Revitalizing Higher Education in Senegal - The Challenge of Reform

FILE COPY CONFIDENTIAL Report No. 10466-SE Type: (SEC) FREDRIKSEN/ X35033 / J9 061/ AF5PH REVITALIZING HIGHER EDUCATION IN SENEGAL: THE CHALLENGE OF REFORM March 4, 1992 Population and Human Resources Division Sahelian Department Africa Region CURRENCI EQUIVALEN Currency Unit = CFA Franc (CFAF) US$1.0 = CFAF 360, CFAF 1 million = US$2,778 MEASUR Metric System ABBkiEVIATONS AND ACRONYMS CESAG Centre Africain d'Etudes Supérieures en Gestion CESSI Centre d'Enseignement Supérieur en Soins Infirmiers CESTI Centre d'Etudes des Sciences et Techniques de l'Information CFPA Centre de Formation et de Perfectionnement Administratif CNMAD Conservatoire National de Musique et d'Arts Dramatiques COUD Centre des Oeuvres Universitaires de Dakar CPLA Centre de Perfectionnement de Langue Anglaise CROUS Centre Régional des Oeuvres Universitaires de Saint-Louis EBAD Ecole des Bibliothécaires, Archivistes, et Documentalistes ENAES Ecole Nationale d'Education des Assistants Sociaux et Educateurs Soécialisés ENAM Ecole Nationale d'Administration et de Magistrature ENBA Ecole Nationale des Beaux Arts ENCR Ecole Nationale des Cadres Ruraux ENEA Ecole Nationale d'Economie Appliquée ENS Ecole Normale Supérieure ENSEA Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Education Artistique ENSETP Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Enseignement Technique et Professionnel ENSUT Ecole Nationale Supérieure Universitaire de Technologie EPT Ecole Polytechnique de Thiès INDR Institut National de Développement Rural ISBEA Institut Sénégalais-Britannique d'Enseignement de l'Anglais MEN Ministêre de l'Education Nationale OCDE Organisation de Coopération et Développement Economique PNUD Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement UCAD Université Cheikh Anta Diop USL Université de Saint Louis FISCAL YEAR July 1 - June 30 Table of Contents L INT ODUCIION ...............................*.................. 1 Background .................................................. 1 Objectives of the Study .......................................... 2 M ethodology .................................................. 3 Organizationofthu Report ...................................... 3 II. THE DIMENSIONS OF PERFORMANCE ...... 4 Decline in the Quality of Teaching and Learning ...................... 4 Low External Eftciency ........................................ 15 Quantitative Imbalances.................................. 16 Issues of Quality and Relevance . . .......................... 19 Inefficient Use of Available Resources ............................. 22 High Wastage ......................................... 23 Inflated Social Expenditures............................... 26 Lack of Modem Management Practices ...................... 29 Equity Issues ............................................... 30 Socio-Economic Considerations ............................ 30 Gender Discrimination ................................... 30 Conclusion .................................................. 32 III. POLICY OPTIONS FOR IMPROVED COST-EFFECVIVENESS .... . ....... 33 Introduction: the Government's Reform Objectives ................... 33 Defining an Appropriate Reform Strategy .......................... 34 Need for Integrated Strategic Planning ............................. 35 Controlled Expansion .......................................... 36 Financial Viability of a Consolidation Strategy ....................... 37 Increased Internal Efficiency .............................. 37 Elimination of Duplications ............................... 38 Mansgement .......................................... 38 Containing Social Expenditures ..................... . ...... 38 Diversification of Resources ............................... 39 Improving Quality and Relevance................................. 41 Tightening Admission Standards ........................... 41 Pedagogical Methods And Organization ...................... 43 Pedagogical Inputs ...................................... 43 R,vitalizing Research .................................... 44 Reform Action Matrix ......................................... 44 Implementation of the Strategy .................................. 46 Conclusion .................................................. 48 IV. BIBLOGRAPHY................................................. 49 V. ANNEXES Annex A: Profile of the Higher Education System ................... 51 Annex B : Statistical Tables B. 1: Degrees and Duration of Training in Major Fields .... 61 B. 2: Evolution of Enrollments by Ivel of Education ...... 62 B. 3: Evolution of the Number of *Bacheliers ........... 63 B.4: New Entrants at UCAD ........................ 64 B. 5: Total Enrollment at UCAD by Type ofAcaemic Unit ....................... 65 B. 6: Enrollment at UCAD by Faculty ................. 66 B. 7: Average Rates of Repetition (%) ................. 67 B. 8: Graduates of the University of Dakar .............. 68 B.9* Teaching Staffby Faculty ....................... 69 B.10: Teaching Staffby Grade ....................... 70 B.11: Student - Teacher Ratios in 1988/89 (%) ........... 71 B.12: Evolution of Education Budgets .................. 72 B.13: Evolution of UCAD Budget ..................... 73 B.14: Dakar University Unit Costs by Faculty ............ 74 B.15: Capacity of and Enrollment at Professional Institutes........................ 75 B.16: Proposed Restructuring Plan .................... 76 LIST OF BOXES Box 1 : The Crisis of Quality in the Geography Department ............. 14 Box 2: Overlap of Institutions ................................... 24 LIST OF GPAPHS Graph 1 : Enrollment at the University of Dakar ...................... 5 Graph 2: Rates of Repetition at UCAD (1981/82 - 1986/87 period) ....... 7 Graph 3: UCADUnit Costs ..................................... 9 Graph 4: Evolution of StudentfTeacher Ratios at UCAD .............. 11 Graph 5 : Proportion of Professors in Teaching Staff .................. 12 Graph 6: Pass Rates at the End of the First Year .................... 13 Graph 7: Graduates per 100,000 Population (1985) ................... 16 Graph 8 : Graduates of the University of Dakar ...................... 18 Graph 9: Distribution of UCAD Enrollment by Field of Study .......... 19 Graph 10 : Cost Overrun as a Result of Low Internal Efficiency ......... 23 Graph 11 : Distribution of Budget by type of HE Institutions (1988 - 898 ........................... 26 Graph 12 : Share of Student Support Expenditures in the Higher Education Budget ............................. 28 Graph 13 : Proportion of Girls in Higher Education (%)3) ............... 31 EXECUTIVE STAMARY Preamble 1. The University of Dakar spends every year twenty times more money to provide its students with subsidized food than to purchase books or periodicals for the library. About 52% of the higher education budget is devoted to non-educational expenditures. This distribution of resources is symbolic of the gradual shift in the university's mission as a result of uncontrolled enrollment growth and successful student activism. Over the years, quantitative expansion has taken precedence over concerns for quality and more resources have been devoted to the social aspects of student life than in support of pedagogical activities. The search for academic excellence has been sacrificed in the name of political expediency and the downward drift is likely to continue unless radical reforms are implemented. Revitalizing the Senegalese higher education system will require a move away from the prevailing social welfare philosophy to a renewed focus on quafity and relevance. 2. Implementing the strategy outlined in this report could lead to significant improvements in the qualitv and relevance of university education if the Government is willing to implement strict measures to control the flow of tudents, increase internal efficiency, and streamline the scholarships scheme and student support services. The introduction of better pedagogical practices and more appropriate programs can have a positive impact only in the context of a higher education system which is not overcrowded and which enjoys a more stable financial situation. While there seems to be a convergence of views on the objectives of the reform under discussion, the Government has yet to produce a detailed acticn plan with specific priorit"s and target dates to show how the various components of a reform package would be implemented and how a national consensus on the need to take drastic measures could be achieved. Background 3. The University of Dakar (Universit6 Cheikh Anta Diop - UCAD) is the oldest and most prestigious Francophone university in Western Africa. In recent years, however, UCAD's regional standing as a good-quality university has declined, largely as a result of a iapid and uncontrolled growth of enrollments. The university has become seriously overcrowded, with 18,000 students crammed in facilities originally designed to accommodate 3,500 students. Its human, physical and financial resources are stretched to the limit, which is adversely affecting the quality of teaching and research. A second university was established in October 1990 in Saint-Louis, with an initial enrollment of 600 students. In addition, a number of specialized post-secondary institutes and schools operate under the responsibility of various technical ministries. These specialized institutes and schools have been shrinking in size during the 1980s. 4. The crisis in Senegalese higher education reflects the lack of any discernible expenditure strategy in the last decade. Between 1980/81 and 1989/90, real public expenditures in the education sector as a whole increased both as a proportion of GDP and in absolute terms (by about 10% a year for recurrent expenditures, even though the overall recurrent budget fell by 10% over the whole period). Yet, by any measure of efficiency, the sector was performing worse at the end of the decade than at the beginning- repetition and dropout in primary education remained high -i- throughout the period and enrollment growth slowed down during the second half of the decade, barely keeping pace with demcgraphic expansion; at the tertiary level, about half of all university students were taking longer to graduate than the normal duration of their courses compared to under 37% in the 1981/83 period; and, structurally, student intake in the Law and Humanities faculties had increased from less than 35% in 1981 to about 50% in 1989, in spite of the manifestly poor employment prospects faced by graduates from these faculties. 5. An even more disturbing aspect of the pattern of expenditure in the education sector as it has evolved in the 1980s is the increasing proportion going to higher education - from 16% of the total educatien budget in 1983/84 to 25% in 1990/91. Moreover, most of this increase has been absorbed by wages/salaries and sedet scholarships and social services (housing, feeding medical care). The growing share of education spending (Senegal devotes 163% of its total budget to education compared to under 15% for Sub-Saharan Africa, the imbalance between expenditures for primary as compared to higher education, the structure of the higher education budget, and the evidence of poor efficiency all suggest the pressing need for a radical rethinking of the ediucation strategy and the consequent resource allocation decisions. THE DIMENSIONS OF PERFORMANCE Decline in the Quality of Teaching and IArning 6. During the decade which fol ... independence, the University of Dakar maintained ver*! high academic standards validated by tLe v -uivalent of an external accreditation system through formal links with French universities. But, over the years, the situation has gradually deteriorated as the emphasis was nvreasingly put on the quantitative expansion of the system rather than on the maintenance of quality. Many indicators point at a gradual decline in quality. The main factor explaining this decline in quality is the rapid and -mcontrolled growth of enrollments at the University of Dakar. This has led to serious overcrowding and a situation of dramatic imbalance between available resources and the requirements of a good quality instruction for all-students. The number of students attending UCAD was multiplied by a factor of fifteen, from 1,260 in 1961 to 17,950 in 1991. 7. This expansion can be attributed to the compounded effect of four factors: the rapid growth of secondary school graduates, liberal admission policies at the university, poor internal efficiency, and a generous student support program. In terms of admission policy. prior to 1985 a national committee used to examine the complete file of every candidate for higher education. Today, the committee's sole function is to distribute all baccalaur6at holders among the various faculties of the University of Dakar without any consideration for the potential academic competence and motivation of the students nor for the faculties' capacity in terms of physical infrastructure and staff. The number of new 'bacheliers" went up from 2,921 in 1985 to about 7,000 in June 1991. 8. In addition to the rapid growth of "bacheliers" and the very liberal admission policy, the third cause of overcrowding is the low internal efficiency typifying the University of Dakar. Automatic access to university coupled with low levels of achievement at the end of secondary schooling have resulted in very high failure rates, particularly during the first year of university education (50% repetition rate in law, economics and medicine). Students who fail are allowed to - ii - repeat practically without limitation. More than 40% of the student population is made up of repeaters. 9. The fourth factor contributing to the rapid expansion of higher education enrollments is the government's vy gerous student suport polic. Evea though scholarships are theoretically awarded on the basis of strict social and academic criteria, the majority of students end up receiving a grant of some sort. Student support services are also available in the form of subsidized meals, lodging, medical services and supplies, and transportation twelve months a year. 10. The quality of education is seriously undermined by the scarcity of funding for new capital investment and for regular non-salary operating expenses. Most clepartt ts operate with hardly enough funds to buy basic supplies and maintain their equipmenL ' e- l. ten years, the share of non-wage expenditures in the budget of the University of Dakar . decresed from 53% to 27%. Not only is there a problem of overcrowding, but in addition there has been a gradual deterioration of the existing physical infrastructure (facilities, laboratories, libraries) due to the lack of resources and proper management procedures for maintenance. The library receives 0.6% of the total university budget while the international norm is 5%. 11. Even more important than the physical resources as a determinant of the quality of learning is the availability of qualified teaching staff. The number of teachers has grown slightly less rapidly than student enrollments. As a result, the overall student/staff ratio has risen, from 23:1 to 25:1, to be compared to an average student/staff ratio of 8:1 in anglophone African countries. In the first two years of undergraduate studies, classes of 600 to 1,000 students are not uncommon because of the large number of repeaters and the "obligation" to accept all new "bacheiers". This is a major constraint in terms of pedagogical practices and opportunities for direct supervision of students by teachers. The proportion of younger, less experienced lecturers has grown from 44 to 58%. 12. The academic level of secondary school graduates has been going down and is considered to be inadequate to maintain a reasonable standard of university education. The new students lack good expression skills, both in writing and orally; their subject knowledge is insufficient; finally, their work methods and attitudes are heavily influenced by an over-emphasis on rote lening. In the absence of selection mechanisms for university entrance, many new students are not qualified to pursue higher education studies. 13. The situation is significantly better in the various institutes and schools under the responsibility of the Ministry in charge of higher education and. other technical ministries because they are able to limit access and have a much better resource base than the University of Dakar. The prospects for the newly established University of Saint-Louis are also more positive, on two counts at least. First, access is restricted according to the capacity of the physical infrastruct 'e. Second, a pedagogical innovation has been launched with the introduction of a flexible credit system instead of the traditional "pass-or-fail examination at the end of the academic year. Low External Efficiency 14. Ouantitative Imbalances. The overall supply of university graduates is in excess of the demand, as attested by the rise of graduate unemployment. In 1984, 820 university graduates - i - were registered as unemployed. Today, various estimates suggest a range of 2,000 to 3,000 unemployed graduates. The graduate employment situation is likely to further deteriorate in the years +o come. At the same time there are still shortages in certain scientiic and technical fields, as attested by the continuing presence of foreign specialists, despite the real and rapid progress achieved in terms of Africanization of the managerial and technical high-level manpower in all economic sectors. AS. Issues of Ouality and Relevance. There is a concentration of students in traditional fields such as humanities and social sciences and a shortfall in the sciences and engineering subjects. The proportion of students enrolled in scientific disciplines has gone down from 38% in 1970 to 34.8% in the current academic year. Another dimension of external efficiency is the issue of balance between raining levels. There are very few two-year diploma courses to train the middle-level manpower needed by industry and the few technician training institutions that do exist operate all outside the university. The existence of specialized institutes linked to various technical ministries also needs to be addressed. Due to the lack of effective coordination and harmoigzation mechanisms, many of the training programs offe-ed by these institutes can also be found in other institutes or at the University of Dakar. 16. Research and service activities play a secondary role in the Senegalese higher education system. Even though the most dynamic professors are effectively involved in research activities on an individual basis, there are few research programs conducted at the institutional level. The number of publications by Senegalese scientists remained the same between 1975 and 1985, even though the number of researchers doubled during that period. The development impact of past and on-going research activities has been relatively marginal. The quantity and relevance of research is affected by the diminishing proportion of senior professors, the lack of sufficient financial resources and adequate research facilities, and the non-existence of a proper policy and incentives framework for science and technology development. Inefficient Use of Available Resources 17. While it is clear that the financial resources of the higher education system are insufficient in absolute terms given the rapid growth of enrollment, the situation could be much improved if existing resources were utilized in a more efficient manner. For the time being, however, there is a high level of wastage, a disproportionate share of resources goes to student support services, and management practices leave much to be desired. 18. High Wastag. There are two main sources of.wastage in the Senegalese higher education system: the low level of internal efficiency at the University of Dakar, and the under- utilization of existing facilities and resources in the non-university sector. The combined effect of high dropout and repetition rates is that the average number of student-years necessary to graduate from the four-year bachelor program is strikingly high: 18 student-years in economics, 21 in humanities, 27 in science and 29 in law. The existence of a number of non-university institutions of higher education is a second major source of wastage. As indicated by the re-structuring plan under consideration by the Government, there are many duplications between institutes affiliated with various ministries as well as between some institutes and some of the regular university programs. It is very difficult, under these conditions, to have a balanced pattern of resource allocation and to take advantage of economies of scale. - iv - 19. Inflated Social Expenditures. The proportion of icholarship recipients remained stable between 1984 and 1989 (about 37%), but has strikingly increased in the last two years to approximately 78%. The scholarships budget has gone up by 50% in nominal terms since 1984/85. There is a concern about the extent of leakage through the attribution of scholarships to students who are not really eligible but who have been able to provide spurious documents. The social expenditures administered by COUD have also increased dramatically since 1984 as a result of changes in eligibility criteia for student support. Student participation in COUD expenditures is minimal (16%). Since 1985, social expenditures have increased faster than educational expenditures in the higher education budget. In 1990/91. Senegal spent on the average the equivalent of USS 1.708 1er student in scholarship and student support services alone, and only USS 37 Rer student for educational materials and supplies. O. Lack of Modern Management PracticS The constrained financial situation of the higher education system is exacerbated by the absence of modern management practices in all aspects of university life. The COUD is a case in point. It is difficult to accept an average cost of 1,650 CFAF per meal served (equivalent to USS 6.4) which is much higher than the price of a regular non-subsidized meal in many industrialized countries. The COUD is neither organized nor equipped to follow modern cost accounting practices and there is a lack of financial control with respect to food purchases and rent collection. The management of the scholarships program suffers from a similar problem of poor organization, complicated procedures and lack of computer equipment. Equity Issues 21. Socio-Economic Considerations. From a national perspective, the present pattern of resources distribution across the various sub-sectors of the education system raises serious equity concerns. Higher education enrollments have been growing faster than enrollments in primary and secondary education. Higher education has been absorbing an increasing share of the government's resources. In 1986/87, higher education received 15.2% of the total education budget; today, 24.5% of the education budget goes to higher education which caters only to 2% of the total student .population. This means that higher education students are heavily subsidized by the bulk of the population while at the same time Senegal is unable to mobilize sufficient resources to provide basic education for more than 59% of the school-age children. 22. Gender Discriminatior' The rapid expansion of the University of Dakar conceals significant gender discrepaLocies. Today, girls still make up only 21% of total enrollment despite a slow progress over the past decades. This gender gap is the result of a regressive pattern of participation in the whole education system: female enrollment represent 40%, 33% and 21% of total enrollment in primary, secondary and tertiary education respectively. Girls are best represented at the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy (35%), and worse represented at the Faculty of Sciences (12%). The implication is that higher education contributes to promoting an inequitable pattern of allocation of wealth and status by gender. -v- POuCY OPTnorS FOR mPROVED COM-ExFACIVEMWS Deffiefg an Appn-rodate Refosm Strate 23. The authorities are caught in a delicate dilemma cause-d by conflicting economic and social constraints. From a social point of view, the Government is committed to a policy of rapid expansion at no direct cost to the students. If higher education rem;ins supply-driven without zeference to available resources, quality standards, and labor market needs, the prevailing problems of the university can only increase and become even more unmanageable. Given the number of prospective "bacheiers" and the low level of internal efficiency in higher education, enrollments at the University of D2kar can be expected to double again within the next five years. With the present pattern of expenditures, the higher education sub-sector would require at least half of the total education budget which would obviously be unacceptable. 24. From an efficiency and equity viewpoint, however, the allocation of resources to higher education and the determination of earollmeat levels and priority fields of study should reflect closely the qualification requirements of a changing economy and the need to ensure a more equal distribution of education expenditures. Any plan allowing for further unlimited expansion of the higher education system would be hard to justify in the present context of economic slowdown, growing graduate unemployment and stagnating primary education enrollments. The most logical option, in that perspective, would be to adopt a dzmand-driven approach coupled with some cost-recovery measures. 25. While implementing such a demand-driven approach would be resisted by the groups who benefit from the present generous admission and subsidy policies, to move resolutely in this direction is an imperative condition to revitalize the Senegalese higher education system. However, because of the politicaly sensitive nature of the required reforms, it would be necessary to promote a gradual transition in ordar to achieve a better balance between the economic and social objectives of higher education. This intermediary approach would focus on consolidating the existing system to provide more relevant and better quality programs. This could be achieved by adopting a strategy of institutional diversification involving the stabilization of university enrollments while encouraging the development of lower cost alternative higher education programs, including private sector institutions. This strategy would imply (i) an integrated planning approach for the whole higher education system, (ii) a controlled growth of the higher education system, (iii) measures to improve the financipl and economic viability of the higher education system, and (iv) measures to improve the quo' , and relevance of higher education. Nero ;: Integrated Strategic Planning 26. The first guiding principle of the reform should be that the measures envisaged to restructure and strengthen post-secondary education in Senegal must necessarily encompass all the components of the higher education system. This requires a long-term vision defining the mission of higher education as an integrated whole, the, new configuration proposed to rationalize the existing network of institutions, the respective roles of each type of institution, and the linkages between them so that they can function in a coordinated and complementary way. As far as the allocation and utilization of resources are concerned, an integrated approach implies that the policy makers adopt a global view when deciding on quantitative expansion, quality improvements and budget -vi. allocations for the various components of the higher education system. The same principle of integrated planning should apply to the use of international assistance to finance higher education projects. Controlled Expansion 27. Controlling the expansion of enrollments can be accomplished by implementing three sets of complementary consolidation measut. - (i) re-distnbuting enrollments across 4he : -twork of higher education institutions, (ii) restricting access in selected institutions and fields, an (iii) strictly enforcing university regulations regarding promotion, repetition, and transfer from one institution to another. 28. The availability of a master pian to re-structure the specialized institutes and schools provides the Government with a framework to re-distribute students in a more rational wayamong all existing institutions and facilities. The second measure to control expansion is to introduce a high degree of selectivity in those institutions and fields where tha policy makers want to initiate quality improvements as a matter of priority. Instead of having a hidden seles.tion process at the end of the first year of university studies, as is now the case at UCAD, it would be more efficient - and fairer - - to screen students before they enter a stream of study for which they are not fully qualified. This would imply that the "bac-3laur6at" examination would not grant anym3re automatic access to thc publicly-financed university. The third measure which can make a big difference in controlling the evolution of student flows is the strict enforcement of existing administrative regulations corcerning promotion and repetition. The practice of granting concessions ("derogations") to multiple repeaters should be completely eliminated. Financial Vlability of a Consolidado St- 18g 29. The present economic circumstances make it unlikely that public resources for the higher education system will increase subsantially in the near to medium term. Measures need to be taken to generate additional resources within the existing constraints. In the short term, the focus -shou!d be on finding ways to optimize the use of available resources. In the longer term, means to diversify the sources of finance of the higher education system should be explored. The existing physical, h man and financial resources available to the higher education system could be alloated and utilized much more efficiently to provide a better learning environment to the stuJents. This would make it possible to graduate a larger number of qualified young people every year for the same amount of resources. The measures suggested earlier to increase the internal efficiency of the ft a. UCAD faculties should result in a significant decline in the cost of turning out graduates. For example, it has bee-- estimated that the present number of UCAD graduates could be trained using 40% fewer student-years if repetition rates were . duced from the present high level to 20% on average. Once thi new configuration of specialized institutes and schools is in place and all sources of duplication are eliminated, it will be feasible to explore possibilities to share resources among different institutions in a mutually beneficial manner. Strengthening management practices in the higher education system would be another way of ensuring that available resources are used in the most effective manner. Scholarships and access to student housing should be restricted to the most needy and better performing students. -viz- 30. Diverification of surces. To improve the long-term financial position -f the higher education system and make it less dependent on the government budget, attempts to diversify its sources of funding should be pursued. Higher education institutions should actively undertake research and service activities tc generate income. Another possibility would be to encourage donations from industry in kind or in money, From the university managements point of view, it is important that the resources saved or raised be allocated to the concerned institutions rather than disappear in the government budget. 31. A proper regulatory framewor and direct incentives should be put in place to encourage private initiatives in the highe- education sector. -he introduction of modest fces to cover some of the recurrent expenditures should also be considered in the public institutions Students should share more evenly in the cost of their food and lodging. The experience of Ghana and Botswana shows that considerable savings can be achieved by privatizing food services without increasing too much the burden on students. Improving Quality and Relevance 32. Mgbtenine admission standards would not only serve the purpose of better controlling the overall expansion of the higher education system, but would also help raise the level of new entrants. The presence of better qualified students, in turn, would boost academic performance and reduce wastage. The relevance of the higher education system would also be improved by developing professionalized programs with restricted access, either by creating new courses or by transforming existing programs. Inviting representatives from the productive sectors to participate in the definition of new programs, the identification of relevant research endeavors, and in monitoring the management of institutions would contribute to making the higher education system more attune to the development needs of the country. In Saint-Louis, careful attention should be given to the definition and selection of the new programs in order to build up a genuinely development-oriented regional university rather than duplicate traditional courses similar to those already offered in Dakar (law, humanitie*). .33. Pedagoical methods and organization can be improved in many ways. First, it is essential to upgrade the academic qualification and pedagogical competence of teachers through appropriate in-service training programs. Second, the introduction of a credit system should be considered to potentially replace the existing system of "pass-or-fail" final examinations. Third, the quality of educ-ation could be improved by establishing independent achievement measurement mechanisms to maintain high standards of performance. 34. Pedagoricl Inputs. The savings generated through a more efficient use of resources and the additional funding mobilized should be used, as a priority, to improve the quality of teaching and research. Upgrading the university libraries is also a priority. Adequate resources should be set aside to ensure an adequate provision of basic textbooks, periodicals and other relevant materials and to maintain good collections of technical books. 35. Revitalizing Esarch. To revitalize research in the higher education system, the priority is to establish a coordination and guidance framework at the institutional level. The Erst task would be to make an inventory of on-going and planned research activities as well as of available scientific assets (laboratories and equipment). The next step would be to identify areas of priority -yii- and define mechanisms and incentives to orient research projects to make the best use of available resources, both human and financial. A basic condition of success will be the capacity of the academic research community to link up with the nn-university specialized research institutes and the productive sectors. Implementation of the Strategy 36. The reform program needs to be translated into a detailed implementation plan with specific priorities and target dates for the various measures envisaged. This plan should be based on: - an enrollment ma showing, for the nett four years, the projected distribution of new bacheliers and progression of students across the various components of the higher education system in its revised configuration; - a renovation plan identifying projects to establish improved or new higher education programs with a clear definition of objectives and means; - a financial plan spelling out the budgetary implications of the new pattern of distribution of enrollments and of the quality improvement measures envisaged; - a rationalization plan delineating the measures envisaged to reduce student subsidies, including the restructuring and rationalization of COUD; - a management plan outlining the respective implementation responsibilities of the various institutions involved; - a communication plan describing the marketing strategy envisaged to achieve a national consensus on the higher education reform. 37. The time dimension should be realistically weighed in the preparation of this implementation plan. While it is urgent to take action as soon as possible, it is also important to recognize that the reform is a long term, incremental process, that institutional change requires a long span, and tha: the measures outlined in the previous pages cannot all be executed at the same time. Designing and implementing a skillful political marketing campaign will be an important factor of success in the transition process. The need to address th2 political sensitivity of the proposed reform implies a process of information, consultation and consensus-building to engage in a constructive dialogue with all the involved actors: students, academics, parents and employers. Finally, it will be important to put in place, right at the outset of the change process, a properly staffed structure with the authority and capacity to play a leadership role to initin the reform, monitor its implementation, and measure the impact of the new policies. ix - L INTRODUCTION Bcrund 1.01 Founded in 1918, the University of Dakar (Universit6 Cheikh Anta Diop - UCAD) is the oldest and most prestigious Francophone university in Western Africa. Enjoying a reputation for high academic standards, it has historically played a regional role, attracting a significant number of students from neighboring countries. In recent years, however, UCAD's regional standing as agood-quality university has declined, largely as a result of a rapid and uncontrolled growth of enrollments. The university has become seriously overcrowded, with 18,000 students crammed in facilities originally designed to accommodate no more than 3,500 students. Its human, physical and financial resources are stretched to the limit, which is adversely affecting the quality of teaching and research. In many fields, the curriculum is reportedly out of touch with scientific advances and employment requirements. With very few service and research activities connected to the needs of the economy, the contribution of the university to the development of the country remains relatively marginal. 1.02 A second university was established in October 1990 in Saint-Louis, with an initial enrollment of 600 students. In addition to the two universities, a number of specialized post-secondary institutes a-d schools operate under the responsibility of various technical ministries. But while the university system has been expanding very rapidly, these specialized institutes and schools have been shrinking in size during the 1980s. 1.03 Recent developments in the higher education system should be viewed in the context of an unfavorable macroeconomic background of recession and severe budgetary constraints. Adjustment efforts made since 1985 have been timid; improvements in overall economic performance have been modest and, in the presence of strict macro-economic policy constraints, the reform measures that have been adopted have had a limited impact. GDP growth has averaged 2.6% per year during the 1985-89 period, and the fiscal deficit has risen to 4.7% of GDP in 1989/90 instead of the expected 2.8%. 1.04 Government expenditures have fallen over the last 10 years, both relative to GDP and in real terms. The larger share of the overall reduction was achieved by cutting down public investment (-30% in real terms between 1980 and 1990). Education is however the only sector where recurrent expenditures have increased in real terms. Its share in the total budget has actually grown from 22 to 26 % between 1986 and 1989, essentially because of the augmentation of the higher education budget. But the balance between wages and non-salary expenditures has worsenel: the total growth of education recurrent expenditures has been 10% in real terms since 1980, reflecting a 13% rise in the wage bill and a 27% decline in the supplies and maintenance budget. Given the low level of primary school enrollment and the unfavorable economic context, it is unlikely that public support for higher education would increase in the medium term. -2- 1.05 The deteriorating economic situation has brought about the realization that the present pattern of expansion of the higher education system was not sustainable. As a result, the focus of higher education policies is shifting away from the earlier trend of uncontrolled growth of university enrollments to a firmer commitment to undertake reforms. From a social and political standpoint, however, these economic pressures ass likely to exacerbate the tensions fueled by a growing social demand for university education, reflecting the high expectations of young people with a strong tradition of political activism. 1.06 The idea of higher education reform is not new in Senegal. As early as 1981, the Government had organized special consultative meetings (Etats G6n6raux de l'Education et de la Formation) to discuss with a wide range of interlocutors the problems of the education sector, including higher education. Work had been initiated to prepare a reform project with the objective of transforming UCAD into a real "development" university and redefining the role of the specialized schools and institutes. After several years of activities, the National Commission for Higher Education Reform submitted its conclusions in August 1984. The higher education reform currently under discussion represents the first serious attempt to define a strategy for implementing the various recommendations and projects prepared over the last decade. Objectives of the Study 1.07 The main objectives of this study are to assess the present state of the Senegalese higher education system, to review the main constraints bearing upon its development, and to make operational recommendations to assist the Government in the formulation of policie, measures and projects to ensure the successful implementation of the planned higher education reform. 1.08 The study addresses four major issues which critically affect the performance of the higher education system: - Quality and relevance: what kinds of changes are needed to improve the quality and relevance of the teaching and research activities of existing institutions? - Quantitative expansion and student flows: how can the growth of the higher education system be kept at a manageable level given the present resource constraint and the need to restore quality? - Structure of the. higher education system: is the present configuration of the higher education system, with two universities and a number of specialized institutes and schools, appropriate to satisfy both the manpower needs of the economy and the increasingly diversified social demand for post-secondary education? -3- - Financing osts and management: are the resources available to develop and operate the higher education system sufficient? Are they managed and used in the most efficient manner? Should alternative sources of financing be considered? Methodology 1.09 A number of studies on various aspects of the higher education system have been prepared under the Etats G n6raux de l'Education, under the Bank's on-going Education IV project as well as within the framework of the French Cooperation program with Senegal. The iresent report reflects both the results of these studies and the findings of two missions which visited Senegal in April and September 1991. The mission collected additional data and participated in meetings with thi Recteurs of Dakar and Saint-Louis, deans and professors of various faculties and institutes, and officials of the Ministry of Higher Education. Organization of the Report 1.10 The study is divided into two parts. The first chapter presents the main issues confronting the Senegalese higher education system. The second chapter assesses the government's reform strategy and discusses policy options to implement this strategy which aims at improving the cost-effectiveness of higher education. An analytical description of the structure of the Senegalese higher education system and its main characteristics is provided at the end of the report (Annex A), together with background statistical data ,Annex B). -4- IL THE DIMENSIONS OF PERFORMANCE 2.01 Four dimensions can be explored to assess the performance of the Senegalese higher education system: the quality of teaching and learning the external efficien of the system, its cost-effectieness. and the progress achieved in terms of sggiV. Decline in the Quality of Teachig and larmiqg 2.02 During the decade which followed independence, the University of Dakar maintained very high academic standards validated by the equivalent of an external accreditation system through formal links with French universities. The Faculty of Medicine, for example, was affiliated to the University of Bordeaux All degrees were awarded by the French Ministry of Education until 1968. But, over the years, the situation has gradually and steadily deteriorated as the emphasis was increasingly put on the quantitative expansion of the system rather than on quality improvements. 2.03 Although there are no data to systematically measure, in an objective way, the evolution of the standards of instruction and learning at UCAD, many indicators point to a gradual decline in quality. Lecturers unanimously complain of the low academic level of incoming students. Employers deplore the lack of adequate preparation of graduates and graduate unemployment has been rising. The extremely high repetition rates in all faculties at the University of Dakar are signs of poor quality and, at the same time, of attempts to maintain minimum standards. 2.04 Explosive growth of enrollments. The main factor explaining this decline in quality is the rapid and uncontrolled growth of enrollments at the University of Dakar. This has led to serious overcrowding and a situation of dramatic imbalance between available resources and the requirements of a good quality instruction for all students. The growth of higher education enrollments over the past three decades has indeed been quite impressive: the number of students attending UCAD was multiplied by a factor of fifteen, from 1,260 in 1961 to 17,950 in 1991. This corresponds to an average annual growth rate of 93%. Foreign students number about 2,300, Le. 13% of the total student population. Graph I - Enrollment at the Thousands University of Dakar 20 17,948 18,434 12,873 10,309 11,077 0 1978-79 1980-81 1990-91 M Total Enrollment M Faculties 9 Institutes 2.05 Four different growth periods can be distinguished. Between 1959 and 1970, enrollments were multiplied by three but remained well below the theoretical capacity of the campus. After the 1970 government decision to allow all baccalaur6at graduates to have automatic access to higher education, enrollments grew at an accelerated rate (14.3% on the average). During the first half of the 1980s, enrollments remained almost stationary, reflecting the stability of the number of secondary school graduates. But the number of students has soared again since 1985, despite the "wasted" 1987/88 academic year as a result of student unrest ("ann6e blanche"). 2.06 This expansion witnessed since 1985 can be attributed to the compounded effect of four factors: the rapid growth of secondary school graduates, liberal admission policies at the university, poor internal efficiency, and a genqrous student support program. Ia terms of admission 12io prior to 1985 a national committee (Commission d'Orientation) used to examine the complete file of every candidate for higher education. Based on the candidate's preferences and academic profile, as well as manpower guidelines defined by the Plan (with explicit admission ceilings for each faculty and institute), the committee directed students toward the best suited educational stream. Since 1985, however, national manpower objectives have no longer been imposed on the commission in order to be able to accommodate the growing supply of secondary school graduates. -6- 2.07 Today, the commission's sole function is to distribute all baccalaur6at holders among the various faculties of the University of Dakar without any consideration for the potential academic competence and motivation of the students nor for the faculties' capacity in terms of physical infrastructure and staff. The flows of incoming students have especially increased after the suppression of the first part of the Baccalaur6at examination and the reform of the BEPC examination at the end of the fourth year of secondary school in 1988, after which all students passing that examination became eligible to enter the upper secondary cycle. The number of new 'bacheliers" went up from 2,921 in 1985 to about 7,000 in June 1991. 2.08 The only institutions which have been able to maintain admission ceilings are the professional schools coming under the responsibility of technical ministries and the university institutes (ENSUT, ENSETP, ENS, EBAD and CESTI). At ENSEPT for example, the ratio of candidates for each place offered doubled from three in September 1986 to six in September 1990. The ratio is about ten to one at ENSUT. Despite timid attempts at the Faculty of Medicine to restrict the flow of new entrants, uncontrolled access has become a particularly acute problem for all four faculties. 2.09 In addition to the rapid growth of *bacheliers" and the very liberal admission policy, the third cause of overcrowding is the low internal efficiency typifying the University of Dakar. Automatic access to university coupled with low levels of achievement at the end of secondary schooling have resulted in very high failure rates, particularly during the first year of university education. -7- Graph 2: Rates of Repetition at UCAD (1981/82 - 1986/87 Period) 60 8 0 ..*.* .........*.*..*..****................*..........................*...*.*... R 40 ..... ****.*** .........*.*****.****. . ..***.*******.**... ....*..** a t a % 20 .**.* ..***.. 10... Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Law M Econcmics9 Science E Humanities Medicine M Pharmacy E Dentistry 2.10 Statistics for the 1982-1987 period indicate that promotion rates in the humanities, law, economics and science are particularly low, with about 25% of students promoted from first to second year on the average. The situation has even gotten worse in the last few years. In July 1990, for example, the pass rates during the first exam session were 5% in biology, 17% in humanities, 5% in philosophy, 10% in Spanish and 19% in history. Results are significantly better in the faculty of medicine and pharmacy (43% first-year pass rate), clearly due to the application of stricter entrance requirements (above average baccalaur6at results and smaller size of classes). Pass rates tend to be higher in second and subsequent years in all faculties except the Faculty of Humanities, but the level of wastage is still excessive (39% from second to third year and 51% from third to fourth year on the average). Moreover, students who fail are allowed to repeat practically without limitation. While, in theory, students are permitted to repeat twice during the first two years of university (first cycle), this rule is not followed in practice and the "cartouchards" (students who have already wasted two years) can either be re-oriented to another faculty or be granted a concession ("d6rogation") (1984 decree). As a result, more than 40% of the student population is made up of repeaters. Only 8% of the students complete their first degree (four-year theoretical duration) without repeating; only 30% repeat no more than twice. -8- 2.11 The fourth factor contributing to the rapid expansion of higher education enrollments is the governments very generous student support policy. Even though scholarships are theoretically awarded on the basis of strict social and academic criteria, the majority of students end up receiving a grant of some sort. In the current academic year (1990-91), 8,000 students are benefiting from a full scholarship and 3,900 from a partial grant ("aide"), representing about two-thirds of the overall student population. Student support services are also available in the form of subsidized meals, lodging, medical serv'es and supplies, and transportation twelve months a year. All students are eligible in principle for these services which are provided at highly subsidized rates and ~'ministered by a special body (Centre des Oeuvres Universitaires). 2.12 To further complicate the problem of internal efficiency, multiple repeaters and students transferring from one stream or faculty to another without valid academic justification continue to benefit from social support services and scholarships. In the absence of financial sanctions against multiple repeaters and academic drifters, students have no incentive to perform well. 2.13 While the growth pattern of the University of Dakar may not appear excessively out of mark by international standards - Senegal has actually had the lowest higher education growth rate in the francophone West Africa region for the last fifteen years --, it has disturbing implications in the present context of economic stagnation and diminishing financial resources. The quality of education is seriously undermined by the scarcity of funding for new capital investment and for regular non-salary operating expenses. The budgetary resources required to finance the physical investments (classrooms, laboratory equipment, libraries) necessary to keep up with the growth of enrollments and to sustain an adequate level of recurrent expenditures to finance non-salary inputs (textbooks and journals, laboratory supplies, maintenance) have not been forthcoming. Most departments operate with hardly enough funds to buy basic supplies and maintain their equipment At the Faculty of Law and Economics, for example, there are 18 idle computers due to lack of an appropriate room and a qualified technician. The Faculty had to borrow the teacher union's printing machine to run the final examinations' subjects. Over the last ten years, the share of non-wage expenditures in the budget of the University of Dakar has decreased from 53% to 27%. Between 1985/86 and the present schoolyear (1991/92), the average expenditure per student went down from 381,900 CFAF to 345,000 CFAF in nominal terms. During the same period, the average non-salary expenditures per student decreased from 146,150 CFAF to 89,160 CFAF, a 36% reduction in nominal terms. .9- Graph 3: UCAD Unit Costs Thousands CFAF 824.3 300 .....* ...*****.**...***..** .* ..* .*..* .* .........*********** 200 ..**... ........-.......**......*****.***.*.*..**.....**.*.* 146.2 100 ....... .............. .... 89............. 0 Total Expenditures Non-salary Expend. E 1984/86 1991/02 2.14 As mentioned earlier, the campus of the University of Dakar was originally designed to accommodate 3,500 students. As early as 1974, it was felt that the facilities had been stretched to the limit to accommodate the 6,000 students enrolled at that time. Today, with almost 20,000 students, it is an understatement to describe the University of Dakar as overcrowded. In all four faculties, classes operate on a non-stop schedule (feu continu") to be able to teach the large number of students. The Faculty of Medicine has 2,500 students with a theoretical capacity of only 600. There are not enough medical centers or dispensaries adequately staffed and equipped to ensure the practical training of medical students. At the Faculty of Science, students are too numerous to have opportunities to learn practical applications through laboratory experiments because of the limited laboratory facilities and the small budgetary allocation for the purchase of consumables. The result is a stress on theory at the expense of practice in all disciplines requiring applied training (medical science, national science, geography). Overcrowding is also critical in social science subjects. The Faculty of Humanities operates with 5,400 students in buildings designed for a maximum population of 600. The Faculty of Law enrolls more than six times the number of students initially envisioned. 2.15 Not only is there a problem of overcrowding, but in addition there has been a gradual deterioration of the existing physical infrastructure (facilities, laboratories, libraries) due to the lack - 10 - of resources and proper management procedures for maintenance. The large majority of students (84%) view the facilities as inadequate in terms of tables, chairs, lighting and ventilation. In the Faculty of Science, 68% of the students complain about the lack of laboratory equipment'. Nowhere are these shortcomings more visible than at the main university library. With a collection of about 400,000 volumes, the library of the University of Dakar used to be the largest in the region, holding more volumes and journals than all the libraries of the other eight Francophnie West African countries taken together. But the growth of enrollments has outstripped the increase in facilities and resources. Built to accommodate the needs of 3,000 students, the library must now serve 18,000 students, which would imply, in theory, a requirement of: 18 million books. The central air conditioning system broke down in 1980. It has neither been repaired nor replaced since then and the condition of many books is threatened by the dust and heat With a meagre annual acquisition budget of 35 million CFA Francs, the library has ceased to purchase new books and spends all its resources on a limited number of essential periodicals. This is equivalent to 0.6% of the university budget while the international norm is 5%. There is not enough money to update or even maintain the stock of textbooks for undergraduate students. According to a recent survey of the library and textbook situation in Senegal, "it is clear that many students are unable to get access to books or other learning materials in the libraries, that a majority of the books required by students are simply not available in the bookshops, and that many students are unable to buy through lack of purchasing power what textbooks are in the bookshops. There can be little doubt that the quality of tertiary education available in Senegal is being adversely affected by this situation, and the situation is likely to become more serious as student numbers increase." 2.16 Even more important than the physical resources as a determinant of the quality of learning is the availability of qualified teaching stafE From a quantitative viewpoint, the number of teachers has grown slightly less rapidly than student enrollments, despite deliberate efforts on behalf of the un' - -rsity management to have a very active staff recruitment policy. Between 1977 and 1989, the annual growth rate of students has been 6% per annum versus 5% for the teaching staff. As a result, the overall student/staff ratio has risen, from 23:1 to 25:1, to be compared to an average student/staff ratio of 8:1 in anglophone African countries. This global evolution hides very important differences by faculty, both in evolution and current numbers. The Faculty of Medicine is the only place where the situation has been stable and where the student/staff ratio is at a suitable leveL The other faculties have witnessed a trend towards higher student/staff ratios. The largest increase has I 1"Qualite de rEnseignementSuperieurau, Senegal la situatic. des 6tudiants de premire ann6e, Ministbre de rEducation - CIEM, May 1990. 2. Bullock, A., and French, T., 'Higher Education Book Sector Study Report Senegal", International Book Development, November 1990, pp. 38-39. - 11 - been experienced at the Faculty of Science, from 12.8 students per staff to 183. The ratio is very high in absolute terms at the Faculty of Law (60*1) and the Faculty of Humanities(40:1). Graph 4 - Evolution of 70 Student/Teacher Ratios at UCAD 18 .1 Law Medicine Humanities Sciences 1 1977-78 1989-90 2.17 Looking at the average figure for each faculty is insufficient to analyze the educational implications of this evolution. In the first two years of undergraduate studies (first cycle), classes of 600 to 1,000 students are not uncommon because of the large number of repeaters and the *obligation7 to accept all new "bacheliers". It is especially true at the faculties of Law and Humanities. This is a major constraint in terms of pedagogical practices and opportunities for direct supervision of students by teachers. Moreover, the situation is likely to have further deteriorated in 1991 as the 75 teaching positions which were planned to be filled were not budgeted by the Ministry of Finance. Teachers were asked to give supplementary hours to overcome this shortage. 2.18 As far as qualifications and experience are concerned, it should be noted that the age structure of the teaching body has changed as the proportion of younger, less experienced lecturers has grown. Between 1985 and 1991, the proportion of professors and assistant professors in the overall teaching body has gone down from 24 to 19% and the share of assistant lecturers has increased from 44 to 58%. The situation has particularly deteriorated at the Faculties of Law and Sciences, as illustrated by the following figures. * 12 - Graph 5: Proportion of Professors 40ereentag* in Teaching Staff 40 86 81 30- 242 201 2 0- 42 4. 19 19 2 10 - 0 1986/88 1990/91 UCAD Faculties M Law/Economics M Med/Pharmacy Science E Humanities The implication is that, in many departments, the proportion of teachers qualified to conduct research and supervise students has beer. decreasing. 2.19 An aggravating consideration is the fact that assistant lecturers are now entitled to get tenure as assistant teachers after a year. Until a few years ago, they were under the obligation to obtain a doctorate within five years of being recruited, but the rule was changed as a result of a strike. Now they have no built-in incentives to advance rapidly in their career and the university management has been complaining about the rising number of "life" assistant-teachers (assistants h vie"). Since, in addition, teachers are not required to demonstrate pedagogical skills and there is no program to train the teaching staff in instruction techniques, the university will be increasingly staffed with teachers without either the research capaci y or the pedagogical experience to maintain a high standard of academic competence. 2.20 The unattractive salary conditions and benefits offered by the university as a result of the civil service salary scale are another negative feature. There are at least as many experienced Senegalese protrssors teaching in acighboring West-African countries or in France as at the - 13 - University of Dakar. The Department of Economics, for instance, has lost half its teaching staff to the private sector over the last five years. 2.21 The quality of instruction is also dependent on the academic level and motivation of incoming students. The teaching stafis general view is that the quality of secondary education has drastically declined. As a result, the academic level of incoming students ts also been going down and is considered to be, by and large, inadequate to maintain a reasonable standard of university education. The new students lack good expression skills, both in writing and orally; their subject knowledge is insufficient; finally, their work methods and attitudes are heavily influenced by an over-emphasis on rote learning. The inadequacy of secondary schooling in maths and sciencq is one of the major bottlenecks. In the absence of selection mechanisms, many new students are not qualified to pursue higher education studies. Graph 6: Pass Rates at the end of of the First Year Percentage G0 42.3 40- 34 30 29. 20 - 10.9 12.2 10.4 10L 0 Faculty of Medicine Faculty of Science Medicine 0 Pharmacy 9 Dentistry E Math E Physics C3 Biology .14 - In addition, many students are not really motivatd to pursue studies in the program they are enrolled in. According to a 1990 survey 35% of first year students complain that they were forced to take a field they were not interested in3. 2.22 Under these strenuous circumstances, there is no room for pedagogical innovation and flexibility. Traditional lectures in huge theatres and rote memorization are the standard methods of teaching and learning. Student learning is basically passive and receptive. Teachers cannot find the time to exercise direct supervision anymore than they can prepare and correct assignments on a regular basis. There is no continuous assessment; students are evaluated solely on the basis of a "pass-or-fal" examination at the end of the academic year. Curricula are not regularly updated to take scientific developments into account. . Box 1. The Crisis of Quality in the GogphyDepament The rapid rise of enrollments at the Uniersityof Dakar against'a background of dimikhing resotirces for capital investmenE and nion-salary recurrentt ependitures has led to a crisitof qulty. The situation mn the Geography epartment of theFacuhy of Humanit.es provide a typica 'illustratio.n of the cocrete probterns caused by overcroiwding and the lack of resources. The Departmenthas 16 teachers and ,400 studenis. The teachers have absolutely no time to undertake any research. Of the 700 flit year stdens, only 340 are genuie first time students. Al the others are secondthlrd.and fourth: generation: repeaters. The Iecture rooms and laboratories can accommodate. 200 students at the most.' Teachers.share offices by groups of 4 or6. One of the f&w eifståg-laboratories has been transformed into an'office for die department head. The students have no access to the laboratories. These laboratories are relatively weil equipped with expensive scientffic material, but this equipmentis not in use for lack of funds to maintain them. It is not possible to make projections or ue visual aids because of the.large number o: Sstudents in the ecure theatres. There is 'no money to buy maps for the cartography . classes. For the last six years, the nonsalary budget has remained stable,iat'15 millfion CFAF. Hälf of it goes towaids administrative expenditures; the rest Is. used for educationa supplies and books. This is equtvalent o S3.7per student per yar. This .,sum would be hardlysufcient to buy one map for each firsi year studenL In reality, the funds available are essentially used to produceand reproducedocuments for classes -andexaminatios. - '. At the end of academic year 1989M90, the.pass rate for firt year studentswas 13%. In the department Chairman's own words: 'when,Iwas a student here in the early 197, I received a better tralning than the ont I am offeing my students today"r 3"Qualité de l'Enseignement Supérieur au Sénegal la situation des étudiants de première année*, Ministtre de l'Education - CIEM, May 1990. - 15.- 2.23 The situation is sigrdficantly better in the various institutes and schools under the responsibility of the Ministry in charge of Higher Education and other technical ministries because they are able to limit access and have a much better resource base than the University of Dakar. Enrollments at the institutes which are part of UCAD are just under 1,500, distributed across 6 institutions. There are also 925 students enrolled in 11 institutes under various technical ministries, including the Ecole Polytechnique of Thibs (EPT) and the National School of Administration (ENAM). Student/teacher ratios are very low in these institutions: they went down from 6.9 on the average in 1985-86 to 5.8 in 1989-90, partly because of declining student enrollments reflecting the intention of the Government to cut down the recruitment of new graduates into the civil service. At the Technology Institute (ENSUT) and the Rural Development Institute (INDR), the ratio is as low as 3 to 1. It is however alarming to observe that, for the institutes as a whole, the proportion of qualified teachers (professors and engineers) has also decreased, from 46% in 1985-86 to. 31% in 1989-90. In terms of physical facilities and financial resources, the institutes are 'usually well endowed, especially those coming under the authority of technical ministries as they receive international assistance. EPT, for instance, was established by a grant from the Canadian government. Significantly, their staffing costs represent less than 50% of total recurrent expenditures, as compared to the university where personnel accounts for about 73% of operating costs. 2.24 The prospects for the newly established University of Saint-Louis are also more positive, on two counts at least. First, available information on the opeuing of the new university in November 1990 reveals that access was restricted according to the capacity of the physical infrastructure. Only 600 students were selected out of as many as 3,000 applicants. The students were chosen on the basis of both their academic records in secondary school and the results of their 'baccalaur6at" examination. The university is planning to take only 450 new students in October 1991. Second, a pedagogical innovation has been launched with the introduction of a flexible credit system instead of the traditional "pass-or-fail" examination at the end of the academic year. A critical element for the success of the new university will be its ability to attract qualified and experienced professors. So far, it has been able to hire only junior professors; the few experienced professors who intervened in Saint-Louis during the first year of operation were visiting professors from Dakar. There is also a risk that the fact that every student received either a full scholarship or a partial grant during the first year on an exceptional basis will be considered by the students as an entitlement rather than a privilege and that it might prove politically difficult to adopt a more restrictive financial assistance policy in the future. Low External Elliciency 2.25 A second important dimension of the performance of the Senegalese higher education system is its degree of relevance and external efficiency. This can be assessed in both quantitative and qualitative terms. - 16- 2.26 QuanjtatImbalanc While the Senegalese system of higher education does not appear to be over-sized in relation to the population of the country and in comparison with international standards, there is a paradoxical situation of over-production in certain fields (notably law and humanities) and shortages in others (scientific and managerial disciplines). 2.27 The latest estimate of the gross tertiary enrollment ratio in Senegal was 3% of the relevant age cohort (20-24 year old) compared to 6% on the average for the developing world, 16% in lower middle-income economies and 39% in OECD countries. The gap is even larger if one looks at graduates rather than enrollments. Senegal graduates: only 20 people a year per 100,000 population compared to 411 in OECD countries. In the combined field of engineering and basic science, the number of graduates per year per 100,000 population is 3.8 compared to 95 in industrialized countries'. Graph 7 - Graduates per 100,000 600 Population (1985) 411 400 -..-....***.**...*....******* ********..** ....* ..** ...***** .******* .**** .** ...... 300 -....*.**.*.........*.******. ************....* .........**.***.**.*****......... 200 .......**..*****..*.**.***** ..- ..* .*.********** .............********.******... 95 100 -...........*.****..... -.....-... -.. -.*..... *. *..****. *. *....... ............ *. 20 14 3.8 2.5 0 All Fields Science & Technology =-Senegal E Sub-Saharan Africa 90 OECD . Zymelman, M., "Science, Education, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa', World Bank Technical Paper number 124, June 1990. - 17 - 2.28 These comparisons suggest that further increases in higher education enrollments would be theoretically justified. At the same time, however, the overall supply of university graduates is in excess of the demand, as attested by the phenomenon of graduate unemployment which appeared in Senegal for the first time around 1984. In the absence of detailed official labor market statistics and tracer studies, it is impossible to have a precise estimate of the number of unemployed graduates. In 1984, 820 university graduates were registered as unemployed. Today, various estimates by government officials and the press suggest a range of 2,000 to 3,000 unemployed graduates ("mattrisards ch6meurs"). It is significant to observe that the memorandum of requests prepared in February 1991 by the National Student Organization devotes three pages to employment promotion measures for law graduates. While humanities, law and economics seem to be the fields with the poorest job prospects, there are indications that a number of graduates of the faculties of science (physics and biology) and medicine (doctors and pharmacists) are also among the unemployed. Even the graduates of the prestigious Ecole Polytechnique de Thibs have found it increasingly difficult to find a job in the private sector since 1988 when the Army stopped recruiting all graduates. Data on the intake of the teacher training college (Ecole Normale Sup&rieure) illustrate another dimension of labor market tension. Until three to four years ago, ENS used to take between 80 and 100% of candidates with a bachelor's degree. In 1990, however, the proportion of candidates accepted was as low as 15% in biology, 23% in history and geography, and 31% in English. 2.29 The rise of graduate unemployment has been precipitated by the recession of the 1980s. The demand for highly-educated manpower (university graduates or equivalent) has mainly come, in the past, from the government and the parapublic sector. The 1970s witnessed a rapid growth of the public sector and the civil service became the leading employer of university graduates. But the policy of guaranteed employment to all higher education graduates could not be sustained as public revenues started to decline in the 1980s. The demand for university graduates has been declining in the context of the government's ongoing structural adjustment program which includes, in particular, public enterprise privatizations and liquidations, civil service reductions and the cessation of automatic recruitments from civil service training institutions. Private sector employment has also been affected by the recession. The Senegalese industry lost 3,300 jobs between 1985 and 1989. The decline in real wages since 1980 is another sign of tension in the Senegalese labor market as a result of growing graduate unemployment. 2.30 The graduate employment situation is likely to further deteriorate in the years to come. On the supply side, the production of university graduates is bound to be boosted in the medium term as a result of rapid population growth, the government's commitment to expand access to primary schooling, and the heavy social demand for higher education. On the demand side, the size and occupational structure of the modern sector of the economy leave no doubt that, even if the economy would resume its growth, the potential employment absorption capacity would remain limited relative to the annual number of university graduates. At present, there are 122,000 salaried workers in Senegal (68,000 in the public sector and 54,000 in the private sector) and among them - 18 - approximately 11,500 employed at the professional 1evel Even with a very optimistic rate of growth of employment of 5% for example, the number of job created would still represent only half the yearly supply of university graduates. Graph 8 - Graduates of the Thousands University of Dakar 20 Enrollment Graduates 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 E Graduates -+- Enrollment Cynical as it may appear, it should be noted that the very low internal efficiency at the university is a blessing in disguise for the authorities. The number of graduates could easily be three to four times higher if internal efficiency was improved. 231 At the same time as graduate unemployment is becoming an acute social problem, there are still shortages in certain fields, as attested by the continuing presence of foreign specialists, despite the real and rapid progress achieved in terms of Africanization of the managerial and technical high-level manpower in all economid sectors. At the University of Dakar, where only 50% of the teaching staff in the faculties was African in 1978, the proportion has now reached about 90%. In the specialized institutes of UCAD, the proportion went up from 36% to 76% over the same period. At least 250 foreign professionals and 245 technicians are still employed in the various sectors of the Senegalese economy. In addition, there are 930 foreign *cooptrants", including 592 teachers. - 19- 2.32 Issues of Quality and Relevance. Historically, there is a concentration of students in traditional fields such as humanities and social sciences ("lettres" and "droit") and a shortfall in the sciences and engineering subjects. In the faculties of the University of Dakar, the proportion of students enrolled in scientific disciplines (basic sciences and medical sciences) has gone down from 38% in 1970 to 34.8% in the current academic year. However, it should be noted that, if medical students are excluded, the share of basic science students has increased from 13% to 21%. Graph 9 - Distribution of UCAD Enrollment by Field of Study Law 27% Law 32% Humanities 35% Humanities 33% Medicine 14% Medicine 25% Sciences 13% Sciences 21% 1970 - 71 1990 -91 2.33 In this connection, the decision to duplicate, at the new University of Saint-Louis, traditional disciplines and programs in humanities and law which already exist in Dakar and are not relevant to the labor market needs of the Northern region is quite unfortunate. Only 16% of the students were enrolled in the mathematics aid applied computer science department The others were distributed as follows: 50% in humanities, 17% in law, and 17% in economics. 2.34 While it is true that the overall proportion of students enrolled in scientific fields is not significantly higher in industrialized countries (20% in Japan for example), these countries have many more graduates because higher education takes a greater share of the relevant age cohort. - 20- Moreover, the balance between basic science and applied science is different in OECD economies. In Senegal, engineering students repzesent only 12% of listed enrollments in scientific fields whereas the corresponding proportion is 63% on the average in industrialized countries. 2.35 In qualitative terms, the problem is not only one of choice of more relevant fields but also one of emphasis and approach within given disciplines. Employers often complain that university graduates are ill-equipped with the problem-solving habits and skills needed in modern firms and that they do not display appropriate attitudes. The final report of the 1989 national consultation on the future of the university (Journ6es de l'Universit6, 9-10 June 1989) offered the following assessment* was far as existing streams are concerned, it is almost a pleonasm to that they have acute problems from the viewpoint of course content as much as in terms of job prospects... It is necessary to underline their lack of relevance to the real needs of the country. They are designed to give bits of knowledge to obtain degrees, without consideration for the qualification requirements of the labor market". 2.36 Even in the education sector, there is absolutely no coordination between the university and the Ministry of Education that employs its graduates. For example, while most of the students enrolled at the facilities of humanities and science are supposedly trained to become secondary school teachers, many of the disciplines taught follow a curriculum which is different from the official high school programs. 2.37 Another dimension of external efficiency is the issue of balance between training levels. The Senegalese higher education system offers mainly degree programs to train high-level professionals But there are very few two-year diploma courses to train the middle-level manpower needed by industry and the few technician training institutions that do exist operate all outside the university. The only exceptions are the Technology Institute (ENSTI) and the School of Information Sciences (EBAD) which offer a two-year training program leading to a technician diploma (Dipl6me Universitaire de Technologie). But the number of technicians trained is very small compared to the overall production of the university: in 1990-91, the two institutions had 164 graduates out of 1,240 for the university as a whole, Le. a mere 12%. 238 The existence of specialized institutes linked to various technical ministries needs also to be addressed in the context of the present discussion of the relevance of the higher education system. Due to the lack of effective coordination and harmonization mechanisms, many of the training programs offered by these institutes are duplicated either in other institutes or at the University of Dakar. There are, for example, seven institutes or schools of agriculture without clear differences in vocation and mission. Nurses and midwives are being trained in three separate schools. The Polytechnique School of Thibs (EPT) and the Technology Institute at the University - 21- of Dakar (ENSUT) offer very similar programs in engineering subjects, notwithstanding the fact that each institution operates below capacity. EPT, for example, operates today with 123 students (including 63 foreigners) on a campus designed for 300 students. It offers courses in two major disciplines, civil engineering and mechanical engineering which are both duplicated at ENSUT. In addition, many of the courses offered at these two schools are also taught at the Faculty of Science. 2.39 Research and service activities play a secondary role in the Senegalese higher education system. Even though the most dynamic professors are effectively involved in research activities on an individual basis, there are few research programs conducted at the institutional level. The more active departments are found at the Faculty of Medicine, the Faculty of Science, and at the Technology Institute (ENSUT). An analysis of research output data for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has shown that SSA countries account for 0.4% of world research with a 8.5% share of world population. Among the ten countries which supply 90% of the total scientific publications in SSA, Senegal ranks sixth after Nigeria, Kenya, Sudan, Zimbabwe and Tanzania. The number of publications by Senegalese scientists remained the same between 1975 and 1985, even though the number of researchers doubled during that period. Most of the research coming out of Senegal is* concentrated in medicine and biology. Many on-going research programs are funded under existing linkage agreements with foreign institutions. Very often they reflect essentially funding agencies' priorities. The development impact of past and on-going research activities has been relatively marginal. It is very characteristic to note that, during an international seminar which took place in Dakar in spring 1991 to examine the feasibility of establishing a science park ("technopole") in Senegal, most employers stressed that it would not be desirable to involve the University of Dakar in this endeavor because it has been operating as an ivory tower without any relevance to its social and economic environment. It has been established, for example, that the productivity and relevance of agronomical research has steadily decreased over the last fifteen years even though agriculture remains the main economic activity of the country'. 2.40 Another indicator of the capacity to carry out research activities is the degree of development of post-graduate programs at the university of Dakar. Enrollments in post-graduate studies represent only 4.5% of the total student population, as compared to 19% in the United States and 13% in France. Only 9% of the Senegalese teachers are classified as researchers. 2.41 The quantity and relevance of research is affected by the diminishing proportion of senior professors, the lack of sufficient financial resources and adequate research facilities, and the s. Zymelman, M., "Science, Education, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa", World Bank Technical Paper number 124, 1990. 'Sene,D., Etude de l'impact de Ia rechercheagroromiquesurle d6veloppementagrcole au S6ndgal Paris, CIRAD, 1983. '. Direction des Affaires Scientifiques et Techniques, 9a Recherche k I'Universit6," March 1991. -22- non-existence of a proper policy and incentives framework for science and technology development. Since the suppression of the Ministry of Scientific and Technological Research in 1986, the task of planning, coordinating and promoting research activities in Senegel has rested with a small department within the Ministry of Civil Service Reform. The Department of Scientific Research (Direction des Affaires Scientifiques et Techniques) has a small staff very limited financial resources (110 million CFAF or 0.05% of the total government budget) and no f:rmal authority over the country's various research institutions. Research and Development expe-ditures represent a very small proportion of GDP: 0.16% in 1983, down from 031% in 1978. According to a UNESCO/UNDP survey, funding for research activities represents only 3.6% of the university's total budget'. Technical support is also lacking. At the University of Dakar, there is only one technician for five researchers whereas in research departments in industrialized countries the ratio is usually one for two. 2.42 Generally speaking, there are very few institutionalized links between the university and the productive world. Among the most notable exceptions are the Faculty of Medicine which is in close relationship with hospitals and dispensaries and runs laboratory tests on campus on behalf of the university hospital, the Department of Geology at the Faculty of Science which performs surveys and other consulting services for public and private mining companies, and ENSUT which provides technical assistance on new prLducts and processes to small and medium firms. ENSUT is the only higher education institution with representatives from industry on its governing board. The other institutions, including the Ecole Polytechnique, confine themselves to teaching in the most restricted meaning of the word. Even the organization of continuing education programs and short professional courses is not part of the university's regular activities. neffcient Use of Available Resources 2.43 While it is clear that the financial resources of the higher education system are insufficient in absolute terms given the rapid growth of enrollments, the situation could be much improved if existing resources were utilized in a more efficient manner. For the time being, however, it appears that available resources are allocated, used and managed in a very unsatisfactory way. There is a high level of wastage, a disproportionate share of resources goes to student support services, and management practices leave much to be desired. . Fondeville (de), A., 'Communication sur le financement de la recherche', Colloque sur la gestion des systhmes de recherche du S6n6gal, 23-27 June 1986. 'Quoted in Gaillard, J., qHistoire et D6veloppement de la Communautd Scientifique S6n6galaise', in GAILLARD, J., 'Les Chercheurs et I'6mergence de communaut6s scientifiques nationales dans les pays en d6veloppement, Doctoral Thesis STS/CNAM, Paris, 1989. .23- 2.44 Hih Wastage. There are two main sources of wastage in the Senegalese higher education system: the low level of internal efficiency at the University of Dakar, and the under- utilization of existing facilities and resources in the non-university sector. 2.45 Annual recurrent costs on a per student-year basis at the University of Dakar (faculties only) do not appear to be very high by international standards due to the large size of enrollment and the relatively high student/staff ratio. Excluding expenditures for student support services and scholarships, they range from US$270 for the faculty of Law & Economics (approximately 34% of per-capita GDP) to US$650 for Sciefnce (82%) and US$1,100 for Medicine (139%). However, as a result of the very low internal efficiency discussed earlier, unit costs calculated on a per-graduate basis are very high, reaching for example US$17,500 for a science graduate. The combined effect of high dropout and repetition rates is that the average number of student-years necessary to graduate from the four-year bachelor program is strikingly high: 18 student-years in economics, 21 in humanities, 27 in science and 29 in law. Graph 10 - Cost Overrun as a Result Student years of Low Internal Efficiency 36 44 .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. ......... ...... ...... ........................... 22 14 17 14 Law LEconomie Solenoe HumanIties Mediolne Pharmany Dentistry 9 Theoretical duration E Additional student years spent of studies by repeaters and dropouts These figures suggest that the bulk of the resources is used on behalf of multiple repeaters and dropcuu rather than to support those students who have a normal academic career. -24- 2.46 The existence of a number of non-university institutions of higher education is a second major source of wastage. The early independence years saw the establishment of several specialized institutes and schools under the authority of the Ministry of 7-igher Education (7) and other technical ministries (11). But their creation and development did not follow a well-thought master plan. It happened on an ad-hoc basis, each ministry identifying its needs for trained specialized manpower and setting up a school or an institute to meet these needs. Often enough, donor agencies have played a part in this by supporting the development of a given institution without assessing the risk of duplication and overlap. The coexistence of ENSUT and EPT is a case in point. The former was funded by the French, the latter Was established with a grant from the Canadian government. Today, both institutions provide training in similar fields, function below full capacity and operate at a very high cost. The lack of coordination and control of this evolution has resulted in many duplications between institutes affiliated with various ministries as well as between some institutes and some of the regular university programs. It is very difficult, under these conditions, to have a balanced pattern of resource allocation and to take advantage of economies of scale. S.Box ~2 Oveday ofIs' uin * .Ecole Nationale des Beau A(EN * EolsemNtinre Superfeur d'Euction tdArt stiu (mtESA 80..~ Mx,:- M Econonucs * Ecole Nationate deonoeaAt ApliE (ENEA "M . . ... . ".. * Faculty of (Lawand)Econ.mics at UCAD * Palt of Economhic (and Managemezit) atUniver t of Saint Ioui Engineering * Ecole Polytechiuede Thths (EPT) EcoleNormale Sop6icureUniv e d 6Wd' Uraux j~o l.E~tl Facuty r aiene adTecaloy ,. . fumanties * Fa Iculty of $an Huaite t A Lia * Facult ofLaw~ (an Eomis aUCA) * aclt of Law at University of Saint Louis * Ecole Nationate d'Administration et de Magistrature (ENAM) -25- ..Rra.y hole des o res Arch Dcumentalistes (EBAD Sciece Centre d'Etudes des Sciences etTediiu I'Information (CESTI) ..',s.. ......S , S ' aeme........ .. %`k Centrc de orma AVdn e ; de P ane Adminitratio Mana~emeize * Ecoe Nadonate d'Economic Appliqide (NA * Ecole$Stpreede Gestion des Entreprtses (CESAG) * Ecle Nationate d'Administrationet de Magistrate (ENAM) (E ....... Teachter * Ecole Nationait d'Ediucatfodes ssitabnts Sociauxet Educateurs Training hspec UsS (ENAES) (T a TEcole n male Sup6rlure (ENS) * Ecole Normrale Sup6ttur nd'EisefgnemeatT chiue at Pf int (ENSETP) * Ecle atinal d'conmicAppliquee (ENEA) 2.47 Unit costs at the university institutes are considerably higher than in the faculties, with those at ENSUT reaching US$4,635 per student per year (580% of per-capita GDP) and ENSETP (Technical Teacher Training) an unjustifiable level of almost US$11,000 per student per year (1370% of per-capita GDP). These figures reflect not only the costs of operating and maintaining laboratories and equipment, but also a situation of under-enrollment and low student/teacher ratios in these institutions (6:1 on the average compared to 24:1 in the faculties). Contrarily to the faculties which are compelled to accept students beyond their theoretical capacity, the number of new students in the specialized institutes is determined by the numbec of civil service positions guaranteed by the Ministry of Finance. On the positive side, internal efficiency is much higher in these institutes than in the faculties. In 1990/91, the range of average pass rates was between 78 and 96%. In terms of distribution of resources between the various parts of the University, the main implication of the high unit costs is that the students attending these institutes, who represent only 7.8% of the overall enrollments at UCAD, benefit from 40.4% of the total budget of the University! 2.48 A similar pattern can be found in the other professional schools and institutes operating under technical ministries. Internal efficiency is very good, as indicated by the higher pass rates and the lower number of student years necessary to produce a graduate. But unit costs are very high for the same reasons as in the university institutes (under-enrollment, low student/teacher ratios, expensive scientific equipment). INDR, the Rural Development Institute, is an extreme case, with a unit cost of USS17,600 and a teacher/student ratio of 3 to 1. The total budget of these schools, whose students represent only 12% of the total higher education enrollment, is slightly larger than the budget of the four faculties of the University of Dakar which accommodate 81% of the total higher education enrollment. -26- Graph 11 - Distribution of Budget by type of HE Institutions (1988-89) Faculties Faculties 34.8 80.1 MHE Institutes her Instltu?;S6 5.3 0 7.78chools 22.6 ME InS .9 choolqg Other Institutes Enrollment Budget 2.49 In addition, it should be noted that foreign students make up a large proportion of enrollments in the specialized schools and institutes; some institutions have more foreign students than Senegalese ones. At the University of Dakar, 40% of the students enrolled in the seven institutes are foreigners, versus only 14% in the faculties. In three of these institutes, the Senegalese students represent less than 35% of total enrollment. Given the very high unit cost and the absence of cost-recovery mechanisms, the subsidy paid by the Senegalese government on behalf of these foreign students is substantial in the context of the present financial crisis. 2.50 Inflated Social Erpenditures. The Government runs a scheme of scholarships administered by the Ministry of Higher Education and offers student support services through the *Centre des Oeuvres Universitaires de DakaT' (COUD). Scholarship eligibility is determined by a mix of socio-economic criteria (orphan status and family income) and merit considerations ("baccalaur6at" results and high school grades). It is estimated that, in 1990/91, total scholarships amounted to 3.1 billion CFAF, of which 2.0 billion for scholarships in Senegal (11,307 recipients), and 1.1 billion for studies abroad (1,200 beneficiaries). The proportion of scholarship recipients remained stable between 1984/85 and 1988/89 (about 37%), but has strikingly increased in the last two years to approximately 78%. As a result of adjustments in the amount paid to students and the -27- increase in the number of eligible students, the scholarships budget has gone up by 50% since 1984/85. 2.51 There is a concern about the extent of leakage through the attribution of scholarships to students who are not really eligible but who have been able to provide spurious documents (death certificate of the father, income statement, high school grades transcript). It is for example very difficult to accept the notion that 50% of the Senegalese students could really be orphans, as implied by the statistics of the "Directlon des Bourses". 2.52 COUD expenditures have also increased dramaically since 1984 as a result of changes in eligibility criteria for student support. Prior to 1984, only scholarship recipients and clearly defined special cases were eligible for COUD benefits. Since 1984, all Senegalese students are fidly eligible. As a result, the number of beneficiaries has surged from 6,600 in 1984/85 to 12,000 in 1988/89 and 17,000 in 1990/91. Full board is provided to 4,500 students, either on campus or in flats rented by the COUD. Between 1984/85 and 1990/91, COUD expenditures rose from 1.9 to 4.6 billion CFAF, growing at an annual average of 16.2% over the six-year period. This is more than twice the rate of growth of enrollments which was 7.6% during the same period. 2.53 Since COUD resources (including the State's budgetized subsidy) only grew from 1 billion CFAF to 1.4 billion CFAF per annum during most of that period, this resulted in a severe accumulation of arrears: 43 billion CFAF in June 1989, including 410 million CFAF owed by other African states whose students are eligible for COUD services. The financial situation of the COUD has since improved as the budget subsidy was significantly raised, to 3.9 and 4.6 billion CFAF, respectively, in 1989/90 and 1990/91. But correcting the COUD's cash flow problem does not decrease in any way the Governments burden. 2.54 Student participation in COUD expenditures is minimal Students pay symbolic amounts for meals, typically about 6 per cent of actual cost (110 CFAF for an actual cost of 1,650). The price of a student meal has not been raised for the last thirty years. Students are charged 2,500 CFAF a month for lodging, even those living in rented facilities for which the COUD spends 36,000 CFAF a month. Students are also fully covered for medical and hospital expenditures. Student restaurants, lodging and medical facilities operate year round, even during school holidays. As a result, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to maintain and repair the food and board infrastructure. 2.55 Not only are the students' social entitlements high, but in addition these benefits are administered in a very lax manner, owing to a balance of power between the Government and the students which has always been tilted towards the latter. COUD management is not in a position to enforce access and payment rules and there are many instances of fraud. For example, students have "won the right" to be behind in rent payment; a total of 32 million CFAF was owed in back-rent alone in 1990/91, representing about 18% of the theoretical income. There is a large number of "clandestine" dwellers in the student lodgings, which increases electricity and water consumption as .28- well as building wear. Fraud is also common at the restaurants and in the utilization of COUD medical services. 2.56 All things considered, the proportion of COUD expenditures borne by the students does not exceed 16%. To place the magnitude of student subsidies in perspective, it should be noted that in 1990/91 average annual COUD expenditures per student were about 258,300 CFAF, compared with an average public spending per primary pupil of only 38,500 CFAF. Put in a different way, the average annual COUD expenditure per student was equal to 13 times per capita GDP, or 92% of the minimum annual base salary in the civil service. Altogether, expenditures on scholarships and student support services represent more than half the total higher educationbudget (52.2%). Back in 1970, they amounted to only 25% of the university's budget. Since 1985, social expenditures have increased faster than educational expenditures in the higher education budget. In 1990/91. Senegal spent on the average the equivalent of USS 1.708 per student in scholarship and student support services alone, and only US$ 37 per student for educational materials and supplies. Graph 12 - Share of Student Support Expenditures in the Higher Education Budget 100% 80% 20% 1981 1970 1986 1989 Social Expenditures 10 Educational Expenditures In the absence of measures to circumscribe the number of scholarships granted and the number of students eligible for COUD benefits, it is very difficult to anticipate a reducion in the social budget of the Ministry of Higher Education. .29- 257 The financial burden imposed by the Government's student support policies is amplified by the presence of multiple repeaters among recipients of scholarships and beneficiaries of subsidized social services, due to a very "generous' interpretation of eligibility rules for non- performing students. Recently, for example, the scholarship administration had to decide what to do with students who have already repeated twice and who get a derogation to repeat a third time. It was determined that they would be allowed to keep their scholarship in par with students who are reoriented to another faculty after repeating twice in their original field of study. 2.58 International comparisons of public recurrent expenditures for tertiary education indicate that Senegal spends a slightly larger percentage of its higher education budget on scholarships and student welfare than other Francophone Sahelian countries (45% on the average) and definitely much more than Anglophone African countries (only 12% on the average). 2.59 Lack of Modern Management Practices. On top of all the problems raised above, the constrained financial situation of the higher education system is exacerbated by the absence of modern management practices in all aspects of university life. The COUD is a case in point. It is difficult to accept an average cost of 1,650 CFAF per meal served (equivalent to US$ 6.4) which is much higher than the price of a regular non-subsidized meal in many industrialized countries. The COUD is neither organized nor equipped to follow modern cost accounting practices and there is a lack of financial control with respect to food purchases and rent collection. The management of the scholarships program suffers from a similar problem of poor organization, complicated procedures and lack of computer equipment 2.60 Budgetary and financial procedures are very rigid. There is no flexibility in the budget allocation process. Institutions and departments receive the same amounts year after year regardless of the evolution of their enroliments and operating conditions. In terms of disbursement, the university as a whole suffers from cumbersome administrative procedures which bring about delays in the procurement of goods and services. The available budget, insufficient as it is in volume, can never be spent entirely because of the Treasury's very tight control of funds. As a result, many suppliers have stopped honoring orders from university departments. 2.61 Academic management is also an issue. The average duration of the academic year is only 32 weeks. One reason is that there are two periods of final examinations: a first session in July and a second one in October for those who failed in the first session. Classes really start only in mid-November. In other countries, students are in school for as long as 40 weeks. A third of the students acknowledge themselves that the school year is too short" . Thus, a more eFficient use of available resources could easily be achieved by suppressing the second session to prolonge the duration of the academic year. 1"Qualit6 de I'EnseignementSup6rieurau S6negal* la situation des 6tudiants de premiere ann6e, Ministbre de l'Education - CIEM, May 1990. -30- Equity Issues 2.62 Socio-Economic Consideration. As any bureaucracy in a developing country, the Senegalese administration is not immune to political interventions and other forms of improper interference. There have been suggestions that access to scholarships is easier for the children of government officials than for the children of peasants, especially for studies abroad. But apart from this minor aspect, there are no significant factors discriminating against students on the basis of their socio-economic background, considering that access to higher education is open to all "bacheliera", that studies are free and that the living expenses of students are heavily subsidized. However, from a national perspective, the present pattern of resources distribution across the various sub-sectors of the education system raises serious equity concerns. 2.63 Higher education enrollments have been growing faster than enrollments in primary and secondary education. BetweeL 1970 and 1980, for example, the average annual growth rate was 93% in higher education versus 4.7% and 5.2% for primary and secondary education respectively. Since unit costs are typically much higher at the tertiary level (345,000 CFAF compared to 38,500 in primary education), the implication of this trend in enrollment growth is that higher education has been absorbing an increasing share of the government's resources. Each additional university student benefits from public resources which could be used to enroll nine more children at the primary level. In 1986/87, higher education received 15.2% of the total education budget; today, 24.5% of the education budget goes to higher education which caters only to 2% of the total student population, or 3% of any given age cohort. This means that higher education students, who are in a privileged position to gain access to the most attractive and best paid occupations in the economic structure, are heavily subsidized by the bulk of the population while at the same time Senegal is unable to mobilize sufficient resources to provide basic education for more than 59% of the school-age children. Considering that 80% of the students come from an urban background in a country where 60% of the population live in the countryside, it is reasonable to infer that higher education has a regressive impact from an equity viewpoint. 2.64 Gender Discrimination. The rapid expansion of the University of Dakar conceals significant gender discrepancies. Today, girls still make up only 21% of total enrollment despite a slow progress over the past decades. This gender gap is the result of a regressive pattern of participation in the whole education system: in 1983, female enrollment represented 40%, 33% and 21% of total enrollment in primary, secondary and tertiary education respectively. The gross enrollment ratio in higher education was 3.9,for boys versus 1.0 only for girls in 1985. While the proportion of female enrollment in Senegal is well in the range of the other West African francophone countries, with the exception of Cte d'Ivoire which has a higher female enrollment ratio, it is markedly lower than in Anglophone African countries where the average was already 27% back in 1985. - 31 - 2.65 In terms of gender distribution by field of study, girls are best represented at the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy (35%), and worse represented at the Faculty of Sciences (12%). Graph 13 - Proportion of Girls in Higher Educ-ation (%) 1908/89 M 1978/79 9 1988/89 40 3 216 15 12 10-- 10 ** ****e.******* 30 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . .. .-.. . . Total Law Science Medicine Humanities Source: UCAD Rectorst 2.66 The implication of these figures is that higher education contributes to promoting an inequitable pattern of allocation of wealth and status by gender. Moreover, from a global efficiency viewpoint, gender discrimination signifies that a large number of potentially worthy candidates are denied the opportunity to enter higher education, especially in the scientific fields, which is a non- negligible form of wastage of the country's latent human resources. F -32- Condusion "How did you go bankrupt?" Bill asked. "Two ways," Mike said. "Gradually and then suddenly." (The Sun Also Rises) 2.67 The University of Dakar spends every year five times more money to buy medicines for its students and their families and twenty times more money to provide the students with subsidized food than to purchase books or periodicals for the library. This distribution of resources is symbolic of the gradual shift in the university's mission as a result of uncontrolled growth and successful student activism. Over the years, quantitative expansion has taken precedence over concerns for quality and more resources have been devoted to the social aspects of student life than in support of pedagogical activities. The search for academic excellence has been sacrificed in the name of political expedir.ncy and the downward drift is likely to continue unless radical reforms are implemented. Revitalizing the Senegalese higher education system will require a move away from the prevailing social welfare philosophy to a renewed focus on quality and relevance. -33.- III. POUCY OPTIONS FOR IMPROVED COST-EFFEMVENESS "In human affairs the logical future, determined by past and present conditions, is less important than the willed future, which is largely brought about by deliberate choices." Ren6 Dubos Introduckm- the Govenmient's Reform Objectives 3.01 The Government of Senegal has been considering a higher education reform for a few years and much work has been undertaken to elaborate a coherent development strategy for the sector. The March 1991 document entitled "Politique et Strat6gie de D6veloppement de I'Enseignement Sup6rieur" goes a long way towards presenting a lucid diagnosis of the current higher education problems and recognizing the need to focus, as a matter of priority, on the following issues: - deteriorating quality of learning and research as a result of the uncontrolled expansion of enrollments; - poor job prospects for most graduates because of the lack of relevance of many university programs and a low level of job creation in the economy; and - high degree of wastage of available resources due to excessive repetition and dropout rates and the absence of effective management practices. 3.02 The objectives of the reform which the Government intends to carry out include the following elements: - better control of student flows in terms of both access to higher education and internal efficiency; - reform of existing programs and creation of new programs more relevant to the needs of the economy; - introduction of more effective pedagogical methods; - re-structuring of the network of non-university schools and institutes; and - introduction of effective management systems throughout the higher education network. -34- 3.03 This chapter considers various policy options to achieve the objectives of the proposed reform and outlines the elements of an implementation strategy. Defining an Appropriate Reform Strategy 'Alice: Would you please tell me which way I ought to go from here? Cheshire Cat- That depends on where you want to get to." Lewis Carroll 3.04 Compared with other African countries, the Senegalese higher education system has several positive features. It can boast a corps of highly qualified professors and a tradition of academic excellence. Some of the quantitative indicators, such as its share of the total education budget, its unit costs and its student/staff ratios are still relatively reasonable. But it has also many weaknesses and the overall trend is alarming. The Senegalese higher education system is confronted with a paradox characterized by a situation of over-expansion in relation to its financial resources and labor market prospects and of underdevelopment with respect to the quality and relevance of the programs offered as well as in terms of average level of quaiUcation of the labor force. In this context, the authorities are caught in a delicate dilemma caused by conflicting economic and social constraints. From a social and political point of view, the Government is committed to a policy of rapid expansion at no direct cost to the students to accommodate the high social demand. If this trend continues, Le. if higher education remains supply-driven without reference to available resources, quality standards, and labor market needs, the prevailing problems of the university can only increase and become even more unmanageable. Given the number of prospective "bacheliers" and the low level of internal efficiency in higher education, enrollments at the University of Dakar can be expected to double again within the next five years. With the present pattern of expenditures, the higher education sub-sector would require at least half of the total education budget, which would obviously be unacceptable. 3.05 From an efficiency and equity viewpoint, however, the allocation of resources to higher education and the determination of enrollment levels and priority fields of study should reflect closely the qualification requirements of a changing economy and the need to ensure a more equal distribution of education expenditures. Any plan allowing for further unlimited expansion of the higher education system would be hard to justify in the present context of economic slowdown, declining job creation rates, growing graduate unemployment and stagnating primary education enrollments. The most logical option, in that perspective, would be to adopt a demand-driven approach coupled with some cost-recovery measures. 3.06 Whtle implementing such a demand-driven approach would be resisted by the groups who benefit from the present generous admission and subsidy policies, to move resolutely in this -35 - direction is an imperative condition to revitalize the Senegalese higher education system. However, because of the politically sensitive nature of the required reforms, it would be necessary to promote a gradual transition in order to achieve a better balance between the economic and social objectives of higher education. This intermediary approach would focus on consolidating the existing system to provide more relevant and better quality programs. This could be achieved by adopting a strategy of institutional diversification involving the stabilization of university enrollments while encouraging the development of lower cost alternative higher education programs, including private sector institutions. This strategy would imply (i) an integrated planning approach for the whole higher education system, (ii) a controlled growth of the higher education system, (iii) measures to improve the financial and economic viability of the higher education system, and (iv) measures to improve the quality and relevance of higher education. Need for Integrated Strategic Planning 3.08 The first guiding principle of the reform should be that the measures envisaged to restructure and strengthen post-secondary education in Senegal must necessarily encompass all the components of the higher education system. The various sub-systems (UCAD, University of Saint- Louis, specialized institutes and schools) have developed in the past and still operate today relatively independently one from the other. There is a need for a global approach to integrate all the constituting elements of the higher education system into a coherent and balanced framework. 3.09 This requires a long-term vision defining the mission of higher education as an integrated whole, the new configuration proposed to rationalize the existing network of institutions, the respective roles of each type of institution, and the linkages between them so that they can function in a coordinated and complementary way. In this context, each faculty, institute and school would prepare a mission statement and a corresponding institutional plan. Initiatives to establish new disciplines or transform existing programs would need to be integrated into the overall strategic plan underpinning the higher education reform. 3.10 Adopting a vision translated into clear objectives and designing a strategy to reach them would allow the higher education system to move away from the present pattern of unrestricted expansion to a more proactive mode of development Reliance on integrated strategic planning would not guarantee success, but it would provide a framework to assess the risks and constraints confronting the higher education system and seek alternative ways to ensure its long term viability and imp. ove its quality. 3.11 As far as the allocation and utilization of resources are concerned, an integrated approach implies that the pohcy makers adopt a global view when deciding on quantitative expansion, quality improvements and budget allocations for the various components of the higher education system. The number and academic level of new entrants in the higher education system -36- is determined by the evolution of primary and secondary school enrollments. Planning higher education makes it therefore necessary to consider as well the articulation with the other sub- components of the education system, especially the mechanisms, such as the transition between lower and upper secondary school, which directly affect the flow of "bacheliersC. 3.12 The same principle of integrated planning should apply to the use of international assistance to finance higher education projects. A number of specialized schools and institutes established in the past with bilateral or multilateral assistance operate without sufficient interaction with the rest of the tertiary education system. The Senegalese authorities should be careful to impose on donors a common framework to maintain the coherence and homogeneity of the-higher education system. The benefits of diversity in terms of sources of assistance should not overshadow the need for effective coordination. Controlled Expansion 3.13 Given the prevailing financial and economic constraints, it is highly unlikely that the Government will be able to invest to build new facilities in the medium term. Since pedagogical improvements cannot be achieved in overcrowded institutions, it is necessary to take steps to relieve the congestion in existing facilities. Controlling the expansion of enrollments can be accomplished by implementing three sets of complementary consolidation measures: (i) re-distributing enrullments across the network of higher education institutions, (ii) restricting access in selected institutions and fields, and (iii) strictly enforcing university regulations regarding promotion, repetition, and transfer from one institution to another. 3.14 The availability of a master plan to re-structure the specialized institutes and schools provides the Government with a good opportunity to re-distribute students among all existing institutions and facilities. The transformation, re-grouping and, when necessary, relocation of existing schools and institutes should result in a new configuration of the higher education system with less duplications, reduced operation costs, and less enrollment and resource imbalances between overcrowded and underutilized institutions. 3.15 Another way of controlling expansion would be to introduce some degree of selectivity in those institutions and fields where the policy makers want to initiate quality improvements as a matter of priority. It should be noted that a fair amount of selection already takes place at various stages of the Senegalese education system. The notion of competitive examination for the transition between primary and secondary education, and for access to upper-secondary is well established. The same logic, which has always been accepted for the specialized post-secondary schools and institutes, should apply to the other components of the higher education system. Instead of having a hidden selection process at the end of the first year of university studies, as is now the case at UCAD, it would be less unfair, inefficient and wasteful to screen students before they enter a stream .37,- of study for which they may not be fully qualified. Financial incentives could be used to accompany this measure. Scholarships would be made more readily available for students from under-privileged families who are qualified to enter those fields where access would be on a competitive basis. 3.16 In this context, it is necessary to reassess the function of the "baccalaur6at examination in granting automatic access to publicly-financed tertiary institutions. Until recently, raising this question would have been anathema; but in July 1991, the press leaked a statement by the Recteur of the University of Dakar which explicitly mentioned that "the baccalaur6at, as it exists today, cannot be an unconditional passport for access to the faculties". 3.17 The third measure which can make a big difference in controlling the evolution of student flows is the strict enforcement of existing administrative regulations concerning promotion and repetition. The practice of granting concessions ("d6rogations") to multiple repeaters should be eliminated and stricter academic standards should be implemented. Financial Viability of a Consolidation Strateg 3.18 The present economic circumstances make it unlikely that public resources for the higher education system will increase substantially in the near to medium term. Therefore, the affordability of the consolidation strategy proposed here should be a subject of concern. Measures need to be taken to generate additional resources within the existing constraints. Two complementary options are open for consideration. In the short term, the focus should be on finding ways to optimize the use of available resources. In the longer term, means to diversify the souces of finance of the higher education system should be explored. 3.19 While acknowledging the fact that the higher education system is under-funded as a whole, the logical implication of the earlier discussion of costs and financing issues is that significant improvements could be achieved without additional resources. The existing physical, human and financial resources available to the higher education system could be allocated and utilized much more efficiently to provide a better learning environment to the students. This would make it possible to graduate a larger number of qualified young people every year for the same amount of resources. The following four aspects can be identified as areas of potential savings: (i) increased internal efficiency, (ii) more rational utilization of resources in the non-university sector of the higher education system, (iii) improved management practices, and (iv) better targetting of scholarships. 3.20 Increased internal efficiency. The measures suggested earlier to increase the internal efficiency of the four UCAD faculties (strict application of academic regulations regarding promotion and repetition) should result in savings and in a significant decline in the cost of turning out graduates. For example, it has been estimated, using a standard student flow model, that the same number of UCAD graduates could be trained in 40% fewer student-years spent if repetition rates .-38 - were reduced from the present high level to 20% on average. Related social expenditures (scholarships and COUD services) would also come down proportionally. 3.21 ElMination_of tlications. Once the new configuration of specialized institutes and schools is in place and all sources of duplication are eliminated, it will be feasible to explore possibilities to share resources among different institutions in a mutually beneficial manner. This would apply to the facilities, the equipment and the teachers. The transformation of those institutions which were operating below capacity should also lead to significant reductions in unit costs in the non-university sector of the higher education system. The recent transfer of Ecole Polytechnique from the authority of the Ministry of Defense to the University of Dakar provides in particular, a unique opportunity to rationalize and re-orient engineering studies at that institution as well as at ENSUT and at the Facility of Science and Technology. 3.22 Managemen Strengthening management practices in the higher education system would be another way of ensuring that available resources are used in the most effective manner. The process should start at the top, with the definition of objective criteria to allocate resources among the various higher education institutions, as well as within each institution for the distribution of funds among the different departments. At the institutional level, transparent management and accounting practices should be put in place and higher education administrators should be allowed to run their institutions like enterprises rather than bureaucracies as is currently the case. The respective spheres of responsibility for the various segments of the university should be clearly established. Particular attention should be given to the procurement and maintenance functions. 3.23 This new approach would imply more autonomy for the university and the other tertiary level institutions. In return for this drastic change in the governance pattern, higher education institutions should be expected to be fully accountable for their financial management. 3.24 The same principles should apply to the management of the scholarship scheme and of the student support services administered by the COUD in Dakar and the CROUS in Saint-Louis. The Government has indicated its intention to computerize these services as well as the Scholarships Department in the Ministry of Education. However, before introducing a computerized system, the first step would be to modify current practices, define adequate management procedures, and set up reporting processes which would then be supported by a computerized system. 3.25 Containing social xpenditurq. In view of the budget and equity problems discussed earlier, the scholarships program should be streamlined. Scholarships should be restricted to the most needy and better performing students and awarded therefore on a more selective basis according to rigorous academic, social and national development criteria. The Direk ir of the Scholarship Department estimated that if strict pedagogical-cum-social criteria were applied, only 20% of the students would be eligible for a grant. This measure should be designed, presented and implemented in a constructive way, not only as a means of reducing expenditures on non-educational -39- cost categories but also as a positive incentive to reward good academic performance and influence the distribution of students across disciplines. 3.26 The Government has recently taken two dec.sions indicating a more favorable trend with respect to the scholarship scheme. First, there has been a drastic decline in the number of new scholarships awarded for studies abroad, down from about 100 new grants a every year to 15 in 1990- 91 (out of 700 applications). As a result, the balance between scholarships for studies in Senegal and grants for studies abroad has significantly improved. In 1988/89, only 52% of the scholarship budget went to students enrolled in Senegal- in 1990/91, the'proportion rose to 65%. Second, the Scholarship Department is planning to enforce a stricter control of scholarship eligibility for repeaters and to cut down renewals from 8,800 last year to 6,600 this year. The Government should be encouraged to persist in this direction. 3.27 Criteria to determine what proportion of students should be entitled to a scholarship and student support services should also be worked out to achieve a better control of that component of the higher education budget. A global ceiling could be set in such a way as to attain a gradual diminution of the share of non-educational expenditures in the overall higher education budget 3.28 COUD expenditures could also be cut down through the introduction of rigourous measures. Wastage (food products, electricity and water) and fraud should be eliminated. Savings close to 700 million CFAF could be anticipated. COUD facilities could be closed to the students during summer vacations, which would save an additional 360 million. Cost-recovery should be increased to attain a higher proportion of cost-sharing from the students and to suppress subsidies to foreign students in the absence of reciprocal agreements with the countries concerned. Sub- contracting of some functions or services should be attempted. The management of one or two campus restaurants could be rented out to explore whether the privatization of some non-education services could be successfully envisaged in the medium term. For example, instead of taking over the ENS and ENSUT restaurants as he has been requested, the COUD manager could support the establishment of student cooperatives to manage private restaurants in these facilities. 3.29 Diversification of resources. To improve the financial position of the higher education system in the long run and make it less dependent on the government budget, attempts to diversify its sources of funding should be pursued. Three aspects need to be considered at this level: income from research and service contracts, contributions from industry, and user charges. 330 Higher education institutions should actively undertake research and service activities to generate income. Short term courses to introduce working people to new technologies would also be a possibility. But the income-generation objective should not have detrimental educational consequences and overshadow the primary goal of academic excellence and relevance: the research and service contracts should be directly linked to the institution's mission and strictly confined to the -40- area of competence of the academic departments concerned. For example, the University of Saint- Louis's project to develop 1,200,000 a-es of irrigated farmland would be justified only after a teaching and research program in agriculture is duly established. Moreover, it is important to realize that the developmont of income generating activities is constrained by the degree of availability of teachers. At pres.nt, teaching loads are very heavy in most faculty departments; the search for additional income should not divert faculty from their teaching mission. 331 Another possibility would be to encourage the productive sectors to contribute beyond what they already give through taxation. Donations from industry in kind or in money could be sought as higher education institutions attempt to strengthen their linkages with the productive sectors. Financial support from industrial and commercial firms could be generated in the form of grants or scholarships for specific academic or professional programs whose research activities and/or graduates could be of direct relevance for these companies. 3.32 Notwithstanding the social and political difficulties involved in the implementation of this type of measure, higher education institutions could consider the introduction of modest fees to cover some of their recurrent expenditures. In particular, students should share more evenly in the cost of their food and lodging, given the very low level of their present contribution. Even if the amounts thus retrieved cover only a small proportion of the total expenditures, it is important to raise students' awareness of the cost of their studies and of the need for high academic performance to improve internal efficiency. Foreign governments, whose students make up 16% of total enrollments, should also contribute through tuition fees. 3.33 In this connection, a feasibility study on the introduction of a student loan scheme was commissioned by the Government. The proposed loan mechanism, which is being reviewed by the authorities, contains a number of flaws in its present form. The first one pertains to the impact of inflation which has not been taken into consideration in the repayment calculations in the financial projections. With a 10% interest rate as proposed, the program would run a 40% loss if one were to take the current inflation rate (9.8% on t!,e average) into account. The second drawback concerns the suggested administrative arrangements ("Fonds National de I'Emploi" or "Petits Projets Ruraux") which may not be adequate to keep management costs and defaults low. To be effective, tha student loan scheme should not be heavily subsidized and it should involve a credible and efficient collection agency. 334 From the university managements point of view, it is important that the resources saved or raised should be allocated to the concerned institutions rather than disappear in the government budget. For the past few years, for example, the Faculty of Medicine has provided laboratory analyses and medical consultations on campus against the payment of fees, but the income thus generated has been taken by the Treasury instead of helping the Faculty of Medicine compensate for its insufficient budgetary allocation for educational and medical supplies. The rectorat's project to codify a system of "service activities" with specific allocation criteria for the -41 - income generated by such activities might provide a better budgetary and admiistrative framework for such activities. As a general principle, higher education institutions should not be penalized for being successful in raising addition.. funding or utilizing their resources more efficiently. Rather, institutions with innovative financing strategies should be rewarded with additional goveznment subsidies. 335 Finally, efforts towards regional coordination and cooperation should be revitalized. But rather than focusing on the creation or consolidation of supra-national centers of excellence, which have traditionally proven difficult to support, it might be more effective to concentrate on the identification and strengthening of national institutions or academic programs with a potentially convincing regional orientation. Economies of scale benefits could result from this approach, especially for graduate education and research. Improving Quality and Relevance 336 Once a new framework is put in place to obtain a more manageable balance between enrollments and resources, it will be possible to implement measures to effectively improve the quality and relevance of the higher education system. Because the Senegalese university, like most African universities, was initially established as a faithful imitation of the French university, it has embedded the Eurovean tradition of continuity and conservationism instead of becoming integrated in the economic and .,ocia) life of the country. To become a real "universit6 du d6veloppement" (development university), as advocated by the Government's reform documents, the Senegalete university needs to evolve into a real instrument of change. One of tie key factors constraining economic growth in Senegal is the high cost of production which renders most local products and services uncompetitive. In au increasingly knowledge and technology driven world economy, it is clear that Senegalese firms need competent professional and managerial cadres to transform their production processes and raise their productivity to competitive levels. The university must therefore have the capacity to train the high level manpower and produce rr adapt the scientific and technological knowledge necessary to promote economic growth. 3.37 Improvements in the quality and relevance of higher education could be achieved through a variety of complementary actions: (i) changes in access requirements, (i) establishment of more relevant programs, (iii) innovations !n pedagogical practices and organization, (iv) more adequate provision of pedagogical inputs, and (v) revitalization of the research function. 338 Tightening admission standards in selected institutions and programs (para. 3.12) would not only serve the purpose of better controlling the overall expansion of the higher education system, but would also help raise the average level of new entrants. The presence of better qualified students, in turn, would boost academic performs ,;e and reduce wastage. The Faculty of Medicine is the only institution which has teen able to int.I uce some elements of screering in the -42 - recruitment of its new students. There is no entrance examination per se, but strict criteria (age and "baccalaur6at" results) are applied to choose the most promising students. Even though the Dean and his department heads consider this system - which has no legality at the present time - to be still insufficient to restrict quantity and select good students, it certainly makes a difference as evidenced by a comparison of the pass rates at the end of the first year of studies in the Faculty of Medicine (with some degree of selection) and the Faculty of Sciences (without any selection) which recruit from the same pool of science "bacheliers". Even in those fields where open admission remains the rule, serious attempts should be made to revive the Orientation Committee to ensure that students choose the area of studies for which they are best qualified and motivated. 3.39 The relevance of the higher education system would be improved through the dySWmntf rokUhignaized rgM.ms either by creating new courses or by transforming existing programs into professionalized programs. These renovated programs could operate either as independent university institutes or as special programs within an existing faculty ("instituts universitaires professionalises" or "filibres universitaires professionalis6es"). This type of approach would not be totally new in the Senegalese system. Examples of similar programs can be found in a number of institutions, for instance the "Institut des Sciences de la Terre" within the Faculty of Science and Technology. For several years already, the Department of Geology has been running two parallel programs: a general, open-access geology course to train science teachers which is plagued by problems of low quality and poor efficiency as a result of overcrowding, and a specialized, limited-access course to train professional geological engineers for the mining industry. The postgraduate course in environmental sciences run by the Fhculty of Sciences, the Institute of Applied Languages at the Faculty of Humanities and the postgraduate course in management at the Faculty of Economics are other variations along the same principles. 3.40 The duration of these new professionalized programs should be determined by the qualification requirements of the workplace rather than traditional academic criteria. This means that a variety of relevant short programs (1 to 2 years) and long courses (3 to 5 years) could be designed to accommodate industry's needs for different levels of technical manpower. Multiplying the number of two-year technician training courses along the IUT model might be worth considering. Suitable equivalences ("passerelles") should be established to allow progression from one type of training to another, especially for people with relevant professional experience. This diversification strategy should also help the university reduce the pressure of the social demand for higher education. 3.41 Inviting representatives from the productive sectors to participate actively in the definition of new programs, the identification of relevant research endeavors, and in monitoring the management of institutions would also contribute to making the higher education system more attune to the development needs of the country. Such participation should take place also in the specialized institutes and schools under the authority of various technical ministries as the programs in these institutions should no longer be geared exclusively to the needs of the administration but to the .43. manpower needs of the productive sectors at large. Training for self-employment should also be part of this strategy. 3.42 In Saint-Louis, careful attention should be given to the definition and selection of the new programs in order to build up a genuinely development-oriented regional university rather than duplicate traditional courses similar to those already offered in Dakar (law, humanities). 3.43 Pedagogical methods and organization can be improved in many ways. First, it is essential to upgrade the academic qualification and pedagogcal competence of teachers through appropriate in-service training programs. The existing Teacher Training Insitutes (ENS and ENSETP) could be called upon to play a key role in this process. 3.44 Second, the introduction of a credit system on a pilot basis should be considered to potentially replace the existing system of final examinations. This type of academic organization, which could be set up only in departments without excess enrollments, would have several advantages over the prevailing pass-or-fail final examination system. The internal efficiency of the departments involved would increase significantly with the disappearance of the widespread phenomenon of repetition. The quality of learning would improve as students would be assessed on a continuous basis. Finally savings could be achieved by avoiding duplications of courses taught in as far as several faculties would be served by a given department for subjects included in the curriculum of different specializations (e.g. languages, informatics, statistics, mathematics). In this connection, the suppression of the second se.sion of final examinations in September/October of each academic year would allow for a longer period of studies. An experiment is currently underway at the Faculty of Humanities, in the departments of Geography, History and Philosophy, to introduce a modular approach with core courses and optical courses and a system of continuing evaluation. The preliminary results indicate much higher success rates in these subjects (between 18% and 68% versus an overall rate of 13% the previous years.) 3.45 Third, the quality of education could be improved by establishing independent achievement measurement mechanisms to set and preserve. high standards of performance. Introducing a system of external accreditation for advanced scientific disciplines could be an option. 3.46 Pedagogical Inputs. The savings generated through the reallocation of funds and a more efficient use of resources and the additional funding mobilized through the various measures discussed in the previous section should be used as a priority, to improve the quality of teaching, learning and research. Standards of provision for the full range of pedagogical inputs should be established and followed. For example, it will be necessary to ensure that all buildings and equipment are properly maintained and that scientific laboratories and workshops are adequately equipped and well resourced with consumables. -44. 3.47 Upgrading the university libraries is also a priority. No institution of higher learning can operate without a well-stocked and up-to-date library relevant to the teaching and research needs of the various academic departments and institutes. Adequate resources should therefore be set aside to ensure an adequate provision of basic textbooks, periodicals and other relevant materials and to maintain good collections of technical books. 3.48 BvitalizingreseaM. To revitalize research in the higher education system, the priority is to establish a coordination and guidance framework at the institutional level. The first task would be to make an inventory of on-going and planned research activities as well as of available scientific assets (laboratories and equipment). The next step would be to identify areas of priority and define mechanisms and incentives to orient research projects in such as way as to make the best use of available resources, both human and financial. While it is clear that Senegal does not have the scientific base or tne resources to carry out high level research in many fields, the experience of small industrialized countries like Denmark or Finland shows that impressive achievements can be obtained by concentrating resources in well-defined areas where the country has a comparative advantage. Research in the Senegalese institutions of higher education should be focused on solving real development problems in tropical agriculture, tropical medicine, renewable energy and environmental sciences. A basic condition of success will be the capacity of the academic research community to link up with the non-university specialized research institutes and the productive sectors. 3.49 A national blueprint for the consolidation of high-quality graduate training and research programs would be prepared in accordance with the above areas of priority. Among the mechanisms which could be used to strengthen the local research capacity, the following complementary approaches could be envisaged: - training of young faculty in centers of excellence of industrialized countries; - recruitment of Senegalese scientists established in Europe and North America; and - establishment of linkage programs with institutions in advanced countries on the basis of Senegalese research priorities. Reform i Xon Matr&s 3.50 The various measures contained in the proposed reform strategy are summarized below in the form of a matrix showing the breakdown of each measure into actions and indicating which institution(s) would be responsible for implementation of the reform components. - 45. Objectives of the reform: To Improve the quality, relevance, coherence, efficiency and sustainability of the higher education system. Measures Actions Institution(s1 responsible 1. Rely on - establish a reform Government integrated implementation structure strategic planning - prepare medium-term Comit6 de Suivi de la R6forme development plan (mission of each institution, enrollment pattern, resource allocation, intervention of donors) 2. C o n t r o I - restrict access in selected MOE and UCAD quantitative institutions and felds expansion - distribute enrollments across the Commission d' Orientation re-structured network of HIE institutions - enforce existing regulations UCAD regarding promotion, repetition and transfers 3. Ensure the - increase internal efficiency UCAD financial viability of the HE system - eliminate duplication Comit6 de Suivi de la Rforme - strengthen management practices UCAD, USL - streamline the scholarship Direction des Bourses scheme - reduce COUD coverage and MOE and COUD expenditures - generate additional resources HE institutions Improve quality - tighten admission standards HE institutions and relevance - develop professionalized HE institutions programs -46- Measures Actions Institution(s) responsible - increase linkage with the UCAD, USL productive systems - improve pedagogical methods HE institutions - upgrade teachers UCAD - experiment with the credit system ENS and ENSUT - establish and enforce norms UCAD, USL for pedagogical inputs - upgrade the university libraries UCAD, USL Implementation of the StrateV There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success than to take the lead in introducing a new order of things.' Nicolai Machiavelli 3.51 The reform program needs to be translated into a detailed implementation plan with specific priorities and target dates for the various measures envisaged. This plan should be based on: - an enrollment map showing, for the next four years, the projected distribution cf new bacheliers and progression of students across the various components of the higher education system in its revised configuration (after implementation of revised admission and derogation policies as well as consolidation of duplicate programs and institutions); - a renovation glan identifying projects to establish improved or new higher education programs with a clear definition of objectives and means (professional orientation, enrollment capacity in relation to planned facilities and staIX scientific and pedagogical equipment requirements, curricula and pedagogical methods); a financial plan spelling out the budgetary implications of the 2ew pattern of distribution of enrollments and of the quality improven ent measures envisaged; -47 - - a ationalization plan delineating the measures envisaged ti reduce student subsidies, including the restructuring and rationalization of COUD; - a m aMent plan outlining the respective implementation responsibilitie s of the various institutions involved in overseeing and administering the higher education sector; and - a comMunication plan describing the marketing strategy envisaged to achieve a national consensus on the higher education reform. 3.52 The time dimensign should be realistically weighed in the preparation -of this implementation plan. There is a need to recognize that the reform is a long term, incremental process, that institutional change requires a long span, and that the measures outlined in the previous pages cannot all be executed at the same time. What is important, however, is to set the reform in motion without any delay and to take the first steps in the right direction. This requires to carefully define priorities and translate them into a critical path of key changes to be initiated consecutively. Furthermore, in order to avoid major academic and social disruptions, a gradual approach should be favored over abrupt transformations. 3.53 Political Marketing. The efficiency improvement, cost-saving and resource reallocation measures proposed in the reform strategy will necessarily affect the distribution of education benefits among groups. While the benefits of the reform will be felt in a diffuse way in the short term, the negative consequences might have a more direct impact on specific groups. Higher education students, who at present represent one of the most privileged and most vocal groups in Senegalese society, will certainly feel a reduction in the overall level of financial support. They are therefore likely to oppose the reform package, which can lead to serious implementation difficulties. Hence, designing and implementing a skillful political marketing campaign will be an important factor of success in the transition process. 3.54 The need to address the political sensitivity of the proposed reform implies a process of information, consultation and consensus-building to engage in.a constructive dialogue with all the involved actors: students, academics, parents and employers. To achieve credibility, the recommendations for change must come from independent committees representing the various interest groups involved, as happened during the 'Etats G6n6raux" of 1981. It will be critical to emphasize that the reforms envisaged will bring tangible benefits in the medium term, even if there is a difficult adjustment period at the beginning of the reform process. A good marketing strategy outlining the expected benefits (improved quality of the learning experience for students, increased autonomy and flexibility for administrators, and enhanced working conditions for teachers) should be followed to generate popular mobilization and support for measures which middle-class parents and students will be very reluctant to accept. Engaging in a constructive debate over the range and level of subsidized services currently enjoyed by students could be an effective way of putting their claims in perspective. In any event, the first steps will certainly be the most difficult given the prevailing high level of political activism. . .48- 3.55 Finally, it will be important to put in place, right at the outset of the change process, a properly staffed structure with the authority and capacity to play a leadership role to initiale the reform, monitor its implementation, and measure the impact of the new policies. At present, there is no institution in Senegal with the authority and the means to coordinate higher education development at the national level Establishing a credible reform implementation structure will therefore be a critical task. A comprehensive information system (enrollments, budgets, performance indicators, tracer studies, ...) will be au indispensable tool for the satisfactory accomplishment of its ISSIon. Concluion 3.56 Eight thousand new bacheliers are expected next year and the year after, which means that enrollments at UICAD could double again over the next two years. There is a need to urgently address the fundamental conflict between the social demand approach which has fueled the expansion of higher education since independence and the present constraints to growth imposed by limited budgetary resources and a stagnant, if not contracting labor market. 3.57 Implementing the strategy outlined in the previous pages should lead to significant improvements in the quality and relevance of university education by reducing overcrowding and introducing better pedagogical practices and more appropriate programs. A more rational configuration of the network of higher education institutions and the introduction of efficient management methods would also make more resources available to the higher education system. 3.58 In the final analysis, however, the challenge of revitalizing the Senegalese higher education system is not a matter of overcoming the lack of financial resources or the scarcity of managerial capacity. It will depend, essentially, on the ability of the Government to take courageous decisions and implement effective measures to achieve a bette: control of the flow of students, increase internal efficiency, and streamline the scholarships scheme and student support services. This will require a deliberate effort to build a consensus to allow the reform strategy to be executed with minimal political and social resistance. While there seems to be a convergence of views on the objectives of the reform and on the urgency of its implementation, the Government has yet to produce a detailed action plan with specific priorities and target dates to show how the various components of the reform package would be implemented. -49- IV. BMBLIOGRAPHY Buâock, A. and French, T., (1990). 'Higher Education Book Sector Study Report", International Book Development, London. Camara, O., (1978). L'Ensignement Supgrieur au SénégaL Ministère de rEnseignement Supérieur, Dakar. CIEM, (1990), "Financement et Gestion du Centre des Oeuvres Universitaires de Dakar", Ministère de l'Education Nationale, Dakar. CIEM, (1990). «Aspects Financiers de l'Enseignement Supérieur', Ministère de l'Education Nationale, Dakar. CIEM, (1990). «Qualité de l'Enseignement Supérieur au Sénégal: la situation des étudiants de premibre année', Ministère de l'Education Nationale, Dakar. CIEM, (1990). «Analyse de la Faisabilité d'un Système de Préts aux Etudiants", Ministère de l'Education Nationale, Dakar. Direction des Affaires Scientifiques et Techniques, (1991). 'La Recherche à l'Université", Ministére de l'Education Nationale, Dakar. Gaillard,D.,(1988). "Histoire et Développement de la Conmunauté ScientifiqueSénégalaise', in GAILLARD, J. "Les Chercheurs et remergence de communautés scientifiques nationales dans les pays en développement', Doctoral Thesis STS/CNAM, Paris, 1989. Goreux, L, (1991). "Ajustement et Sous-Emploi Urbain au Sénégal, Paper presented at the National Employment Symposium, Dakar. Lo, G. S., (1991). 'Descriptions Statistiques 1990-910, Université de Saint-Louis. Nian& S., (1991). Rapport Annuel pour la Rentrée Universitaire 1991-92. Université Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar. Rectorat de l'Université de Dakar, (1991). 'Politique et Stratégie de Développement de l'Enseignement Supérieur', Dakar. Rectorat de l'Université de Saint-Louis, (1991). 'Perspectives d'Evolution de l'Université de Saint-Louis', Université de Saint-Louis. Sene, D., (1983). Etude de l'impact de la recherche agronomique sur le développement agricole au Sénégal Paris, CIRAD. USAID, (1990). "Summary Assessment of the Education Sector in Senegal". World Bank, (1986). *Republic of Senegal Cost and Financing of Education', Report No. 6081-SE, Washington D.C.. .50. Annexes -51 - ANNEX A A PROFILE OF THE HIGHER EDUCAT[ON SYSTEM IN SENEGAL 1. EISTORICAL BACKGROUND The Senegalese higher education system is the oldest in West Africa. It is also one of the largest and most prestigious in Francophone Subsaharan Africa. It was founded in 1918, with the School of Medicine of Dakar as its first institution. Other higher learning centers were erected afterward, including the French Institute for Black Africa (IFAN)I, created in 1935. In 1950, all of these institutions were merged into the Institute of Higher Studies. The institute carried on the dual- mission legacy of its constituting units which was: (i) training an elite body of indigenous civil servants for the colonial administration, and (ii) teaching through that body the French language and culture. It played a major regional role for an extended period of time. Most of the higher level training activities for West Africa which were not done in France were carried out in SenegaL In 1957, the Institute became the University of Dakar. A year later, when the university was opening its doors to instruction for the first time, the National School of Administration2 came into existence. Both institutions were passed on to Senegal following its independence in 1960. Subsequently, the University of Dakar became UniversitM Cheikh Anta Diop (UCAD). Between 1960 and 1972, about a dozen more institutions were set up. The list includes, among others, the National School for Rural Extension Technicians (ENCR, 196u), the Interregional School for Veterinary Science and Medicine (EISMV, 1961), the French Language and Civilization Program (CLCF, 1962), the National School of Applied Economics (ENEA, 1963), the Center for Training and Upgrading in Administration (CFPA, 1965)), the University Institute of Technology (IUT, 1967 decret)3, the School for Lbrarians, Archivists and Documentation Specialists (EBAD, 1967), the National School for Social Assistants and Specialized Instructors (ENAES, 1968), and the Institute for Information Science and Technique (CESTI, 1970)4. 1IFAN, which once stood for Institute Frangais dAfrique Noire, is now called Basic Institute for Black Africa (Institute Fondamental d'Afrique Noire). 2 This school was initially called Ecole Nationale d'Aministration du Mali, as a regional institution for the Mali Federation. It became National School of Administration of Senegal (Ecole Nationale d'Administration du S6n6gal, ENAS) at the breakup of the Federation, before being erected into its present status of National School of Administration and Magistracy (ENAM). 3The current offspring of this institute is the National Advanced University School of Technology (Ecole nationale superieure universitaire de technologic, ENSUT) 4An extensive account and dates of creation of these institutions can be found in: "L'enseignement sup6ricur au S6n6gaL faits et chiffres.', by Ousmane Camara, former minister of higher education of Senegal CLCF, which stands for Cours de langue et civilization franaises, is now the French Language Institute for - 52 - The fast pace at which these institutions were created reflected the pressing needs for highly trained manpower to be injected into the newly independent economy. However, well into the 1960s, there was still a pronounced mismatch between the field mix of university graduates and the needs of the economy. Also, virtually all higher learning programs were part of the French educational system. One corollary of this institutional affiliation was a high international standard of training which UCAD enjoyed for quite a few years. Degrees offered at UCAD were highly regarded in African Francophone countries, and fully equivalent to those awarded at UCAD's counterparts in France. The other corollary was an inappropriate program content which induced many Senegalese to be dissatisfied with the whole educational policy. In 1968, various national interest groups voiced their criticisms of that policy. Under pressure from the Dakar Students Union, Association of African Teachers of Senegal, Association of Physicians and Pharmacists, Senegalese National Labor Union, and other socio-economic organizations, the first major reform of the higher education system in 1969. The reform aimed at bringing higher education more under national control, and at adapting the structure and content of higher learning programs to the social and economic realities of SenegaL In 1972, UCAD was detached from the French university system and underwent significant changes in terms of administration, curricula, nationality mix of the teaching force, and extent of student participation in the decision-making process. By the mid-1970s, as a result of the reform policies begun in 1969, the number of tertiary education institutions and the size of their enrollments had grown extensively. The scope of training areas broadened beyond the traditional arts and humanities fields to encompass science and technology which were severely lacking. Nevertheless, these changes were not sufficient and discontent with the schooling system mounted again. More policy reforms with varying areas and degrees of emphasis were launched but accomplished little. The most recent rrform was initiated in 1981. After the "Etats-Generang" meeting in June of that year, a reform preparation committee worked for three years. But the reform proposal presented to the Government in August 1984 has not been implemented as of today. 2. INSITUTIONAL STRUCURE AND SIZE As in all African Francophone countries, the higher education system in Senegal is patterned on the French modeL It is highly centralized and essentially public. The bulk of it is under the authority of the Ministry of Higher Education (MEE). The rest is administered by technical ministries according to their fields of direct interest. The structure of the system is pictured in Diagram A.1. The diagram shows that, in tierms of administrative control, the higher education system in Senegal comprises two major distinct components. The first and most important one consists of the two universities of Dakar and Saint Louis, and of seven other institutions attached to the University of Dakar. All of these are overseen by the MHE. The second component is Foreign Students (Institut Frangais pour les 6tudiants 6trangers - IFE). - 53- numerically smaller, but disproportionally significant in terms of resource use. It consists of eleven professional training institutes under the auspices of six different technical ministries. 21 Universiti Of all the higher learning institutions in Senegal, UCAD is by far the largest and fastest growing one. With an enrollment of 17,946 students in the 1990/91 academic year, it houses 90% of the Senegal's tertiary education population, or nearly 18 times more than its enrollment in its second year of operation. This represents, on average, an expansion rate of almost 10% per annum between 1959/60 and 1990/91. UCAD comprises four faculties and six university institutes. The faculties of Law and Economics, Letters and Humanities, Science and Technology, and Medicine and Pharmacy constitute, size-wise, the core of UCAD. The faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy has exhibited over time a sharp contrast vis h vis its counterparts. Not only has it maintained the lowest enrollment levels, but it has, as well, experienced the lowest average annual growth rate of 6.4% during the 1981-1989 time span, against 11.8% for Law and Economics, 9.1% for Literature and Humanities, and 10.1% for Science and Technology. The university institutes have had smaller enrollments. Their expansion has been more under control than that of the faculties; the average annual increment has been around the 5.2% mark for the 1968/69-1988/1989 period. The ratio of their enrollment to that of the faculties has fallen from 1:10 in 1970/71 to 1:17 in 1990/91. The only exception is ENSUT. With a yearly average of 11% increase over a ten-year period (1968/69-1988/89), ENSUT has outgrown even the fastest growing faculty, whereas ENS and CESTI had only a 5% increase. The share of female enrollment in total enrollment of Senegalese nationals has not been impressive in the context of middle-income country. The proportion has not been able to exceed 12.7% in the faculty of Science and Technology, 13.9% at the Interregional School of Veterinary Science and Medicine, and 19.1% in the faculty of Economics and Law. In contrast, it has peaked to 23.2% in 1987/88 in Letters and Humanities, 333% in both 1982/83 and 1983/84 at the CESTT, 34.1% at the ENSUT in 1988/89. The largest proportions have been 50.5% in the faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy in 1982/83, and 53.3% at the EBAD in 1973/74. To lessen the burden of this enrollment explosion on UCAD and its affiliated institutes, and in an attempt to alleviate the demand pressure, the idea to create a second university in Saint Louis was put forth in 1968. Many donors, including The World Bank, did not support the idea. The project proceeded anyway, and the university opened its doors in November 1990. With an initial enrollment of 600 students, it is expected to grow and reach its full capacity of 4500 in 1993/1994, with more emphasis on scientific and technological fields than on traditional arts and humanities subjects as in UCAD. f 2.2 Other Institutions Under the Auspices of the Ministry of Higher Education In addition to overseeing the development and operations of the above two universities and their affiliated institutions, the Ministry of Higher Education supervises directly seven -54- other tertiary schools, including the Interregional School of Veterinary Science and Medicine (EISMV). Compared to the university system, these institutions have relatively levelled-off enrollments, around the thirteen hundred mark in total. 2.3 Institutions under Technical Ministries The tertiary education institutions under the administrative and financial control of the technical ministries are intended primarily to provide stidents with basic and specialized skills specifically needed within the respective administrating departments. There are eleven of them to date, the majority being located in the Dakar area. Their recruitment mechanisms are governed by a quota system which is itself controlled by employment opportunities in the sponsoring ministries. This has kept enrollments from skyrocketing the way they have in UCAD. The recent economic crisis and structural adjustment program in Senegal have reduced the hiring capabilities of the potential employers of these schools' graduates. As a result, all of the institutions are now operating way below their theoretical capacity. About one third have less than 50% of their planned maximum student population. Aimost half of this fraction fails to reach 30% leveL 24 Teaching Staff lAvels Overall, the growth of higher education teaching staff in Senegal has closely followed that of enrollment. The ratio of enrollment to teaching staff has remained fairly constant, in the neighborhood of 24 to 1 in faculties and 6 to I in the institutes. This aggregate figure masks a wide variation across disciplines. In 1989 for instance, it spread in the faculties from 12:1 in medical sciences to 54:1 in law and economics. It is considerably lower in the institutes, and ranges from 3:1 at ENSUT to 5:1 at CESTI. The nationality mix of the teaching staff has drastically shifted. From less than 2% of Africans in favor of European expatriates in 1960, it is now approximately 89% for faculties and 76% at university institutes. While this change entails sustainability for local manpower development, and helps in cost containment efforts, its pace is a source of concern. The stiff change has been considerably skewed towards lower level posts, i.e. towards too many inexperienced and less trained teachers who, in the short run at least, can only deliver lower quality instruction. Of the 601 teaching personnel at UCAD faculties in 1990, only 22.6% are ranked as either professors or senior lecturers. The lowest ranked teaching staff amount to 46%. The structural skewedness is not any better in the finiversity institutes, where only 3.9% of the faculty are $This category comprises the asistants and atrachds assimOds only, and comes in ascending order after the three categories of maftres assistants, chargds d'enseipements, and professeurs and matres de confdrences. professors, 16.1% are researchers', and 41,7% are lower level assistants. 2.5 Program Offerfio Programs of studies are offered in ten major areas: Letters and Humanities, Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Veterinary Medicine, Exact and Natural Science, Law, Economics, Teacher Training, and Technology. Enrollment distribution among these streams is significantly geared towards traditional liberal arts (letters, humanities, economics, and law). Natural and medical sciences, and technology lag far behind. As shown in Table B.2, 15 types of degrees are granted at seven different levebs. The normal program length varies from two years for the lowest level degrees (diplmes universitaires, and drifmes d'dtudesg6ndrales) to eight years for the highest eegree (doctorat). In reality, because of high class repetition rates, the times spent to graduate at any of these levels are much higher than the theoretical duration stated in the table. 3. FINANC[NG AND MANAGEMENT 3.1 Antonomy and Governance Government involvement in the management of higher education institutions is quite extensive in SenegaL Not only is the government dominant in the governing board, but it also appoints the university rectors and institute directors. It allocates the budget in its various components (sholarships, student welfare services - COUD, personnel, etc.). It determines the structure and contents of program offerings, staffing levels, size of enrollments, and norms for student admission into the system. As a result, there is not much autonomy, nor are higher education institutions made accountable for their academic and financial performance. 3.2 Aggregate Spending Since 1970, the public expenditure on higher education and its shares in various basic macroeconomic indicators have risen continuously. In real terms, higher education spending increased from 10.4 billion CFAF in 1986 to 12.2 billion CFAF in 1988, of which one million CFAF and 1.1 million CFAF were funded by technical ministries, respectively. The proportion of higher education expenditures in the national budget rose from 53% to 5.6%. Within the educational budget, their share grew as well, from 20.0% to 22.5%, presumably at the expense of primary education which experienced a budget decline of 2% points in 1988, down from 46% in 1986. 'Of the 41 staff classified as researchers, 32 are at the Fondamental Institute for Black Africa (IFAN), and the remaining nine in two other institutions. - 56 - Patterns of expenditure varied greatly among institutions, on the one hand, and among flnctional accounts within a given institution, on the other hand. Out of the 5.1% of public sperding allocated to higher education in 1987, only 0.4% was incurred by the technical ministries. This share is not low, given the fact that the share of these ministries' institutions in the overall enrollment is even smaller. EPT and ENAM are the biggest consumers of financial resources allocated to this category. In the 1989 fiscal year, the two institutions had a combined budget of 783 million CFAF out of a total of 1300 million CFAF. As one can gather from Table 21, over four consecutive years (1986-1989), they absorbed annually more than 57% of the budget of nine institutes.7 EPT alone spent 30.4% in 1986 and 36.3% in 1988. A breakdown of the Ministry of Higher Education's budget reveals that more than half of the resources has traditionally gone to items such as fellowships and student auxiliary !rvices (COUD), rather than to pedagogical purposes: 27.3% of expenditures were for local and overseas training fellowships, and 25.6% for welfare services (lodging, food, health services and transportation) for students educated domestically. This represents an increase in non pedagogical spending from 39% in 1985 to 52.9% in 1988. Recent 1989 and 1990 budget allocations confirmed that expenditures on this item continued their upward trend as enrollments have not ceased to grow. The demand of the UCAD system (faculties and university institutes combined) on the budget of the Higher Education Ministry ranged from 37.5% in 1986 to 37.3% in 1988, that is, from 3566.5 million CFAF to 4126.7 million CFAF. From these amounts, the group of faculties' which trained between 81.3 and 91.7% of the student body received 65.7 and 68.6% during the same period (see Tables B.16 and B.17). The distribution of spending between the four UCAD faculties has been skewed but remained relatively s-.able over the past five years. On the average, the faculties of Medicine and Pharmacy, and Science spend 66% of the total faculties' budget, for a corresponding ratio of enrollments of 41%. Personnel expenditures represented between 71 and 81% of the total, with 36% to 60% going to teaching staff, and 9% to 24% to administrative staff. Budget allocations to the university institutes experienced a slight decline from 934.3 million CFAF in 1986 to 932.1 million CFAF in 1988, exclusive of stipends. Their total share in the UCAD budget also decreased by 3.6 percentage points from 34.9% in 1986. In this group, ENS and ENSUP (whose enrollments decreased from 63.5% to 48.8% of the institutes' total) consumed at least 76% of the resources. The biggest recipient of all was ENSUT, with 52% of the budget of five in 1986, against 51% in 1988. 7The ConsezvatoireNadonal de Musique et d'An Dramaique (CNAMD) and the Gentre d'Enseinemen Supdrieur en Soas Inffimiers (CESSI) are not included, due to the lack of data. 'In these statistics, the French Language.Institute for Foreign Students (IFE) is counted as part of the Faculty of Letters and Humanities. -57 - The recurrent costs of the seven institutes operated by the Ministry of Higher Education were about 1100 million CFAF in 1989, representing approximately 10% of total expenditures or. higher education. The staffing costs were less than 50% of total, in contrast with the university system where such costs were very high. In regional comparative terms, public recurrent expenditures for tertiary education in Senegal follow the profile of other low income Subsaharan African countries. Senegal spends a slightly higher percentage of its higher education budget on scholarships and student welfare (51%) than other Francophone universities in the low income Sahelian countries (about 45% on average). However, the contrast with Anglophone African countries is striking. Anglophone countries spend far less on student subsidies (average about 12%) and considerably more on teachers emoluments (85%) than Francophone institutions (about 55%)- 3.3 Institutional Unit Casts Patterns and trends of unit costs vary greatly among institutions under the same managerial control, across groups of institutions under different ministerial supervision, as well as within any given institution. The variations are not only due to inherent differences in resource requirements of educational strearr s, but also to managerial inefficiencies and contrasts in enrollments. The unit cost is on the average lower for the group of institutions under the auspices of the Higher Education Ministry than for technical ministries. In 1988, it cost six times more to train in the technical ministries' institutions than in those of the Ministry of Higher education. The unit costs went down between 1986 and 1988, from nearly 500,000 CFAF to 418,000 CFAF for all instiutions administered by the Miistry of Higher Education. For the same period, it increased slightly from 3,526,000 CFAF to 3,539,000 CFAF for other institutions. In the university system, the unit costs ranged from 490,000 CFAF in 1986 to 450,000 CFAF in 1988, against 513,000 CFAF and 353,000 CFAF in non university MHE institutes. The annual recurrent cost on a per student-year basis at the University of Dakar (faculties only, and excluding fellowships and expenditures for student services - COUD), range from 8,9100 CFAF for the Faculty of Law and Economics to 216,100 CFAF for Sciunce and 366,960 CFAF for Mdicine. 'aese unit costs, although representing respectively 34, 82 and 139% of Senegal's GDP per capita, are not high by international comparison. However, unit costs at the university institutes are considerably higher, with those at ENSUT and ENSETP reaching 1.5 million CFAF and 36.3 million CFAF in respectively. In the professional schools operated by technical ministries, the unit costs are also very high, varying from 406,000 CFAF to 513,000 CFAF on average. f .58- TECHNICAL NOTES ,AccMMUn Secondary-school-leaving certificate, obtained after six years of primary education, followed by seven years of secondary education (divided into four years' lower and three years' upper education) in secondary institutions of general or technical education. The baccalaurat gives access to higher education. aEMAr trAFUWr A rsexemorr om rAzW Examination taken after one year's study in the Advanced Teacher Training College. Candidates must have the licence. The qualification entitles them to teach in the first phase of secondary education. CWrA TrArnDB A MEUSERmr SCCINDAM sAES Examination taken after one year's study in the Advanced Teacher Training College. Candidates must have the mattrise. The qualification entitles them to teach in the upper phase of secondary education. amWnATDEmDESsuPERURES( Certificate of higher education, awarded after between six months' and one year's study. In order to obtain a ficence or a matrise, a number of certfficats d'Otudes supeieuzes are required. DW4WD E=SAM%0FCDIS(E Diploma of the third cycle awarded in certain scientific specialities after one year following upon the award of the matrise. DIe vsrum EawommuE DENEAmwS cEDaW Qualification obtained at the end of the first two-year phase in economics. DvuxmEUDEsmiuQUEsOENRAx.(DEW Qualificationobtained at the end of the first two-year phase in law. DMOeDEDEsU URm (DUE Qualification of higher education awarded in law and economics after one year's study following upon the award of marise. D=xWR uNERSrARE vEsDuEmSrmAWEs&mmUE Qualification awarded at the end of the first two-year phase in humanities. mcamA=sr m mzas wn snrun (um Qualification awarded at the end of the first two-year phase in science. DLouz uNasrATu Dz TzcssEowom M Qualification awarded at the end of two years' study in a university institute of technology. Outstanding students may continue into higher education. vcraAr The highest degree of higher education, awarded to candidates already holding one or more degrees of higher education. The qualification of docteur is also awarded on completion of stu. s in medecine, dental surgery and veterinary medecine. DoctRATvwrAr Degree of higher education, awarded in pharmacy, currently after at least three years of study following the award of dipl6me d'Etat and after completion of a thesis. -59- vcroATzDBzCw=ETR=mcTc. Degree of higher education awarded at present in humanities and dentistry, after two years introduction to research and following completion of a thesis. macz Degree awarded after three or four years of study. In humanities and science, the course is divided into two phases. The irst phase consists of two years broadly-based studies leading to a diIdme universiftire d'dtudes scientffques (DUES) in science, and dipl6me universitaire d'dtudes Etterairer (DUEL) in arts. Candidates have to pass a number of examinations at the end of each year. The second phase lasts one year. Anxm= Diploma of higher education awarded after four years of studies. The first two years are the first cycle which is shared with the licence, and consists of basic studies. The.second cycle is also of two years and leads to a more advanced knowledge. In the humanities, the first year of the second cycle leads to the ficence. The second year involves the presentation of a m6moire, or short thesis, and the acquisition of a certifcat d'6tudes supdzieures. In science, the second year is devoted to the acquisition of several CES. The maltrise is required for the third cycle and for careers in research. . SENEGAL QЯGANIGRAMME DES ETABLtSSEMENTS 0'ENSEIGNE, d1�WLSUPERfEUR иа[1SТЕнЕ � wN�атЕг�а тЕСfмilоиЕа t�Епислпои в•вв•вввввввввввввв•ввв•ввввв гИТ10ицЕ �� 11М:[ТП11Е ИПТ1011АL в �Ра�г8 auP�ER1EUR ОЕ L'EOtJC11T10M А GU [iПОП� и1АУЕil9ПЕ �� ��� EOOlE8AN3TПU18 ЕАЕИ ,�� Ет EOOtE POl..Y1ECifвOllEOE 11�3 s1 LOU19 ..�.���!! EOOLE NAi10MMlE uNRE fлси.тЕа мЕатЕтэ жUЕташ►г �у (Уюwвапипои D'Et�f9E�+EtEEM ииnгЕгвllтлiRЕ8 сЕи[мЕ в оЕ 1E�W.4EOM111HE а оЕ йЕсиЕис�+Е M1Ef�DENQ CFPA СЕМ[1Е ОЕ fO1WATi0M а ОЕ r�EriFECT1DMNEEEEM АОМММВТМ?� OOиSERVAiO1AE 1N11DNAtE lCOIE NO1l11ME � �� � гС. �lw�D�Out fctгKEf [� сlЧг�Е ОЕ О'AHf OMIMEAT10l� �Ri wrЕмплiЕ пиЕпiони[нЕит � сит•�[ OOIE lwT�OмW.E t1E9 аЕ�ылс• 1с. [саиогr0иЕ [[саиом0iхг Еоа[ гиnог+�ц[ м w+r•uE �иcwsE ЕЧВА ft Ok GtSi10и цREПEtURE ECOIE ИАг10lЧlЕ гиги[гиг�0�[ sаЕИСп uиnnwi�м[ [иSиг [xSwssisг�иrt Ewwcf •OOLE NOEEEEAI£atrPERiE1N1E � nROMMrpI�E • гЕСии�риЕt ОЕ г[аМ+о10GЕ{ fОСfА1Лг � EplG►iEUnf Еи9ЕА •Е[>`�CJ1110N Ч1Т�ВТqи1Е ltгrllEf • «t1RES Е♦ ECOIE n[f sксЧиЕ[ц � E�70LE О'ANCгfrEC11JПE кtткгг м�г+л�и[s гскип: wиоги[• а QtrRe�и�sмE нигw.Еf GaEf. мсиl- [а0 саЕ и�nоЧiиЕ [иtл У1l11Ef % [10C1F ЕСр/рМЕ А!►l1pUEE н[асыЕ в • Е 9uPEErEu1iE ОЕа h��в 11[NTAE1S1Ef ECOIf 1NTE11•ЕМЕг OlS Е�у [р��Е10fК fB�T NAER9� СЕи1ПЕ pfruoES ic1lисЕf в МЕПfСм�Е orf кiЕисЕт в �[гt�ми�ЕS fEtECOIMIиiCдTloN пsn ------ г[C1MOuEf ОЕ ECOtti tUnOr•цlt ��� ►'4вСМьЕг�►110и' 0[f CA0111f R1МииК 1иСв гАигЕ (F,� D•EиSE10tlEEAEtR tCOIE г1О11fЧLЕ 1г1гЕ1гUТ NA110NAL [1Е ��� wrEмtuRE avrto►м[иг Rииц � 1� EнSOrиsмFMiAмEfq огии�м[м[ит [ияn мптигЕнЕwьws- са�в+асЕ �yw ЕОаЕ8иРЕгЕЕиRЕоЕ и� а мпиwир,Е оЕ'Ени�Gи[мси Ккw E;EStqи []Es маЕSS�оиигЕ с�г i и+cws ENTEiEPA�sES мsтиг ос IEGENOE: ETABLfSSEMENTS REGtONAUX POUR l'Afll1QU Е""�^'г гO1R rE ОЕ L'OUEST ut Егиоиигs • Е Е МиG(11f � Anr�ex В ТаЫеs 61 Table B.1 Degrets and Duration of Training in Major Fields Degrees and Duration Fields of Studios -------------------------------------------- 2 3 4 .1 5 6 7 8 ------------- ----- . ................................... Arts & Humanities DUEL L M DS Pedagogy CAM CAES Economics DEEG L DES Law DEJG L DES Exact & Natural Sce DUES L M DEA Tochnology DUT Medicine D Donistry D DS Pharm-acy DEP D Voterinary Medicine D/P Notes: CAEA certificat d'aptitude à l'enseignement moyen CAES certificat d'aptitude à l'enseignement supérieur D doctorat DEA diplôme d'études approfondies DEEG diplôme d'études économiques générales DEJG diplôme d'études juridiques générales DEP diplôme d'Ezat de pharmacien DES diplôme d'études supérieures DS doctorat de spécialité de troisième cycle DUEL diplôme universitaire d'études littéraires DUES diplôme universitaire d'études scientiques DUT diplôme universitaire de technologie L licence M maitrise P Professional Qualification CAEK is a one-year program for holders of licence, as is CAES for holders of maitrise. Sourc.q: Encyclopedia of Higher Educatîon. - 62 - Table B.2: Evolution of Enrollments by Level of Education Year Primary Secondary Tertiary 1980/81 419,748 92,171 12,673 1981/82 452,679 100,420 11,754 1982/83 499,066 109,202 11,366 1983/84 533,394 113,017 11,293 1984/85 567,059 120,897 11,678 1985/86 583,890 129,864 12,712 1986/87 610,946 136,873 14,749 1987/88 642,063 145,734 16,048 1988/89 658,102 161,713 14,833 1989/90 682,925 172,000 16,582 1990/91 716,600 185,000 17,810 Source: Ministry of Education - 63 Table 3.3: Evolution of the Number of "Bacheliers" Year Arts Economics Math Natural Tech. Total Science 1981 924 124 302 1102 426 4883 1982 685 176 310 832 356 - 2360 1983 588 182 321 718 277 2084 1984 848 312 .A 926 353 2773 1985 934 259 339 1132 312 2976 1986 1007 303 340 1032 239 2921 1987 1390 273 519 1308 533 4033 1988 1479 307 383 1209 402 3840 1989 175 40 47 145 72 479 1990 3054 271 391 1369 347 5432 Source: Ministry of Education -64- ble BA: New Entrants at UCAD Faculties 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Law 320 262 357 396 371. 539 552 69 693 Economics 619 317 433 436 478 617 618 98 -822 Science 576 540 712 799 685 981 954 73 920 Humanities 448 279 439 510 606 870 1013 109 1331 Medicine 126 104 109 117 101 131 103 19 91 Pharmacy 70 75 129 88 117 206 184 14 180 Dentistry 26 27 25 33 28 38 47 7 44 TOTAL 2185 1604 2204 2379 2386 3382 3371 389 4081 ource: UCAD Rectorat. - 65 - Table 3.5: Total Enrollment at UCAD by Type of Academic Unit ANNEE UCAD FACULTIES INSTITUTES Total % Seneg. Total % Seneg. Total * Seneg. 1959/60 1,012 33 - - - - 1960/61 1,018 39 - - - 1961/62 1,260 34 - - - - 1962/63 1,476 28 - - - 1963/64 1,799 28 - - - - 1964/65 1,822 31 - * - - 1965/66 2,139 28 - - - 1966/67 2,814 26 - - - - 1967/68 3,109 32 - - - 1968/69 2,502 50 2,268 47 232 81 1969/70 3,054 53 2,781 53 273 59 1970/71 4,284 55 3,886 54 398 64 1971/72 4,690 60 4,279 59 412 66 1972/73 5,319 61 4,937 62 439 59 1973/74 5,847 65 5,220 66 590 64 1974/75 6,697 70 5,998 71 699 62 1975/76 7,312 71 6,477 72 917 57 1976/77 8,014 73 7,097 74 917 65 1977/78 8,753 75 7,627 75 1,126 70 1978/79 10,309 76 9,000 76 1,309 71 1979/80 11,677 75 10,053 76 1,624 70 1980/81 12,673 76 11,077 77 1,596 69 1981/82 11,754 76 10,100 78 1,654 64 1982/83 11,366 76 9,734 78 1,632 62 1983/84 11,293 79 9,707 82 1,586 64 1984/85 11,678 80 10,208 82 1,470 66 1985/86 12,712 81 11,277 84 1,435 56 1986/87 14,749 83 13,343 86 1,406 55 1987/88 16,048 85 14,620 88 1,428 52 1988/89 14,833 86 13,568 82 1,265 54 1989/90 16,582 - 15,291 87 1,291 - 1990/91 17,810 - 16,610 - 1,200 - Source: UCAD Rectorat. - 66 - Table B.6: Enrollment at UCAD by Faculty Year Law and Sciences and Medicine and Literature and Economics Technology , Pharmacy Humanities TOTAL % TOTAL % TOTAL a TOTAL * GIRLS GIRLS GIRLS - GIRLS 1968/69 457 8,7 414 10,0 731 19,6 668 21,8 1969/70 648 7,9 459 7,6 759 20,4 915 21,6 1970/71 1058 9,8 502 8,0 987 19,2 1339 20,8 1971/72 1219 10,8 535 8,1 1054 19,0 1471 21,8 1972/73 1405 12,2 600 11,7 1173 17,4 1759 20,3 1973/74 1584 12,3 588 12,0 1201 17,2 1847 19,2 1974/75 1869 13,4 794 12,0 1237 19,0 2098 21,0 1975/76 2099 34,2 809 12,7 1330 17,3 2239 20,5 1976/77 2421 16,1 988 9,1 1428 19,6 2260 20,5 1977/78 2637 16,0 1000 9,4 1532 22,2 2458 20,0 1978/79 3304 17,3 1190 9,5 1668 24,7 2838 20,1 1979/80 4204 18,3 1302 7,8 1896 25,2 2653 21,5 1980/81 4701 18,4 1621 6,7 1997 26,5 2758 20,2 1981/82 4298 18,4 1739 9,0 2041 30,6 2022 18,8 1982/83 3604 18,3 1806 9,5 2184 50,5 2140 19,8 1983/84 3135 19,1 1938 9,6 2309 33,7 2325 21,3 1984/85 3418 18,4 2218 11,4 2435 35,4 2137 22,6 1985/86 3770 17,4 2349 11,5 2486 36,4 2672 21,0 1986/87 4364 18,1 2940 11,4 2718 37,5 3321 22,5 1987/88 4419 16,2 3257 11,7 2803 36,6 4141 23,2 1988/89 4284 18,4 2960 11,7 2502 34,9 3822 22,6 1989/90 4976 - 3260 - 2419 - 4636 - 1990/91 5322 - 3413 - 2306 - 5393 - Sourge: UCAD Rectorat. -67- Table B.7: Average Rates of Repetition (t) 1981/82 - 1986/87 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year 5th year h year 7th year Law 55 43 36 12 Economics 52 33 44 7 Science 30 36 33 20 Literature and Humanities 35 33 47 47 Medicine 52 9 30 9 12 61 70 Pharmacy 32 35 23 15 4 Dentistry 16 26 20 20 Source: UCAD Rectorat. -68- Table B.8: Graduates of the University of Dakar Year Law Economics Humanities Science Medicine Institutes TOTAL 1980 154 202 400 138 252 301 1,447 1981 204 249 444 133 214 312 1,556 1982 182 200 445 164 160 327 1,478 1983 193 308 488 169 166 360 1,682 1984 71 152 285 115 152 397 1,172 1985 91 270 391 181 201 321 1,455 1986 125 245 404 213 176 253 1,416 1987 125 136 290 204 206 314 1,275 1988 - - - - - - - 1989 126 164 439 222 18. 287 1,419 1990 124 101 633 124 120 238 1,340 Source: UCAD Rectorat. -69- Table B.9: Teaching Staff by Faculty Year Law and Economics Medicine and Sciences Literature and Pharmacy Humanities Afr. Tot. I %Afr. Afr. Tot, %Afr. Afr. Tot. %Afr. Afr. Tot. %Afr. 1977/78 24 45 53,3 77 135 57 36 78 46,1 28 68 41,1 1978/79 26 45 57,7 81 151 53,6 36 83 43,3 42 78 53,8 1979/80 34 52 65,9 95 154 61,6 42 96 43,7 48 81 59,2 1980/81 39 62 63,9 105 159 66,0 55 110 50 53 89 59,5 1981/82 43 62 69,3 111 158 70,2 60 107 56 62 94 65,9 1982/83 44 61 72,6 117 162 72,2 67 116 57,7 70 99 70,7 1983/84 50 67 74,6 123 170 72,3 62 114 54,3 77 .107 71,9 1984/85 52 70 74,3 130 166 78,3 73 123 59,3 81 109 74,3 1985/86 51 65 78,5 133 169 78,7 90 133 67,7 88 100 80,0 1986/87 59 70 84,3. 155 190 81,6 112 149 75,2 97 110 88,2 1987/88 68 77 88,3 167 201 83,1 124 157 79,0 103 115 89,6 1988/89 71 79 89,9 184 211 87,2 131 164 79f9 109 119 91,6 1989/90 75 82 91,5 202 224 90,2 148 178 84,2 111 117 94,9 Source: UCAD Rectorat. I -70- Table B.10: Teaching Staff by Grade Category 1985/86 1989/90 Law & Medicine Science Liter. Tot Law & Medicine Science Liter. Tot Economics & & Tech. & Economics & & Tech. & Pharmacy Human. Pharmacy Human Professors 15 65 30 14 124 15 67 34 20 136 and Senior Lecturers Associate 1 5 10 9 25 4 7 12 4 27 Professors Assistant 16 15 47 48 126 15 23 57 57 152 Professors Instructors 38 105 62 39 244 48 127 75 36 286 TOTAL 70 190 149 110 519 82 224 178 117 601 oure: UCAD Rectorat. - 71 - Table B.11: Student-Teacher Ratio in 1988/89 (0) FAculty Law and Economics 54 Medicine and Pharmacy 12 Science and Technology 18 Literature and Humanities 32 Total Facrities 24 Institutes ENSUT 3 ENS 6 EBAD 10 CESTI 5 EISMV 12 IFE 12 Total for -nstitutes 6 Source: UCAD Rectorat. - 72 - Table B.12: Evolution of Education Budgets (bilion CFAF) Year GDP Government Education Higher Budget Budget Education I_ Budget 1982/83 848.9 184.8 37.0 - 1983/84 944.7 166.9 38.6 6.1 1984/85 1021.2 221.3 44.6 6.3 1985/86 1158.1 200.0 46.1 6.8 1986/87 1303.4 230.0 47.1 7.2 1987/88 1382.4 236.4 48.0 7.5 1988/89 1483.3 241.6 52.4 8.9 1989/90 1478.0 242.0 62.5 12.1 1990/91 1589.7 226.0 62.0 15.8 Source: Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Education - 73 Table B.13: Evolution of UCAD Budget - Year Enrollment Total Budget Non-wage Expenditures Total* Per student Total* Per Student 1984/85 11,678 4,460 381,910 1,707 146.150 1985/86 12,712 4,270 335,900 1,356 106,700 1986/87 14,136 4,285 303,100 1,228 86,900 1987/88 16,048 4,649 289,700 1,410 87,900 1988/89 14,833 4,880 329,000 1,430 96,400 1989/90 16,582 5,462 229,400 1,757 105,960 1990/91 17,810 6,145 345,000 1,977 111,000 1991/92 19,000 6,161 324,260 1,694 89,160 *mllion CFAF Source: UCAD Rectorat -74 TabIlB.14: Dakar Universihy Unit Costs by Faculty Faculty 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 (a) Thousands of CFAF Law and Economics 70 59 68 Medicine and Pharmacy 304 277 278 Science and Technology 192 165 164 Humanities 127 111 96 (b) As a of GDP/Capita Law and Economics 38.7 30.7 34.0 Medicine and Pharmacy 168.3 144.3 138.8 Science and Technology 106.3 85.9 81.9 Humanities 70.3 57.8 47.9 (c) Graduate-year Unit Costs as a of GDP/Capita Law 277 220 243 Economics 171 136 150 Science 709 573 546 Humanities 362 298 247 Medicine 1016 871 838 Pharmacy 636 545 525 S2urce: UCAD Rectorat -75- Table B.15: Capacity of and Erolment at ProfessinalIn~tttes ACTUAL ENROLLMENT Insttion Capacky 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90 AverageAnal Rateof Enrolmet U- CEPP de Dakar 16 16 45 80 80 80 60 ENEP 250 - 64 50 47 47 46 51 20% CNFMR 60 - 9 10 9 11 5 9 15% ENAES 100 - 95 96 94 86 89 92 92% ENETF - 182 178 153 120 114 150 INSEPS 124 114 112 105 94 84 79 98 79% ENE 300 - 232 252 102 112 127 165 55% Sages-femmes 100 - 107 81 83 98 99 94 94% CESSI 100 - 47 49 44 38 46 49 49% ENAM 480 45 31 19 18 27 33 29 19% CFPA 480 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 - Conservatore NI ENSEA 335 382 435 421 468 408 - ENCR - 34 43 45 44 40 41 IINDR 237 79 84 86 68 72 79 33% ENS 200 - 38 41 53 52 56 48 24% ENSETP 150 - 527 537 505 450 431 490 327% 200 - - - - - - - - Source: Ministry of Education. Table B.16: Proposed Restructuring Plan E--bassements Emblasnmrw propoes après rmgroupement Observadns 1. CESAG -------- 1. CESAG - sans dangement 2.: CESSI--- ------ - 2.CESSI - autonie administracive 3. C3EST ,3. E N A:Ece Na- - instlaioau lTdu 8eaux Arm siége actuel du 4. CFPA. ,a d esAM~dqu CEST (?) 4. E N C D: Ec-instalaion au . CPL. de Comm.- siège actuel de on Des unwsuma«o". EBAD CNMD A -, S. EISmv ans chagemenc . E A V .EAU\ \. 6. E N A :ol. Naoe d'Admd auonomiser la judiciare .E A D insca6c au E V(Eo de justce . ENAES..7\ ENAM 7. ENEA Occupation incensive ( Ecolededouan.s) du siège actuel de rENEA ENBAI 8. E N S T: Ecoe Nomala Suprre d - me dans les 0 rEnigne locaux de EN~5 /R'f $ ~ rENSIT. ENCRENETP E , N00 CR 9. E PT E N E A . #_1 / i />\ >10.ETAU:Ecldo ation au ENYS //acloge.d'a«rch~cre et J,ige actuel de 'ENSUT ENS.EA I.ESMT \0 ([iF E ) ENSET (po 1~ E N S E T P - Jre ersescecsImme --SUT (El Incégration au sein la FacuIz6 E0 m N L A: TdeN enki des lemtes et sciences hum~es E P T / 2 I 1NL.A :hunsasNadona de ngud- quE (ou d .0gu0 Ai) • insdllation au siège actuel de E S M T riSBEA 001\13. I N S D R: :Inmdm Nadona Supr~u l F E -'Devwloppw~e Rurd • n laion au sifge actuel INDR Thiés - ~ ou a ambey I. iN SE PS .-- - -le. N E S. sans dhangemnent 1. INSEPS 1.NESdagmn .4. ISBEA /