l e t h a t i n India a l s o u n i v e r s i t y degrees i n agriculture be supplemented by p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g in i r r i g a t i o n work, possibly by s e t t i n g up agricul5ural engineering departments in schools of a g r i c u l t u r e . I n i t i a l l y such advanced education could be limited t o those S t a t e s i n which t h e proportion of i r r i g a t i o n farming i s highest (e.g., t h e Punjab, Uttar kradesh, Bihar, Assam, Ilaharashtra and iiadras) . 1211. OSviously, these a r e long-term proposals. During a t r a n s i t i o n a l period of a few years t h e present si-buation could be g r e a t l y improved by increasing the nunber and duration of c e r t a i n t r a i n i n g courses t h a t have been organized by the PIinistry of Food and Agriculture i n t h e p a s t two o r t h r e e years. These t r a i n i n g courses should be reserved f o r c a r e f u l l y selected agricul.tura1 experts and c i v i l engineers already i n t e r e s t e d i n problems of hydraulics in a g r i c u l t u r e and l i k e l y t o absorb a c e r t a i n enthusiasm f o r i r r i g a t i o n and those who p r a c t i c e i r r i g a t i o n . 125. Finally, t h e need f o r g r e a t e r cooperation between various Government bodies concerned with these matters cannot be s u f f i c i e n t l y emphasized from - t h e stage of water resources surveys t o t h e improving of y i e l d s of i r r i g a t e d crops, and t h e i r marketing. 126. Not enough emphasis can be l a i d , e i t h e r , on t h e gradual, progressive t r a i n i n g of farmers p r a c t i c i n g i r r i g a t i o n i n order t o bring them t o a stage of evolution and organization such t h a t they themselves can assune d i r e c t f r e s p o n s i b i 1 i . t ~ o r the management, completion and improvement of t h e i r i r r i g a t i o n systems. 127. I n many countries t h e need f o r cooperation and the concern t h a t farmers should p a r t i c i p a t e more and more i n major i r r i g a t i o n schemes has led t o t h e creation of semi-governmental bodies having a l a r g e measure of f i n a n c i a l autonomy, and able t o coordinate t h e technical, a g r i c u l t u r a l , economic and s o c i a l aspects of a g r i c u l t u r a l development in l a r g e areas. Such bodies may be e i t h e r n a t i o n a l agencies, regional a u t h o r i t i e s o r l o c a l i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t s . The a u t h o r i t y delegated t o them, t h e i r functions and t h e funds they a r e allocated vary from one country t o another I n accordance with circumstances. 128. So f a r no such agencies e x i s t i n India in t h e f i e l d of i r r i g a t i o n . It would be advisable f o r t h e Coverment t o examine the eventual b e n e f i t they might gain by drawing on t h e valuable experience already acquired i n other countries of t h i s type of ~ g a n i z a t i o n . - V: PAnT SUi.2IARY AND CONCLUSIOXS 129. The development o f i r r i g a t i o n i n India i s so important t h a t it deserves t o be examined in g r e a t d e t a i l . However, t h e only object of t h e present appendix i s t o i ~ e n t i f some essential aspects of t h e problem and t o :~ point towards t h e i r solution. 130. A p a r t i c u l a r e f f o r t has been d-evoted t o t h e development of i r r i g a t i o n during the f i r s t t h r e e Five-Year Plans. I t s r e a l impact on a g r i c u l t u r a l production i s d i f f i c u l t t o evaluate o b j e c t i v e l y and t o c a l c u l a t e precisely. Therefore, the opinion seems t o p r e v a i l t h a t the impact i s s t i l l weak and insufficient. 131. There a r e many reasons f o r t h i s . They a r i s e mainly from e r r o r s s i m i l a r t o those s t i l l committed in most i r r i g a t e d areas i n the world. I n s p i t e of e r r o r s and omissions, i t can be s a i d , however, t h a t the i r r i g a t i o n techniques current i n I n d i a a r e b e t t e r than i n many other countries. Moreover, i t should be considered t h a t investments i n i r r i g a t i o n a r e investments i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of the country and t h a t they w i l l only reach f u l l e f f i c i e n c y a f t e r a long period. 132. I r r i g a t i o n in I n d i a is already evolving progressively. Host of t h e avenues f o r improvement and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n now seem well lmown among the responsible a u t h o r i t i e s . 1330 Their concrete application l a g s behind, however. There i s needed a s p i r i t of d r i v e and of e f f i c i e n c y so t h a t t h e i r e f f e c t s may be f u l l y f e l t a t a l l levels. I n t h i s s p i r i t , some major recormendations have been presented i n t h e yrevious chapter. 13)~. The most e s s e n t i a l recommenrlations a r e t h a t p r i o r i t y should hence- f o r t h be given t o perennial intensive i r r i g a t i o n w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o water management, agrarian s-Lructure and land consolidation in the i r r i g a t e d areas. 135. These questions a r e so important t h a t they seem t o j u s t i f y the rapid formation of a body of t r u e i r r i g a t i o n s p e c i a l i s t s who might be called " r u r a l engineers." 136. It i s undeniable t h a t the topographic and climatic conditions a s w e l l a s the s o i l and water resources of India a r e such t h a t i r r i g a t i o n , judiciously developed, must continue t o be considered a s one of t h e e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r s of a g r i c u l t u r a l production. 137. It tlould c e r t a i n l y be r e g r e t t a b l e i f t h e investments allocated t o i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e next Five-Year Plans were t o be reduced. The intended a l l o c a t i o n of about nine per cent i n the Fourth Plan may be judged a s modest. The p r o j e c t s t o be undertaken ought henceforth t o include the smallest (quaternary) d i s t r i b u t i o n and drainage channels and, i f these works a r e t o be include?, moreover, the average costs per acre have undoubtedly been underestimated. 138. The r e a l advantages of major i r r i g a t i o n schemes f o r long-term plans should e n t a i l a t o t a l expenditure of more than t h e R s . 1,450 crores presently envisaged. 139. The argument a s t o vhether p r i o r i t y should be given t o minor i r r i g a t i o n i s i r r e l e v a n t . I r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e i r size, t h e following types of p r o j e c t s should have p r i c r i t y :  (i ) Those f o r perennial irrigation; (ii) P r o j e c t s already s t a r t e d during the previous Five-Year Plans; (iii) P r o j e c t s based on proper preliminary surveys and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y groun6water resources) ; (iv) P r o j e c t s f o r s.rhich land reform and. consolidation have been already achieved and f o r which economic s t u d i e s have predicted favorable r e t u r n s ; (v) P r o j e c t s t o check t h e spread of a r e a s badly a f f e c t e d by waterlogging. 140. Bearing i n mind t h e s c a l e of a country so widespread as India, and of i t s food problems, i t could be held t h a t t h e l a r g e and nedium p r o j e c t s alone could o f f e r s u f f i c i e n t development p o t e n t i a l . It goes without saying t h a t the arguments sometimes advanced f o r t h e acivantages of the p r i v a t e minor schemes a r e out of s c a l e with t h e needs of the problems of the population i n c r e a s e and the economic evolution of India. I n planning i r r i g a t i o n develop- ment, obviously long-term food t a r g e t s should be taken i n t o account a s w e l l a s those f o r the n e x t f i v e years. 141. lioreover, major an3 illinor i r r i g a t i o n schemes a r e r a t h e r o f t e n complementary and t h e r e f o r e they should be implemented i n many l a r g e areas, according t o a sound o v e r a l l program f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n . 1h2. I n the i n s t i t u t i o n a l f i e l d , i t would be d e s i r a b l e n o t t o augment but to reorganize t;he present, administrative organization in each S t a t e by the c r e a t i o n of an A g r i c u l t u r a l Hydraulic ilepartment which would be e s s e r l t i a l l y responsible f o r matters of water management and land use in i r r i g a t e d a r e a s as w e l l a s f o r inanaging the i r r i g a t i o n and drainage systems. 143. I n s p i t e of ~ u b s t ~ a n t i progress r e c e n t l y achieved, there i s need al f o r furt,her streng.thening of cooperation between I r r i g a t i o n , Agriculture and Agrarian Reform Departments. For t h i s purpose i t would be d e s i r a b l e i f the Government of I n d i a were t o corlsider c r e a t i n g semi-au tonomous coordina.ting organizations in t h e l a r g e p r o j e c t s analogous t o t h e o f f i c e s , d i s t r i c t s o r a u t h o r i t i e s e s tnblished i n s e v e r a l o t h e r countries. 144. I n conclusion, the i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s a l r e a d y implemented or proposed c o n s t i t u t e an enormcus p o t e n t i a l and t h e i r f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n should make a considerable impact upon t h e i n c r e a s e of a g r i c u l t u r a l production in India. The c u r r e n t progress towards a p o l i c y and p r a c t i c e s b e t t e r adapted towards t h i s o b j e c t i v e give grounds f o r hope t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l progress w i l l be achieved in a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t period. Xeasures t o speed up t h i s progress must obviously be welded t o a framework of comprehensive programs f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l development s i n c e i r r i g a t i o n i s only one of the f a c t o r s f o r r e g u l a r i z i n g and i n t e n s i f y i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l production.  TABLE 1 Land Utilization (area in million acres) 1950/51 1955/56 1960/61 1965/66 1970/71 anticipated approximative Remarks targets Total geographical area 806.3 806.3 806.3 806.3 806.3 Area under 28 s~ecifiedcroDs List of 28 crops does not include Cultivated area: fruit,vegetables and forages, etc. - Gross area cultivated - Net area sour - Area sour more than once Area unirrigated . - - Gross area cultivated - Net area sown - Area sown more than once Area irrigated - Gross utilized area - Net utilized area - Area harvested more than once Area under major and medium schemes - Gross utilized area - Net utilized area Area under minor irrigation - Gross utilized area - Net utilized area Remarks on Table 1 I n this table: (i) "Gross area" means t h e t o t a l a r e a sown (harvested) in t h e year, thus including double cropping. (ii) "Net areav means t h e a r e a sovm (harvested) during the crop season i n which t h e annual maximum i s reached. (iii) I n i r r i g a t e d areas, " u t i l i z e d area" means t h e a r e a e f f e c t i v e l y i r r i g a t e d during t h e crop season i n which t h e annual maximum i s reacned.' (iv) A p r o j e c t costing R s . 5 crores (US$ 1 0 m i l l i o n ) o r more i s con- sidered a s major * a p r o j e c t c o s t i n g from Rs. 1 0 lakhs (US$ 200,000) --' t o R s . 5 crores (US; 1 0 m i l l i o n ) i s c l a s s i f i e d a s medium; a p r o j e c t costing l e s s than R s . 10 lakhs (US$ 200,000) i s c l a s s i f i e d a s minor. P (v) The p r e s e n t cultiva.Led a r e a in I n d i a may be considered a s above 10 per cent of t h e t o t a l c u l t i v a t e d area i n t h e world. The percentage of c u l t i v a t e d land a s against t o t a l a r e a ( a b u t 59 per cent) i s one of the highest i n t h e world, very s i m i l a r t o thay:, i n Poland, I t a l y and Spain. (vi) S t a t i s t i c s on i r r i g a t e d a r e a s o f t e n include newly i r r i g a t e d a r e a s a s w e l l a s a r e a s already i r r i g a t e d f o r which improvements o r r e s t o r a t i o n s have been undertaken o r a r e anticipated. l.loreover, these f i g u r e s sometimes a l s o include areas improved by o t h e r means, such a s flood c o n t r o i and surface drainage raorks, anti-sea water i n t r u s i o n works, e t c . Therefore, because of c o n f l i c t i n g sources of documentation the f i g u r e s indicate6 i n the t a b l e should be considered j u s t a s orders of magnitude. Sources: Memorandum of t h e Fourth Plan (October 1964) and o t h e r o f f i c i a l documents.  TABLE 2 Additional Areas Irrigated and Related Allocations under Five-Year Plans I- ' I I First Plan Second Plan Third Plan Fourth Plan ( (1951-56) (1956-61 ) (1961-66) (1966-71) Rupees Mil lion Rupees Million Rupees Million Rupees Mil 1ion krores Acres Crores Acres Crores Acres Crores Acres -- , (1) (2) (1 1 (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) A. Total additional areas ' under irrigation ! ! 1 - 1 Allocations ( provisionq at the beginning of each Plan) 370 570 830 1,450 - Gross utilized areas 7 11.5 15.5 20 B. Major and nedium schemes iI - Allocations 320 420 650 1,000 - Gross utilized areas 3 6. 7.5 10 I C. Minor schemes - Allocations ! 50 150 180 450 - Gross utilized areas 4 5.5 8 10 t I . Remarks - (i) According to conflicting sources of documentation, the figures given in this table should be considered as only an order of magnitude. In any case, they are round figures. (ii) The average cost per acre should not be obtained here by just dividing the investment credits in columns (1) by the surface evaluation in columns (2). In fact, the figures in columns (1) refer to investments for irrigation networks proper as well as for flood control, waterlogging control, tidal reclamation, hydrological surveys, etc. On the contrary, the estimates in columns (2) refer only to additional irrigated cropping areas (i-ncluding double cropping) under the main 28 crops only. These estisates, therefore, exclude garden crops, fruit crops and irrigated fodder crops; they exclude also minor schemes improved or restored, e.g. by deepening of existing wells or by water lifting appliances for m a l l areas already irrigated.  TABLE 3 Outlays on Irrigation for Five-Year Plan Grand total Outlays and percentages (in relation to grand total) for: Public sector Total Ma - ior Minor Agriculture (Rs.crores) irrigation irrigation irrigation (with mrnor irrigation) Outlay % Outlay % Outlay % Outlay 9% First Plan (1951-56) Outlay: Second Plan ( 1956-61 Anticipated outlay: Third Plan (1961-66) Anticipated outlay: Fourth Plan (1966-71) Provisions: Renark: - Accordingto conflicting sources of documentation, the above figures should be considered only as orders of magnitude, and in any case they were rounded up.  APPErnIX VII BUFFER STOCKS AND GRAIN STORAGE P a r t A: S t a t i s t i c a l Comment . W David Hopper P a r t B: Grain Storage Plan Summary of Government of I n d i a Xeport  - Pert A 1. clodern methods o f d e t e r m i n i n z o p t i m a l i n v e n t o r i e s and t h e i r s t o r a g e p o i n t s i n r e l a t i o n t o t r a n s p o r t E a c L l i t i s s and consumption c e n t e r s can p r o v i d e I n d i a n a d u j . n i s t r a t o r s w i t h an o p e r a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g b c f f e r s t o = k s . This i s a t e c h n i c a l problem t h a t i s Leyond t h e scope o f t h i s Appendix. Z : I ~ p a s t p r o d u c t i o n t r e n d s and produc,:lon r e a l i z a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e t r e n d s do shed some l i g h t on t h e lLicely magnitude of b u f f e r s t o c k s i f t h e aiia i s t o p r o v i d e some p r o t e c t i o n f o r I n d i a ' s con- su!llers a g a i n s c s e r i o u s d e p r i v a t i o n a t t i m e s when p r o d n c t i o n f a l l s s e r i o u s l y bclotl crend. 2. During t h e p e r i o d 194:-50 t o 1964-55 t h e r e were s i x y e a r s i n r.lhich t o t a l f o o d ~ r a i n sp r o i l u c t i o n was below t r e n d . In f i v e o f t h e s e y e a r s t h e d r o p !.as grea-Lzr t h a n f i v e p e r c e n t o f !.rend v a l i l e , T a b l e I . S i x t e e n y e a r s i s h a r d l y a s c r a t c h on t h e n e e d s o f a good a c t u a r i a l x o d e l , it i s a l o n g enough span t o g a i n an i n i t i a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n of zhe p r o b a b i l i t i e s i n - volvec;. A s a n a p p r o x i n a t i o r , i t woulcl loolc a s i f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a y e a r b e i n g below t h e coxpound ? r e n d i s 0 . 3 7 5 , and a b o u t 0.3125 t h a t i t w i l l be belo!, t r e t l d by f i v e percen!: o r more. Pron t h e s e e s t t i n a t e s rre s h o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f two s u c c e s s i v e y e a r s b e i n g below t r e n d i s 0 . 1 4 , and o f b o t h b e i n g