Pakistan - The Pakistan national conservation strategy : where we are, where we should be, and how to get there (Vol. 1 of 2)

'g-5 THE PAKISTAN NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY C WHERE WE ARE WHERE WE- SHOULD BE, i AND HOW TO - | - GET THERE D ENVIRONMENT & XL THE URBAN AFFAIRS WORLD , ; e SDIVISiON, .iCONSERVATION i K GOVERNMENT _ _ UNION >5 # OF PAKISTAN_  CONTENTS Preface vii Acknowledgments ix Executive Summary xv IVEiI PAKISTAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1 Chapter 1. Pakistan in the Context of the Global Environment 9 Chapter 2. The State of Pakistan's Environment 21 Chapter 3. Resource Use Impacts and Linkages 67 Chapter 4. Existing Institutions 91 Chapter 5. Present Policies, Instruments and Programmes Related to the Environment 107 ajI ELEMENTS OF THE NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY 129 r "^ Chapter 6. Objectives, Principles, and Instruments 137 - Chapter 7. Issues and Opportunities in the Primary Sectors 151 Chapter 8. Issues and Opportunities in the Secondary and Tertiary Sectors 207 Chapter 9. Supporting Programmes 239 ajj IMPLEMENTATION ARRANGEMENTS 273 Chapter 10. Action Agenda and Implementation Strategy 279 Chapter 1 1. Government and Corporate Institutional Development 315 Chapter 12. Co-operation with Community Organizations and NGOs 339 L A Chapter 13. Financing the NCS 345 Annexes 361 Glossary 365 List of Acronyms 367 Index 369 v  DREFACE q n the completion of the National Conservation Strat- effectively transferred expertise, leaving behind a capability egy (NCS), Pakistan joins a small and select group of on the part of the NCS teams to help implement the strategy. nations that care enough about their future to plan The process -workshops, seminars, public hearings, v4 their development within the context of a national lectures, and the work of the Journalists' Resource Centre - environmental plan. created a constituency of people who have taken the central For a country faced with a complexity of socio-eco- tenets of the NCS to heart and have spun off a plethora of nomic problems, this is no mean achievement. Perhaps even activities and institutions that has created its own momentum: more significant, it is a clear indication of the growing sense that of an environmental movement. of urgency and seriousness with which environmental prob- As environmental awareness grows, so too do expec- lems are preceived and their solutions sought today in tations. People look to the solutions formulated by the NCS to Pakistan. provide direction and a central reference pointagainstwhich It was stated frequently in the three years of planning sustainability is measured. The government's seriousness of the strategy that it is both a product (the document) and a intent can be demonstrated by its endorsement of the NCS process - consensus building and the mobilization of a recommendations. constituency of support. In the preparation of the strategy there has been acute The product brought together the greatest number of awareness among these involved in both the product and the experts ever in Pakistan to focus on the way their sectors process thatfinedocuments and policies do notmakechange affect and in turn are affected by the environment. By - people do. The key to change is the ability to implement undertaking this exercise they became sensitive to and the recommendations of the technical experts, practitioners, supportive of environmental concerns, and developed a pool and advocates of good environmental practice. Thus the of expertise that never existed before. The Pakistanis who implementers must inevitably be the people of Pakistan. It is worked on the NCS were suported by a team of international to them and their success that this strategy is addressed. specialists, who by working with them on specific areas Collectively, we can green our future. vii  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS he Pakistan National Conservation Strategy (NCS) key sectors. important inputs were also provided by Tariq has emerged after consultation with some 3,000 Husain, consultant (for Chapter 12). Substantial contribu- people, mostly in Pakistan, over a period of three tions were made throughout and especially to the final years (I 988-9 1). Itwas prepared under the direction version by Azheruddin Khan (for Chapter 12) and Adil of a Steering Committee that oversaw its development from Najam (for Chapters 9, 10, and 1 1), both of the NCS staff. concept to final approval. Linda Starke, consultant, edited the document. It is not possible to adequately acknowledge all the The IUCN Country Office and its staff, under the people who contributed to the NCS, but those who deserve direction of its Representative, Aban Marker Kabraii, and its special mention played a pivotal role in its accomplishment: Programme Administrator Nasir Dogar, provided wide pro- grammatic support. The Journalists' Resource Centre of oo- the Steering Committee (listedl on page x), IUCN, under Media Director Saneeya Hussain, established > sector paper authors, who provided the background key media links to the process and was responsible for the material synthesized in Part 1 of the NCS (listed on page production of this documentand all other publications related xi), and to the NCS. > Syed Ayub Qutub, NCS Co-ordinator and principal The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) author. supported special NCS programme activities such as the __ ___ __ __ sector workshops, which contributed greatly to the Major contributions to the first draft were made by process. Alistair D. Crerar, NCS Co-ordinator from May 1988 to The entire process has been funded from inception to October 1989. Valuable contributions to Parts 1 and 2 of the the completion of this document, and on to the next stage of second draft were made by George Greene and R.O. implementation by the Canadian International Development Cobham, consultants. Other specific inputs included com- Agency (CIDA). Their active interest in, and continuous ments by Federal and provincial agencies, especially revi- support to, the environmental agenda in Pakistan, is grate- sions by drafting subcommittees (listedcon page xiii)for certain fully acknowledged. ix  NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY STEERING COMMITTEE MEMBERS 1. Deputy Chairman, Chairman Planning Commission. 2. Secretary, Deputy Chairman Ministry of Housing and Works, Environment & Urban Affairs Division. 3. Secretary, Member Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives. 4. Secretary, Member Aariculture Research Division. 5. Secretary, Member Ministry of Water and Power. 6. Secretary, Member Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources. 7. Secretary, Member Ministry of Industries. 8. Secretary, Member Economic Affairs Division. 9. Secretary, Member Women's Division. 10. Syed Babar Ali, Member/Resource Person Managing Director, Packages Industries. 11. Mr. Khursheed Marker, Member/Resource Person Chairman, PICIC. 12. Mr. Shoaib Sultan Khan, Member/Resource Person General Manager, Aga Khan Rural Support Programme. 13. Mr. Javed Jabbar, Member/Resource Person Chairman, MNJ Communications. 14. Mr. Hameed Haroon, Member/Resource Person Deputy Chief Executive, Pakistan Herald Publications Ltd. 15. Mr. Alistair D. Crerar Secretary Co-ordinator NCS, 1 988-89. 16. Syed Ayub Qutub, Secretary Co-ordinator NCS, 1988-91. x  NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY A * * A 3 A SECTOR PAPERS 1 Agriculture Dr. Ghulam Rasool Sandhu 2 Energy Ashfaq Mahmood 3 Environmental Health General (Retd) Dr. M.l. Burney 4 Fisheries Dr. Nasim Akhtar 5 Forestry M.l. Sheikh & Abeedullah Jan 6 Heritage Conservation Fauzia Qureshi 7 Human Settlements Dr. Mohammad Aslam Khan 8 Industrial Discharges Dr. Muhammad Hanif 9 Industry Dr. Junaid Ahmed 10 Livestock S.M. Ishaq 1] Marine & Coastal Resources Aban Marker Kabraji 12 Mining M. Nawaz Khan 1 3 Municipal Discharges Dr. M. Nawaz Tariq & Dr. Waris Ali 14 Natural Capital Abdul Latif Rao & Abeedullah Jan 15 Over Harvesting Mehjabeen Abidi-Habib 16 Population Dr. Mohammad Irfan 17 Soils M. Alim Mian & M. Yasin Javed 1 8 Tourism & Recreation Farooq Ata 19 Water Use & Misuse Khalid Mohtadullah, Chaudhry Ata-ur-Rehman & Chaudhry Muhammad Munir PRESCRIPTIVE PAPERS 20 Administration Syed Ayub Qutub 21 Communication Adil Na jam 22 Education Dr. Azhar Rizvi 23 Environmental Economics Dr. Omar Noman 24 Environmental Legislation Tariq Bilal 25 Grassroots Institutions Dr. Tariq Husain 26 Population Planning Dr. Zeba A. Sattar 27 Regional Development Alistair D. Crerar 28 Research & Technology Dr. Junaid Ahmed 29 Women in Development Khawar Mumtaz xi  NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY DRAFTING SUB-COMMITTEES WATE R Maj. Gen. (Retd.) Agha Manzoor Rauf Additional Secretary, Ministry of Water and Power. Abeedullah Jan Inspector General of Forests, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives. Dr. G. R. Sandhu Resource person. Mohammad Rafique Chaudhry Director General, Soil Survey of Pakistan. M. Rafiq Member, Pakistan Agriculture Research Council. Dr. Shahid Ahmad Head, Water Resources, Pakistan Agriculture Research Council. Abdul Hafeez Qaiser Chief, Water Resources Section, Planning and Development Division. M. A. Mughal Chief Engineer, SCARPs Monitoring Organization, WAPDA. M. Akhtar Rana Chief Engineer, Punjab Irrigation Department. LIVESTOCK AND RANGELANDS Dr. M. Anwar Khan Joint Secretary (Livestock), Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives. Dr. S. M. Rafique Range Management Officer, Pakistan Forest Institute. Dr. Arshad Zahoor Project Director, Livestock, Baluchistan Department of Livestock. Dr. Bakht Roidar Khan Director, Arid Zone Research Institute. S. M. Tayyib Director, Barani Livestock Production Research Institute. Dr. Nasir Butt Project Incharge, Forage, National Agriculture Research Centre. xii  NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY AGRICULTURE Dr. lmtizaj Hussain Agriculture Development Commissioner, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives. Dr. G. R. Sandhu Resource person. Mohammad Rafique Chaudhry Director General, Soil Survey of Pakistan. F O R E S T S Abeedullah Jan Inspector General of Forests, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives. Dr. G. M. Khattak Resource person. Mark Treacy Resource person. M. 1. Sheikh Resource person. Sultan Barq Private forester. xiii  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT Pakistan are difficultto predict, butcould potentially be large, affecting patterns of agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. In Global Context wet areas, the monsoon is expected to become more vigor- umanity's impact on the earth and its resources has ous; arid areas could become drier; the receding of mountain increased at an unprecedented rate with every de- glaciers may reduce inflows for irrigation agriculture; and cade in the last two centuries, and with every year in low-lying areas may become salinized by saltwater intrusion the most recent decades. Human activities are now owing to sea level rise. affecting some of the most basic climatic and biological In terms of global co-operation on these issues, Pakistan cycles of the planet. Pakistan, with a per capita gross isan importantcontracting party toa number of international national product just one-ninth the world average, is neither conventions. But several other key agreements, such as the a major global polluter nor a large consumer of resources. ocean dumping convention, also merit the government's The average Pakistani contributes only one-seventeenth the consideration. Pakistan has recently joined and contributed world average of carbon dioxide emissions, the greenhouse to the newly established Global Environmental Facility gas responsible for half the global warming expected in the managed by the World Bank; projects to draw from this next few decades. Pakistan produces no chlorofluorocar- facility should be prepared expeditiously. New international bons and few sulphur dioxide emissions, and thus makes a initiatives, such as a global environmental charter and an negligible contribution to ozone depletion and acid rain. agenda forthetwenty-firstcentury, arealsobeingdeveloped. Although global marine fisheries are reaching the limits of Pakistan, in consultation with similarly placed and like- harvesting, for example, Pakistan is a small, in fact an under- minded developing countries, should vigorously contribute to represented user of the global commons. this debate in order to secure favourable formulations. Yet Pakistan is a densely settled land, facing rapid Further on the horizon are proposals on which the country's population increase and highly dependent on natural re- position should be carefully prepared, such as an environ- sources, with severe physical capital scarcities and limited mental security council within the United Nations. In sum, the skill development. As such, it is likely to suffer dispropor- world is entering an era of increasing global complexity but tionately from climate change and other global environmen- also unprecedented opportunities in the context of which tal problems. The implications of the greenhouse effect for Pakistan's environmental issues must be considered. xv  State of Pakistan's Environment in several areas. Simultaneously, overgrazing has brought Pakistan, the tenth most populous country in the world, has the down the productivity of rangelands to as little as 1 5-40% of fourteenth highest rate of increase among countries with their potential. Since Independence, growth in grazing more than 1 million people. It covers only 0.67% of the livestock populations has been dramatic, primarily along world's land, contains 2% of the world's people, but in the field borders, between tracts of cultivated land, and along next 10 years will account for 4% of world population river banks in intensively managed irrigated lands, which growth. Pakistan's natural resources and environment are produce 78% of the fodder. Yet the relatively small share of critical to its future. expansion in drylands has led to overgrazing. Three-fourths Less than 20% of the 88 million hectares of the country of the animals are of nondescript species, and the livestock (including Northern Areas and AJK) has the potential for sector is caught in a downward spiral of too many sick intensive agricultural use. The amount of cultivable land is animals chasing too little feed. nearly matched bytheamountof land actually being cultivated. The coastal strip of Pakistan is arid, and mangrove leaf Yet Pakistan has ample potential to increase its agricultural litterconstitutesamajorsourceofnutrients, Primaryproductivity production, by multiple cropping and increasing yields per of mangrove-covered deltaic areas is four to seven times hectare. Many institutional and physical reasons account for those of coastal areas without mangroves. Most tropical the low intensity of use-and low outputs. The most important marine species pass at least one stage of their life cycle in physical sources are water and wind erosion, salinity/ mangroves. Yet mangroves are under increasing environ- sodicity, waterlogging, flooding, and loss of organic matter. mental stress from reduced freshwater flows, from sewage Watershed lands in the upper Indus and its tributaries and industrial pollution, from fodder, fuelwood, and timber suffer from quite unfavourable soil and moisture regimes, and extraction, and from clear-felling for development. Fisheries their management for forestry, agriculture, and soil and makeasmallbutsignificantcontributiontoPakistan'seconomy water conservation leaves much to be desired. Areas (0.8% of gross domestic product [GDP], but 3% of exports). classified as forests cover 4.57 million hectares, or 5.2% of The level ofeffortperunitcatch hasbeen rising with increased the land area of the country, of which less than 3 million harvesting, and the landings of large and medium-sized hectares areactuallyundersomeformoftreecover. Closed shrimp collapsed a number of years in a row during the cover forests account for less than a million hectares. Ac- 1 980s. celerated surface erosion is reducing the life of the reservoirs The country has a great variety and richness of fauna, on which irrigation depends. flora, wetlands, and other wildlife habitats and landscapes. Pakistan relies on irrigation for more than 90% of its Pakistan has given serious thought to protecting its biological food and fibre production. Water withdrawals have increased resources, yet the coverage of ecosystems in the country's markedly since 1960-61, but there has been no significant national parks and protected places is far from comprehen- improvement in water-use productivity (crop outputperunitof sive, the policing of existing parks is inadequate, and water). Yet there is an absolute limit to the amount of water operational management plans exist for just a few. There is available in the Indus Basin; the mean value is 137.2 million a steeply rising demand and decreasing supply of wildlife. acre-feet (MAF), with an 80% chance of exceeding 123 The ibex, snow leopard, wild ass, and houbara bustard all MAF. Approximately l04MAFarealreadydivertedatcanal face extinction from hunting pressure. A greater threat is heads. Only about 30% of diverted water reaches the crop disappearance of habitat. Imbalance in the natural order has roots. The rest- is lost in canals and watercourses or during other long-range consequences, such as increase in the application in the field. Groundwater is a secondary or number of wild boars, whose trampling of crops has reduced derived source. Of the total annual recharge of groundwa- the number of snakes, leading in turn to the increase in rats ter, estimated at 46 MAF, more than 41 MAF are drawn up that is responsible for large post-harvest losses of grain. by tube-wells and used; most of the unutilized recharge is in Pakistan is both energy-poor and energy-profligate. areas of saline groundwater. Reserves of oil and gas, which are relied on heavily, are Outside the irrigated Indus Basin, water-mining and small. Known gas reserves have a life expectancy of 1 6 sharp declinesofgroundwatertables have become apparent years. Domestic oil production meets less than a quarter of xvi  needs, with the balance imported at a high cost in foreign serious bacteriological contamination problems, while a exchange earnings. Only I 1% of hydel potential has been number of rivers become mere sewage carriers at low-flow developed to date, and there has been a significant increase periods, most notably the Ravi below Lahore. Pollution of this in demonstrated and measured coal reserves in recent years. waterway has cut its fish production by 5,000 tonnes per However, both hydel development and coal generation year. could have serious ecological and social impacts if not A 1985 survey of 100 hazardous chemical industries properly managed. Alternative energy sources have as yet across the country by the Pakistan Council for Scientific and been largely undeveloped. Industrial Research showed that only three plants treated their Regrettably, energy intensity in the production of GDP wastes to commonly accepted standards. The remainder did is as high as in the United States (one of most energy-ineffi- nothing exceptdispose of wastes in the mostconvenientway. cient industrial nations) and rising. There are significant Frequently,industrial wastes are toxic, persistent, and increase opportunities to treat energy conservation as a new source of in concentration up the food chain. supply:, transmission and distribution losses are high; the In the Deg Nullah downstream of the Kala Shah Kaku industrial sector could save 22% of the energy it uses with no industrial area, biological oxygen demand levels of 193 to loss of output; tube-well efficiencies could be doubled; 833milligramsperlitre(mg/l)andmercurylevelsof5.6mg/ domestic energy use could be improved through better I have been measured. (The proposed interim relaxed building design and insulation; and vehicular efficiencies standardscare 200and 0.1 mg/l, respectively). Afishcatch could be improved by 5% through tune-ups alone. of 400 tonnes, valued at Rs. 10 million per annum, has With a 5,000-year history of civilization, Pakistan has disappeared. Two large industrial estates in Karachi (SITE a rich cultural heritage of archaeological remains, monuments, and LITE) discharge large quantities of organic matter, heavy old cities, and historic and architecturally significant build- metals, oils and greases, and other materials into local rivers ings and streets, as well as social customs, crafs, and oral and the already polluted harbour. Industry in the Peshawar traditions for the wise use of natural resources. Although Vale is polluting the Kabul River, threatening its use- for preservation of our cultural heritage should be a chief domestic and irrigation purposes as well as its freshwater preoccupation, it is largely neglected. Natural deterioration fishery. Industries in Faisalabad discharge high levels of of these sites is being accelerated by vandalism, encroach- solids, heavy metals, aromatic dyes, inorganic salts, and ment, and insensitive restoration. organic materials directly into municipal sewers without any Resource UseIm actsndLikpre-treatment, polluting agricultural land. And discharges Resource Use Impacts and Linkages from Pak-Arab Fertilizer in Multan into a katcha channel have A consideration of the way Pakistan uses its resources makes reportedly caused livestock deaths and contaminated a large it clearer why the country has an impoverished environment. tract of cultivated land. This list of freshwater pollution Only half the urban excreta is disposed of in sewers; the problems contains merely the better-known examples. remainder is deposited on the roadside, into waterways, or Perhaps of even greater concern is the contamination incorporated in solid waste. Solid and liquid excreta are the of shallowgroundwaters nearurban industriesthatdischarge major source of water pollution in the country and the cause wastes directly to the ground, as at the leather tanning of widespread water-borne and water-washed diseases. operations near Kasur. Groundwater pollution is often Gastrointestinal diseases account for 25-30% of hospital permanent. Hundreds or even thousands of years may be cases. Approximately 60% of infant deaths are due to necessary to flush toxic metals from a contaminated aquifer. infectious and parasitic diseases, most of them water-borne. Another water pollution concern stems from the use of Most of the excreta that reaches sewers is not treated. pesticides and fertilizers, which has grown rapidly. Indis- Only three sewage treatment plants (other than small pack- criminate use can lead to pesticide contamination and fish age units) exist in the country, and two of them operate just kills, excessive nutrient loading of waterways, and uncon- intermittently. Much of the untreated sewage goes into trolled algal growth. Pesticides are of particular concern irrigation systems, where the waste water is reused, and into because of their bioaccumulation in fish and animal tissue. streams and rivers. Vegetablesgrownfromwastewaterhave No studies to date have assessed groundwater contamina- xvii  tion in Pakistan from pesticide or fertilizer use. limited capacities for analysis of environmental impacts, Concerning air pollution, motor vehicles account for many of which are cross-sectoral, and line agencies are not 90% of total emissions of hydrocarbons, aldehydes, and oriented towards joint facilitation of local development. carbon monoxide in cities and for three-fourths of sulphur Much more collaboration and co-ordinated extension is dioxide-and nitrogen oxides emissions, according to a study needed to promote long-term rational use of resources. in Lahore, The average Pakistani vehicle emits 25 times as Land and revenue settlement, demarcating state, pri- much carbon monoxide, 20 times as many hydrocarbons, vate, and common property, is the function of the district and 3.6 times as much nitrous oxides in grams per kilometre administration under the provincial boards of revenue, while as the average vehicle in United States. Owing to the high forest departments oversee local rights to produce in forest proportion of old and untuned engines and to reliance on lands. Revenue settlement and land consolidation have buses and light commercial vehicles in metropolitan areas, become sadly dated, leading to much private litigation. The air pollution along busy roads is an order of magnitude growing number of household members who have local greater than would be predicted from the number of vehicles rights to forests has increased pressure on this resource. on the road. Carbon monoxide, the most common urban air For environmental protection and the prevention of pollutant, reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. pollution, the Environment and Urban Affairs Division (EUAD) Eight-hourexposuretolevelsrecordedinKarachiandLahore was established in 1974. It has a staff of only four is known to cause impairment of nervous system functions, professionals, none of whom are environmental specialists. including eyesight sharpness. Hydrocarbons are precursors A high-level council was envisaged under the Pakistan of photochemical smog, an eye and lung irritant. Nitrogen Environmental Protection Ordinance of 1983, chaired by the dioxide also has adverse effects on human health. Finally, as President. As it met for the first time in July 1991, it is too early lead is added to gasoline to reduce engine knock, an to tell how it will exercise its potentially substantial powers. estimated 520 tonnes of lead per year are released from Environmental protection agencies established in all four vehicles. When ingested by growing children, lead is provinces focus on industrial and urban pollution problems. deposited in the brain and has been shown to affect intelli- The Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Co-operatives is the gence levels. lead agency for wildlife conservation, acting through the Regarding pollution of soils, Pakistan generates 47,920 National Council for Conservation of Wildlife and in support tonnes of solid waste per day - which amounts to 1 7.5 of provincial wildlife departments and boards. million tonnes per year. Waste disposal typically accounts Currently close to 8,500 non-governmental organiza- for 20-25% of municipal expenditures, although only about tions (NGOs) are registered in the country, mostly dealing half is collected. Collected waste is dumped onto low-lying with social welfare issues rather than development or the land without even the benefit of sanitary landfill methods. Of environment. Many senior officials of these groups are considerable concern is the likelihood that industrial toxic volunteers or part-time workers. Most are experienced wastes have been dumped in municipal disposal areas or individuals, but NGOs lack mid-level professionals and well- adjacent to factories, with no record of their location, trained support staff. Their limited institutional development quantity, or toxic composition. Such 'toxic real estate' has inhibits their capacity to facilitate sustainable development. grave implications for the future health of residents. The most striking feature of the environment from the Existing Institutions institutional point of view is that it is common property. Traditional institutions forthe managementof common property The government institutions for natural resource management resources have disintegrated or become weak, and new ones are sectorallyorganized, in line with the general arrangements have not yet become effective. for administration and development between the Federation, Present Policies and Programmes provinces, and local bodies. Co-ordination mechanisms for economic planning and projectapproval arewell established, Pakistan has no over-arching policy that has been primarily especially for large infrastructure projects. But generally and specifically conceived in the interests of conserving and speaking the ministries and attached departments have developing its natural resources sustainably. The Perspective xviii  Plan (1988-2003) and Five-Year Plans make scant explicit * achieve greater public partnership in development and references to the environment and natural resources. Yet management, there are complex and forceful linkages between economic > merge environment and economics in decision making, policies, instruments, and allocations and the conservation or and degradation of the environment. In the absence of-an explicit policy framework, economic and sectoral policies have * focus on durable improvements in the quality of life. worked at cross-purposes with respect to environmentally Moral suasion and leadership, social sanction, and sustainable development and management. economic, legal, and regulatory instruments of change - aJI Although specific environmental enactments are few with their various strengths and limitations - will have to be and insufficient, Pakistan is fairly well endowed with 'inci- applied to bring about a hierarchy of value, knowledge, dental' environmental legislation - on land use, grazing institutional change and technical innovations. Two key control, forest conservation, parks and wildlife, fisheries, value changes needed are restoration of the conservation mineral development, water and air quality, noise, toxic ethic (i.e., 'Qanaat' ) and a revival of the community spirit substances, solid wastes, preservation of antiquities and (i.e., 'Haqooq-ul-lbaad'). special premises, and public health and safety. As they were Issues and Opportunities in the not enacted with a view towards environmental protection and resource conservation, these laws-lack a proper defini- Primary Sectors tion of the environment, quantifiable standards, and imple- Substantial opportunities exist for conserving soil and water mentation tools, leading to sporadic and arbitrary enforce- resources in rainfed and irrigated areas, for utilizing cultivable ment. In many cases, operational regulations under the laws wastes, for agriculture intensification, and for sustaining have not been prescribed, penalties are punitive in charac- mountain agriculture. Supportive measures for rainfed cul- ter, and inflation-depreciated fines are not regularly revised, tivation include permanent vegetation cover for high-risk all of which encourages corruption. Administrative agencies erosion areas, integrated engineering, agricultural and and the judiciary lack awareness of environmental hazards biological soil and water'conservation projects and practices, and risks. Above all, there is a lack of respect for the law, and and promotion of ecologically compatible cropping systems. a lack of political commitment to enact and enforce it. Supportive measures for irrigation agriculture include wa- ELEMENTS OF THE NATIONAL terlogging control through phreatophytes, open farm drains, and fish ponds, with a lessening of sodicity through subsi- CONSERVATION STRATEGY dized gypsum supplies. To make the best use of cultivable Objectives, Operating Principles, and waste lands, measures include promoting salt-tolerant grasses Instruments and shrubs in saline groundwater areas. Proposed agriculture Tobesuccessful,leand complex endeavours rintensification efforts focus on the best lands through promotion To becsuc es. lre reque . , of organic matter recycling, appropriate tillage instruments, epCit has objectives. Th aioa onevtinSraey and integrated pest management. Policies and measures for (NCS) has three: ___ __________________________ mountain agriculture include demarcation of high-risk erosion *' conservation of natural resources, and high-value cropping areas, the promotion of land use * sustainable development, and adjustments, integratedcropandlivestockproductionsystems, -' improved efficiency in the use and management of and development of community purchasing and marketing *- improved efficiency in the use and management ofgroups. resources. Policies and measures for the forestry sector similarly Although these objectives are comprehensive, their full differentiate between the major categories of forests and implications are not necessarily evident at the outset. Oper- plantations. It is proposed that top priority be given to ating principles identify the methods and approaches that recognizing the vital ecologiccl services provided by wa- will enable these objectives to be reached. The three main tershed, riverine, and mangrove forests and to maintaining operating principles of the NCS are to: them. Production forestresourcesshould beused sustainably,. xix  in most cases close to their maximum sustainable yields, to priority to increasing irrigation efficiencies and moving promote vigorous growth as well as to meet national and gradually towards a demand-based water supply system by local demands, subjectto the preservation of some old forests the middle of the twenty-first century. The former entails to maintain the bank of biodiversity. State management accelerated funding of an On-Farm Water Management should concentrate on the 500,000 hectares of state closed- Programme reoriented to support self-sustaining village cover hill forests vital to the public interest, while facilitating communities as managers of watercourses and, ultimately, community and private afforestation of critical watersheds. distributaries and full funding of the Command Water Programmes for promoting plantations on marginal agricul- Management and Irrigation System Rehabilitation tural lands and appropriate trees along field boundaries Programmes. Demand-based water supply will entail both should be accelerated to meet rising domestic demands for engineering solutions at the Indus Basin level and social timber and related products. cooperative approaches at the watercourse and distributary Effective periodic closure of rangelands is necessary scales. During the 1990s, integrated physical, economic, for restoration, and this can only be achieved by community and social research is recommended. Pricing of irrigation self-management. Accordingly, restoring community-based waterto reflect initially operation and managementcosts and, management of communal rangelands is recommended as subsequently, capital and environmental costs, is integral to the centre piece of government support programmes. Op- both policy measures. erational measures include enforcing existing land reform Several current policies, plans, and proposed projects laws where absentee ownership is the impediment to proper are likely to have an impacton marine and coastal resources. management, granting range licences to whole communities, Salient examples include the Indus waters accord, allowing and encouraging the formation of Livestock Associations. theprovincesadditionalwaterwithdrawals;thecoastalzone Cost-effective public interventions include the development of management plan, envisaging recreational development watering points, emergency provision of pelletized fodder, from Cape Monze to the Indus Delta; and the project to ancillary employment during dry-period de-stocking, and construct a long-sea outfall for effluent disposal. The conse- loans to improve breeding stock that are timed to coincide quences of reducing freshwater inflows to the mangroves with the return of the wet cycle. On a selective basis, some from 27 MAF to 1 0 MAF or less have to be carefully commercial livestock production for export may also be investigated. Private-sector beach development should be permitted on state-leased rangelands, along with promotion monitored for enfringement of environmental safeguards. of private-sector fringe feedlot schemes. Land treatment options are preferable from an environmental The livestock sector offers opportunities for recycling and economic standpoint, particularly the sewage form and more efficient use of resources. Only half the animal concept,whereuntreatedwasteisusedtoirrigatepastureland. excreta is collected, and half of that is burnt as,fuel. Properly A major gap in all current development and environmental collected and used, the wasted manure can supply nearly as management policies and projects is the lack of plans to much nitrogen, twice the phosphorus, and six times the address the problem of sea level rise. Recommendations potassium that farmers purchase commercially. Also, ap- include co-ordinated environmental studies and land and propriate urban and industrial wastes, straws, bagasse, water use planning to eliminate conflicts of interest. molasses, slaughterhouse wastes, and many other left-overs Measures to sustain marine fisheries range from applied can be formulated into hygienic high-quality feed. Policies research to determine maximum sustainable yields quickly; should focus on establishing safe, efficient, and profitable technical extension to fishers and their co-operatives to feed-livestock-waste-manure cycles. A by-product will be improve on-board and yard processing of fish to maximize reduced environmental loadings in urban areas and in the share of high value-added table fish; and enforcement of waterways. In addition, there are the conventional livestock closed-season bans to restore depleted shrimp stocks, sup- sectoropportunitiesfordisseminatinghigh-yieldvarietyfodders ported by provision of ancillary employment, such as and good quality roughages and for raising the genetic marriculture on deltaic saline wastelands. Measures to quality of heat- and disease-resistant indigenous stock. develop inland fisheries include introduction of pen culture in Recommendations for the water sector include giving small reservoirs based on vegetable and fruit market wastes, xx  and the promotion of corporate, community, and household meet it. Over the next two decades, this implies a focus on enterprises to develop river stretches, abandoned canals, hydropower and coal, supported by new and conventional waterlogged lands, and field sumps for commercial aquac- renewables. Quality matching will likely result in the mar- ulture. keting of energy from the national grid to industry, while A national wildlife utilization and conservation policy village energy needs will be met by woodfuel plantations, is needed. National parks and game reserves should be biogas plants, and direct solar energy. increased to represent all national ecosystems, and they Among fossil fuels, coal burning generates the greatest should be properly managed. Local residents have to be amount of greenhouse gases, and no known technology productively involved. Adjacent communities need support exists to limit carbon dioxide emissions. However, Pakistan to move to higher food, fodder, and fuelwood productivity. makes negligible contributions to global greenhouse gases. Pakistan should meet its international obligations to conserve From a national perspective, coal is relatively abundant, and wetlands important for migratory birds. Incentives are it may be desirable to favour it as a source of energy, needed to promote captive breeding and artificial propagation provided particulate and sulphur emissions are controlled of endangered medicinal plants, and local communities either through electrostatic precipitators, which cost 25% should be organized to develop and manage community more, or through an array of plants based on low-cost game reserves. Institutional rationalization is required to fluidized bed technology. avoid conflict between timber and wildlife objectives. As noted earlier, Pakistan has so far used only 1 1% of Mineral resources should be used as carefully as its hydropower potential. Hydel is reliable, independent of possible so that their wastage is minimized, recovery is outside suppliers once the dam and generators are in place, maximized, and the resource is available for as long as non-polluting, and renewable, at least until the reservoir silts possible. Careful use depends on the quality of geological up. Both large and small dams can have positive and information and on extraction planning. Exploratorydrilling, negative environmental impacts depending on siting and seismic logging, and structural mapping are constantly design; in addition, large dams displace people. Given that, improving tools to better understand the nature of deposits the first concern regarding siting should be the impact on the and to extract them with the least waste and at the lowest cost. environment and on people. The full cost of compensation Information on technical improvements should be systemati- and adequate watershed management should be included in caily made available to the mining industry. On the other benefit-cost analysis. hand, industry should not be allowed to externalize the costs Pakistan should be cautious about investing in nuclear of deranged drainage, toxic leachates from tailings, saline power, owing to high capital costs, long lead times for effluents from exposed salt beds, and so on. For a start, it development,concernsabouthumansafetyfromcatastrophic should be mandatory for large open-cast mining to retain failure, and the absence, now and in the foreseeable future, topsoil and restore the environmentatthe completion of work of a safe way to dispose of high-level radioactive wastes. in a tract. There is, however, a need to acquire nuclear technology so Issues and Opportunities in Secondary that Pakistan may not be left behind in that area. ansues Biogas plants can provide all the convenience of Sui and Tertiary Sectors gas (indeed, the two products are identical) with the extra It is important to bear in mind that the secondary and tertiary advantage of being virtually renewable. In contrast to India, sectors are only one link removed from natural systems in where more than a million units are successfully operating, in terms of material and energy inputs, and that they directly use Pakistan the efforts to disseminate biogas plants have failed. nature to dispose of their wastes. This was mainly due to social impediments and a lack of A sustainable energy future for the country requires a training for maintenance. Yet there have been substantial transition to energy-efficient regimes and increased reliance advances in biogas technologies in recent years, such as on renewable sources. It entails a better use of the mix of developmentofopen-coregasifiersandsolid-statefermentation energy sources available, along with an effort to match the unitsgearedtospecificwastes. Itistimetotryagaintospread quality of energy demand with the different sources that can the use of biogas, but through a different extension mecha- xxi  nism, ensuring that overhead costs are kept to a minimum an effective policy for siting industry in areas of lower while incorporating maintenance training and community environmental sensitivity. support elements. Urbanization is an inevitable concomitant of modern- Plants that derive energy from waste have been demon- ization and development. Yet investments to absorb popula- strated to be increasingly viable in industrial nations during tion in urban areas are typically many times greater than the the 1 980s. In Pakistan, low labour costs should provide an costs of keeping people in rural areas. Thus the current phase addedadvantagetothisapproach. Plantsbasedonmunicipal of urbanization in the country will be accompanied by a and industrial wastes are recommended. Cogeneration severe resource crunch. Adoption of a national human increases the efficiency of supply, exercises conservation, settlements policy is proposed to focus growth on selected and uses process waste. Provided cost-price guarantees are secondary cities with high productivity and low infrastructure given, current and expected industry could generate up to installation and agriculture opportunity costs, It is also 500 megawatts of energy in the 1 990s through cogenera- proposed to strengthen urban governments; to tap more tion. Finaily, ample wastelands are available for woodfuel financial and physical resources by, for example, taxing plantations to generate electricity for local area needs. vacant urban land and supporting land-pooling schemes; Akilowattofenergysavedthroughconservationshould and to undertake appropriate city planning, especially by be considered just as much a source of energy as a kilowatt imposing maximum plot and building standards. Yet there is obtained from the energy sources discus~sed so far. Industry no way municipalities and urban authorities can meet the hasthehighestpotentialforenergysaving. Thereshouldalso backlog and deliver all the services and facilities needed be renewed emphasis on suitable low-cost insulation mate- during the forthcoming urbanization. They must permit and rials for buildings and on reduction of heat losses from support citizen involvement in neighbourhood associations windows. Improved sun-baked bricks offer another oppor- for local community development, and help the poor build tunity for energy conservation. Energy-efficient appliances their own housing and provide their own services. Finally, will reduce energy demand, and efficient cookstoves can policy interventions are needed to promote energy-efficient lower pressure on dwindling fuelwood supplies, while fuel- and environmentally benign transport systems in metropoli- efficient vehicles will reduce urban pollution levels. Moving tan cities. gradually towards conservation pricing of energy will play a Pollution control measures are recommended that use major role in bringing these innovations to the marketplace and restore the medium or receiving body, or that recycle and in promoting conservation practices. pollutants in ways that are safe as well as profitable for the Regarding industrial pollution, logical measures in- operator. Such recovery and reuse has wide scope but is clude identifying the most worrying pollutants (by discharge currently not common in the formal sector, because of the volumes, toxicity, and persistence) and implementing their failure of regulations and the insensitivity of the market to cost phased reduction. The bulk of industrialization in the country externalities. A practical blend of regulations and incentives lies ahead. Industry is expected to double in 10 years and is recommended for control of water, air, and land pollution. to double again by 2010. The nation therefore has a unique For domestic waste water treatment, safe sewage opportunity to plan these facilities with sustainability as an irrigation of non-food crops and use of sludge as fertilizer and explicit objective. Regulations, incentives, and industrial soil amendments is the best alternative, as long as heavy locational or siting approaches to achieving sustainable metals are monitored. When heavy metals are present, the industrial development can best work in conjunction. There- sludge may be dumped in pits, where leaching to groundwater fore, the recommendations in this area are to develop and is not a problem. The regulatory approach is focused on enforce effective pollution controls; to promote environmen- industrial discharges, as these contain some of the most toxic tally beneficial industries through fiscal and trade incentives; effluents. Source reduction is the preferred choice, backed and to support clean processes and recycling through dis- up by alternative disposal methods to prevent discharge of semination of no- or low-waste technologies, support for industrial effluents into municipal sewers. Finally, there is waste trading networks, and the granting of tax-holidays to also the possibility of developing biological alternatives to recycling indlustry. There is also an opportunity to establish recover and reuse heavy metals from effluents. xxii  For control of air pollution, economically viable oppor- The development of recreation and tourism depends tunities exist to promote good maintenance of motor vehicles heavily on natural capital and cultural heritage resources- and of industrial boilers and furnaces. ENERCON reports that is, the 7 million hectares of protected land area (national that a well-tuned engine discharges 50% less carbon monox- parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and game reserves) and the ide and hydrocarbons while obtaining 5-6% better fuel 1,800 historical monuments and 1 12 archaeological sites. efficiency. It is recommended to defer the requirement for Unfortunately, only 146 monuments and 33 archaeological catalytic converters in vehicles, as they are expensive and sites have been conserved to date. Yet the tourism sector reduce fuel efficiency. However, all new cars sold in the outlays and policies for promoting private investment foci's countryshould meetthe moststringentstandards foremissions on all areas (infrastructure, trcining, marketing, and so on) that can be achieved without such converters. The sliding except maintenance. Enhanced tourism revenues should be scale of importduties on cars may be reviewed to specifically directed to environmental restoration of areas where tourism favourfuel-efficientengines. Keepingthepriceoffuel (except potential is high. Specific measures could include trophy- diesel) relatively high will promote efficiency by cuffing down hunting permits and fees set at levels that balance cropping unnecessarv trips and encouraging people to use buses for with sustainable supply. The increased revenues should be personal transportand the railwaysto move goods. Asdiesel shared with rural communities to encourage their participa- adulteration with kerosene results in high emission levels, tion in managing natural capital. dropping or reducing the general subsidy on kerosene is . recommended. Refineries should be directed to produce low- S Porm e lead petrol (down from the current0.6 grams per literto 0.15) Population carrying capacities can be increased while still as the first phase of a move to unleaded petrol. When this protecting the productivity of the natural resource base. But is done, an adjustment of taxes on fuels to make unleaded there is a limit. It may just be possible for Pakistan to petrol perhaps 5% cheaper, even though it is more expensive accommodate 200 million people - the number expected to to make, will be required. Although factories and generating live here sometime between 2010 and 2013- by adopting stations contribute a low share of urban air pollutants overall, the sustainable development programmes proposed in the there is a concentration of noxious, sometimes toxic, emis- NCS. But there is no possibility of accommodating, at a sions downwind from the stack. Consideration of terrain and decent standard of life, the 400 million people projected to wind characteristics is thus important when siting factories be living in Pakistan by 2035-40 if current growth trends and generating stations. continue. A study of population and regional mobility Regarding land pollution, the key to effective solid projections with estimates of potential population support waste disposal is using the values in waste to support its safe capacities by agro-ecological zones suggests that food management. An efficient private scavenging sector already shortages may intensify first in the sandy deserts and other retrieves and recycles almost all the glass, paper, and metal ecologically fragile zones. discarded. A high proportion of the remainder is compostable Thus the recommmendations are to address population -85% in rural areas and 65% in cities. Since municipal planning in a perspective encompassing natural and capital primary collection has been a general failure, garbage resource balances; to reduce the fertility rate as rapidly as collection should be handed over in stages to the private possible through supporting family planning; to upgrade sector of the present network of scavengers, under cirange- human resources through increased allocations for educa- ments with individual households, local communities, and tion, health, and environment; and to encourage mobility out industrial plants. Municipal services are needed for ultimate of fragile ecosystems (especiallyfrom areaswhere degradation disposal in proper sanitary landfills of materials from which has downstream impacts), while facilitating rural retention in everything of value has been extracted. For this purpose, robust irrigated districts and maintaining a sustainable rate municipalities should set up garbage purchase mechanisms of urbanization. at intermediate delivery points. They should invite private- Most women in Pakistan live in rural areas. They are sector energy from waste and composting plants to take over largely illiterate, usually marry early, bear innumerable as much of the residual waste as economically viable. children, and suffer from health problems such as anaemia. xxiii  Many are secluded and lack mobility. They have little say or general science textbooks; in secondary schools, they should control over their lives, have low self-esteem, and are viewed be included in the syllabus for biology, chemistry, and home as dependents. Yet as daily resource managers and as the economics, and in Pakistan studies. Stress should be placed primary keepers of environmental values, women have an on issues that students can recognize in theirown environment important role to play as active and equal partners in and on related co-curricular activities. development that entails ecological and social sustainability. In colleges, a number of subjects already have ecology- Programmes for mobilizing women must enhance their social related components thai need to be strengthened for practical status; the community-based participatory approach can relevance. A functional glossary of environmental terms ii enable women to contribute more effectively. Population and Urdu and regional languages is another priority. Environ- health issuesare entrypoints fororganizing and empowering mental science could be introduced as an optional subject. women, while education and communication are the keys to Agriculture and engineering universities and medical colleges bring them further into the mainstream. The commitment to have fairly sophisticated curricula that need to be reviewed make schools available within 1.5 kilometres of people's to achieve a cross-speciality environmental perspective. The homes is an important first step in this effort. growth of environmental specialization at the Masters and Effective communication of sustainable development post-doctoral levels must follow the development of core requires directing appropriate messages to appropriate teaching expertise, the availability of which may be accel- audiences through the most appropriate medium. The press, erated by taking up training opportunities abroad. Yet though important and influential, is shackled by Pakistan's perhaps most important is to broaden the base of environ- poor literacy. Television is the fastest growing medium, mental education by using the non-formal education network preferred by the educated and economically better-off. Ra- fully. dio, however, covers the whole country, broadcasting 300 Investment must be made in specialized training hours of programming daily in 21 local and 15 international programmes for key groups. For educators, an environmen- languages through 20 stations, and cutting through literacy tal focus can be incorporated into existing curricula at barriers and reaching rural and female audiences. Radio teacher training institutes; refresher courses, workshops, and should thus be the lead environmental medium for Pakistan. teaching manuals need to be initiated. For the media, Cinema and video, outdoor publicity, celebrity endorse- professional bodies, NGOs, the Ministry of Education, and ments,andculturalforumsalsohavepotentialforenvironmental EUAD need to collaborate. For information officers, a communication. component could be added at the Information Services But.the search for environmental communicators must Academy. To reach extension agents, a programme for extend beyond the mass media: mothers, teachers, religious master trainers should be worked out between resource leaders, and community opinion leaders are the true catalysts departments and NGOs. For women, programmes combin- of change. The village well and urban 'tandoor' are effective ing employment and income opportunities with resource focal points of information dissemination. NGOs and management training are required. Special multi-disciplin- extension agents of resource departments must harness these ary courses at in-service training institutes are needed for civil avenues. Awareness cannot be imposed, either on the servants, for local government, parastatal, and corporate populaceoronthemedia. Butitcanbefacilitatedbytreating employees, and for NGO managers to orient them to the them as partners rather than as targets of dissemination, realities of NCS issues. sharing with them the urgency of environmental issues. Research and technology development can compen- The education system and curricula need to be reviewed sate to some extent for scarce natural resources, and can help to infuse sustainable development and environmental ethics use those that are abundant fully and sustainably. Major at all levels of formal and non-formal education. It is vital to constraints have been an acute shortage of funding; a lack of bring about this change from within the existing education incentives to attract Pakistani scientists currently working system, keeping in mind its flaws, working realities, and abroad; the absence of clear and agreed national research expected future course. In primary schools, cohesive environ- priorities and a resulting proliferation of unproductive insti- mental themes should be incorporated within language and tutes; bureaucratic leadership and an unwillingness to link xxiv  promotion in the system to outputs at international standards; nature of Pakistan in the coming decades. The NCS focuses and a lack of supportfrom the corporate sector and other user on influencing investment choices, which are more flexible groups. It is urgent to make conservation sciences and than consumption patterns. More particularly, it is designed technology a national research and development priority, to take leadership in investments relating to the maintenance particularly those components in which Pakistan has both a of natural resources and to increase the efficiency with which critical need and a comparative advantage in natural and critical non-renewable resources are used. This is literally human endowments. investment in having a future, as opposed to investments for The quality of environmental information in Pakistan is a future return, yet it can pay handsomely in economic terms. erratic. Physical data in some sectors (e.g., on soils) are reasonable, but in others are absent. Statistics are still The NCS Recommends 14 Programme rudimentary, maintained by or for specific departments and Areas for Priority Implementation: not correlated for environmental analysis. Yet timely environ- 1 , ,, 1~. Maintaining soils in croplands. mental evaluation and anticipatory action requires the ability to transform data into usable knowledge. Substantial insti- 2. Increasing irrigation efficiency. tutional development is needed to come up with a range of 3. Protecting watersheds. environmental information systems. Those most needed include natural resource inventories, involving data acquired Supporting forestry and plantations. from satellite imagery as well as ground surveys, data 5. Restoring rangelands and improving livestock. storage, and retrieval; dissemination systems, entailing a 6. Protecting water bodies and sustaining fisheries. network of clearinghouses and resource centres; NGO annual state of the environment reporting; and environmental 7. Conserving biodiversity. statistics that can be used to refine economic analysis and, in 8. Increasing energy efficiency. the long run, to incorporate natural resource and environmental 9e valuations into national income accounts. 9 D a d w Implementation Arrangements 10. Preventing/abating pollution. The National Conservation Strategy is a call for action 11. Managing urban wastes. addressed to senior and local governments, businesses, 12. Supporting institutions for common resources. NGOs, local communities, and individuals. But the sustain- able development of Pakistan is a huge multi-generational 1 endeavour. Where should we begin? And how should we 14. Preserving the cultural heritage. proceed? It is necessary to set priorities and to begin . . implementation from undisputed resource management and . Sixtyeight xspecifi p ogram es h av b n iti conservation domains. Yet the priority actions must be those inete ove ara ehywita lng-termqoarad with with significant wider economic and social ramifications that *heexpected o andphysicalstmnscrequnirwthin , , , . . ~~~~the next decade. Each programme also has communication, would not happen by themselves owing to market or institu- extension, research, and training components. tional failure. Strategy implies combining hitherto disparate The NCS proposes a seven-level strategy to implement elements to achieve synergy, and understanding what be- this agenda. This is based on several key premises: first, wise comes practical as a result. and sustainable use of resources is promoted more cost- Action Agenda and Implementation effectively among individuals and small business by eco- Strategy nomic incentives than by regulations. Second, for the The NCS seeks to transform attitudes and practices and to corporate sector, a mix of indrect economic incentives as influence national consumption patterns, but it can only be well as equitable regulations is more appropriate. Third, one contributor to inculcating sustainable and socially pro- economic incentives, social sanctions, investment in commu- ductive behaviour. Development will profoundly change the nity organization, and legislation that secures the use of  common resources are all needed to promote wise use These projects have many deficiencies, conceptuol and among local communities. Fourth, institutional goals and managerial. Yet to maintain momentum, while plan prepa- orientation play a key role in improving departmental effi- ration and review is in hand, during 1991-93 the NCS ciency and effectiveness. Fifth, interagency collaboration is recommends reorienting and expeditiously implementing an the major issue at the provincial level. And last, the key array of current and proposed projects falling in NCS decisions bearing on wise resource use at the national level programme areas. are those pertaining to resource allocations and sharing and Government and Corporate Institutional to pricing. The strategy is a closed loop that begins with D Government leadership and ends with Government and Development NGOsupporttoprivateandcommunityimplementation. The Implementing the NCS will require substantial institutional seven levels it covers are: improvements. Policy decisions need to be made with regard to long-term, multi-sectoral effects and any cascading side- effects, intended or otherwise, of actions taken. Agencies * departmental responsibility, need to collaborate systematically among themselves and * district co-ordination, with the private sector to implement a complex but strategic .' community participation, agenda. Departmental, district administration, and local cgovernment goals and motivations must be reoriented to * individual action, facilitate local development. The corporate sector must *' corporate tasks, and become a responsible partner in the transition to a sustain- O' corporate tasks, and able modern society. 0- Government/NGO support. These goals determine the institutional development The application of the implementation strategy to the objectivesthatmustbe achieved by2001,while recognizing 68 programmes in the action agenda has resulted in a the need for a lean government, severe budgetary and skilled comprehensive matrix of critical and secondary tasks for staffing constraints, and institutional inertia and resistance. government, departments, districts, communities, individu- From these objectives and the critical tasks identified emerge als, corporations, and NGOs. the requirements for specific institutional change, strength- Implementation of the NCS requires revision of existing ening, and organizational development. plans along with new types of plans. During the period 1991- During the next 10 years, institutional development for 93, it is proposed to incorporate the policies and measures Federal-provincial leadership entails building a capacity to of the NCS into the Eighth Five-Year Plan as well as into review major policies and large projects for environmental sectoral plans for agriculture, irrigation, and watersheds; into impacts, and some capacity to anticipate and mitigate them the forestry master plan; and into industry, science and through policy revision or project redesign. Also required is technology, and population policies. Review of the Report of the ability to establish authentically the conservation prices of the National Commission on Agriculture, the Farm Energy critical resources, and some capacity to move towards those Forestry Plan, the Long Term Energy Strategy, Health and prices. Federal and provincial leadership also entails the Education Policies, and the Local Government Commission capacity to enhance resource allocations to priority NCS Report of 1982 is also proposed in the light of the NCS. New sectors and to develop a system for rational and stable programmes envisaged include Provincial Conservation resource sharing with local governments and NGOs. At the Strategies plus plans for irrigation efficiency, plantations, same time, all these decisions must be systematically incor- national parks, dissemination of integrated pest management, porated into existing and new plans. The first steps entail the development of renewables, urban waste management, creation of an Environment Section in the Planning Commis- fragile areas, and heritage conservation. sion, with linked cells in provincial planning and development The Government already allocates around 4% of na- departments (P&Ds), the creation of an NCS Unit in EUAD, tionol investment to projects broadly related to natural and the incremental installation of environmental analysts - resource managementand use-efficiencyof critical resources. first in resource-related ministries, and then in ministries xxvi  overseeing large infrastructure projects. production, and marketing operations w ! follow. The NCS provides a general list of agencies that would Cooperation with Community need to collaborate for the programming, extension, imple- O s mentation, and operation of each of its 68 programmes rganizatons and NGOs During the next decade, institutional strengthening for in- Nine of the 14 NCS programme areas rely on community creased interagency collaboration entails developing par- organizations for their implementation, while a tenth (sup- ticularcollaborativearrangementsbetweenspecificagencies porting institutions for common resources) can only be for priority programmes and projects. The NCS provides a implemented by community organizations, supported by priority short list for this task. Cabinet, Establishment, and catalytic agencies. This entails carefully working out the Management Services Divisions (MSD), along with provincial institutional arrangements by which the catalytic agents are services and general administration departments (S&GADs) supported. Two implementation mechanisms are proposed. and managementconsultants asappropriate, need to review In the first, NGOs registered under the laws of Pakistan will the external relationship protocols of these agencies to add be supported by Federal, provincial, and local governments collaboration and make it a routine part of procedures. At a to aid in the creation of grassroots institutions for common more systemic scale, improved collaboration also entails resources. Inthesecond,communityparticipativeprogrammes incorporating environmental dimensions in the existing fofums will be facilitated by government departments, supported by for economic development co-ordination. These forums the grassroots institutions. Both will follow a common set of would also need to move towards greater consideration of arrangements for the release of funds and evaluation of the operation and maintenance phases of all projects. performance. Over the next 10 years, organizational development The Federal Government is envisaged as formulating efforts should be focused on the key agencies responsible for policy guidelines, making financial allocations, and provid- resource management and conservation. The NCS provides ing an enabling framework. Provincial governments are a short list of candidate organizations at the Federal and expected to direct line-department collaboration with com- provincial levels. Cabinet, Establishment, MSD, and S&GADs munity organizations and to conduct annual monitoring and should focus on incorporating sustainability criteria in the evaluation. Local bodies are expected to consult community mandates and objectives of small and young organizations, organizations in the preparation of district development and on the reporting relationships and professional systems plans. NGOs have a critical role to play in the creation of and procedures ofsomewhatlargerorganizations. Interbilling community organizations. The proposed support arrange- sub-organizations should be created in the largest organi- ments for communities run from district or city programme zations to achieve the desired improvements. offices and technical support units to village or lane organi- As the corporate sector is being asked to make large zations. Financial arrangements envisaged include initial investments, especially in pollution prevention and abate- subsidies from EUAD, the Trust for Voluntary Organizations, ment, it needs to be involved in emissions standards setting provincial P&Ds' pools for NGOs, and sector development and in the formulation of goal-oriented regulations for their funds. These community organizations should also be enforcement. For this purpose, a number of senior govern- allowed to raise funds from domestic and international ment-industry round tables are envisaged. Industry would donors, subject to the declaration of the receipts in order to also have to establish environmental committees in local allow comprehensive public-sector evaluation. chambers and their federations to encourage compliance F t with emission standards by members and to co-operate with inancing the NCS local governments in pollution abatement and environmental The NCS is not an investment plan. Rather, it is concerned clean-ups. The major parastatals and private corporations with the way all development is undertaken, to ensure that it need to incorporate environmental sustainability in their is notdestructiveof the natural resourcebaseon which itrests. Board agendas, just as they now include the financial and Many of the NCS proposals for integrating environment and legal implications of policy decisions. The exercise of low development require doing things more efficiently, not the waste, reuse, and waste trading options in their purchasing, expenditure of more money. However, the NCS does call for xxvii  channeling investments towards maintaining and enhancing programmes in which the sharpest increases are called for, natural resources, and towards increasing efficiencies in the along with that for protecting watersheds. use of critical renewables and non-renewables. These resource requirements could be met almost Expected economic outputs from the NCS programmes entirely from reorienting existing high-cost development are substantial in the aggregate. The anticipated rates of programmes. Indeed, the NCS does suggest changes in the return from certain programmes exceed those to be expected focus of some conventional programmes in resource man- from comparable conventional projects. More important, the agement and conservation areas to more cost-effective solu- NCSwillcontributetofinancialself-relianceandsustainability tions to meet 40% of the financial requirement of the by maintaining the capital stocks of resources, allowing the proposed portfolio. withdrawal of short-term 'starter funds'. Most NCS programmes are labour-intensive. It is As noted earlier, currently around 4% of gross national estimated that the proposed investments in addition to those investment is made in NCS programme-related areas. The projected for 1992-2001 on the basis of the Seventh Five- NCS calls for increasing this figure to around 8% by 2001. Year Plan would generate approximately 800,000 jobs over Some of the envisaged outlays are on-going and part of the the next 10 years. Theywould thus make a useful contribution Seventh Five-Year Plan. The increased priority being as- to the problem of employment generation in a labour-surplus signed by donor agencies and governments to the environ- economy. ment forms the second basis for the projected investment Yet there will a shortage of skills to implement the targets. The third source of funding is the private sector. In national conservation strategy. Five categories of trained summary, the investments for 1992-2001 are as follows: personnel are deficit: technical staff to assess and monitor *_d emission controls; trained extension staff with government and NGOs; a cadre of environmental social scientists, 1. Maintaining soils in croplands 28.0 including economists; primary scientific research staff; and 2. Increasing irrigation efficiency 18.5 well-trained administrative professionals who combine or- 3 ganizational efficiency with technical knowledge of envi- 3. Protecting watersheds 10_8 ronmental issues. If Pakistan establishes its priorities, and 4. Supporting forestry and plantations 5.8 specifies the quality, quantity, and timing of needed technical 5. Restoring rangelands and improving livestocks 2.6 assistance, then the programmes of donors could be'relevant. In the GOP portfolio of aid-worthy projects, the funding 6 Protecting water bodies and sustaining fisheries 1.3 request for projects in NCS programme areas accounts for 7. Conserving biodiversity 1.0 14% of the total, significantly higher than the 4% gross investment in these sectors. Yet it is imperative that project 8. Increasing energy efficiency 21.5 applications for aid based on the NCS programmes are 9. Developing and deploying renewables 6.3 carefully considered. At present, there is an excessive zeal 10. Preventing/abating pollution22.0 ~to tailor projects to perceived donor priorities, with unrealistic ___O_Preventing___b___ing_pollution__22_0 and irrelevant demands for foreign exchange and with 1 I.Managing urban wastes 13.5 considerable 'overheads'. 1 2.Supporting institutions for common resources 3.0 The NCS estimates an additional investment require- ____ mentof nearly Rs.90 billionoverthe nextdecade. The private 1 3.1ntegrating population and environment programmes 14.0 sector is expected to contribute 59% of the investment. This 14.Preserving the cultural heritage 2.4 will be stimulated by a public-sector commitment of Rs.37 billion over the 10 years, rising from a modest sum of Rs. 150 * million in 1991-92 to nearly Rs.6 billion in the year 2001. It The largest expenditures are expected for maintaining is expected that half the public-sector component could be soils in croplands, preventing and abating pollution, and raised from aid contributions while the balance would be increasing energy efficiency. The lafter two are also the raised domestically, principally through taxation. xxviii  | li~t PAKI STAN AND- TH:E; ENVIRONMENT. - THE PAKISTAN NCS . -  PART 1: PAKISTAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT CONTENTS Global Environmental Problems and Pakistan's Contribution to Them 9 Global Environmental Issues - Implications for Pakistan 12 Growth of Population and Consumption 12Z Global Climate Change 1 3 Ozone Layer Depletion 14 Ecosystem Degradation and Accelerated Loss of Biodiversity 14 Transboundary Pollution and the Shipment of Hazardous Wastes 15 Third World Problems in the Transition to Sustainable Development 15 Soil Loss 15 Desertification 1 6 Deforestation 1 7 Destruction of Wetlands 17 Urban Growth 1 7 International and Transboundary Agreements 18 Emerging Responses to Global Environmental Problems 18 *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ S__ Land 21 Land Use: Present Position and Trends 21 Agricultural Production 25 Degradation of Soils and Land 26 Watersheds 32 Forests and Problems of Forest Management 32 Drylands and Desertification 34 Water 36 Surface Water Resources 36 Groundwater Resources 38 Water Use Problems 39 Coastal and Marine Resources 41 Fisheries 44 Landing Trends and Levels of Effort 45 Assessment of Sustainable Yields and Potentials 45 Biodiversity and Natural Capital 48 Protective Measures 48 THE PAKISTAN NCS 3  PART 1: PAKISTAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT Economic and Social Significance 52 Trends in Levels and Conditions 54 Mineral Resources 56 Energy 57 Energy Supply 57 Consumption Patterns 61 Environmental Impacts 52 Cultural Heritage 62 Extent and Condition 64 Pressures and Constraints 64 People 66 CHAPTER 3. RESOURCE USE IMPACTS AND UNKAGES -ti A Population Profile 68 Livestock 70 Significance of Livestock Production Norms 72 Livestock Resources 72 Grazing Livestock: Quantity Versus Quality 73 Poultry 74 Waste Disposal: Problem or Potential? 74 Human Settlements 75 Form, Size, and Structure 75 Quality of Life 76 Urban Sprawl on Agricultural Land 78 Pollution 79 Water Pollution 79 Air Pollution 82 Land Pollution 85 Coastal Pollution 86 Recreation and Tourism 87 CHAPTER 4. EXISTING INSTITUTIONS - j I Government Initiatives 92 How Government Works 92 Current Approaches to Natural Resource Management 92 Current Approaches to Environmental Conservation 94 Current Approaches to Women in Development 99 4 THE PAKISTAN NCS  PART I PAKISTAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT Non-Governmental Organizations 101 Environmental NGOs 102 Women's Organizations 103 International NGOs 103 Managerial and Representative Versus Participatory Community Management 104 Impacts of Management Regimes on Natural Resources 105 Lessons in Community Management 1 0Q r:tsi,T, 1171'*UPm,'1l'I 4:i:1 SI I 4rol 1:1' l | The Perspective and Seventh Five-Year Plans 108 Environmental Implications of the Economic Structure and Policies of Pakistan 108 A Growing Economy 108 Relationships Between Economics and the Environment 108 Sectoral Composition 1 09 Employment Contributions 110 Annual and Capital Expenditure 110 Socio-Economic Features Affecting Sustainable Development 1 13 Policy and Natural Resource Linkages in Principle 113 Policy and Natural Resource Linkages in Practice 113 Assessment of the Environmental Implications of the Main Sectoral Policies 115 Policies and Measures With Positive Impacts 116 Policies With Adverse Environmental Impacts 116 Fragmented Policies . 116 Unimplemented or Missing Policies 117 Present Legal Framework 117 Deficiencies of the Law 125 Beyond Legislation 127 Conclusion 127 1.1 Resource Base and Degradation, World and Pakistan, Late 1 980s 10 1.2 Implications for Pakistan of Global Environmental Problems 12 1.3 Key International Treaties and Conventions on the Environment 19 2.1 Land Capability Classifications 22 2.2 Trends in Land Use 24 2.3 Water-Table Depths 29 2.4 Damage Caused by Extreme Flooding 30 2.5 Extent of Organic Matter Loss 31 2.6 Desertification, Din Garh and Fort Abbas 35 THE PAKISTAN NCS S  PART I PAKISTAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT 2.7 Desertification Classifications 35 2.8 Wheat Inputs and Outputs 40 2.9 Comparative Efficiencies of Farms With and Without Supplemental Private Tube-Well Water Supply 40 2.10 Status of Marine Fisheries, 1984 46 2.11 Impacts of Various Economic Activities on Fisheries 47 2.12 Biodiversity in Pakistan 49 2.13 Pakistan's Natural Capital 52 2.14 Parks and Protected Areas 52 2.15 Economic and Social Significance of Natural Capital 53 2.16 Use of Plants for Medicinal Purposes 54 2.17 Production of Major Minerals 56 2.18 Impacts of Mining Activities 58 2.19 Life Expectancy of Commercial Energy Reserves . 59 2.20 Annual Energy Consumption, Selected Countries, 1 987 61 2.21 Environmental Impacts of the Development and Use of Energy 63 2.22 Pakistan's Cultural Heritage 65 3.1 A Demographic Profile 68 3.2 Houses, Rooms, and Housing Population, 1980 78 3.3 Selected Pollutants Associated with Industry 80 3.4 Toxic Substance Concentrations in Effluents of Sample Industries, Karachi 81 3.5 Estimated Air Pollutants from Various Economic Sectors 82 3.6 Annual Emissions of Air Pollutants, Lahore, 1985 83 4. 1 Current Structure and Linkages of Development Institutions in Pakistan 93 4.2 Current Responsibilities for Natural Resource Management 95 4.3 Proposed Environmental Focus for Major Research Institutes 98 5.1 Sectoral Distribution of Employed Labour Force 110 5.2 Structure of Current Expenditure 111 5.3 Sectoral Priorities in Annual Development Plans 112 5.4 Policies and-Measures with Positive Environmental Impacts _16 5.5 Policies and Measures with Adverse Environmental Impacts 118 5.6 Policies and Measures with Fragmented Environmental Impacts 120 5.7 Missing and Unimplemented Policies 121 5 8 Principal Existing Legislation Bearing on Environmental and Natural Resource Conservation 122 UST OF FIGURES 2.1 Land Capability by Classes 22 2.2 Land Categories 23 2.3 Current Land Use 23 6 THE PAKISTAN NCS  PART 1: PAKISTAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT 2.4 Increment in Reported Land Use 25 2.5 Increments in Total Cropped Area: Expansion and Intensification 25 2.6 Soil Degradation 26 2.7 Soil Loss Through Water and Wind Erosion 28 2.8 Forest Area by Type of Forest,1987 33 2.9 Area Under Forest 33 2.10 Drylands of Pakistan 2.11 Current and Potential Forage Production of Rangelands 34 2.12 Indus Basin Surface and Groundwater Availability 37 2.13 Farmgate Water Availability, by Source 39 2.14 Groundwater Salinity 41 2.1 5A Profile off Sindh Coast 2.15B Profile off Balochiston Coast 42 2.16 Marine and Inland Fish Catch 45 2.17 Fishing Craft 46 2.18 Shares of Commercial Energy Sources in Commercial Energy Supply 57 2.19 Household Use of Biomass 60 2.20 Commercial and Non-Commercial Energy Use, by Sector 62 3.1 Increase in Grazing Livestock Population 73 3.2 Poultry Production, Village and Commercial 74 3.3 Urban Water Supply, Sewerage, and Drainage Coverage 76 5.1 Sector Contribution to GDP 109 5.2 Urban-Rural Employment 111 2.1 Pakistan's Coast: Mangroves and Fishing Zones 43 2.2 Major Vegetative Zones 50 2.3 Wetlands of Pakistan 51 3.1 Rural Population Density of Pakistan (1981) 71 2.1 Pressures on Biological Diversity and Natural Capital 55 2.2 Main Forces and Hazards Affecting Pakistan's Cultural Heritage 64 3.1 The Resource Base of the Tourism Industry 87 4.1 Laws to Register NGOs and Cooperatives as Legal Entities 101 4.2 The Innovative Work of Abdul Sattar Edhi 102 4.3 Selected NGOs Doing Environmental Work at the National, Regional, and Local Levels 102 4.4 An Example of Successful Participatory Management 104 5.1 Success Sans Legislation 127 THE PAKISTAN NCS 7  PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 1 CHAPTER PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT T his first chapter considers global and regional environmental problems that are of increasing concern to governments and, indeed, all sectors of society. Humanity's impact on the earth and its resources has increased at an unprecedented rate with every decade in the last two centuries, and with every year in the most recent decades. Human activities are now affecting some of the most basic climatic and biological cycles of the planet. A number of environmental problems have emerged in the past two decades that are global in scale. Pakistan contributes to each of these to a lesser or greater degree, and each problem has implications for the nation's development prospects and the quality of life of its peoples. Recent global and regional attempts to deal with these issues are discussed at the end of the chapter. Serious national environmental problems are discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. 1 1 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL Pakistan is a densely settled land, with four times as many inhabitants per hectare as the globe as a whole, and PROBLEMS AND faces rapid population increase. Yet with a gross national product per capita that is one-ninth the world average, the pressure of these numbers on global systems is surprisingly PAKISTAN'S light. The average Pakistani, for example, consumes less CONTRIBUTION TO THEM than one-seventh as much energy as is used globally. Thus while on average every person in the world is responsible As the impact of human activities has grown, many of for 1 7tonnesof carbon per annum being released into the today's most pressing problems both have global impacts atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), the av- and require regional and global solutions. The ability of erage Pakistani contributes only a tenth of a tonne. Simi- pollution to cross borders and of greenhouse-gas emissions larly, per capita carbon monoxide emissions are one-third to change climate brought home to all governments over the global average. Owing to the nation's early stage of the last decade the importance of international co-opera- industrialization and the small share of coal in the fuel mix, tion. Pakistan - like all nations with a growing popula- Pakistan's contribution to emissions of sulphur dioxide tion, increasing rates of consumption of energy and other (SO2), which are responsible for acid rain, is only 0.4% of resources, and the drive to industrialize -accounts for some the global total. of these problems. (Table 1 .1 provides a summary of these Annual deforestation in Pakistan is only some 7,000- global issues and of Pakistan's contribution to them.) 9,000 hectares - less than one one-thousandth of the THE PAKISTAN NCS 9  1 PAKISTAN IN THE CONtEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT RESOURCE BASE AND DEGRADATION, WORLD AND PAKISTAN, LATE 1980s RESOURCE WORLD PAKISTAN PAKISTAN'S SHARE RATIO OF PAKISTAN OF GLOBAL TO GLOBAL (percent) Land area (million hectares) 1 3,079' 88.2b 0.67 Population (millions) 5,162.4, 109.7' 2.12 Population density 1989 (perl,000 hectares) 389' 1,541' 4 times Projected population increase, 1990-2000 (millions) 1,000 40 4.0 GNP per capita 1.987 (US$) 3,100d 350d 1/9th Energy consumption (petajoules) 282,924' 814' 0.29 Energy per capita (gigajoules/capita) 54.8 7.42 2/15th Increase in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (million tonnes of carbon) 5,900c 15' 0.25 Per capita additions to CO2 flux (tonnes) 1.7' 0.1' 1/7th Carbon monoxide emissions (million tonnes/year) 193.5' 1.539 0.79 Per capita 0.037 0.013 1 /3rd SO2 emissions (million tonnes/year) 155' 0.632e 0.4 Per capita 0.03 0.0058 1/5th Per capita additions to methane flux (tonnes) 0.05c 0.03' 2/3rd CFC production per capita 1986 (kilograms) 0.2' 0' Forest area (million hectares) 4,081 .5' 4.58i 0. 11 Deforestation (hectares/year) 20"mill 7,000'-9,000o 0.082 Annual rate of deforestation (percent) 0.48 0.15-0.197 1 /3rd 10 THE PAKISTAN NCS  I PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT TABLE 1.1 RESOURCE BASE AND DEGRADATION, WORLD AND PAKISTAN, LATE 1 980s RESOURCE WORLD PAKISTAN PAKISTAN'S SHARE RATIO OF PAKISTAN OF GLOBAL TO GLOBAL (percent) Topsoil loss (million tonnes) 26,OOOP 47q 0.181 Soil loss (tonnes/hectare) 1.988 0.53 1/4th Cropland (million hectares) 1,475o 20.40 1.4 Expenditure on pesticides (million US$/yearl 18,500' 100' 0.54 Annual pesticide expenditure per hectare cropland (US$/hectare) 12.54 4.9 2/5th Average annual marine catch (thousand tonnes) 78,955.2c 333.7C 0.42 Per capita annual catch 14 2.8 1 /5th (kilograms/capita/year) SOURCES: a. World Resources, 1988-89. b. NCSSector_Report on Soils by M. A. Alim Mian and M. Yasin Javed (includes NA and AJK). c. World Resources, 1990. d. Human Development Report, UNDP, 1990. f. World Resources, 1987, Emissions from Air Pollutants, 1980 in million metric tonnes. g. Derived from RCG/Hagler, Bailly Inc., 1989 quoted in 'The Role of Energy Conservation in Environmental Protection in Pakistan by John R. Armstrong and Vaqar Zakaria. h. World Resources, 1 988-89, Approximate reading from graph showing 'Global Sulphur Dioxide Emission'. j.NCS Sector Reprt on Forestry by M.l.Sheikh & Abeedullah Jan. m. World Resources, 1990-91. n. 'Forests & Environment' by M.l. Sheikh in Towards a Nationol Conservation Strategy For Pakistan. p. Children & the Environment: A UNICEF Strategy for Sustainable Development. q. Derived from NCS Sector Report on Soils by M. Alim Mion and M. Yasin Javed. r. World Resources, 1988-89. s. SM. Saleem, Chairman Pakistan Agriculture Pesticides Association, 'Great leap in pesticide use' DAWN 15 October, 1 988. global total. True, deforestation is taking place from a croplands are used as the base for comparison. However, historically diminished forest base, covering just 5% of it should be cautioned that much global soil loss is taking national territory as compared with 32% of land world- place in a few tropical and subtropical countries, now wide that is classified as forests and woodlands. But the classified as ecological disasters. Pakistan would do well current pace of deforestation in Pakistan is considerably to reduce substantially its aggregate loss of this essential slower than the world rate, which affects mainly the tropics. resource. In light of recent global estimates of the loss of tropical The use of chemical pesticides in agriculture is forests, the rate in Pakistan is about one-third as rapid. another growing global problem. Persistent Similarly, owing totraditionallygood soil husbandry, organochlorides have been found in ecosystems and food the 47 million tonnes of annual topsoil loss in Pakistan chains much after their original application and far away represents degradation occurring at one-fourth the global from that area. At the moment, Pakistan uses only one-half pace. And this is a conservative comparison, based on of 1% of global pesticides (by value). This amounts to two- total land areas. Pakistan has 23% of its land under crops, fifths the global average per unit cropland. But the twice the global average. The soil-loss ratio shows threefold increase by weight and the eightfold increase by Pakistan in an even more favourable light when only value of pesticide imports during the 1980s leaves no THE PAKISTAN NCS 1l  1 PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT room for complacency. __ As regards harvesting from the global commons, Pakistan is a small, in fact under-represented, consumer. The world marine catch-ranging between 70 million and IMPLICATIONS FOR PAKISTAN OF 90 million tonnes - is near maximum sustainable yield in GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL many places. Pakistan's share is less than half of 1%. At PROBLEMS 2.8 kilograms per capita, the fish catch in Pakistan is one- fifth the global average. It is clear that Pakistan is neither a major global PROBLEM POTENTIAL IMPLICATIONS polluter nor a large consumer of resources. In fact, it has FOR PAKISTAN a considerable unutilized quota of both the productive and assimilative capacities of global systems, insofar as such v v utilization is sustainable. In the interests of future genera- Population growth Degradation of natural resource base tions in all countries, Pakistan also has the moral imperative such thct future generations cannot to point out the externalized costs of conspicuous consump- support themselves, increased pollution tion and waste, and the need to avoid the unsustainable and degraded quality of life, potential use of God-given common resources. for national and regional conflict over land and resources. 1 .2 GLOBAl ENVIRONMENTAL iGlobal climate change Sea level rise change, flooding of 1.2 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ('G~~~~reenhouse effect') Indus Delta and coastal cities IKarachi), effect on fishing and ISSUES - IMPLICATIONS associated communities. Changes in rainfall patterns, shift in FOR PAKISTAN agricultural patterns, changes in Table 1 2 provides a summary of the implications for production. Pakistan of the global environmental problems discussed in Increasing temperature, increased this section. melting of glaciers and changes in water availability/seasonality. GROWTH OF POPULATION AND Ozone layer depletion Increased incidence of UV-B CONSUMPTION radiation suppressing human immune defence against tumours initiated in World population grew from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 4.8 skin. billion in 1 985 and is expected to reach 6.2 billion by the Negative impact on plant life on land end of this decade and then 8.3 billion just 25 years later. and sea. Although growth rates peaked in the 1960s and 1 970s Transboundary shipment of Risks to human health from of illegal and sharp declines in fertility were noted in most industrial hazardous wastes disposal sites, contamination of coastal countries, considerable differences still exist between the fisheries. population growth rates of industrialized and developing Loss of biodiversity Lost crop strains, loss of medicinal regions. potential, extinction of plant and In 1950 the developing regions contained about animal species. two-thirds of the world population, with their growth rates averaging 2%; the industrial regions, with the other one- Soil loss Reduced agricultural productive third of global population, had an average rate of growth dams for power and irrigation, of 1 .3%. By the end of the 1 990s, however, the industri- damage to coastal fisheries. alized regions will account for only one-fifth of world population and are expected to achieve growth rates of Desertificationo of ranetribal eoples i less than 0.5%, while developing regions will be home to the remaining four-fifths of the world and are projected to Deforestation Watershed deterioration, loss of be increasing then at just under 1 .5% a year. wildlife. Even within developing regions considerable varia- Destruction of Loss of winter grounds for tions exist in demographic trends: the fastest rates of wetlands South Asian waterfowl. growth are found in Africa, followed by Latin America and then Asia. Although the bulk of Asia (particularly China) has achieved dramatic declines in fertility, the South Asian 12 THE PAKISTAN NCS  PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 1 region in general and Pa- e 9 vh- kistan in particular have been exceptions to this 1 trend. Pakistan continues to have a much higher \ \,1q ; growth rate (3.1%) than the average for Asia. The nation was ranked as the - tenth most populous in 4 1 990 and is expected to -* become the eighth most populous within 20 years, and undoubtedly the sev- T A enth or sixth not long afer that. Though people are __,I without doubt the most e valuable resource in Paki- -- ,T - - - stan, as in any nation, un- controlled growth in their . . - t # numbers puts undue pres- '4 sure on all other national resources. " High growth rates in ., - ; ... developing countries are caused by both high fertil- Uncontrolled growth in population puts undue pressure on national resources. Photo: M. Gozdor. ity and the momentum created by previous high growth. forests. Neither unrestrained population growth nor Thus even though fertility has declined in most developing unchecked consumption growth can continue without irre- countries, large groups of women just entering or still to versible changes to the earth's ecosystems and its climate reach their reproductive years have already been born, - and without dire consequences for already impover- ensuring that birth rates will continue to be high for quite ished developing countries. a while. In the case of countries like Pakistan, where fertility rates have not changed at all the momentum of GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE population growth is particularly worrying. The 'greenhouse effect' is caused by the buildup of certain Growth in global consumption of resources per gases in the atmosphere. A higher-than-natural concentra- capita compounds the impact of population growth on the tion of carbon dioxide (produced by the burning of fossil global as well as local environments. Consumption per fuels and wood), of methane (produced by the decay of capita has increased rapidly: industrial production, for organic materials), of nitrogen oxides and low-level ozone example, grew fiftyfold in the last 1 00 years, with four-fifhs (emitted in automobile exhausts), and of chlorofluorocar- of the increase occurring since 1950. Much of this bons (CFCs, used as refrigerants, as propellants, and as increased consumption has been limited to industrialized solvents in various industrial processes) al!ows more solar countries, which on average have per capita consumption radiation to reach the earth's surface. At the same time, it rates 40 times those in developing countries. traps the reradiated heat - just as the glass in a green- The consequences of the rapid growth in both popu- house retains heat. Scientists' best calculations to date lation and consumption have been many and varied. indicatethatasa consequenceof the steady increase in the Unmanaged growth of consumption in industrial countries atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases, the earth has depleted non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels is likely to be 1-2 degrees Celsius warmer by 2030 than it and caused local and global air pollution; it has also led is today. Pakistan's contribution to this global problem is to the overharvesting of renewable resources, such as relatively small, at least at current rates of fossil fuel use. many of the world's most important fish stocks, threatening The implications of global climate change for Paki- their ecological and commercial viability. Uncontrolled stan are difficult to predict at this time, but could be population growth and the attendant poverty in develop- potentially large, affecting patterns of agriculture, fisher- ing countries have caused widespread degradation of ies, and forestry. They are serious enough to warrant the soils that support agriculture and the depletion of tropical study currently being done by a team of Pakistani scientists THE PAKISTAN NCS 13  1 PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT as part of a multi-country investigation of the potential OZONE LAYER DEPLETION impacts of the greenhouse effect. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns in Scientistsinthelastfewyearshavediscoveredareasinthe Pakistan may cause wet areas to become wetter and the stratosphere where the protective ozone layer has become monsoon to become more vigorous; arid areas are ex- thinner. This layer of ozone is important because it screens pected to become drier and to suffer greater evaporation the ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth's surface from losses. Semi-arid areas may be converted to deserts. Low- the sun. Excess exposure to ultraviolet radiation is known lyingareasmaybecomesalinized. Mountainglaciersand to raise the incidence of skin cancer among exposed snowfields are likely to recede, possibly creating a reduc- populations, can increase cataract problems, and may tion over time in the water available for agriculture in the affect crop yields. To date, the reduction in ozone layer northern valleys that depend on summer snowmelt. This thickness has been identified over polar and temperate melting, together with the expansion of warmer oceans, is regions of the earth, but the problem could spread to other expected to cause a rise in sea levels of between 1 0 and areas. 20 centimetres within the next 40-50 years. The thinning of the ozone layer is attributed to the The national consequences of such sea level rises will release of certain chemicals, particularly chlorofluorocar- depend on the topography of particular areas and the bons. Anumberofindustrialcountriesaretakingmeasures extent to which they are undergoing land subsidence or to ban the production and eliminate the use of CFCs over the next 5-10 years. Al- ,*.______;____ though Pakistan does not =_________________________________________________ - = ___________ manufacture CFCs, ithasa ____________ -growing need for refrig- _____=________ eration fluids. The technol- ___________ jogy to manufacture and _____i______- use replacements for CFCs ____________ -will have to be transferred ____________ to Pakistan and othe. de- =__3__________ veloping countries, atcosts ____________ " that are comparable to ex- ______________ =isting refrigerants. __________ ECOSYSTEM v___ --______ DEGRADATION AND _=_____de_- ACCELERATED LOSS ________ -- OF BIODIVERSITY ________.. Ecosystems contain a vast range of interdependent plant, animal, and micro- elevation. The Sindh Coast) for example, is geologically organism forms that support all life on earth. This genetic dominated by the margin of the Indus delta, from Korangi and speciesvariety is known as biodiversity. The biodiversity Creek to the Rann of Kutch. This coastline is regressing as of ecosystems in both developing and industrial countries the dams, barrages, and other flood control schemes have is under threatthrough a combination of habitatdestruction reduced the flow of the river and the sediment load and the selective removal and killing of individual species deposited in the delta. Combining this with rising sea level of plants and animals. will lead to saltwater intrusion into groundwater supplies, Scientists believe that between 5 million and 30 seriously affecting the quality of drinking and agricultural million species exist on earth, but the very range of their water and undermining the effectiveness of major Salinity estimates indicates the depth of our ignorance about Control and Agricultural Rehabilitation Programmes. Even biodiversity. Only 1 .6 million species have actually been a relative sea level rise of half a metre in the next 30 years identified and named, and of these, the ecosystemic role will result in regular flooding of many coastal settlements, and chemical properties of only a small fraction are known. the loss of major mangrove resources, and thus serious The pre-historic rate of extinction was about one species consequences for mangrove-dependent fisheries. per year. Human activities have increased this perhaps a 14 THE PAKISTAN NCS  PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 1 thousandfold, just when advances in biochemistry have developing countries as the unwitting or sometimes allowed the use of the wealth inherent in genetic diversity complicent targets for waste disposal. The absence of in previously unimaginable ways. adequate systems for tracking wastes has permitted such Except for the most fragile ones, ecosystems have a practices to continue. Pakistan must guard against the degree of resiliency. They have elements of homeostasis importation of such wastes, which would threaten human that are the result of past adaptation and survival. But health and the quality of fisheries in coastal areas, where overloaded beyond certain thresholds - thresholds we they are likely to be dumped. sometimes do not recognize until they have been crossed - natural ecosystems collapse with alarming speed. Many changes are irreversible. Habitat destruction and 13 THIDfl WADIfn DD IEMC pollution now threaten ecosystems around the earth, lead- 1 W *3HRO LD PRlVBL IEMS ing to changes thataltertheir natural and economic values, IN THE TRANSITION TO in many cases permanently. SUSTAINABLE TRANSBOUNDARY POLLUTION AND THE DEVELOPMENT SHIPMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES The movement of pollutants across borders has been a source of concern and dis- pute for several decades: trees in Canada and Nor- way, for example, are dying -NS4- from acid precipitation that is the result of industrial ac- tiviy i, rspectively, the United States and the United Kingdom. In the South Asia region, contaminated water supplies, entailing consider- able purification costs to downstream water users, are -;. already a well-noted phenomena, while transboundary air pollution ". , may become common 5s 24 billion tonnes of soil are lost annually through erosion worldwide. Photo: D. Cowasiee/IUCN. each jurisdiction attempts to Poo .cwse/uN dissipate pollutants through higher smoke-stacks. Developing countries have certain environmental prob- Industrial countries generate the majority of the lems in common, related to such factors as their ecological world's domestic, industrial, and agricultural wastes (99% conditions, their lack of economic vitality, and the poverty of the 400 million tonnes of wastes generated annually). of their peoples. Although a number of these factors also Specific materials containing heavy metals or organic or existin industrial countries, their magnitude and impactare radioactive chemicals are termed hazardous and toxic far more severe in the Third World. wastes. They require special handling, treatment, and disposal because of their long life and resistance to natural SOIL LOSS breakdown, their toxicity to humans, and their potential for damaging ecosystem functions. Soil is a crucial life-support system, since the bulk of food The disposal of these wastes has become problem- production depends on it. Erosion is a natural and atic as communities in many industrial countries refuse to continuous process, but in undisturbed ecosystems with a allow hazardous waste facilities to be sited near them. This protective cover of plants, soil is usually regenerated at the has led to an illicit trade in hazardous wastes, with same rate it is removed. Under natural conditions of THE PAKISTAN NCS 15  1 PAK[STAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT vegetative cover, it takes 1 00-400 years to generate one They have no sense of belonging or permanence thot centimetre of topsoil in arid and semi-arid areas. If soil and would encourage investment in maintaining or improving vegetation are not in balance, owing to poor manage- the natural resource base. (In Pakistan, this problem has ment,erosionaccelerates-withdisastrousconsequences. been demonstrated by the impact of refugees from Af- One estimate indicates that 24 billion more tonnes of soil ghanistan.) are lost annually through erosion world-wide than are Desertification is to a considerable degree a phe- formed through these natural processes. nomenon induced by human activities. Drought is a Soil loss has accelerated sharply throughoutthe food- regular and recurring fact of arid areas. The true desert, hungry tropics, which are generally more susceptible to since it has little productive capability, is subject to little erosion than the temperate zone due to the topography of pressure. The areas at risk have enough precipitation-to the land and the nature of the soils and rainfall. The loss have some productive capacity, which during the high is worst in Africa, but even over large tracts of arable land phase of the rainfall cycle induces crop growth and an in South Asia the amount of nutrients lost through soil increase in the size of grazing herds. When the cycle erosion is estimated to exceed that gained through the inexorably enters the low rainfall phase, overharvesting application of fertilizers. And, of course, fertilizers cannot and overgrazing remove the cover crops that have pre- restore the texture of eroded soils. vented the area from turning into a desert. If such exploitation persists by removing whatever vegetation remains, desertification inevitably accelerates. DESERTIFICATION The high variability of rainfall in semi-arid areas leads in good years to the hope that the grass and shrubs Each year, 6 million hectares of productive drylands are will maintain a larger herd - a hope that is dashed in the converted into worthless desert. The process has already subsequent inevitable droughts. Generations of experi- created millions of 'ecological refugees' in sub-Saharan ence taught tribal herders drought-survival practices, such Africa--people who have had to flee their homes because as adequate range closure. But these practices have the land could no longer support them. Uprooted people collapsed in many regions, aggravating the pressures on are the most destructive users of vegetative cover and drylands caused by rapid increases in human and animal water supplies, especially because their needs are urgent. populations. Human activities have had a considerable impact on drylands. Photo: S. M. Shchid/lUCN. 16 THE PAKISTAN NCS  PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT I DEFORESTATION Wetlands, floodplains, seagrass beds, and coral reefs are being destroyed the world over. In industrial Besides suppiying timber and other products, forests countries, the main causes are industrial and agricultural have a major role in maintaining vital ecological pro- pollutants. In the Third World, the causes are short-sighted cesses. At the global scale, they serve as sinks for CO2, development, such as the filling in of coastal waters to ameliorating climate change, and help ensure a continu- provide sites for industry, housing, and airports, and ous supply of clean water. Watershed forests are par- poverty-induced activities, such as the extraction of coral ticularly important because they help conserve soil cover reefs for building materials and the cutting of mangroves and protect downstream areas from excessive flooding. for fuelwood. In Pakistan, mangrove depletion is partially Through reducing the silt load of rivers, watershed forests attributed to the withdrawal of water for irrigation. Otht' help prevent clogging of reservoirs, irrigation systems, and depleting factors are coastal industry and construction and harbour facilities. raw sewage discharge. Positive management of upland Unfortunately, in developing countries, forests are watersheds resulting in smoother river regimes could extend being widely devastated. New estimates of tropical the period of sweet water availability to nourish the deforestation announced in 1990 indicate that every year mangroves. some 20 million hectares are lost; over the next 1 5 years, this implies an area the size of India will be denuded In URBAN GROWTH Africa, estimates a decade ago indicated only one hectare was being replanted for every 29 hectares cut down. The world's economic system is increasingly based on urban activity. Byyear 2000, almost half the world will live DESTRUCTION OF WETLANDS in cities, with three-fourths of the industrial world and 40% of people in developing countries being urban dwellers. Coastal wetlands and shallows - especially estuar- Cities in many developing countries have grown at rates ies and mangroves - are nature's richest ecosystems, without historic precedent. Urban population quadrupled having the highest net reproductive rate. They provide in these nations between 1950 and 1985, from 286 food and shelter for waterfowl and, at vital stages in their million to 1. 14 billion. Experts believe that this pace has life cycle, to two-thirds of the world's Fisheries, including not been maintained in the last few years, that past stimuli commercially important species such as shrimp. to rapid urbanization may have less influence now, and * * , . ~~~~F r 7 -r bZ_'- 1 X* f_F Mushrooming illegal squatter settlements are a growing third world feature. Photo: S. M. Shahid/IUCN. THE PAKISTAN NCS 17  1 PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT that governments may take steps to support rural popula- of huge link canals across the lie of land to feed the Eastern tions. Nevertheless, 90% of world urbanization in this rivers (Ravi and Sutlej), the waters of which have been decade is expected to take place in the Third World. diverted upstream by India. Although these link canals National and city governments are ill equipped to have been necessary to maintain irrigation systems based meet this challenge. Few have the power, resources, and on the Eastern rivers, they have aggravated the problems trained staff to provide rapidly growing urban populations of drainage and, to some extent, floods. Traditional with the land, services, and facilities needed: clean water, interstate basin commissions are often poorly adapted to sanitation, schools, and transport. The result is mushroom- the new challenge of water conservation and integrated ing illegal squatter settlements with primitive facilities, environmental management. increased overcrowding, and rampant disease linked to Pakistan is also involved in a major ongoing regiorml an unhealthy environment. initiative on natural disasters, entailing the review of the institutional structures in each South Asian country for disaster prevention, abatement, and relief. This may lead .4 INTERNATIONAL AND to some measure of co-ordinated response to environ- 1,4 INTERNATIONAL AND mental emergencies and disasters. TRANSBOUNDARY AGREEMENTS 1.5 EMERGING RESPONSES TO Over the last 30 years governments and regional associa- GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL tions have agreed to a number of important international treaties, conventions, and protocols related to the environ- PROBLEMS ment. (See Table 1.3.) A number of new international initiatives, including the setting up of a global environmen- Industrial countries are showing signs of lower growth rates tal security council and a global climate treaty, are and in some cases a reduced absolute level of consumption currently under deliberation. Pakistan is an important of certain natural resources. Energy conservation mea- contracting party to the convention for protection of wet- sures in Japan, Europe, and North America have dropped lands, because an international flyway for migratory the rate of energy use in relation to growth of gross national waterfowls in South Asia runs down the Indus River. The product. The recycling of metals and wood fibre is proving nation also has an obligation to and enjoys international to be both economically attractive and environmentally support for protection of its sites designated as World sensible. Cultural and Natural Heritage. Further, the government is Nonetheless, in developing countries production and legally bound to control the international trade in endan- consumption must continue to rise to meet social and gered species, to prohibit the manufacture of biological economic developmentneedsand toclosethegap between weapons, and to abide by the Nuclear Weapons Test Ban rich and poor. Yet the nature and quality of growth need Treaty. As a signatory to the Law of the Sea Treaty, not follow the path taken by the industrial countries. Pakistan enjoys exclusive access for economic purposes to Learning from the costly mistakes of those nations, develop- a zone of waters extending 200 nautical miles from its ing countries have the opportunity to produce more goods coastline. with fewer inputs, using clean and sustainable methods Pakistan is not yet a party to several other key and particularly capitalizing on biological processes in international agreements that bear the government's con- sunlight-rich and biodiverse environments. Still, to avoid sideration. The need to prevent ocean dumping of wastes rapid increases in pollution and resource degradation that and pollution from ships is obvious. Further, the 1 990 can accompany industrialization, waste recycling and meeting in London to renegotiatate the Montreal Protocol reuse need to become standard practices in all Third World on ozone-depleting substances supported initial funds for industrial sectors. the investment required in developing countries to use International responses to the threats of global worm- alternatives to CFCs. Pakistan should therefore review its ing and of ozone layer depletion have been noted at both interest in this agreement. the technical and political level. The Intergovernmental At the regional level, Pakistan and India are parties Panel on Climate Change set up by the World Meteorologi- to a major international river basin treaty-the Indus Basin cal Organization and the UN Environment Programme is Treaty (1 960) - which has assured the waters of the three one of the initiatives to assess the global implications of the Western rivers (Indus, Jehlum, and Chenab) to the lower greenhouseeffectandmeasuresnationscantaketoreduce riparian region. The treaty has resulted in the construction the impact. Already, some governments have made 18 THE PAKISTAN NCS  PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 1 TABLE 1.3 KEY INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT CONVENTION YEAR PAKISTAN'S TITLE/ STAND DESCRIPTION Nuclear 1963 C P Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, test ban the Outer Space and Under Water (Moscow) Wetlands 1971 C P Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) Biological 1972 C P Convention on the prohibition of the development, & toxin weapons production and stockpiling of bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons, and on their destruction (London, Moscow, Washington D.C.) Ocean 1972 Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping dumping of Waste and Other Motter (London, Mexico, Moscow, Washington D.C.) World 1972 C P Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural heritage and Natural Heritage (Paris) CITES 1973 C P Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (Washington D.C.) NMARPOL 1978 Protocol relating to the International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships (London) Migratory 1979 C P Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild species Animals (Bonn) Law of 1982 S United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea the sea (Montego Bay) Ozone 1985 Convention for Protection of Ozone Layer (Vienno) Ozone 1 987 Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone layer (Montreal) SOURCE: World Resources, 1990-91. C P: Contracting Party (Has ratified or taken equivalent action). S: Signatory. commitments to stabilize and then reduce emissions of tively. Similarly, urban problems are beginning to be carbon dioxide and other gases responsible for this threat. addressed in countries such as Indonesia and Pakistan Pakistan, like all countries, needs to consider the possible through pioneering community self-help efforts that provide effects of globol climate change on its development plans. employment and the construction of housing and a commu- The emerging solutions to many of the issues of nity infrastructure. natural resource degradation faced by developing coun- Ultimately, the solution to the myriad global issues tries - such as soil loss, deforestation, and desertification facing Pakistan and many other nations lies not in science - are based on the pivotal role to be played by Commu- and technology, importantas innovation is in providing the nity-Based Management Systems, in which practices to means to redress and prevent environmental degradation. ensure sustainable use of resources are agreed on collec- Their resolution depends on changes in human perception THE PAKISTAN NCS 19  I PAKISTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT and in the willingness of people to behave differently at the development. individual, community, national, and international levels. It is within this global context of increasing complex- The political will must be found to undertake needed ity but also unprecedented opportunities that Pakistan's reforms in behaviour, institutions, and technologies in environmental issues must be considered. That is the order to ensure progress towards sustainable forms of subject of this National Conservation Strategy. 20 THE PAKISTAN NCS  THE STATE OF PAKISTAN'S ENVIRONMENT 2 CHAPTER THE STATE OF PAKISTAN'S ENVIRONMENT P akistan is moving up in the world. In the world league of population, that is. From tenth most populous to the eighth by 2010, and no doubt to sixth most populous a few decades afer that. The decisions that 1 10 million Pakistanis make each and every day about their use of land, water, fisheries, parks and protected areas, miner- als, energy, and cultural heritage are thus of no small consequence for the world and, more directly, for Pakistan. Before we can assess the impacts of those decisions, we must take a careful look at Pakistan today. This chapter presents the best information available on our nation's natural and cultural resources. of soils or because the soils that do exist cannot support 2.1 LAND productive plant growth;. and the unclassified category covers non-agricultural land presently occupied by river beds, industries, cities, or other miscellaneous uses. LAND USE: PRESENT POSITION AND TRENDS The main messages of Table 2.1 are that: Pakistan hcs 88.2 million hectares of land within its * ofthetotalsurveyedarea,lessthan20%ofthelandhas borders, of which 61.8 million have been surveyed. (See the potential for intensive agricultural use; Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1.) Approximately 20 million hectares are used for agriculture (nearly 16 million hect- * only 2.4% of the area is classified as having medium to ares of it irrigated and just over 4 million in barani good potential for productive forestry and rangeland agriculture). The vast bulk of the land area of Pakistan, uses; and some 3 1 million hectares, is in forest or rangeland, or is unutilized and unutilizable. * 62% of the land has low potential for crop, livestock, or The nine land capability classes in Table 2.1 can be forestry production (some of this area, however, apart grouped into the following categories: cultivable land (both from supporting low-intensity dryland farming/fodder the best and the most marginal land capable of growing production, may have some potential for unconven- annual arable crops) corresponds to Classes I to IV; soils tional dryland activities, such as the harvesting of only usable for pasture and forest comprise Classes V to VII; indigenous plants that yield natural oils and perfumes, Class Vil consists of land that is not capable of growing sources of energy, etc.) trees, shrubs, or grasses either because of a total absence Figure 2.2 translates the Land Capability Classes into THE PAKISTAN NCS 21  2 THE STATE OF PAKISTAN'S ENVIRONMENT LAND CAPABILITY BY CLASSES LAND CAPABILITY Total Area: 61.82 million hectares CLASSIFICATIONS IX 1.78 I 5.24 mha mnha IT 6.98 [AND SOIL PRODUCTION mha CLASS LIMITATIONS POTENTIAL vlil 23.2 mho I Very good None for general Very high agricultural land agriculture iv 2.99 I Good agricultural Minor High for general VO.7 mhr land agriculture _ 1.27 ________________________/_________ mha Illi Moderate Moderate Moderate for agricultural land general crops IV Poor (marginal) Severe Low for a few mhc agricultural land crops only V Good forest or None/minor for High for forestry/ rangeland forestry/rangeland range development LAND CLASS LAND CAPABILITY I VERY GOOD AGRICULTURAL LAND 11 GOOD AGRICULTURAL LAND VI Moderate forest Moderate Moderate for - lif MODERATE AGRICULTURAL LAND or rangeland forestry/range IV MARGINAL AGRICULTURAL LAND development v GOOD FORESTRY & RANGELAND ___________________ _ ______________________________ _ VI MODERATE FORESTRY & RANGELAND VII Poor forest or Severe Low for forestry/ Vil POOR FORESTRY & RANGELAND rangeland range development ViII NONAGRICULTURAL LAND IX UNCLASSIFIED VIII Non-agricultural Severe None for any type SOURCE: NCS Sector Paper On Soils by Alim Mian and M. Yasin Javed. landofeooi agriculture SOURCE: Generalized from NCS Sector Paper on Soils by Alim Mian and M; Yasin Javed. broad categories of land use in the individual provinces. In round terms, the land categorized as 'cultivable' repre- sents 32% of the area actually surveyed. When the same area is expressed as a function of the total area of Pakistan, however, the figure falls to less than 23%. Since virtually all the cultivable land has been surveyed, this lower figure is more relevant. _ 7Z!:-t The amount of cultivable land is nearly matched by ; the amount of land actually being cultivated. Thus it is Q'> apparent that little additional land is available in Pakistan l for the expansion of arable agriculture, the growth of crops on an annual basis. This is the most significant finding to emerge from the appraisal of the Land Capability statistics. In round terms, the current uses of the total land area covered by Pakistan's four provinces (the Punjab, Sindh, NWFP with FATA, and Balochiston) are shown in Figure Litle cultivable land is available in Pakistan for the expansion 2.3. Table 2.2 provides an overview of the ways land has of arable agriculture. Photo: D. Pearson/IUCN. 22 THE PAKISTAN NCS  THE STATE OF PAKISTAN'S ENVIRONMENT 2 FIGURE 2.2 LAND CATEGORIES > CULTIVABLE > PASTURE AND FORESTS > UNPRODUCTIVE * UNSURVEYED AREA PERCENT loA1 PUNJAB SINDH NWFP/FATA BALOCH N.A. PAK.AJK SOURCE: NCS Sector Paper on Soils. FIGURE 2.3 CURRENT LAND USE C /: ',,. > iTotal Area: 79.60 million hectores N.i 5 - ' .'. ' | ' / . ' ' '- Cultivable 25.8% .i > : ~ Pasture -.&-*14.7%P\ i-'', '.U U. Uban/ Rangeland Others 53.0% Cultivable Waste 1I.7 Forest 4.3% Agricultural land is being used at much below its SOURCE: National Commission on Agriculture Report. productive capability. Photo: S. Hussain/IUCN. Note: For four provinces only. THE PAKISTAN NCS 23  2 THE STATE OF PAKISTAN'S ENVIRONMENT TRENDS IN LAND USE LAND 1947- 1953- 1958- 1963- 1968- 1973- 1978- 1983- USE 1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1986 (million hectares) Reported 46.33 46.61 49.46 52.20 53.22 54.09 54.82 57.96 area Forest 1.38 1.27 1.46 1.92 2.31 2.83 2.82 3.03 area 2.98% 2.72% 2.93% 3.68% 4.34% 5.23% 5.15% 5.23% Not 20.73 20.68 19.76 18.57 20.13 20.74 20.28 22.69 available 44.75% 44.37% 39.96% 35.57% 37.83% 38.34% 37.00% 39.15% for cultivation Cultivable 9.19 9.10 11.25 13.00 11.53 11.00 11.51 11.72 waste 9.86% 19.53% 22.75% 24.90% 21.66% 20.34% 21.00% 20.22% Current 3.74 3.53 3.90 4.81 4.76 4.69 4.77 4.88 follow 8.08% 7.57% 7.89% 9.21% 8.94% 8.67% 8.70% 8.42% Net area 11.27 12.03 13.09 13.90 14.49 14.83 15.43 15.64 sown 24.33% 25.81% 26.48% 26.63% 27.23% 27.42% 28.15% 26.98% Sown more 1.04 1.30 1.52 1.89 2.14 2.95 3.78 4.39 than once 2.25% 2.79% 3.07% 3.64% 4.02% 5.45% 6.91% 7.58% Total 12.31 13.33 14.61 15.79 16.63 17.78 19.22 20.03 cropped area 26.58% 28.60% 29.54% 30.27% 31.25% 32.87% 35.06% 34.56% SOURCE: Notional Commission on Agriculture INCA) Report (Table 4). Total Area = 79.61 million hectares. Five year averages, including percentage of reported area. been used since Partition. The trend data relate specifically Of this, 4.4 million hectares were due to the extension of to the total land area covered by the four provinces. As irrigated cropping into new areas; the balance was the several changes have occurred since 1947 in the ways result of intensification, or more precisely the increased statistics have been collected, they need to be interpreted area that was double-cropped. with care. The changing nature of this increment over time is Between 1947-52 and 1983-86, for example, the significant. (See Figure 2.5.) The increment in total 'reported area' increased by I1 .63 million hectares as a cropped area has been remarkably steady, bearing in result of survey work, which added these hectares to the mind the tendency for irrigation to be expanded in large various recorded land use categories. (See Figure 2.4.) discrete blocks. Presenting statistics as five-year averages Prior to the changes, therefore, the unclassified, unused, tends to smooth annual figures, however. Even more and unreported land use category was correspondingly remarkable is the increasing role played by intensification larger. as a means of adding to the total cropped area. The 'total cropped area', which includes net area For the first 20 years following the founding of sown and area sown more than once, expanded by a total Pakistan, expansion dominated the scene, accounting for of 7.7 million hectares between 1947-52 and 1983-86. 79% of the increase in cropped area. By 1 968-72, 24 THE PAKISTAN NCS  THE STATE OF PAKISTAN'S ENViRONMENT 2 FIGURE 2.4 expansion as a source of increase began to diminish; since 1 973-77, it has accounted for only 33% of the increment INCREMENT IN REPORTED LAND USE in total cropped area. Intensification has become the (1947-52 TO 1983-86) dominant method of increasing the area under crops, Total Increment: 11.63 million hectares which since 1 972 has presumably been associated with F-vst 14'* the growth of private tube-wells, an important new source of irrigation water. /^\ A- S. 38-~One shift in classification has not been merely from / \ v h~~~~~~el A.eo Sown, 38' d37 o'7o. an unrecorded wasteland of mountains, glaciers, river --..[QW.ve i e22'0 V Kbeds, and deserts to one of formal recognition of 'no, I2 52 '--c_ available for cultivation'. This category, it must be remem- bered, now includes urban uses as well. Although it No.A, AoblFe.o'Cu,r.v= Co.'en!Fo:o. increased by about 2 million hectares between 1947-52 17