Reforming higher secondary education in South Asia : the case of Nepal

THE WORLD BANK Internal Discussion Paper SOUTH ASIA REGIONAL SERIES Report No. IDP-109 Reforming Higher Secondary Education in South Asia: The Case of Nepal Helen Abadzi May 1993 Population and Human Resources Operations Division Country Department I The views presented here are those of the author, and they should not be interpreted as reflecting those of the World Bank. SOUTH ASIA 1EGIONAL SgRIES Title Author Date Orininator IDP1 11 How Composition of Public Expenditure Affects Competitiveness: The Case of Bangladesh K. Matin March 1992 P. Mitra (80419) IDP1 21 Labor Retrenchment and Redundancy Compensation in State Owned Enterprises: The Case of Sri Lanka A. Fiszbein December 1992 G. Nankani (84641) IDP1 26 Some Guidelines for the Appraisal of Large Projects W. Jack February 1993 A. Estache (81442) IDP109 Reformine Highe Secondary Education in in South Asia: The Case of Nepal H. Abadzi May 1993 H. Abadzi (80375) ASIA REGION DISCUSSION PAPERS 11 Title Author Date Originator IDP2 The Labor Force Participation of Women in the Republic of Korea: Evolution and Policy Issues C. Grooteert May 1988 F. lqbal IDP15 The Role of Exchange Rate Policy in Four East Asian Countries b-W. Nam May 1988 D. Leipziger (81388) IDP28 The Small-Soale Enterprise Credit Program (S.S.E.P.) Under the Second and Third Calcutta Urban Development Projects (CUDP II and CUDP Ill) - An Assessment F. Kahnert March 1988 F. Kahnert (81413) IDP35 Improving Tax Policy Advice: Lessons and Unresolved Issues from Asia Experience H. Fleiig June 1989 H. Fleisig (81413) IDP36 Direct Taxes and Fiscal Policy Issues: An Illustration for East Asia A. Virmani June 1989 H. Fleisig (81413) IDP37 Commodity Taxation in Selected Countries in South East and East Asia Z. Shalizi June 1989 H. Fleisig (81413) IDP38 Tax Analysis in Doveloping Country Settings R. Musgrave June 1989 H. Fleisig (81413) 1P39 Indonesia: External Shocks, Policy Response and Adjustment Performance S. Ahmed June 1989 S. Ahmed (82467) ./ Papers still available upon request. Asia Series discontinued following December 1, 1991 restructuring of the Region. Note: Extra copier may be obtained from the Asia Information Service Center. REFORMING HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SOUTH ASIA: THE CASE OF NEPAL Helen Abadzi SAIPH World Bank May 1993 This document was prepared for a GTZ-financed workshop on higher secondary education that was held in Kathmandu on May 18-22, 1992. It also served as a working paper for Nepal's higher education project, which was appraised in March 1993. The paper benefitted from comments and suggestions made by Gobind Nankani, Martin Karcher, Grant Sinclair, and V. Selvaratnam. Al remaining mistakes are the author's exclusive responsibility. REFORMING HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SOUTH ASIA: THE CASE OF NEPAL Helen Abadzi ABSTRACT After 10 years of primary and secondary education, Nepali students spend four years at the university; Bachelor's degrees are granted after 14 years of total study. To follow international trends and limit university enrollments, the Government plans to create grades 11 and 12 in secondary schools. Experiences in other South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries indicate that development of higher secondary education cannot take place without (a) considerable planning and (b) close cooperation with university authorities. Nepal, and other countries contemplating this change, could profit from these experiences before and during implementation by: A. explaining tc the public, including local governments and students, the reasons for changing the system; B. developing, according to world trends, core curricula for grades 11 and 12 that will facilitate students' future professional choices rather than specialized curricula that will limit future choices; C. ascertaining that adequate physical facilities and numbers of trained teachers exist throughout the country to teach higher secondary school; D. providing dignified and sensitive options to university professors to facilitate redeployment, even if they seem more expensive in the short term; E. preparing administrators to manage larger schools with more complex problems and older students; F. resolving early any financial or status-related problems of two- year university campuses. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Background - Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 II. Main Issues iLn Secondary Education of Nepal . . . . . . . . . 3 III. Problems of Secondary-Level Students in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 IV. The Development of Higher Secondary Education . . . . . . . . 7 A. An Awkward Administrative Structure . . . . . . . . . . . 8 B. Constricted Curricular Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 C. Undefined Examination Structure and Procedures . . . . . . 10 E. Difficulties in the Selection of Implementation Sites . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . 11 F. Shortage of Teachers and Excess of Professors . . . . . . 12 G. Limited Information to the Public .. . .. .. . . . . . 16 H. Inadequate Financial Analysen and Funding Provisions . . . 16 V. Implementation Prospects . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Annex - Higher Secondary Education in South Asia . . . . . . . . . 19 I. Streamlining Attempts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 A. Indiadesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 B. Pakistan . . . . . 21 C. Bangladesh . . . . . . . . .# 23 D. Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 E. Bhutan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 F. Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 II. Lessons for Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Table 1: Pass Rates at SLC of Different Calories of Entry . . . . 27 Table 2: The Expansion of Higher Education Enrollment . . . . . . 28 Table 3: Tribhuvan University - Number of Teachers by Qualification (1982-1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Table 4: Tribhuvan University - Number of Teachers by Position (1982-1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 30 Table 5: Tribhuvan University (Pay Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Table 6: Tribhuvan University - Number of Administrative Staff by Ranking (1982-1990) . . .. . . . . . . . .. 32 I. Backround - Conceptual Framework 1. In the beginning of the century, like other area countries, Nepal patterned it. school system after the nine- and ten-year system used in Great Britain at that time. The British system evolved, and in the 1950s the introduction of the General Certificate of Educaticn "0" and "A" levels raised the total length of schooling to 11-13 years. SAAC countries which followed this system have had few financial resources and are still struggling to lengthen the old British system to meet contemporary international trends. India's reform took about 17 years to complete. Pakistan and Bangladesh are still trying to abandon the variety of intermediate colleges, secondary schools, &ne university campuses that serve students in grades 11 and 12 and to resolve the curricular problems of general vs. specialist studies at these grade levels. A few other Asian countries (Philippines, Bhutan, and Afghanistan) still have a 10-year school education and have not started a large-scale reform. 2. Why should grades be moved from higher to secondary education? In theory, stadents could continue going to the usual institutions, and more years could be added to higher education. The countries have attempted the reform with the intention to: (a) lower the cost of education. Secondary education tends to be much less expensive than higher education. Secondary-level teachers tend to be paid less and work more hours, while buildings and equipment for that stage tend to cost less. Dormitories are rarely needed in secondary education; (b) improve access. University or college campuses tend to be urban- area institutions, whereas access to secondary schools in rural areas is increasing. Only the better-off rural students can afford dormitory fees for studies that are universally considered secondary-level; (c) obtain international reconition. Countries with longer educational systems, particularly developed countries, may not recognize the certificates or degrees that involve less schooling. Although one year can sometimes be overlooked (several Latin American countries have school education of 11 years), a two year- deficiency seems like a glaring anomaly in many universities who admit international students. This is a very important issue for well-to-do parents who aspire to send their children for study abroad; and, (d) delay specialization. University attendance at age 16 forces students to make life-long career choices before they are mature enough to understand consequences. Choices made at that age may often be the result of parent aspirations, peer pressure, gender stereotyping, or socioeconomic status. Asian countries are increasingly sensitized to the evidence that poorer students are more likely to study low-returns humanities tracks and better-off students to enter prestigious science schools with the help of - 2 - private tutoring. They are also becoming sensitized to the adverse long-term consequences of early decisions on students' lives. 3. What processes are involved in switching grades trom one level to another? The experience of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh has shown that this exercise does not just involve poiicy statements and changes in site of the proposed grades (see Annex for details). There was a tendency to underestimate the logistical, social, instructional, and econom.c problems that would arise. Some of these ares (a) instructional. The switch necessitates large-scale adjustments at the levels adjoining grades 11-12. The curricula of grades 9-10 must be adjusted to ensure continuity with the subsequent grades. University curricula in the remaining years must be, at the very least, rearranged to add specialty courses formerly taught in the switched grades and to subtract general courses taught n.. higher years. Finally, grades 11-12 must acquire more general curricula. To facilitate the switch, the new curricula must also become innovative and attractive to students and parents; (b) staffing. Teacher and professor qualifications are tailored to existing systems; the switch (i) creates a need for teachers in subjects they usually do not teach and (ii) eliminates the need for many professors who teach lower years. The potential loss of status of professors seems to be the most explosive problem of this reform. Creative and constructive solutions are extremely important. If transfers are to be made, higher secondary education must be made attractive for professors to work in; (c) physical facilities. Many secondary schools lack the space for extra grades, while higher education campuses may end up with excess space. Rationalization of space may create serious conflicts with universities. Large-scale investment in secondary- level physical facilities, on the other hand, may be unaffordable; (d) public opinion. Parents tend to support the reform once they understand its benefits. However, these must clearly be explained to them. Also, the quality of higher secondary education must be perceived to be at least as good as those of higher education; otherwise parents may rebel. This is an important reason why grades 11 and 12 wust be planned to be especially ettractive for teachers and parents; (e) Ministry of Education and university collaboration. Extensive collaboration betwren the secondary and tertiary levels must take place, and often some transfer of resources from the tertiary stage as well. This transfer may be seen as a threat to university authorities who, at any rate, usually do not collaborate closely with the Ministry of Education on many issues; (f) planning. Advance planning on which schools students will attend and when is pivotal to the success of the reform. Planning needs - 3 - to include the human and material resources that should be found in each school and how these will arrive there; (g) investment. Short-term investment is needed to bring about the long-term budget reductions expected from the reform. The investment can be particularly high (and possibly unaffordable) if tertiary-education resources are left untouectA while new secondary-level resources are developed. On the contrary, relatively low investment would be needed in the ideal-case scenario of resource reallocation from tertiary education; and, (h) getting lost in the shuffle. A semantic problem arises among donors but also among government officials. At the time of change should these grades be considered the domain of secondary or of higher education? The semantics may make these grades excluded from both jurisdictions and marginalized. 4. The development of higher secondary education is a major reform in a system, and there are few experiences in the world to guide the countries that attempt to do it. As in all complex reforms involving institutional changes, implementation may take many years. The downward shift has social implications, and most of the problem of the reform centers on allaying the concerns of special-interest groups with the minimu investment possible. 5. The most recent attempt to develop higher secondary education is taking place in Nepal. His Majesty's Government has developed a policy to lengthen the school system to 12 years (the last two being a higher secondary education level) and add an extra year to the university, which will decrease in duration from four to three years. The sections below outline the problems and issues of the transfer in a low-income country that is relatively small compared to India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. Specific lessons from these countries (also summarized in Anne) will be used as the occasion arises. II. Main Issues in Secondary Education of Nepal 6. Nepal's capacity to provide secondary education is strained to the limit. High rates of population increase and emphasis on primary education are creating demographic pressures on secondary schools. In 1991 there were nearly 700,000 students in about 3,941 lower secondary schools (grades 6-7) and in 1,790 schools serving up to grade 10. According to Asian Development Bank (ADB) projections, there will be 1.1 million secondary-school students by the year 2000. Yet, the students currently attending secondary education (grades 6-10) represent only 33 percent of the appropriate age cohort. The ability to serve more students is also limited by a shortage of trained teachers. In 1989, there were 24,164 secondary-level teachers (42 percent trained), and about 1458 new university-trained teachers will be needed each year. Only 870 are forthcoming, of whom only 380 would be trained. 7. Traditionally secondary education has received low priority; administered by an undersecretary, this level of education has a relatively - 4 - low rank in the administrative structure of the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC). Its schools are mainly community-financed or private; only 17.1 percent of the education budget (1.8 percent of Government expenditure) was allocated to this stage in 1990, mainly for teacher salaries. (MOEC only pays 75 percent of these.) Nineteen percent of students attend private schools, and public ashools require tuition, about Rs. 80 per month. Nevertheless, a policy has been proposed to gradually abolish tuition. If that happens, investment may be unwittingly constricted even further; all stages of education may compete for funding, and this may prove detrimental to all., 8. Entrance to higher education is regulated by the Secondary School Leaving Certificate (SLC) examination, which students take at the end of grade 10. In theory, all students who pass the examination are eligible to enroll at the university. Although certain university faculties, such as medicine and engineering require entrance examinations, the large science and humanities faculties abolished them around 1980 following student protests. Use of secondary-school leaving examinations as permits for university entrance creates a host of social and political problems; countries that do so (e.g. Baccalaureat in Magreb countries), try to control access to the university by making these examinations difficult but face pressure from students -ho must pass them to graduate from secondary school. In Nepal, only about 25-4t percent of examinees pass each year (28,000 out of 64,166 in 1990; 23,213 our of 95,100 in 1991). Failed students, who tend to come from poorer families, constitute nearly 50 percent of examinees (Table 1) and essentially become secondary-school dropouts. Still, the number of successful candidates remains more than the university can support. Caught in a vicious circle, MOEC plans to make these examinations even more difficult, but it is unlikely that the number of entrants will diminish in the long run. III. Problems of Secondary-Level Students in Higher Education 9. The rise in higher education enrollments has been uncontrollable. They ave increased from 22,765 in 1976 to 113,772 in 1991. Doubling nearly every five years, they are expected to reach 347,200 by the year 2000 if no changes take place. The higher education expenditure ratio for Nepal exceeded five percent of GDP in 1991 a remarkable feat, considering that the median ratio for similar countries is about 3.7 percent. However, 61 percent of university students are 16- and 17-year-olds (called certificate-level students), who in most other countries attend secondary school. If the students of the first two years are discounted, the ratio becomes 1.9%, nearly half the average for lower-income countries. I No donor has provided significant financing for secondary education. ADB has implemented a science education project and developed a follow-up project proposal (which included a brief secondary sector study), but the date of implementation remains uncertain. - 5 - 10. The large university population has very adversely affected the financing of higher education and the quality of instructional delivery. Nearly all higher-education students attend Tribhuvan University, an institution with 195 campuses (65 public and 130 private) scattered throughout the country. The average campus has only 600 students, and diseconomies of scale result in an estimated 20 percent efficiency lose in resource utilizaticn. Despite the large number of small campuses, facilities are inadequate and able to accommodate only 60,000 to 70,000 if run on two shifts; moit are run on three or four shifts. Inflation has eroded Government financing of higher education, and the per-student allocation is decreasing dramatically as enrollments increase. There have been practically no capital investments in the past 10 years. Ninety percent of the university's recurrent expenditures are spent on staff salaries, leaving little for curricular updates, instructional materials, or maintenance. 11. Aside from quality issues, the system falls short of the 15 or 16 years used in most countries. After a four-year study which largely consists of general courses, it graduates (normally) 20-year-olds with the international equivalent of a two-year associate degree. To take upper-level undergraduate coursework they must obtain a two-year Master's degree. As a result, there is considerable demand for graduate courses, which account for eight percent of the university's population (9,700 students in 1! '0). In response to the uncontrolled numbers of underage students and to t air meager professional preparation, the university authorities have concenta.-ted their attention and best human resources to the graduate programs. 12. The problems associated with the presence of 16- and 17-year olds in the university are multiple and cause grave concern to MOEC and university authorities: (a) Large expenses for Government and families. Annual per-student expenditures by the Government have been estimated by ADB2 (in 1986 prices) as Rs. 260 for primary, Ra. 350 for secondary, and Rs. 6742 for higher education. A large cost disparity exists between these two levels, and reasons for it are not clear. However, university costs include highly subsidized dormitories, capital expenditures, a lower student-teacher ratio (about 23 in the university vs. about 28 in secondary schools), and expenses to conduct centralized examinations, which are dominated by certificate-level students. The Government pays less than half the cost of secondary education,3 and almost all university costs. On average, 2 Nepal Secondary Education Development; Final Report. Prepared by The British Council for His Majesty's Government of Nepal and the Asian Development Bank, May 1991. 3 Government expenditure for secondary education is limited to half the teacher costs (50 percent for the more populous Grades 6-7 and 75 percent for Grades 8-10), which amount to Rs. 350 per capita. Considering that students pay about Re. 800 per year, unit costs for secondary education (not currently available) could be roughly estimated at Re. 800. - 6 - therefore, it spends 19 times more to educate students in the university than in secondary schools. Even if the Government assumes most secondary-school expenditures, large savings could result. In theory, the 1990 Ra. 485.3 million higher-education budget could be reduced by 61 percent to Re. 189 million, while the secondary-school budget would only increase by an additional Rs. 55 million from Re. 326 to Rs. 381 million - a savings of Re. 241 million to the country. In practice, the expenses for higher secondary education and for advanced university curricula would be higher than the above figures, but large potential savings may be realized in the long term if certificate-level students are transferred to secondary schools. There is also a large private cost to university for students who live away from home, which has been estimated to be as high as Re. 25,000 per year for middle- class families and which would diminish if these students stayed closer to home for an additional two years; (b) Curricular issues. Though streamed in specific faculties, certificate-level students mainly take general courses rather than specialty courses. Science students, for example, take Nepali, compulsory and alternative English, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and physics. Humanities first-year students take compulsory Nepali, compulsory and alternative English, and may choose from mathematics, Nepali, English, history, Sanskrit and other courses. Third- and fourth-year students are still required to take Nepali and English. Such basic courses might be cheaper to teach in secondary school, leaving to the university the responsibility for specialized courses, which are now taught at the Master's degree level. Cognizant of students' lack of specialization, university authorities would like to add an extra year to the Bachelor's degree level, but the overcrowded campuses have no space to schedule more classes; (c) High drooUt and low performance. Two-thirds of the undergraduates are in the two-year certificate course (Table 2). Completion of this stage is necessary for enrollment In the third year, the Bachelor's level course. Although detailed dropout and repetition data are not available, first- and second-year students seem to have higher dropout rates than older students. For example, only 25 percent of education students were promoted from the first to the second year in 1989. Also, many students end their studies at the two-year certificate level (Table 2). Given the high per-capita cost of university education, the low performance of certificate-level students has serious financial implications for the country. The closer supervision that is usually offered in secondary schools may be beneficial for these students; (d) Social problems. Certificate-level students eve ceen by many parents as too young to study without parental supervision or to move away to the university. There are no data to indicate how many study away from home, but dormitory spaces in this mountainous - 7 - country are only 6,000, (25 percent for girls), and most students may end up in unsupervised private boarding. Given social risks, some parents may decide not to send girls to the university. University authorities also consider these students too immature to understand the politic3l issues they may become involved in. High dropout and low performance may be consequences of social problems that young students face. Providing them with the structure and individual attention usually given in secondary schools may safeguard their success in future studies; and, (e) Administrative difficulties. Tribhuvan University functions, in effect, as a Ministry of Higher Education. With 195 scattered campuses, the administration has no time or opportunities to provide educational leadership or to monitor the quality of instruction. It has to concentrate, instead, on budgeting, high- level policy, record-keeping, meetings with student groups, and day-to-day management at various campuses. IV. The Development of Higher Secondary Education 13. To upgrade Tribhuvan University and to concentrate on higher education, MOEC has decided to create a two-year higher secondary education4 stage and to transfer the first two years of the university to secondary schools. To implement this stage a 13-member task force was initially appointed which included the Minister of Education, secretary and additional secretary for technical matters of MOEC, curriculum development experts of MOEC, the controller of examinations, and a university representative. Legislation approving this stage of education was passed in 1989. Implementation has been assigned to the semi-autonomous Higher Secondary Education Council, which is under the jurisdictior o 1he Additional Secretary for technical matters of the MOEC. 14. The Council has to do its work with little funding, staffing, or technical assistance. In January 1992, it had a professional staff of five and a British volunteer who wrote science textbooks. It was housed at a MOEC building in Sano Thimi. Nevertheleas, it has shown considerable initiative and undertaken many activities, which includes (a) two workshops, in Jhaps and Kathmandu, in 1988 and 1989; (b) a general implementation plan; (c) an act of regulations; (d) a 1990 information pamphlet on higher secondary education; (e) curriculum development, mainly in science; (f) textbook development, mainly for science; and, (g) a survey of 180 schools on willingness to start grades 11 and 12. 4 In Nepali, the word used is "high", loosely translated in English as "higher" secondary education. Area countries, however, often use call this stage "senior" secondary education. Occasionally the term "upper" is used. - 8 - 15. Political transitions and lack of funds have slowed d^-wn the pace of implementation. There are indications, however, that the pace is quickening under the new democratic government. Four private schools are already implementing a form of higher secondary education and another 30 were expected to do so in 1992. However, decisions on several important issues have not been made or have been made with very limited information. Some policies may subsequently prove too costly or too difficult to implement. Issues that merit special consideration are: A. An Awkward Administrative Structure 16. Having limited responsibility for secondary education in general, MOEC is not administratively prepared to handle higher secondary education. The Higher Secondary Education Council has filled the void by assuming responsibility (as its introductory pamphlet indicates) for almost all aspects of implementation: (i) award of the higher stage to selected schools; (ii) school administration and supervision; (iii) curriculum development; (iv) textbook production; (v) conducting of examinations; (vi) publication of results and issuance of diplomas; (vii) overall planning and development; (viii) research; and (ix) relations with national and international universities and educational institutions. These functions cut across several specialized MOEC departments, such as curriculum development and the controller of examinations. Despite their motivation, Council staff do not have enough resources to undertake these multiple and varied tasks. 17. Reliance on a single institution may be effective in the short term, particularly in light of institutional weaknesses in many MOEC units. However, the council's multiple responsibilities and semi-autonomous status keep higher secondary education separated from the educational system of the country. Eventual integration into the MOEC structure might be considered. B. Constricted Curricular Decisions 18. Area countries, which inherited the old British system, have traditionally given pre-specialization courses to 16- and 17-year olds. Higher secondary education seems scheduled to continue early specialization. In effect, the new schools will constitute mini-faculties of humanities, science, management, law, and education and teach updated versions of the certificate-level curricula. This plan goes against international trends, which favor a comprehensive or a two-track model for that stage with a stress on analytic skills, life skills, and a science component for all students. Also, serious practical problems are often associated with early specialization. The scarcity of specialized teachers in rural areas may mean that only humanities or education would be offered in many. This tendency might work to the disadvantage of already poor rural areas. Also, students desiring to enter other faculties may still have to resort to university campuses, thereby delaying or suspending the phase-out of certificate-level courses. 19. Delivery of humanities programs is relatively easy, and this ease sometimes prevails over labor-market considerations and common sense. Secondary schools were asked through a 1991 survey to choose if they want to - 9 - implement the higher stage and which specialization(s) they preferred. Of about 84 respondent institutions, 48 chose humanities and 20 chose science, a thereby limiting the options of students who might be unable to attend another school. Lacking help that would facilitate such decisione, the Higher Secondary Education Council has nearly completed curriculum and textbook development for the science track, which is highly valued in the country. The curricular orientation issue urgently needs reconsideration by the Government. 20. Limited science instruction. Traditionally, humanities curricula have been viewed as the "ordinary" type of studies. Secondary-school students take science only up to grade 8, unless they opt for such courses in grades 9 and 10. They also receive no further science instruction at the university unless they enter a science faculty. To create a skilled labor force, however, the Government should consider teaching science to all higher secondary school students. Nevertheless, the instruction of science is likely to be problematic. According to ADB sources, the physics and chemistry curricula developed by expatriate volunteers for the higher secondary level represent considerable improvement over older curricula but will require expensive equipment. There will probably be a shortage of science teachers (particularly in rural. areas) and a shortage of science laboratory space and equipment (only about 50 percent of secondary schools have any science facilities, and those are badly equipped). If these curricula are followed, few schools will be able to offer science. 21. Science education can become broadly available in Nepal. Much work has been done to make science teaching accessible to students in low-income countries through the use of local materials rather than expensive laboratory equipment. Textbooks with extensive illustrations and good teacher guides can be used, and many such texts are sold in the English-speaking world market. Teacher training is crucial, particularly in teaching essential science concepts rather than the vocabulary and mathematics that currently dominate instruction. Demonstration needs to be considered in lieu of individually run experiments, vhich are often impossible even in the university. Sri Lanka and other countries teach integrative science, which follows a thematic rather than a discipline approach (equilibrium, interaction, energy, change, etc.), and which is less costly. In addition to being broadly accessible, science curricula must also meet international standards, since higher secondary education graduates should remain eligible to enter science-related faculties in India. The balance between the two approaches of science in higher secondary school needs to be carefully considered. 22. Vocational-technical education options. The Government has stated a desire to promote higher-secondary technical and vocational education. International experience has shown, however, that secondary-level technical and vocational education is expensive, preferred by relatively few, not well linked to job markets, and does not necessarily lead students away from the university. Vocational and technical institutions in Nepal are underutilized. (There are about nine such schools, all supported by bilateral donors. The ADB sector study reported a total enrollment of about 2000 in 1989.) Despite the comon-sense appeal of vocational-technical education, experience argues against diverting higher secondary school resources to it. Nepali educators - 10 - might benefit from information that would help them reach appropriate decisions on this issue. 23. SPecialised schools. Eighteen campuses in the university only offer certificate-level courses. Of these, 15 offer paramedical and agricultural specialties and function, in effect, as specialized higher secondary schools. Such schools exist in almost all countries and could be maintained in Nepal. An enrollment and curricular review, however, should determine the cost-effectiveness of these programs and the extent to which graduates are absorbed by the labor market. 24. Two-year 'intermediate' colleges for grades 11 and 12 have been widely used in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh as part of higher education. Conversion of these to higher secondary schools has caused significant status- related problems, which have sometimes resulted in violence and delayed implementation. Unlike these countries, Nepal educates 16- and 17-year olds only in the university and has a simpler conversion task. However, the 18 university campuses which provide only certificate-level courses might face similar problems. It is important, therefore, that Nepal study in advance the various problems associated with the transformation of these colleges into secondary schools. 25. 'Private candidates'. It is likely that in a mountainous country like Nepal, pockets of students will remain unserved. Currently, private students, who are not affiliated with a specific campus, have the right to take examinations. This arrangement could be converted to a form of distance education that may serve students in areas without higher secondary schools or without access to schools with dormitories. They could form study groups, receive materials, and take examinations in schools relatively near them. The Higher Secondary Education Council might provide such an arrangement rather inexpensively by allowing higher secondary schools to accept private candidates. C. Need for Curricular Adjustments at all Levels 26. Continuity must be developed between the curricula of grades 9 and 10 and higher secondary education. Since it is desirable to develop curriculum from the upper grades to the lower in order to focus on terminal objectives, the development of higher secondary education will gradually provide an opportunity to define curricula and upgrade textbooks for all secondary grades. 27. The transfer of the certificate-level course will necessitate curriculum redevelopment in all university specialties. Authorities plan to add a third year to make the university a three-year institution, like British universities. Then, part of the Master's degree curricula will be taught in undergraduate schools. University authorities will have to prepare for this process, part of which should be carried out before 18-year-old students enter as first-year students. The process will give the university the opportunity to revise its curricular offerings in light of the country's labor market trends and human resource needs. - 11 - D. Undefined Examination Structures and Procedures 28. The Higher Secondary Education Council plans to establish a higher secondary school certificate, as in India, and act as an independent examinations board. The fate of the SLC is uncertain, but it is possible that the examination will be abolished. 29. The SLC is an expensive examination to administer, of probably poor validity and reliability. Since its outcome is driven by university enrollment problems rather than student achievement, it fosters socioeconomic inequity and high rates of grade-10 repetition. Nevertheless, it is a barrier to higher levels of education, and the country has no resources to accommodate all students aspiring to them. Options must be explored that would retain the barrier but would make it less expensive-and traumatic. Perhaps grade-10 graduation should be determined by school-level decisions, and a vational entrance examination to higher secondary education should be reinstalled to function as a screening device (as in the Philippines). However, the financial and psychometric implications of any testing option should be carefully considered in any new examinations that would be established. 30. As in other countries, an increasingly larger percentage of students will probably progress to higher secondary education. This would mean that the graduates of today might become the school dropouts of tomorrow. IDA has been faced with a similar issue in Pakistan (see Annex). In order not to lower the value of graduation at grade 10, an IDA review report recommended keeping the SLC examination and also keeping the college-preparatory character of higher secondary education. Nepal needs to understand fully the secondary effects of the current system before changing it. E. Difficulties in the Selection of Implementation Sites 31. Students can study certificate-level courses in 192 sites, i.e. in 62 undergraduate public campuses and 130 private campuses (most of the latter in premises rented from community secondary schools.) To preserve access at least the same number of schools should be available, and geographic distribution should remain the same or be improved. The Council has not yet come to terms with the equity and distribution issues and initially expects only to have one higher secondary school in each of the 75 districtq. The 84 schools that responded positively to the 1991 survey, however, were neither evenly distributed nor sufficient to accommodate current enrollments. 32. Clearly, not all secondary schools should have higher secondary grades. In Sri Lanka, which has high enrollment rates, only half eo so; in India about 25 percent do so and in Bangladesh institutions with these grades are 5-10 percent of secondary schools. If the Indian percentage is taken as a guideline (Nepali education largely reflects Indian models), then 447 out of 1791 secondary schools in the country could offer this education stage in the medium term. 33. Without an informed and clear policy on the objectives of higher secondary education, it is difficult to establish which of the 1791 secondary schools in the country should implement higher secondary education. Potential - 12 - criteria (according to a long-range plan developed by ADB) include school size (i.e. over 150-200 students), physical accessibility, availability of teachers with Master's degrees, willingness of staff to undergo inservice education, willingness to impose fees for school expenditures and scholarships, preference for the 15 remote districts, and specialization in education for remote districts. The choice of criteria will shape future policy and needs careful consideration. 34. Aside from secondary schools, selected university campuses could be turned over to higher secondary education. Candidates for such conversions might be: (i) the 18 campuses that offer only certificate-level courses; (ii) campuses that are largely certificate-level; (iii) smaller campuses with high per capita management costs; and (iv) those located near campuses with which there can be a population exchange. Of the 18 campuses in Rathmandu, for example, at least six could potentially be converted. University authorities plan to study the issue and determine how best to rationalize its facilities. However, political reactions from parents and professors are likely to be a large problem, particularly if conversion affects campuses of high academic status. 35. Complicating the physical facilities decision is the fact that little is known about secondary schools in the country, due to limited Government involvement. According to the Private and Boarding Schools Organization, the private sector and local communities were able to establish about 700 schools during the 7th Plan (1985-90), which made no provisions for supporting new secondary schools. However, the state and size of these buildings are unknown. The ADB sector study has characterized secondary-level infrastructure as inadequate and in urgent need of maintenance. The questions regarding supply and demand of higher secondary education should be answered through: (a) a secondary-school space study and (b) a university student survey to determine (i) the feeder schools of the various campuses and (ii) housing arrangements for non-local students. Both studies should include private institutions. 36. Probably, new physical facilities as well as additions to schools would need to be built. (Inadequate infrastructure has been the main reason for delaying the +2 implementation in poorer Indian states, such as Manipur). Dormitories may also be necessary in schools that serve remote areas. (Only 10 percent of secondary schools have them.) ADS appraisal information indicates that most secondary schools have five to 360 ropanies of land available for construction and that buildings would cost Ra. 4500 per square meter. However, increasing building size would often require upgrading of its infrastructure. The typical rural secondary school has no running water or electricity. On the basis of these data, the higher education project identification mission calculated that a four-room addition and maintenance work for a school would cost about US$50,000. If half of the 447 schools (i.e. 12.5 percent of all higher secondary schools) that might offer higher secondary education require such additLons, civil works would cost US$11.7 million. 37. The fact that almost all private university campuses are housed in rented secondary-school premises may pose an additional complication in some - 13 - cases. In theory, implementation of the higher secondary stage would be easy for them. Since they usually serve local students, they could continue to use the same premises and teachers and readjust their courses. However, some secondary schools may need to add an extra shift to accommodate the higher stage and leave the private campuses without facilities. The latter may also have to compete with cheaper public schools for grade 11-12 students. Given that private campuses serve 20 percent of the university population with little burden to the Government, their survival should be facilitated when necessary. F. Shortage of Teachers and Excess of Professors 38. The availability of qualified teachers near higher secondary schools and the redeployment of university professors who currently teach certificate-level courses are probably the most serious issues to be resolved before implementation of higher secondary education. India and Pakistan faced serious problems by circumventing university professors while lacking enough qualified secondary-school teachers. Much sensitivity would be required, for instructional as well as for social and political reasons. 39. Almost all of the 5,065 professors of Tribhuvan University are permanent. Of them, four percent had doctorates and 72 percent had Master's degrees in 1990 (Table 3). A significant proportion may be younger professionals; only 48 percent have the ranks of lecturer, reader, or full professor (Table 4). Professor salaries are low (Table 5), not much higher than those of secondary school teachers. Limited class load (12-18 hours per week) and the necessity of running multiple shifts in the campuses enable professors to supplement their salaries by teaching additional courses at Rs. 40 per contact hour in the same or in different campuses, including private campuses. No information is available on the frequency of this practice, but it is believed to be widespread. (This information, on the surface, seems inconsistent with the low student-teacher ratio of 23). 40. Professor excess or shortage will depend on curricular decisions. If the Government implements general curricula for grades 11 and 12, the professors to be reassigned would most likely be those of Nepali, English, math, and science. If current curricular practices continue, all professors teaching certificate-level courses would, in theory, become redundant. Given the orientation of many Nepali officials, the following analysis assumes the latter. 41. No data are yet available on professor specialties or levels of courses they teach, but some rough calculations can estimate the numbers of professors involved in certificate-level courses. Of the 5,065 professors, about 546 are in the three exclusively graduate campuses, which have about - 14 - 5,047 graduate students, four percent of the population.5 The remaining 4,519 professors probably teach a mixture of certificate, Bachelor's, and Master's degree courses. It can be assumed that 65 percent of their time, on the average, is devoted to certificate-level courses. In very rough terms, then, removal of these courses would eliminate the need for 65 percent of these, i.e. 2,937 professors. The addition of a third year in the university would utilize the time of some professors who are now teaching certificate- level courses. However, third-year students would probably be few, around 15,000 in terms of current enrollments (Table 2) and would occupy the equivalent of about 652 professors. The university would still have an excess of about 2,285 professors. Although specialty and geographic considerations would significantly diminish this number, some professors would best be utilized in secondary schools. The 463 professors of 18 campuses that only offer certificate-level courses would be prime candidates for reassignment. That leaves about 1,822 professors who might no longer be needed at the university but who could teach in higher secondary schools. 42. Loss of status would make reassignment undesirable even if current salaries and contact hours are maintained, and professors will probably make every effort to remain in the university. It is important, therefore, that (a) their needs be considered and (b) candidates for reassignment are chosen through clear and transparent criteria. Some options are: (a) Reassignment of extra paid second shifts to schools with higher secondary grades, where geographically feasible. To supplement their salaries, professors would be encouraged to teach in +2 classes at the same rate of Rs. 40 per hour. A survey is needed to find out how many extra hours professors teach at various university campuses, private or public and how these might be reapportioned; (b) Rotation of professors to schools with higher secondary grades. Professors of specific campuses could agree on a rotation schedule that would provide teachers to area +2 schools for the short and, perhaps, medium term; (c) Reassignment of specific, clearly defined categories of professors, such as: (i) the 2,608 employees with the ranks of assistant lecturer, instructor, deputy instructor, and assistant instructor; (ii) the 1,172 employees who lack a Master's degree and who probably only teach certificate-level courses; and (iii) employees who have not yet been made permanent; 5 The Kirtipur graduate campus has 490 professors but also teaches undergraduate-level education, with about 1,200 certificate-level students in Sano Thimi. At a student-teacher ratio of 23, these students are probably taught by about 52 professors, and the total number of professors who do not teach certificate-level courses is estimated at 546. - 15 - university position openingsg particularly if they undertake higher-level studies; (e) Seg,aratiou grants for certain professors (e.g., older individuals without advanced degrees) could be included in the civil service reform currently under consideration. Selected professors would receive monetary compensation for leaving the university; (f) Provision of incentives to encourage professors to leave. Appropriate incentives should be identified in addition to separation grants; ands (g) Winlingness to undergo staff development. Seventy-two percent of university professors only have the international equivalent of a Bachelor's degree. When highLr secondary education was implemented in Tamil Nadup willingness of professors to undergo inservice training was a criterion that determined who remained at the university. 43. The logistics of reassignment will require planning and preparation by the university as well as by the Higher Secondary Education Council, which should have school-level data to determine where teachers would be needed. Arrangements would have to be made for budgetary switchovers of personnel, provision of health insurance, and other administrative issues about which there is currently a vacuum. Rigid administrative rules regarding transfers have greatly inhibited this process in Pakistan. 44. The university also has 5,511 administrative staff (Table 6). A proportion of those (possibly 61 percent) should also be reassigned to secondary schools and be a part of administrative arrangements necessary to do so. Criteria for reassignment similar to those used for professors should apply to them. 45. A number of contact hours equivalent to those currently spent by about 2,937 professors on certificate-level courses will be initially needed in higher secondary schools. Due to geographical considerations, efforts to remain in the university, and personal choices, the numbers of -reassigned professors will probably not be sufficient to teach higher secondary school. Demographic pressure and the availability of local schooling will increase enrollments. The existing secondary-level teacher shortage (para. 2) may be made more acute by the Higher Secondary Education Council's requirement that teachers for grades 11 and 12 hold Master' s degrees. Although most university professors have these qualifications (and India also has the same requirement), no curricular analysis has determined that there is indeed a need for this degree, which relatively few people possess in Nepal. 46. A short-term strategy to provide higher secondary education teachers would be to train current secondary-level teachers to teach upper- level courses and to hire additional teachers from the pool of unemployed Bachelor's degree holders.* (In India, Bachelor-level teachers were trained for a two-year vacation course, following which they received a Master's diploma.) University professors could serve as iuservic.2 teacher trainers, - 16 - but materials and training schedules would need to be developed. The Higher Secondary Education Council would like higher secondary teachers to receive a supplement of Re. 200 per month above their salaries, which should serve as an incentive for teaching at that level. Secondary-level inservice education, however, is virtually non-existent in tae country and could probably not become available in the short term. G. Limited Information to the Public 47. Although there seems to be a consensus among high-level educators, little information has been given to the public as yet. The information pamphlet issued by the Higher Secondary Education Council is written in a very sophisticated language, which many parents and students may not understand. Yet, lessons from Pakistan point to the importance of public awareness (see Annex). Students and parents need to understand the benefits of schooling closer to home and in accordance with international standards, even if it does not carry the label of the university studies. Public awareness in some Indian states helped push this reform through and ultimately made it politically sustainable. Clearly, more needs to be done in Nepal. 48. Communities are proud of the university campuses they have. Conversion of some to secondary education (e.g., the 18 campuses that offer only certificate-level courses) will require sensitive negotiations. H. Inadequate Financial Analyses and Funding Provisions 49. Although the cost of higher secondary education will probably be lower than university education in the long term, considerable investment will be needed in the short term and recurrent expenditures (e.g., salaries of reassigned professors) may remain high in the medium term. No financial analysis of the costs and benefits involved in this process or in other alternatives has been carried out. It is also not clear how the process will be financed. From university budget savings? From student tuition? What will the role of private providers be in higher secondary education? The Highew Secondary Education Council expects ;hat students would pay tuition of 100 rupees per month. However, this plan may run counter to the new MOEC policy of abolishing tuition charged in secondary schools. For the same educational stage, students currently pay Re. 40 per month at the university. To increase tuition to Rs. 100 may increase political resistance. 50. Lack of financial planning created many problems in the implementation of this educational stage in India and Pakistan. To plan financially and logistically, the Government must obtain data that it now lacks, such as: (a) a secondary-school space survey and data collection; (b) a university student survey to determine (i) the feeder schools of the various campuses and (ii) housing arrangements for non-local students; - 17 - (c) a facilities study of various university campuses and selection of some for possible utilization as higher secondary schools; planning and administrative arrangements necessary to make the transfer to MOEC; and, (d) assessment of university professors' extra employment within the public and private university campuses. 51. UNDP or other donor funds would enable the Government to undertake these studies. It could then conduct a financial analysis of higher secondary education needs under various scenarios of higher education resource transfers, identify current and future funding levels, and compare potential costs with the current costs of training certificate-level students in the university. V. Implementation Prospects 52. Although the Government has enunciated a broad policy on +2 and is proceeding with some aspects of its implementation, some MOE officials feel uncertain about long-term costs and benefits. As a result, there is considerable ambivalence about proceeding on a large-scale basis. 53. An important unresolved issue has been the implementation strategy. Expected timetables have been vague, ranging from four to 10 years. Most Nepali administrators expect a gradual phase-in, which would mean simultaneous operation of grades 11 and 12 in secondary schools and university campuses for a number of years. This strategy may be necessary but it may also create the confusion that currently exists in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Long periods of preparation may institutionalize temporary solutions and galvanize political opposition by special-interest groups. Also, the financial needs of the university have risen out of proportion, and the Government is vulnerable to political pressures that might succeed in diverting funds from lower levels of education to higher education. Pakistan and Bangladesh, which did not implement an across-the-board change, now have a bewildering variety of schools and with no control over costs, curricula, or academic standards. 54. Indian education officials who were involved in the +2 implementation have indicated during interviews that the task is feasible provided that the Government identifies potential problems and acts to resolve them. For example, the Council may spend three to four years in planning and then abolish certificate-level courses in most university campuses in the same year it will introduce the higher stage; campuses in remote areas with feeder secondary schools that cannot be upgraded, might remain mixed in the short term. It appears that MOEC and the university authorities are paying attention to lessons learned in other countries. Three top MOEC and university officials toured neighboring countries in February 1992. Also, a policy workshop, cofinanced by GTZ (Germany) and IDA was held in Kathmandu in June 1992 to make implementers aware of all the issues and to develop implementation strategies. - 18 - 55. Who should be involved? The university cannot solve its problems without dealing with the presence of certificate-level students. The same actions that would facilitate the implementation of higher secondary education would also decongest the university, rationalize its resources, and safeguaTd the country's investment in higher education. Therefore, university authorities have everything to benefit from facilitating the process and collaborating with the Higher Secondary Education council and MOEC. Yet, some academics are reluctant to proceed with implementation aspects that will affect them in any way. Accustomed to the presence of certificate-level students on campus, some express concern that changes will prove more problematic than the current difficult situation. The view is often heard that if MOEC wants to implement higher secondary education, it should do so without touching university resources. 56. The issues involved in potential transfers of campuses to secondary education are complicated from a social point of view. Academics are proud of their alma maters and they may not want to see them dowagraded to higher secondary schools. This is more so for high-status campuses, whose faculties will resist conversion even if it makes good logistical sense. If certain campuses are converted, certificate-level students may initially be admitted to high-status or conveniently located campuses only to be reassigned to possibly less desirable buildings. Student opinions are difficult to gauge at this time, but in a country with considerable political unrest, these opinions matter a great deal, 57. In all probability, the implementation of +2 will be a long process and may be interrupted by political events on some occasions. In the long term, the benefits should outweigh its costs, particularly if it is implemented in a cost-effective manner that involves transfer of some university resources. The donor community should stand ready to help Nepal with its implementation plan. Annex Page 1 of 8 - 19 - Hisher Secondary Education in South Asia Streamlining Attempts 1. This annex provides some information about the systems of South Asia countries faced with the problem of lengthening their schooling duration. Each country has dealt with complications and consequences in a unique way. As Nepal attempts to lengthen its 10-year primary and secondary school, the experiences of other countries may provide useful lessons to draw upon. A. India 2. Until the mid-70s, most states (.e.g. Uttarpradesh, Maharastra, Madyapradesh, Bihar) had 10-year school systems although some southern states had 11-year systems. Following graduation and success in the Secondary School Leaving Certificate, students went directly to the university or spent two years in intermediate-level colleges. Indian Bachelor's degrees were generally 14-year degrees and were not accepted by US universities as full degrees. 3. As a result of the Kothari Commission report of 1966, the central Government decided to lengthen the number of school years and to streamline the institutions that offered the various stages of education. A central goal of lengthened schooling was the vocational4zation of education. Several large and somewhat wealthier states started implementation of the 010+2" system in 1976 and 1977 (e.g. Maharastra, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and central schools). The adoption of the system by the various states has been a lengthy process. Rajasthan and Madyapradesh implemented it in 1986, and some eastern states (e.g. Megalea) are still in the process. Nevertheless, 12-year schooling has become the norm in India. 4. Grades 11 and 12 are still deliverod through three types of schools (complete secondary schools, two-year higher secondary schools or intermediate colleges, and university-level institutions), the frequency of which varies from state to state. In the administrative district of Delhi, the higher secondary grades are located only in schools, whereas in Kerala they are called pre-university and are located in colleges. Grades 11 and 12 mainly offer a three-track curriculum (humanities, sciences, and commerce) with the occasional addition of fine arts and vocational education. The central Board of Secondary Education has developed a policy to promote flexible and comprehensive rather than rigidly tracked curricula, but practical considerations and tradition seem to be an obstacle. In Delhi, for example, students have the right to take any combination of main subjects offered in schools but in practice this rarely happens. 5. Issues. The main problems implementers faced, particularly in earlier years, have been the following: AMex Page 2 of 8 - 20 - (a) In the states -where 10+2 was implemented in the 1970s, the switchover took place suddenly, with relatively little planning or preparations (b) Space was not available in many secondary schools, and no physical facilities were built prior to implementations (c) Grades 11 and 12 were expected to have a vocational orientation and give students marketable skills. Due to various well-known problems world-wide, the vocationalization of thi curriculum did not take place, and students were offered arts, science, and commerce. This has led some critics to believe that the reform has failed; (d) Private colleges which depended on fees lost their students to higher secondary schools and incurred financial difficulties; (e) The transition proved more expensive than expected. Among other expenses, emergency grants had to be given to private colleges who lost large numbers of students to secondary schools; (f) Conducting two leaving examinations instead of one proved complex and expensive; (g) Without organized measures to reassign university or college professors to secondary schools, many, in effect, lost their jobs. Eventually a category of junior college teachers was developed, whose payscales were lower than those of university teachers. Objections to "10+2' have mainly come from professors and have delayed implementation in a few states (e.g., Manipur); (h) The willingness of secondary-school principals to implement 10+2 proved an important factor of success. Principals opposed to this policy became a significant obstacles (i) Higher secondary schools or equivalent institutions exist mainly in urban areas. Rural students are disadvantaged and rarely progress beyond grade 10. Overall, only about 25 percent of Indian secondary-school students enter higher secondary school; and, (j) In many states, the public was not informed about the rationale for the change. Lacking information, the press criticized the measure, considering it of secondary importance given the magnitude of the country's problems. It was also considered a measure to postpone unemployment for an extra two years. 6. To implement 10+2 in the 1980s, HOEC and participating institutions (e.g. the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration) took the following actionss (a) Overhauled the curriculum of grades 9 and 10; Annex Page 3 of 8 - 21 - (b) Developed curricula for grades 11 and 12; (c) Conducted a large number of seminars for parents, teachers, and administrators; (d) Conducted large-scale training for Bachelor's-level teachers in upper-level courses (a six-week course for two summers in teacher training colleges). At the end of training, teachers received Master's diplomas (not degrees); (e) Gave higher secondary school teachers two years to get their master's degree; (f) Upgraded the skills of college professors for the higher-level curriculum of the university. (In Tamil Nadu, for example, they required eight consecutive summer and winter inservice training programs and/of acquisition of a doctorate.) In many states the upgrading of skills took place during the one year in which the universities had no new admissions; and, (g) Examined the characteristics of individual schools before deciding on the ones which should have higher secondary grades. Criteria included teacher qualifications, availability of facilities, performance in examinations, subjects taught, willingness of administrators, numbers of female students. 7. States which developed higher secondary education in later years and learned from the rounds of experimentation, have apparently experienced smoother transLtions. B. Pakistan 8. Post-primary education in Pakistan has certain similarities with Nepal. It includes a middle stage, (grades 6-8), a secondary stage (grades 9- 10), and an intermediate stage (grades 11-12). At the end of grade 10, students are required to pass the SSC or Matriculation examination. About 52 percent of students progress to grade 11, only 6 percent of whome reside in rural areas. Only 8 percent of students in grade 1 reach grade 11. Of the students taking the grade 12 examination, 34 percent pass. Examinations are administered by 20 independent boards to which various schools are affiliated. 5. Grades 11 and 12, which have been traditionally part of higher education, are offered in (a) integrated higher secondary schools, (b) intermediate colleges, and (c) degree-granting institutions. Students must specialize in fields that include pre-engineering, pre-medicine, science, and humanities. 10. In 1986 the Government announced its intention to integrate grades 11 and 12 in the school system and to convert intermediate colleges to secondary schools. By 1991, however, the policy had been implemented in only two provinces and only to a limited extent. (About 100 secondary schools had acquired grades 11-12 by 1990). Of approximately 630 schools offering Annex Page 4 of 8 - 22 - intermediate-stage education, 48 percent are degree colleges, 33 percent are intermediate colleges, and 19 percent are higher secondary schools. However, 78 percent of students are in degree colleges, 18 percent are in intermediate colleges, and only four percent are in higher secondary schools. Apparent reasons, according to a 1990 IDA Higher Education and Scientific Research sector report, are: (a) Despite an announced intention to convert intermediate colleges to secondary schools, such new colleges were opened in favored locations along with introduction of grades 11-12 in secondary schools of less favored localities; (b) Staff and resources in the new grades 11-12 were inadequate; and, (c) Higher secondary students were reluctant to be governed by the secondary school culture in upgraded secondary schools (an issue also raised by an Indian educator). 11. tatus-conscious intermediate colleges did not introduce grades 9- 10, which would have brought them at par with upgraded secondary schools. (a) There was no province-basei timed action plan; (b) Different provinces responded differently to federal policy, and there was a lack of consensus among them; (c) Rules regarding the employment and transferability of school and college teachers were rigid and impeded a personnel transferring process; (d) College teachers, whose pay scales were much higher than those of secondary teachers, formed a strong lobby against the measure; (e) A major policy change was attempted without developing a political or public consensus; (f) Secondary and intermediate college curricula were not integrated; and, (g) There were successful experiences in cadet colleges and model colleges which also showed public acceptance, but these were not studied or replicated. 12. A 1991 IDA secondary and intermediate education review mission again recommended the integration of intermediate colleges with secondary schools. The mission also proposed different purposes for the secondary and intermediate stages. The secondary stage should have the dueal purpose of preparing students for the world of work and further education and should stress language, mathematics, and problem-solving skills. The intermediate stage, in contrast, should prepare students for higher academic, technical, or professional education and should emphasize basic analytic skills, including sophisticated use of language, construction of logical arguments, and Annex Page 5 of 8 - 23 - manipulation of quantitative data. Different purposes were recommended for the two stages in order to maintain the 10-year diploma as a legitimate graduation point and to allow a relatively limited number of students into higher secondary education. C. Banaladesh 13. The structure of the school system in Bangladesh is similar to that of Pakistan. It has essentially a 10-year schooling period, leading to the Secondary school Certificate examination. Secondary-school graduates may attend the four-year university. All 12-grade leavers have to pass a Higher Secondary Education examination for entrance to higher levels of education. Students who pass subsequently enter the third year of universities. There are also university-level honors courses, whose graduates receive a total of 15 years of schooling. i4. Students at the higher secondary level are as many as Nepali students, about 620,000. Grades 11 and 12 (called 'intermediate' school as in Pakistan), are offered at 379 intermediate colleges as well at 490 degree- granting colleges. Most students (77 percent) attend the latter. Only 10 of the 379 intermediate colleges are public but the Government subsidizes a large number of these schools. Textbooks for this level are written and printed in the private sector rather than by the semi-autonomous National Curriculum and Textbook Board, and supervision of instructional delivery is lax. Without curricular guidance the stage seems to have no specific purpose. It neither provides students with practical skills nor helps prepare them for future employment. 15. The complexity of the system has created uncontrolled enrollment increases, without quality control or possibility for cost containment. To support Government intentions in streamlining the system, ADB approved a Higher Secondary Education Project in 1991 (project cost $US60.9 million; ADB $US49.2 million, UNDP US$2.9 million). Project components will be: (a) curriculum development and textbook improvement; (b) teacher training for grades 11-12; (c) infrastructure development to enable intermediate colleges to expand to lower grades and secondary sIchools to add grades 11-12; (d) management improvement, including a anagement information system. 16. ADB estimates that 15 years will be needed in Bangladesh to fully streamline the system. One reason for this rather pessimistic estimate is that in Bangladesh the removal of intermediate-level students from the university and the implementation of higher secondary education have not been perceived as two sides of the same coin. The ADB project hardly touches the university, where many social and financial problems related to the removal of these students are likely to remain unresolved. D. Sri Lanka 17. Sri Lanka has adopted the British system of the General certificate of Education (GCE), thus lengthening its schooling period to 11-13 years. About 50 percent of its schools provide instruction up to grades 11 and a total of 64 percent provide instruction through a combination of grades up to Annex Page 6 of 8 - 24 - grade 13. Instruction in these last grades is clearly not considered higher education. 18. The Sri Lankan system has erected two barriers prior to university entrance. At the end of year 11 (end of secondary school) there is a OCE "0" level examination which is conducted centrally. Years 12 and 13 (senior secondary) culminate in "A" level examinations. Throughout the system, few students pass the examinations. Pass rate for "0" levels is about 25 percent and for "A" levels it is about 20 percent. Only 1.4 percent of first graders are able to enroll at the university and these are most often the well-off who can afford tutors. Although the barriers function well in keeping students out of the university, equity problems may be created. E. Bhutan 19. Bhutan also has a 10-year system, at the end of which students take the Secondary Education Certificate examinations. Grades 11 and 12 are considered university studies, which are offered in only about three institutions (Sherubtse Degree College in Kanlung, the National Institute of Education in Samchi, and the Royal Polytechnic in Deothang). 20. Relatively few students reach the secondary level, and univorsity students often go to India for their studies. Therefore, "10+2" apparently is not yet an issue in this country. F. Philippines 21. Although not a SAARC country or under British influence, the Philippines have a 10-year system, consisting of six primary and four secondary grades. The system was longer up to the 1940's, and until recently some private schools continued to provide 11 years of education. As in Nepal, students go to the university after 10 years of education and obtain a four- year degree. Unlike Nepal, entrance to universities is determined by a national entrance examination and by the physical space available in the institutions. 22. Longer schooling would be desirable in the Philippines. There has been a long policy debate about introducing preschool, adding a seventh year in primary school, or lengthening secondary education. A consensus, however, has not yet been reached. II. Lessons for Nepal 23. The collaboration of secondary- and higher-education authorities is crucial in implementing higher secondary education. The latter have resources and data that the former need to plan and implement the transfer of students. Yet, this need for a partnership makes implementation problematic when it comes to donor (or even government) involvement. Donors often cannot agree whether this stage belongs to higher or to secondary education; since many are limited with respect to the stages they can finance, the need to attend both sides of the transfer may seem impossible or be overlooked. This became evident in many discussions among IDA staff as well as between IDA, the Annex Page 7 of 8 - 25 - Government, and various donors. The implementation of the "10+2# presents a clear need for transcending the traditional subsectoral barriers. 24. It appears that decisive, almost universal implementation has more advantages than gradual implementation. The Indian states that implemented 10+2 in the 1970's imposed a one-shot structural change to which they later adjusted. Pakistan and Bangladesh, which took a gradual approach, eventually faced political obstacles that impeded implementation. All countries learned, however, that anticipation and tackling of potential problems would make implementation much smoother. Nepal could use these lessons and prepare as follows: (a) Explore the financial implications of various curricular options; (b) Prepare a feasible implementation plan with specific time tables; (c) Explain to the public, including local governments and students, the reasons for changing the system (d) Ascertain that adequate physical facilities are available; (e) Provide dignified and sensitive options to professors who may be redeployed, even if they seem more expensive in the short term; (f) Ascertain that students in grades 11 and 12 have access to textbooks, even if curriculum development moves slower than #10+2" implementation; (g) Ascertain that adequate numbers of trained teachers exist to teach higher secondary school; (h) Train large numbers of secondary teachers to teach grades 11 and 12; (i) Prepare administrators to manage larger schools with more complex problems and older students; and, (j) Resolve early any problems with two-year university campuses. 25. Almost all the countries discussed above continue to confound school graduation crzteria with university entrance criteria. The only one that does not, Philippines, seems better able to deal with the problems of a 10-year school system. But since Nepal essentially has no intermediate colleges that would keep 16- 17-year olds away from the university, mere introduction of entrance examinations would not suffice to resolve the multiple problems caused by the presence of these students in Tribhuvan University. Sources India: (a) Interviews with Dr. R. P. Singhal, Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, Dr. H. S. Sinha, Prof. A. hanna; (b) Economic and Political Weekly: 2126, 1991; Anex Page 8 of 8 - 26 - 12/3/1977; 5/1/1979; 8/2/1980; (c) UNI Backgrounder and selected nespaper articles of 1986. Pakistan: (a) Islamic Republic of Pakistan: Review of Secondary and Intermediate Education, World Bank, December 1991; (b) Higher Education and Scientific Research for Development in Pakistan, February 1990. Bangladesh: Appraisal of the Higher Secondary Education Project. Asian Development Bank, November 1991. Sri Lanka: Education and Training in Sri Lanka, ADS, 1990. May 4, 1993 - 27 - Table l PASS RATES AT SLC OF DIFFERENT CALORIES OF ENTRY Year Repular Exempted Compartmental Total entries 64,166 43,823 17,613 Nuober passed 28,319 8,185 14,728 Pass percentage 44.13 21.31 83.60 1989 Total entries 56,870 34,519 14,100 Number passed 19,291 7,755 11,382 Pass percentage 33.92 22.46 80.72 1988 Total entries 50,495 32,997 11,277 Number passed 18,402 5,743 8,777 Pass percentage 36.44 17.40 77.83 Source: Nepal Secondary Education Development, Final Report, Volume 2, Asian Development Bank, May 1991, p. 53. NOTE: "Regular" candidates are those taking SLC for the first time. "Exempted" candidates are retaking the SLC. "Compartmental" candidates are those who having failed just one or two subjects, are allowed to retake just those subjects. - 28 - Table 2& TEE EXPANSION OF HIGHER EDUCATION ENROLLMENT (in thousands) Level of Enrollment Projected Enrollment Learning 1975/76 1980/81 1985/86 1990/91* 1991/92 1995/96 2000 Fresh 770 873 1,289 1,317 ------ ----- ----- Carryover 425 268 398 339 ------ ----- ----- Total 1,195 1,141 1,687 1,656 1,700 2,100 2,700 CERTIFICATE Fresh 8,047 14,567 17,453 40,964 65,000 88,500 130,000 Carryover 5773 11,377 22,543 28.808 41s000 74,500 108.000 Total 14,180 25,944 39,996 69,772 106,000 163,000 238,000 BACHELOR Fresh 3,045 110 4,826 18,772 20,000 27,000 40,000 Carryover 3,549 2039 4,960 13.899 16.000 22,500 33,000 Total 6,954 4,149 9,786 33,671 36,000 49,500 73,000 MASTER Fresh 581 48 1,733 6,999 7,500 10,000 15,000 Carryover 2115 11812 1.434 2.6Z4 A.2000 5500 8.500 Total 796 1,860 3,167 9,673 11,500 15,500 23,500 TOTAL Fresh 12,803 15,598 25,301 68,052 92,500 125,500 185,000 Carryover 9,962 18,496 29,335 45,720 62,700 104,600 152,200 GRAND TOTAL 22,765 34,094 54,636 113,772 155,200 230,100 337,200 * Estimated by Weifang Min (ASTPH). Source: Constructed by the author according to information from Tribbuvan University of Janua-y 1992. - 29 - Table 3: TRIBRUVAN UNIVERSITY - HNMBER OF TEACHERS BY QUALIFICATION (1982-1990) Years 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Ph. D. Male 130 138 142 168 168 170 195 197 Female 30 35 40 43 43 45 53 53 Master Male 1,822 2,322 2,552 2,649 2,552 2,550 2,666 2,775 Female 600 674 695 715 695 802 752 868 Bachelor Male 400 400 450 459 478 460 490 495 Female 178 115 120 150 250 165 210 220 Intermediate Male 120 95 97 100 77 80 107 100 Female 35 35 40 50 27 54 128 103 Others Male 25 80 89 98 95 50 120 122 Female 5 35 43 44 45 120 90 122 Total 3,345 3,929 4,268 4,476 4,430 4,498 4,811 5,065 Source: Tribhuvan Univers.ty records, January 1992. - 30 - Table 4s TRIBRUVAN UNIVERSITY - NUBER OF TEACHERS BY POSITION (1982-1990) S.N. POST 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1 Professor 105 113 99 121 156 165 179 204 2 Reader 147 166 232 305 290 301 313 834 3 Lecturer 1,326 1,667 1,801 1,738 1,684 1,689 1,755 1,419 4 Asst. Lecturer 1,323 1,410 1,503 1,547 1,558 1,707 1,850 1,833 5 Instructor 103 144 173 184 184 178 183 174 6 Deputy Irstructor 101 138 170 168 177 188 202 189 7 Asst. Instructor 24 291 290 408 ---3 135 227 412 Total 3,345 3,929 4,268 4,476 4,430 4,496 4,811 5,065 - 31 - Table 5 t TRIBEUVAW UNIVERSITY (Pay Soale) Last Level Scale Grade Year Scale Post 1. A 3970 - 100 (4) 4370 Professor B 3970 - 100 (4) 4370 Administrator 2. A 3375 - 70 (11) 4145 Reader B 3340 - 70 (10) 4040 Joint Administrator 3. A 2765 - 60 (14) 3605 Lecturer B 2620 - 60 (12) 3340 Deputy Administrator 4. A 2270 - 40 (17) 2950 Assistant Lecturer B 2050 - 40 (16) 2690 Assistant Administrator 5. 1930 - 30 (16) 2410 Assistant Instructor 6. A 1580 - 24 (20) 2060 Lab Assistant B 1460 - 24 (16) 1844 Head Assistant 7. A 1340 - 18 (20) 1700 Telephone Operator B 1240 - 18 (16) 1528 Assistant 8. A 1185 - 16 (20) 1505 Lab Boy B 890 - 10 (22) 1110 Peon Authorities 1. 4900 Vice-Chancellor 2. 4500 Rector 3. 4495 Registrar 4. 4290 Dean, Executive Director Controller of Examination - 32 - Table 6: TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY - NUMBER OF ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF BY RANKING (1982-1990) Post 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Administrator & Equivalent 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 9 9 Associate Administator & Equivalent 8 13 13 14 10 11 12 17 17 Deputy Administrator & Equivalent 57 71 72 70 70 66 62 181 181 Assistat Administrator & Equivalent 470 451 465 414 410 423 446 60 60 Lab Assistant & Equivalent 143 154 197 141 211 398 400 217 217 Head Assistnt & Equivalent 834 866 857 817 817 840 852 939 939 Driver & Equivalent 129 169 192 182 194 202 151 158 158 Typist "Ga" & Equivalent 675 718 727 719 685 689 748 624 624 Lab Boy & Equivalent 279 407 408 391 423 456 462 587 587 Peon & Equivalent 2,030 2,148 2,318 2,244 2,241 2,211 2,216 2,178 2,178 Others 38 2 2 2 20 2 Total 4,674 5,039 5,253 4,996 5,064 5,299 6,052 5,511 5,511 ASIA REGION DISCUSSION PAPERS 1/ (Continued) Titl Ah Dt Orainator IDP42 An Analysis of the Nature of Unemployment W.T. Dickens In Sri Lanka and K. Lang July 1989 R. Zagha (80433) IDP44 Assisting Poor Rural Areas Through Groundwater Irrigation F. Kahnert August 1989 C. Chamberlin (81409) IDP5? Educational Development in Asia: A Comparative Study Focussing on Cost J-P. Tan and and Financing issues A. Mingat October 1989 J-P. Tan (81408) IDP52 Chinese Reforms, Inflation and the Allocation of Investment in a Socialist Economy 0. Yenal October 1989 0. Yenal (81415) IDP63 Public Policy to Promote Industrializa- tion: The Experience of the East Asian NICs and Lessons for Thailand D. Dollar May 1990 D. Dollar (80518) IDP65 A Study of the Poor in Sri Lanka C. Rouse June 1990 Y. Huang (80434) IDP68 Health Sector Financing in Asia C. Griffin August 1990 J-P. Tan (81408) IDP74 A Case Study of a Gradual Approach to Economic Reform: The Viet Nam Experience of 1985-88 Z. Drabek September 1990 Z. Drabek (80504) IDP85 On Estimating Inadequacy of Energy Intakes: Revealed Food Consumption Behavior versus Nutritional Norms B.S. Minhas September 1990 S. Jayanthi (81419) IDP88 Asia Region Seminar on Poli,; Challenges in India October 1990 C. Chamberlin (81409) IDP93 Parametric Population Projection and Its Usefulness for Policy Analysis W. Sanderson April 1991 J-P. Tan (81408) IDP96 A Review of Korea's Trade Pattern D.M. Leipziger and S.Y. Song March 1991 D. Leiptiger (81388) IDP97 Sustainability as Intergenerational Equity: The Challenge to Economic Thought and Practice R.S. Norgaard June 1991 F. Johansen (81410) IDP99 Housing Prices, Affordability, and Government Policy in Korea K-H. Kim July 1991 D. Leiptiger (81388) IDP101 Lessons from Experience with Wage Flexibility in Asia 1. Nabi August 1991 1. Nabi (80514) .11 Papers still available upon request. Asia Series discontinued following December 1, 1991 restructuring of the Region. Note: Extra copies may be obtained from the Asia Information Service Center.