Strengthening Uganda's policy environment for investing in university development

Policy Research | IV s oES WORKING PAPERS Education and Employment Population and Human Resources Department The World 9ank January 1993 WPS 1065 Strengthening Uganda's Policy Environment for Investing in University Development Thomas Owen Eisemon, John Sheehan, George Eyoku, Franklin Van Buer, Delane 'Welsch, Louisa Masutti, Nat Colletta, and Lee Roberts In recent years, Makerere University has experienced increasing student and staff unrest. The academic community is demoral- ized by tight government controls on spending - especially by inaction on staff salary demands. Donor support will not be forthcoming without broad policy reform in higher education, rather than piecemeal reform. The Pbhcy Reserch Waking Papco dissominate the findings efwod in peross and enao&egthe exdungeofideas arnong Bank suff andallhersa1odin dovd ie s.pn tishaeepapes.distibutedby theReseuh Adviscey Stacarytheames oftheauthah.s rclythirviaws.andshldbeused andcedaccordingly. Tfe;fdinpgs.taprutionsa ndco edons atheauthesown.Thy should not be ibuted to the Wodd Bank, its Boaud of Dims its m_nagent, or any of its member countries  Policy Re"sroh| Educatlon and Emnploymont WPS 1065 This paper - a product of the Education and Employment Division, Population and Human Resources Department- is part ofthe background preparadon for the Bank's HigherEducation Policy Paper. Copies of this paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433. Please contact Cynthia Cristobal, room S6-214, extension 33640 (January 1993, 70 pages). Eisemon, Sheehan, and colleagues examine the * Promote cost-saving and revenue-generating policy environment for investment in university activities in the public universities - which development in Uganda, with special attention to would require giving them more autonomy in the needs of Makerere University. They present matters affecting their cost structure and budget- data on the structure and financing of higher ing. education, which gets a high priority in govem- ment educational spending. Among specific actions they recommend: A second public university and new private * Making better use of public university assets universities have been established since 1986, by developing night courses, part-time degree but Makerere accounts for most university and non-degree programs, and contract training enroUlment and govenmment spending on higher and other income-generating activities. education and it trains most of the country's high-level professional and technical manpower. * Investigating possibilities for better use of Its revitalization after many years of neglect is university farms and other properties. central to government and donor plans for investment in human resource development. * Making more using of existing capacity in public institutions and increasing the capacity of The authors emphasize how continu-dg the newly established private universities. austerity affects staff retention and staff engage- ment in academic work, as well as the quality of * Strengthening secondary education in programs Makerere offers. They present a science subjects and encouraging more women strategy for university development that involves to study science and technology. establishing policy structures to: * Coordinating future donor investments so * Guide and coordinate investments in higher they address the broad needs of Makerere and educadon as a whole. other universities. * Facilitate the expansion of higher education * Raising incomes of academic and and the development of diploma-granting nonacademic university staff members. institutions to accommodate increasing social demand. The Policy Research Workg Paper Seriesdisseminates thefindings ofwork under way in the BanL Anobjectiveofthe senies is to get these findings out quickly, even if presentations are less than fully polished. The fmdings, interpretations, and conclusions in these papers do not necessarily represent official Bank policy. Produced by the Policy Research Dissemination Center  Strengthening Uganda's Policy Environment for Investment in University Development Thomas Owen Eihemon, John Sheehan, George EyoIa4 Frankdin Van Buer, Delane Welsch, Louisa Masutt, Nat Colleffa and Lee Roberts  Acknowledgement: The study was co-task managed by Messrs. Nat Colletta (Senior Educator, Population and Human Resources Division) and Lee Roberts (Senior Country Operations Officer, Country Operations Division) of the Eastern Africa Projects Department, World Bank. It was undertaken as part of the Uganda Capacity Building Initiative under the direction of Mr. Keith Muhakanizi, Chairman, Uganda Capacity Building Secretariat, Ministry of Planning and Economic Development. A joint team of international consultants and local counterparts conducted the actual field study from November 12-29, 1991. The United Nations Development Program, the United States Agency for International Development and the European Community provided technical experts to staff the international team. The international team was comprised of Messrs. T. 0. Eisemon, Team Leader, McGill University and World Bank; F. Van Buer (Northern Illinois University) D. Welsch (University of Minnesota), J. Sheehan (University College, Dublin) and Ms. L Masutti, World Bank. Mr. David Court from the Rockefeller Foundation's Nairobi regional office advised the international team and commented on earlier drafts of this report. Mr. T. Brett, consultant Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Uganda, also provided comments. The local team consisted of Messrs. G. Eyoku, Senior Deputy Registrar, Makerere University; C, F. Odaet, Professor of Education, Makerere University; and J. Kabyetsiza, Financial Analyst, Incafex. Fieldwork was conducted from November 12-29, 1991.  TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction .......................................... I I. STRUCTURE AND FINANCING OF UNIVERSITY EDU CATION ........................................ 3 A. Structure of the Higher Education Sector ................ 3 Makerere University .. ...................................... 5 Institute of Teacher Education, Kyambogo .............. 7 Mbarara Univer.&ity of Science and Technology .............. 8 The Islamic University in Uganda ........nda ............ 9 B. Public Expenditure for University and Higher Education ...... ......... 10 II. MLADERERE UNIVERSI . ...................................... 13 A. Background ........................................... 13 B. Mechanisms of Accountability, Planning and Budgeting .............. .. 15 Governance and Planning ...... ............................. 15 Budgeting for Recurrent and Capital Expenditures .............. .... 16 C. University Financing ..... ... ............ ,.18 Government Support for Makerere ............................ 18 Unit Costs ............... ................ 19 Salaries ............................ 22 Tuition Versus Student Support and Welfare ....... .. ............ 24 Efficiency and Productivity ............. ... ... ................ 26 Quality of Programs ... ..................................... 27 D. Donor Support for Rehabilitation .............. .................. 29 III. THE POLJCY CONTEXT ......... 32 A. Diminishing Opportunities for Graduates Employment and Limited Resources to Support Higher Education . ................... 32 B. Educational Inequalities ........................................ 35 C. Relations Between the Public Universities and Government ..... ........ 40 Determination of Student Intake .. ............................ 40 Government Involvement in University Affairs ........ ............ 42 D. Proliferation of Institutions and Programs ............. ............. 43 ..i..  Page IV. STRATEGIES FOR REFORMING IIGHER EDUCATION ..... ......... 45 A. Planning Future Development of the Higher Education Sector ........... 45 Establish the National Council for Higher Education .. ............. 46 B. Accommodating Future Social Demand for Higher Education and Increasing Access/Equity ....... .................... 48 Support Expansion of Private Higher Education ................... 48 Articulate University and Other Tertiary Education ...... .......... 48 Introduce the Credit System .................................. 49 Balance Regional Development of Higher Education through Affiliating Regional Colleges to National Universities .... ........ 50 Improve Secondary Education for Women to Increase Equity .... ..... 50 C. Increasing Support for University Education, Controlling Costs and Diversifying Sources of Financing ......................... 51 Introduce Tuition Fees ........... ........................... 52 Reduce Student Welfare Costs ................................ 54 Generate Additional Income through Part-time Studies, Sale of of Services and Commercialization of Some University Assets ...... 55 Make the Public Universities Truly Self-Accounting, liberaHze Line-item Budgeting ....... ...................... 56 Provide Matching Grants to Encourage Cost-Savings Revenue Generation .......... ........................... 57 D. Increasing University Accountability Through More Autonomy and Improving University Management and Planning .... ..... 57 Revise University Studies ................ ............ 58 Strengthen University Administration and Planmng ..... ........... 59 E. Creating Conditions Favorable to Attracting and Retaining Staff, and making academic work full time emp!yment ..... ........... 60 Introduce a Parallel System of Performance-based, Contract Appointments ................................... 61 Increase Staff Housing ...................................... 62 V. SU MMA.RY ........63 A. Immediate Measures . ........... .63 B. Medium-Term Measures ..64 C. The Role of Donors ...65 References . . ..67 .. ii ..  Tables Page Table 1.1 Undergraduate and Postgraduate Enrollment at Makerere, 1990/91 .. .................................... 6 Table 1.2 Public and Private UtAversity Enrollments, 1990/91 ................. 10 Table 1.3 Total Government Recurrent Education Expenditure . .............. 11 Table 1.4 Total Government Capital Education Expenditure ..... ............ 11 Table 2.1 Capacity and Occupancy of Halls of Residence at Makerere, 1990/91 ................................... 14 Table 2.2 Indicators of Total Makerere Funding 1987-1992 . ................. 19 Table 2.3 (a) Makerere University; 1989-90. Unit Costs in US$: Official Exchange Rates ................................... 20 Table 2.3 (b) Unit Costs in US$: Parallel Exchange Rates .21 Table 2.4 Makerere University, 1991-92, Total and Per Student Costs .... ...... 22 Table 2.5 University Salaries: September 1991 ............................ 23 Table 2.6 Makerere University. Repetition Rates by Faculty, 1989-90 .... ....... 26 Table 3.1 Public Sector Employment of University Graduates, 1987-1989 .... .... 33 Table 3.2 Makerere University Intake 1987/88-1989/90 By Students' District of Origin .36 Table 3.3 Gender Distribution of University Applicants and Makerere Intake, 1987/88-1989/90 .37 Table 3.4 Gender Distribution of Admissions to Arts and Science Based Programs at Makerere, 1989/90-1990/91 .38 Table 3.5 Parental Background of Sample of Students in Selected Faculties at Makerere, 1990/91 .39 .. iii ..  INTRODUCTION 1. Despite the scope and seriousness of the many problems confronting Ugandan universities, three circumstances provide grounds for optimism. First, Uganda's premier higher educational institution, Makerere University, possesses a reputation for offering high quality undergraduate instruction which it has managed to maintain through many years of political and economic turmoil. Second, university enrollments are still manageable despite the recent founding of a second public university and an embryonic network of private universities. Third, a great deal of attention has been given to reform of university education by Ugandan policy makers and the academic community during the past five years. Some radical and innovative measures to revitalize the universities have been debated and a few important steps have been taken such as the abolition of some student allowances. 2. Understandably, the short-term needs of the universities, particularly Makerere University, have preoccupied policy makers and donors. Makerere was seriously affected by the degradation suffered by Uganda and its educational system during the Amin and Obote periods. Many staff left the University. A large number of the University's classroom and office buildings, student and staff residences, its library and other facilities were allowed to fall into a state of disrepair or were destroyed. Instruction continued under some of the most adverse political and economic circumstances to be found anywhere, the legacies of which are still very much in evidence. 3. Many new degree and diploma granting institutions have been established since 1970 when Makerere, the country's oldest higher educational institution, became a university. These institutions have been created to absorb the increasing demand for post- secondary education and supply trained teachers, technologists, extension agents and other graduates to the public sector. The most recent innovation is the establishment of private universities. This is a radical departure from the previous tradition of state control and recognition of the fact that it is no longer possible for the Government to continue to finance all expansion of higher education as well as provide employment to graduates. 4. Nevertheless, diversification has occurred in the absence of any strategy for development of the higher education sector. The recent proliferation of public and private  2 universities, occurring in the context of continuing austerity, presents a strong rationale for urgent reform of the higher education sector as a whole. What that might imply is examined in this report. 5. The higher education sector is described in the first chapter which also considers Government support for higher and university education, specifically. The second focuses on Makerere University, its governance, management, unit costs, internal efficiency and the quality of programs. Lack of resources to support the public universities, the poor employment opportunities of graduates, equity concerns, relations between the universities and Government and other matters affecting higher education policy reform are discussed in the third chapter. A strategy for revitalizing university education is presented in the fourth chapter where reforms are proposed to promote coordinated development of public and private higher educational institutions, and generate new resources to support them. The summary identifies immediate and medium term measures necessary for sustainable national and donor investment in university rehabilitation.  3 I. STRUCTURE AND FINANCING OF UNIVERSIT EDUCATION A. Structure of the Higher Education Sector 6. The bigher education sector in Uganda is stratified into two tiers, degree granting public and private universities and various kinds of managemient and technical institutions that award diplomas and certificates. In 1991, there were two public universities, Makerere University and Mbarara University of Science and Technology, the Institute of Teacher Educmaon, Kyambogo, a public university college associated with Makerere University offering both degree and post-secondary diploma level course-work, as well as one private university, the Islamic University in Uganda at Mbale. A second private Catholic university, Uganda Martyrs University at Nkozi, will begin instruction in 1992. A university serving the Protestant community is being planned. In addition, the Government has recently transformed the Institute of Public Administration into the autonomous Ugandan Management Institute, which plans to offer its own degree programs. 7. The higher education system also comprises a large number of public tertiary institutions; they include the Uganda Polytechnic, Kyambogo, and various technical colleges (4), the National College of Business Studies, Nakawa, and other colleges of commerce (5), and the national teachers colleges (10). Besides these institutions, there are nine Government departmental training institutions such as the three agricultural colleges and the Forestry College, Nyabyeya, which admit secondary school graduates, and others like the Ugandan Management Institute and Uganda Law Development Center that offer postgraduate equivalent training to university graduates. There are, as well, six private seminaries and business schools including the Nkumba College of Commerce and Advanced Studies, Entebbe, providing post-secondary vocational training. 8. Despite the fact that students attending most post-secondary institutions must satisfy minimum university entrance requirements, little mobility is possible between the different tertiary institutions and their various programs. University courses are usually not articulated with those of the other tertiary institutions with the following exceptions: the Ugandan Management Institute and the Law Development Center that award diplomas of Makerere University; and the Institute of Teacher Education, Kyambogo which admits students to a B.Ed. program supervised by Makerere.  4 9. There is little collaboration between different institutions even among those offering training at the same level and in the same fields of study. For example, the Institute of Teacher Education's degree program has entirely different requirements and configurations of course-work than the undergraduate program at Makerere. Although its campus is adjacent to the Uganda Polytechnic and the Institute offers diploma level training in business and technical education, there is no connection to the programs offered by that institution either. The Uganda Manpower for Agricultural Development's College/University Articulation Task Force has issued a report (1990) recommending that Makerere University's Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry admit at least five graduates of the Uganda Cooperative College at Kigumba and the Bukalasa Agricultural College into its undergraduate program, and that some practical training of students in degree programs be carried out at the colleges as part of national strategy for improving the training of agricultural scientists and extension agents. Those admitted to Makerere will not receive any credit for their studies at Bukalasa or Kigumba, however. Thus, the length of their degree programs will not be reduced. 10. The higher education sector is an articulated system in the limited sense that most institutions admit secondary school graduates who have obtained passes in two principal subjects in the University Advanced Certificate of Education Examination, A levels. The system is rigidly stratified. The best students are admitted to Makerere or Mbarara University of Science and Technology. Other students are placed in one of the many public tertiary institutions or may go to a private institution, uslaally to acquire professional training. In 1990/91, 5,997 students obtained two principle passes at A levels. There were 6,351 students admitted to public colleges and universities, some being students who qualified the previous year but declined the place offered to them. In other words, any student who qualifies will be offered a place in some post-secondary institution, depending on the students' performance and the different requirements of the various institutions and their faculties. 11. Makerere, including the Institute of Teacher Education, Kyambogo, the Institute of Public Administration and the Law Development Center, admitted slightly more than two thousand students (2,102' 'n 1990/91, or about one third (34%) of the students eligible for public post-secondary education. In the previous year, Makerere admitted a higher proportion (37%) of the eligible students but 431 fewer students. A description of the enrollment, staffing and programs of the public and private universities follows.  S Makerere University 12. Makerere and its affiliated institutions account for almost all university enrollment (93% in 1990/91). The University's present enrollment is 5,886 at the undergraduate and 678 postgraduate level (Table 1.1). About 5 per cent of the annual student intake consists of mature students. These are students who are at least twenty five years old, have left secondary school for five years and sit for entrance examinations set by the various faculties of the University. 13. The overall ratio of students to academic staff is about 8:1 which compares favorably to many African universities, and reflects the mix of professional programs. The University has significant undergraduate enrollments in medicine, veterinary medicine and related professional fields that are very selective at entry and have low student/staff ratios. For example, student/staff ratios in medicine and veterinary medicine are 4:1 and 5:1, respectively, while in arts and social science the ratio is much higher, 20:1 in some heavily subscribed programs like economics. Nearly half (46%) of the students are enrolled in professional programs that traditionally lead to public sector employment. Enrollment in postgraduate degree programs is very small; 6 per cent of university students, more than a third (35%) of whom are doing advanced degrees in education. 14. Undergraduate degree programs are of varying length; three, four or five years, depending on the field of study. Medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine require five years. Engineering as well as agriculture and forestry have a four year program while most other programs can be completed in three years. The structure of undergraduate courses generally follows the 3 + 2 + 2 or 3+1+1 pattern, the latter being roughly equivalent to an honors course with specialization in one subject for the final two years of study. Students are examined at the end of each year of study as well as at the end of the course of study. External examiners review the papers administered to students and monitor correction of the scripts. Some academic units like the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry are trying to reorganize their programs along the American credit model with a mixture of compulsory and elective coursework, and more emphasis on continuous assessment. Postgraduate programs Like those in education and the social sciences tend to have substantial course requirements notwithstanding early specialization at the undergraduate level.  6 Table 1.1 Undergraduate and Postgraduate Enrollment at Makerere, 1990/91 No. of Level of Study Registered Students % Total Undergiaduate Diploma and Certificate 175 3 (Medicine and library Science) Degree: Medicine 383 6 Vet. Medicine 187 3 Dentistry 50 1 Pharmacy 28 Agriculture and Forestiy 427 6 Engineering, Surveying and Architecture 218 3 Education 816 12 Law 169 3 Commerce 269 4 Library Science 69 1 Science (including statistics) 1,057 16 Arts and Social Science 2,038 31 Postgzraduate Diploma 316 5 (Public Administration, Business Administration, Human Resoturces, Statistics and Applied Economics and Education) Degree: Medicine 68 1 Veterinary Medicine 4 Education 127 2 Science 81 1 Arts and Social Science 82 1 Total 6,564 100% Source: Admissions Records Office, Makerere University, November 1991  7 Institute of Teacher Education, Kyambogo 15. The Institute was chartered in 1989 as a "center for training, research, curriculum development and innovation in teacher education." It offers three diploma programs---a diploma in education, a diploma in teacher education and a diploma in special education-as well as an undergraduate degree course and many seminars and workshops for educational practitioners. 16. The Diploma in Education is a two to three year program preparing secondary school teachers in subjects like business education, home economics, technical education and special education. The Diploma in Teacher Education is a two year program for experienced teachers who are trained for positions as tutors in the primary teacher training colleges. The Diploma in Special Education, also a two year program, is oriented to training teachers of students with physical or learning disabilities. 17. The B.Ed. degree is intended for experienced and qualified teachers who seek advanced training for senior administrative and teaching positions. The Institute's Diploma in Education is normally required for entry. The program is of two years duration and leads to a degree awarded by Makerere. About a thousand students (945) were registered for the diploma and B.Ed. programs offered by the Institute in 1991/92, 85 per cent of whom were living in campus residences. The Institute has 180 full and part-time staff. 18. Students must satisfy the University's entry requirements and the degree program is approved by the School of Education's Board of Studies under a special 1989 statute that made the Institute of Teacher Education, Kyambogo, a "connected" college of Makerere. This arrangement, a subject of continuing controversy, confers more autonomy than constituent college status which is provided for in the Makerere University Act of 1970. Like many other recent initiatives, steps to establish the Institute of Teacher Education, Kyambogo, were taken before its legal status, relationship to Makerere or role in the higher education subsector were precisely defined. 19. The Institute's future plans include offering a B.Ed. in nursing education as well as postgraduate degree courses in education at both the Master's and doctoral levels. External funding is being sought for expansion of the Institute's programs. These proposals  8 raise important concerns about its mandate, capacity and relationship to Makerere that will have to be addressed by Government and donors. Mbarara University of Science and Technology 20. Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST), founded by President Museveni in 1989 in the central western part of the country, is the country's second public university. The University occupies the premises of a former school for midwifery next to a district hospital in Mbarara. It has 21 senior permanent or consulting staff, a majority of whom are expatriates. In 1990/91, the University offered only one high cost undergraduate program---medicine---to 142 students. The undergraduate course is of six years duration, versus five years at Makerere, the final year being an internship. The program at Mbarara emphasizes the training of physicians who have a knowledge of "the economic, nutritional and domestic factors that endanger health." The University is attempting to create a distinct and unique mission based on commitment to improving health in rural areas. It plans to begin postgraduate programs in public health, a degree program for nurses, diploma programs for paramedics and to create three new faculties offering degree courses in applied sciences and technology, science education and development studies. 21. The University has established an Institute of Tropical Forest Management and Conservation in the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest "for the purpose of education and research in tropical forest biology and conservation." The Institute's activities will be closely linked to those of the new faculties the University is hoping to develop. 22. Although there would seem to be a national need for graduates to build up the health and educational infrastructure in rural areas as well as advantages to training such professionals outside Kampala, financing expansion of Mbarara University of Science and Technology is problematic. The University receives some support from the governments of Cuba and India for expatriate staff from Australia for office equipment and is requesting funds from Unesco to prepare a master plan for construction of new instructional and residential facilities at Kihumuro Hill. However, future development of the University will require significant infusion of scarce public resources.  9 The Islamic University in Uganda 23. Located at Mbale in north central Uganda, the Islamic University in Uganda started operating in 1988. Its basic aim is to serve the educationally poorly served Muslim communities in English speaking African countries. The University received land, some staff members and buildings from the Government to begin instruction. It graduated the first cohort of about 70 students in 1991, including 19 women. They all received Bachelor of Arts (Education) degrees. 24. The University is one of two Islamic universities sponsored by the Organization of the Islamic Conference in Africa. The other, located in Niger, serves francophone countries. The University currently has 369 students enrolled in programs administered by three faculties; Education, Islamic Studies and Arabic Language as well as Business Studies and Public Administration, the largest being the Faculty of Education. A postgraduate diploma in Education course has been introduced this year (1991/1992). Approximately 15 per cent of its students are from other countries in the region. The University admits a small number of non-Muslim students. All students are in residence and receive scholarships to cover the costs of tuition, accommodation and boarding. 25. Students must meet the normal public university entrance requirements in Uganda. The University can not admit all the applicants who meet the minimum requirements. For example, about 10 per cent of the students who applied for admission in 1989/90 were awarded places. The University employs some teaching staff of Makerere University on a part time basis. Full time staff members are drawn from Uganda and overseas. There are ten full time Ugandan staff and about the same number of international staff. External examiners from within and outside Uganda are used to monitor the quality of programs. The University has made a strong start. Most graduates of the Education Program have been employed by the Uganda Government.  10 Table 1.2 Public and Private University Enrollments, 1990/91 University Total Enrollment % Makerere 6,694 93 Mbarara 142 2 Islamic 346 5 University Total 7,182 100% B. Public Expenditure for University and Higher Education 26. The proportion of education expenditures allocated for public higher education has increased somewhat in recent years though higher education's share of GDP has remained constant. Table 1.3 summarizes the position of higher education in the context of the overall recurrent education budget and other macroeconomic indicators. The interpretation of data on public expenditure in Uganda is problematic because of high inflation, changes in budgetary classifications and exchange rates which did not until 1990 reflect purchasing power.  11 Table 1.3 Total Government Recurrent Education Expenditure (USh millions) 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1991-2e 1. Primary 1,473 3,710 3,839 1,411 2. Secondary 1,561 2,112 2,801 2,264 3. Higher 788 1,527 2,774 8,033 4.(of which Makerere) 650 1,349 2,354 6,286 5. All other 1,181 2,766 6,827 23,796 6. TOTAL RECURRENT 5,003 10,115 16,241 35,505 7. % Higher 15.8 15.1 17.0 22.6 8. Recurrent/GDP % 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.5 Source: Government of Uganda, Budgetary Accounts. Notes: e: 1991-2 figures are estimates. 27. Table 1.4 shows capital expenditure for the same period. The Ugandan budgetary sources for this table refer to Government expenditures only, and understates the totals, because of the large external donor financed element. Capital expenditure increased more rapidly than recurrent expenditure. But the share going to Makerere, which accounts for most such expenditure, has also risen. Table 1A Total Government Capital Education Expenditure. (USh millions) 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1991-2e 1. Makerere 49 137 327 1,687 2. All other. 172 475 1,329 1,733 3. TOTAL 221 612 1,656 3,420 4. Makerere % 22.2 22.4 19.7 49.3 Source: as for Table 1.2 Note: c: 1991-92 figures are estimates  12 28. The Ministiy of Planning and Economic Development has collected information on all development projects at Makerere which involve a Ugandan Government contribution.l/ . The total domestic contribution is 1,687 million USh. (as in Table 1.4), and the external donor contribution is 9,093 million USh. At the November 1991 official exchange rates, this is equivalent to a total program of $16.09 million, of which 84 per cent or $12.68 million is from external donors. While this is formally presented as estimated development expenditure for FY 1991-92, disbursements are likely to be less than the amounts mentioned, which are very large compared to the recurrent costs of the institution. 29. Government-financed resources available for the entire educational system are, at about 1.5 per cent of GDP, a much lower proportion of public expenditures than is general in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is now widely recognized that some proportion of educational costs must be met by non-state sources if education of an acceptable quality is to be provided in sufficient quantity. The fiscal capacity of most African governments dictates this, and nowhere is it more true than in Uganda. 30. Ideally, the proportion of costs recovered should increase with the level of education. In Uganda, the position has been reversed in that at primary level cost recovery may be as much as 90 per cent, at secondary up to 70 per cent, and at higher education significantly less, between 10 per cent and 50 per cent.2/ 1/ Prozram University Estimates of Revenue and Expenditure (Recurrent and Capital) 1991-92. Volume I (b Ylew ots. Govermment of Uganda, 1991. 2/ The reason for such a wide estimated range of cost recovery is because while in money terms very few costs are covered, in real, opportunity cost terms, cost recovery takes place on a large scale via staff earning a living from other jobs without which higher education would not be possible within present budget constraints. This is a form of cost recovery which reduces educational output.  13 II. MAKERERE UNIVERSITY 31. Makerere University which began instruction as a technical college after the First World War, is one of Sub-Saharan Africa's oldest, best known universities. It occupies the pre-eminent place in the higher education sector in Uganda. Makerere has a larger student enrollment and receives more funding than any other higher educational institution, trains most of the country's agricultural scientists, physicians, economists, secondary school teachers and other professionals, and is an important source of policy advice for Government and donors. For all of these reasons, its revitalization after many years of austerity is crucial to the success of any national strategy for human resource development in the country. 32. Like many universities in Africa, Makerere is experiencing serious difficulties. The University's residence halls are overcrowded. Many instructional facilities are still in a dilapidated condition. The University library has few bonks and university laboratories little equipment and insufficient supplies. The low salaries of academic, administrative and support staff encourage part-time employment. In recent years, instruction has been interrupted by student unrest prompted by reductions in the students' allowances. In late 1991, lecturers were agitating for better salaries, precipitating a crisis to direct attention of Government to the needs of the University. A. Background 33. From 1924, the technical training school at Makerere was slowly transformed into a central training college for East Africa offering besides teacher training, s-.adies in medicine, agriculture, veterinary science and surveying. The recommendations of the De La Warr Commission report of 1937 provided the foundation for the eventual evolution of degree level studies in these fields as well as for development of a broader liberal program of studies including instruction in indigenous languages, law, social anthropology and economics. The Asquith report (1945) advocated a residential college model in the Oxbridge tradition and proposed the mechanism which enabled Makerere to take the most important step toward becoming a university, special relationship with the University of London. This relationship continued until Makerere became a college of the University of East Africa in 1963, training physicians, veterinary scientists and secondary school teachers  14 for the entire region. The other university colleges in Kenya and Tanzania soon developed professional programs to reduce reliance on Makerere which became an autonomous university in 1970 at the breakup of the University of East Africa. 34. Two legacies of its evolution are important for understandir.3 the contemporary plight of the University. First, Makerere has grown around some relatively high cost/low output professional programs, especially medicine and veterinary medicine, which it has augmented with other high cost programs in dentistry and pharmacy in recent years. 35. Second, like many other African universities that began as "Asquith colleges," Makerere is a costly residential institution whose enrollment has outgrown the accommodation available. A comparison of the capacity of the University residence halls, based on 1982 occupancy, with the number of students in residence in 1991 revealed that 29 per cent more students are being accommodated in the same facilities that were reportedly overcrowded nearly a decade earlier (Table 2.1). This increases maintenance costs, results in rapid deterioration of the residence halls and contributes to student unrest. Accommodating and boarding students accounts for about 30 per cent of Makerere's operating budget. Most post-secondary institutions, public and private, in Uganda provide accommodation and boarding to students as this has come to be considered an essential part of higher education. Table 2.1 Capacity and Occupancy of Halls of Residence at Makerere, 1990/91 Hall Capacity* Occupancy Africa 266 476 CCE-Complex 362 466 Lumumba 732 781 Livingstone 419 547 Mary Stuart 368 527 Mitchell 465 588 Nkrumah 415 522 Northcote 431 526 University 374 524 Total 3,832 4,958 Source: Admission Records Office, Makerere University, November 1991 * Task Force on University Admissions, 1982  15 B. Mechanisms of Accountabilty, Planning and Budgeting Governance and Planning 36. The Makerere University Act of 1970 and amendments of 1975 and 1988 circumscribed much of the autonomy which Makerere previously enjoyed as a constituent college of the University of East Africa, and subordinated the new university to the state. According to this legislation, the Chancellor of Makerere is the Head of State. The Head of State appoints the Vice Chancellor, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, and all members of the University's governing Council. He is also the Visitor of the University which empowers him to appoint commissions when circumstances warrant an outside investigation of the operation of the University as in 1990 in response to student unrest. 37. The Council is comprised of thirty-eight members, dominated by Government officials and Government appointees. The Makerere University Act specifies that the Ministries of Education, Finance, and Economic Planning and Development be represented on the Council. An additional nine members are appointed by the Government. Some members are elected by the faculty and other interest groups in the University. For example, three members of the University are elected by the Senate, two members elected by the academic staff and the senior administrative staf