Implementing educational policies in Zambia

WDP-90 World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Series Implementing Educational Policies in Zambia Paul P. W. Achola . .  Recent World Bank Discussion Papers No. 32 Tenancy in South Asia. Inderjit Singh No. 33 Land and Labor in South Asia. Inderjit Singh No. 35 Global Trends in Real Exchange Rates. Adrian Wood No. 36 Income Distribution and Economic Development in Malawi: Some Historical Perspectives. Frederic L. Pryor No. 37 Income Distribution and Economic Development in MViadagascar: Some Historical Perspectives. Frederic L. Pryor No. 38 Quality Controls of Traded Commodities and Senvices in Developing CoTuntries. Simon Rottenberg and Bruce Yandle No. 39 Livestock Production in North Africa and the Middle East: Problems and Perspectives. John C. Glenn [Also available in French (39F)] No. 40 Nongovernmental Organizations and Local Development. Michael M. Cernea [Also available in Spanish (40S)] No. 41 Patterns of Development: 1950 to 1983. Moises Syrquin and Hollis Chenery No. 42 Voluntary Debt-Reduction Operations: Bolivia, Mexico, and Beyond... Ruben Lamdany No. 43 Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa: Analysis and Explanation. Susan Cochrane and S.M. Farid No. 44 Adjustment Programs and Social We!fare. Elaine Zuckerman No. 45 Primary School Teachers' Salaries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Manuel Zymelman and Joseph DeStefano No. 46 Education and Its Relation to Economic Growth, Poverty, and Income Distribution: Past Evidence and Further Analysis. Jandhyala B.G. Tilak No. 47 International.MacroeconomicAdjustment, 1987-1992. Robert E. King and Helena Tang No. 48 Contract Plans atnd Public Enterprise Performance. John Nellis [Also available in French (48F)] No. 49 Improving Nutrition in India: Policies and Programs and Their Impact. K. Subbarao No. 50 Lessons of Financial Liberalization in Asia: A Comparative Study. Yoon-Je Cho and Deena Khatkhate No. 51 Vocational Education and Training: A Review of World Bank Investment. John Middleton and Terry Demsky No 52 The Market-Based Menu Approach in Action: The 1988 Brazil Financinig Package. Ruben Lamdany No. 53 Pathways to Change: Improving the Quality of Education in Developing Countries. Adriaan Verspoor No. 54 Education Managersfor Business and Government. Samuel Paul, Jacob Levitsky, andJohn C. Ickis No. 55 Subsidies and Countervailing Measures: Critical Issuesfor the Uruguay Round. Bela Balassa, editor No. 56 Managing Public Expenditure: An Evolving World Bank Perspective. Robert M. Lacey No. 57 The Management of Common Property Natural Resources. Daniel W. Bromley and Michael M. Cernea No. 58 M,Iaking the Poor Creditworthy: A Case Study of the Integrated Rural Development Program in India. Robert Pulley No. 59 Improving Family Planning, Health, and Nutrition Outreach in India: Experiencefrom Some World Bank-Assisted Programs. Richard Heaver No. 60 Fighting Malnutrition: Evaluation of Brazilian Food and Nutrition Programus. Philip Musgrove No. 61 Staying in the Loop: International Alliancesfor Sharing Technology. Ashoka Mody (Continued on the inside back cover.)  Implementing Educational Policies in Zambia  World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Series Studies on Implementation of African Educational Policies No. 82 Why Educational Policies Can Fail: An Overview of Selected African Experiences No. 83 Comparative African Experiences in Implementing Educational Policies No. 84 Implementing Educational Policies in Ethiopia No. 85 Implementing Educational Policies in Kenya No. 86 Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania No. 87 Implementing Educational Policies in Lesotho No. 88 Implementing Educational Policies in Swaziland No. 89 Implementing Educational Policies in Uganda No. 90 Implementing Educational Policies in Zambia No. 91 Implementing Educational Policies in Zimbabwe The set of studies on implementation of African educational policies was edited by Mr. George Psacharopoulos. Mr. Psacharopoulos wishes to acknowledge the help of Professor G. Eshiwani, who beyond being the author of the case study on Kenya (see No. 85) has coordinated the production of the other case studies in the region.  9 O * 0 World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Senies Implementing Educational Policies in Zambia Paul P. W. Achola The World Bank Washington, D.C.  Copyright C) 1990 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printingJuly 1990 Discussion Papers present results of country analysis or research that is circulated to encourage discussion and comment within the development community. To present these results with the least possible delay, the typescript of this paper has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for the convenience of readers; the designations and presentation of material in them do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its affiliates, or its Board or member countries concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of the authorities thereof or concerning the delimitation of its boundaries or its national affliation. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to Director, Publications Department, at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to photocopy portions for classroom use is not required, though notification of such use having been made will be appreciated. The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which contains an alphabetical tide list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Publications Sales Unit, Department F, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'Iena, 75116 Paris, France. ISSN: 0259-210X Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Achola, Paul Pius Waw. Implementing educational policies in Zambia / Paul P.W. Achola. p. cm.-(Studies on implementation of African educational policies, ISSN 0259-210X) (World Bank discussion papers; 90. Africa Technical Department series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-1587-0 1. Education and state-Zambia. 2. Education-Zambia-History. I. Title. II. Series. III. Series: World Bank discussion papers; no. 90. IV. Series: World Bank discussion papers. Africa Technical Department series. LC95.Z33A26 1990 379.6894-dc2O 90-40065 CIP  FOREIORD The decades of the 1960s and 1970s witnessed dramatic quantitative growth in African education systems. Beyond expanding educational places, many African countries pronounced intentions to "reform" their educational systems, by adjusting the length of education cycles, altering the terms of access to educational opportunity, changing the curriculum content, or otherwise attempting to link the provision of education and training more closely to perceived requirements for national socio-economic development. Strong economic growth performances of most African economies encouraged optimistic perceptions of the ability of governments to fulfill educational aspirations which were set forth in educational policy pronouncements. Sadly, the adverse economic conditions of the 1980s, combined with population growth rates which are among the highest in the world meant that by the early 1980s, education enrollment growth stalled and the quality of education at all levels was widely regarded as having deteriorated. In recognition of the emerging crisis in African education, the World Bank undertook a major review to diagnose the problems of erosion of quality and stagnation of enrollments. Emerging from that work was a policy study, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment. Revitalization, and Expansion, which was issued in 1988. That study does not prescribe one set of education policies for all of Sub-Saharan Africa. Rather, it presents a framework within which countries may formulate strategies tailored to their own needs and circumstances. In fact, a central point which is stressed in the study is the need for each country to develop its own country-specific education strategy and policies, taking into account the country's unique circumstances, resource endowment and national cultural heritage. The crucial role of national strategies and policies cannot be over- emphasized. In recognition of the centrality of sound policies as a basis for progress, in 1987 the Bank's Education and Training Department (the relevant unit responsible for the policy, planning and research function at that time) commissioned a set of papers by African analysts on the comparative experiences of eight Anglophone Eastern and Southern African countries, each of which had developed and issued major education policy reforms or pronouncements. The papers give special attention to deficiencies in the design and/or implementation processes that account for the often-yawning gaps between policy intentions and outcomes. The lessons afforded by the eight African case studies, along with a broader- perspective assessment of educational policy implementation, are presented in the papers by George Psacharopoulos (the overall manager of the set of studies) and John Craig. The eight country case studies are presented in companion reports. By disseminating this set of studies on the implementation of African educational policies, it is hoped that the lessons of experience will be incorporated into the current efforts by African-countries to design and implement national policies and programs to adjust, revitalize and selectively expand the education and training systems which prepare Africa's human resources, the.true cornerstone of African development. Hans~ Wyss Director Technical Department Africa Region   ABSTRACT At the time of independence from Britain in 1964, the educational system in Zambia was, as elsewhere in Africa, racially segregated and heavily biased against Africans. This paper briefly reviews the situation at independence before enumerating post-independence educational policy landmarks through both acts of Parliament and national development plans and related documents. It discusses successes and failures in program implementation as evidenced by internal and external efficiency criteria. Particularly the primary school system has expanded substantially, although there are few data about internal efficiency. Nevertheless, the young and growing population continues to put pressure on the system -- a doubling of primary school places by the year 2000 would be necessary simply to maintain the present gross enrollment rates. High rates of unemployment, especially after completion of primary and secondary school, point to poor external efficiency. Other factors contributing to problems with the successful implementation of educational policies have been a poor economy, inadequate supply of teachers above the primary level, problems with curriculum relevance, and an entrenched debate about the merits of English language versus native language teaching.   TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ................................................ 1 Education at Independence ............................................1 2. SOME LANDMARKS IN EDUCATIONAL POLICY .................................6 Educational Policies Through Acts of Parliament and Commissioned Reports ......................................................... 6 Education in the Development Plans and Related Documents .............8 3. IMPLEMENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES ............................ 17 4. PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED IN THE IMPLEMENTATION .......................... 26 Poor Economy ........................................................ 26 Rising Population ................................................... 26 Unemployment Among school-leavers ................................... 27 Curriculum Issues ................................................... 28 Teacher Supply ...................................................... 29 Language of Instruction ............................................. 30 5. A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF ZAMBIAN EDUCATION ........................... 31 Internal Efficiency ................................................. 31 External Efficiency ................................................. 33 APPENDIX I .......................................................... 35 Some Major Educational Policies in Zambia 1962 - 1985 ............... 36 APPENDIX II ......................................................... 45 Secondary School Enrolment 1964 - 1984 .............................. 46 APPENDIX III ........................................................ 49 Enrolment in Teachers Colleges and Technical and Vocational Training Institutes 1974 - 1983 ................................ 50 APPENDIX IV ......................................................... 51 Basic Data for Primary and Secondary Schools ........................ 52 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................ 53   1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND What is Zambia today was, until independence in October 1964, known as Northern Rhodesia. In 1962, the country had a population of around 2.5 million Africans. Like most African countries, the population of Zambia has been characterized by rapid growth. Between 1963 and 1969, the average annual growth rate was 2.5 percent; between 1969 and 1980 this had risen to 3.1 percent; and today it stands at 2.4 percent. The result is that the population of Zambia had doubled by 1980 over 1962, standing as it did at 5.66 million. More relevant for our purposes is the age structure of the 1980 population. About 51 percent of the 1980 population was aged 15 years and younger. This young population constituted a heavy burden on the country's educational resources and the economy. As a matter of fact, by 1984 there were 1.26 million pupils enrolled in grades 1-7; by the year 2000, this enrollment figure will have to double to 2.52 million, if every 7 year-old child is to be able to enter grade 1 and continue to grade 7 as the country's policy makers advocate. This would represent a need to create 1.26 million additional school places, something that the ailing Zambian economy can hardly entertain, let alone accommodate. Education at Independence The history of education in Zambia is largely similar to that of other ex- British dependencies in the African continent. Most of the schools were established and run by Christian missionaries, whose primary purpose was to teach Africans to read and write for evangelization purposes. The initial educational efforts of the missionaries were later buttressed by colonial rulers and white traders who need Africans to serve in junior positions in their establishments. At the same time, alongside schools for Africans, were separate schools for European children, and children of mixed races (coloreds), including Asians. Racially segregated schools were a cornerstone of British educational policy in Zambia, as was the case elsewhere in British dependencies in Africa.  In line with British policy elsewhere, the education provided was meager both in quality and quantity. The dominant mode of pedagogy was rote learning, rather than discovery learning, which could have fostered creativity. Moreover, heavy emphasis was placed upon primary school education. This was consistent with British colonial policy of allocating Africans exclusively to subordinate positions within the colonial social structure. It has been said that of all the British dependencies in Africa, Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) was one of the least developed in terms of educational facilities of education in Northern Rhodesia for given years in the colonial period. While it would seem that in absolute terms the enrollment figures for both the primary and secondary schools rose rapidly between 1957- 58 and 1961-62, in actual fact, total secondary school enrollments for any given year, except for 1961-62 (when it was 1.2 percent). More instructively, recurrent expenditure took up the bulk or expenditure on education for all the years shown in Table 1. A huge part of the recurrent expenditure was absorbed by the unusually high salaries for resident and expatriate white teachers. The capital expenditures on education leave little doubt that the provision of educational facilities for Africans was of little concern for the colonial government in Northern Rhodesia. The neglect of African education in Northern Rhodesia was unassailably documented by the Economic Survey Mission on Economic Development in Zambia in 1963. The Economic Survey Mission, jointly sponsored by the United Nations, the Economic Commission for Africa, and the Food and Agricultural Organization, could only find 4,420 Africans who had passed the two-year Junior Secondary Course (Form II), and only some 961 Zambian Africans with full Cambridge School Certificates. It is not a lie, therefore, that when President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia inaugurated the University of Zambia in July 1966, he announced to the nation that at the time of independence on October 24, 1964, Zambia had only 100 university graduates (all of them educated outside the country), and only 1,500 with full Cambridge School Certificates, and that there were no more than 6,000 indigenous citizens with at most two years of secondary education. These figures for 1964 make sad reading when seen against the fact that these educational targets had been met by Ghana in 1943, by Kenya and Tanzania in 1957 and 1960, respectively; and in 1963, Uganda alone had more than six times as many secondary School  Table 1 The Progress of Education in Northern Rhodesia Primary Education Secondary Education (Aided or Maintained (Aided or Maintained Government schools) schools) Expenditure No. of No. of Year Schools Enrollment Schools Enrollment Recurrent Capital 1937 413 30,023 - - 28,680 1,000 1947 1,226 139,870 2 143 188,178 11,653 1957-58 1,450 227,296 15 1,488 1,865,120 463,937 1 1958-58 1,461 240,300 15 1,758 1,843,845 673,875 X 1959-60 1,541 262,173 15 1,974 2,113,861 462,441 1960-61 1,621 284,252 21 2,356 2,576,450 641,054 1961-62 1,630 298,693 29 3,564 3,196,777 850,000 1. The figures for 1960-61 and previous are actual. 2. The figures for 1961-62 give the actual numbers of schools enrollments and the estimated expenditure 3. The drop in expenditure from 1957-58 to 1958-59 was used by a severe reduction in the revenues of a territory resulting from a heavy drop in the price of copper. Source: Unesco Statistical Yearbook of 1964  -4- Certificate holders as Zambia. This meager educational development for Africans set the tone of educational policy in Zambia after independence. At independence, in October 1964, Zambia inherited a racially segregated educational system, meager educational facilities and enrollments for Africans, and a heavily liberal arts biased educational curriculum. As such, the new political leadership, under the United National Independence Party (UNIP) saw as among its most important educational priorities, the elimination of racial segregation in schools: increased enrollments for Zambians at secondary and higher education levels with a view to creating a large pool of indigenous Zambians to run the institutions of their new political and social order; and the introduction of science-oriented curricula and professional subjects to train Zambians for technical and professional careers. At the same time, the new political leadership had to deal with great disparities in primary school enrollments and facilities between the urban and rural areas. in the rural areas, most primary schools had, during colonial days, provided up to only four years of education, as compared to six years in urban areas. There were also fewer primary schools per school-age population in the rural areas at the time. What was needed, with the onset of independence, was a policy which would increase grades standards at the primary school level beyond the four years, and would create more primary schools in rural areas; this would go a long way towards reducing rural-urban migration of youth in search of more educational opportunities in the urban areas. A related problem at independence, was the need to reduce the heavy reliance on expatriate teachers, especially at the secondary level. In fact, before independence in 1964, there was not even a single teacher training institution for secondary teachers in the country. There were a myriad of other problems facing Zambian education in 1964, including, in addition to those mentioned above, poor and dilapidated rural primary school buildings, glaringly low participation rates by girls in the educational system, few and poor teachers houses, etc. And yet, in spite of all the apparently daunting problems, Zambia has made tremendous progress in meeting some of its post-independence educational objectives. This has been  -5- achieved through a number of bold expedient and crash programs, by Acts of Parliament, and a number of administrative guidelines and commissions. Certainly, no single African country has actually satisfied the popular demand and thirst for more and better education. But, as will be shown shortly, Zambia, starting from a seriously disadvantaged position, has done a commendable job by any African standards. We will later in this paper cite some figures in support of this contention.  -6- 2. SOME LANDMARKS IN EDUCATIONAL POLICY Before any accounts can be given regarding Zambia's post-independence educational achievements, it is necessary to set in place some of the major educational policies that have undergirded such achievements. These major educational policies are outlined in Table 2 (see Appendix) with comments incorporated as to what each was meant to achieve. Table 2 describes in detail certain major educational policies undertaken in Zambia especially around and after independence in 1964. The legal framework of most of the policies were either commissioned reports or Acts of Parliament. In addition certain key educational objectives were enunciated in the country's Development Plans. Educational Policies through Acts of Parliament and Commissioned Reports Among the country's educational policies established within the legal frameworks just mentioned were: a) The UNIP Manifesto of 1962, as already mentioned. It offered a comprehensive statement of the educational objectives that UNIP hoped to pursue on attainment of independence. Outstanding among such objectives were universal primary education for both girls and boys, abolition of racially segregated schools and increased educational facilities and enrollments; b) The Lockwood Report of 1963 which proposed the establishment of an academically autonomous in the country; c) The University of Zambia Act (1965), which formally established a national university in the country. Such a university formally opened its doors to students in July of the following year (1966);  d) The Education Act (1966), which abolished racially segregated schools in conformity with the UNIP Manifesto of 1962, and which brought control of private schools firmly under the Ministry of Education; e) The National Council for Scientific Research Act (1967), which established a national body to spearhead and coordinate scientific research which could institutionalize technological innovations and inventions in the country; f) The Examinations Council of the Republic of Zambia, established through Statutory Instrument number 256 of 1967, to deal with all matters dealing with examinations and certification thereof in the country; g) The Teaching Service Commission Act (1968) which set up a single employer for teachers in the country and standardized and unified their terms and conditions of service; h) The Technical Education and Vocational Training Act of 1972, which created a Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training within the then Ministry of Education (today it falls within the new Ministry of Higher Education); i) The Educational Reform: Proposals and Recommendations of 1977, which proposed a 7-2-3-4 interim educational system and then a 9-2-4 final educational system; it allowed for 5 years of university education for such professional fields as engineering and agriculture, 6 years for veterinary medicine and 7 years for medicine; j) UNIP Policies for the Decade 1985-95, which reaffirm the party's objective of attaining a 9 year universal basic education and the pre-eminence of scientific and technological education in the country's educational process.  -8- Education in the Development Plans and Related Documents Given what has been said already regarding the widespread neglect of African education in pre-independence Zambia, it is hardly surprising that both the Transition Development Plan of 1965/66 and the First National Development Plan of 1966/70 stressed increased enrollments at all levels of the educational hierarchy. The following educational objectives, as stated in the First Development Plan, were quite representative of the major thrust of education in those early post-independence years in the country. a) To provide sufficient places for primary education for every child aged seven in Zambia in 1970; b) To provide opportunities for all upper primary school children in rural primary schools to complete a seven-year primary course; c) To improve the quality of primary education by expanding teacher training, and upgrading the standards of existing teachers; d) To expand secondary schooling to provide the manpower in the numbers, and with the skills, required for national development. This includes preparing people for higher education, teacher training, and technical training as well as for direct entry to employment in the public and private sectors; e) To provide the resources for the University of Zambia to enroll over 1,600 students in 1970 and develop it to take a leading part in the educational, professional and cultural life of the nation. Professional training in engineering, medicine, agriculture, administration, teaching, and law will be started. A broad range of useful research and scholarship will be encouraged and a National Council for Scientific Research established; f) To develop the facilities for adult education, including classes for women, regional libraries, and educational broadcasting, in order that the opportunities of education are available to Zambians of  - 9 - every age in every part of the country. Every agency contributing to education - missions, mines, industry or individuals- are assisting the educational development of the nation and are, therefore, welcomed; g) To create six new adult education centers, with increased adult education staff. The correspondence course unit now moving to Luanshya will also be given a target. Adult literacy classes under the Department of Community Development will be greatly expanded following the pattern, and using books, already developed. This emphasis on accelerated educational enrollments to furnish manpower required by the economy continued during the larger part of the Second National Development Plan 1972/76. By the end of 1974, and especially in the early months of 1975, the nation's policy makers felt that the rapid educational expansions of the last ten years had created problems of their own which required corrective measures. Among these were: a) The training and recruitment of teachers which had fallen far behind national requirements; b) Greater demand for more new schools and/or school places which were no longer easy to afford; c) Failure by secondary schools to absorb many students enrolled at the primary school level, i.e. high dropout rates at the end of primary education; d) Declining quality of education in the face of massive enrollments, coupled with little preparation of school-leavers to face the exigencies of life after completion of schooling, especially at primary and secondary levels. In light of these and other problems, it was felt that the time had come for a full-scale re-evaluation of the entire educational system to make it accord with UNIP policies on education. Central among these policies was "that the system of education should be expanded, improved and restructured in  - 10 - such a way as to provide for a compulsory basic ten years of education to adequately prepare young people for the challenges of life and enable others to comment, in a little more detail, about the practical aspects of the Educational Reforms. A very careful reading of the Educational Reform: Proposals and Recommendations (of 1977), makes it quite clear that the Reforms focused essentially on two issues: a) the quantitative development of the formal education system and, b) the qualitative development of the education system, particularly in reference to teacher education and supply, evaluation and examinations, technical education and supply, evaluation and examinations, technical education and vocational training, continuing education, pre-school education, and the organization and management of the education system. In line with the above concerns, a major component of the new education system is the provision of 9 years of basic education to all children, beginning at age 7 when children will enter grade 1. It is recognized that this goal cannot be attained all at once, but can be achieved only over a period of time, through phased expansion of facilities and development of resources. Basic education is to have two phases, the first phase consisting of grades 1 to 7 and the second phase of grades 8 to 9. The first step in the attainment of the goal of 9 years universal basic education (UBE), is to be the development of sufficient facilities to allow every 7 year-old child to enter grade 1 and proceed through to grade 7. Due to the insufficiency of places available at present in primary schools (grades 1 to 7), the establishment of an interim structure of education, before the attainment of UBE, is recognized as necessary. The quantitative aspects of the Reforms look, therefore, to a transformation of the structure of the current formal education system, and to its expansion to provide for every child of school-going age. In terms of structure, the organization at the time of the Reforms was on a 4-3-3-2 basis, i.e., there were 12 years of formal school education: 4 in lower primary school, 3 in upper primary, 3 in junior secondary and 2 in senior secondary. The goal is re-organize the system on a 6-3-3 basis, under which there will be 12 years of primary and secondary school education, but structured as 9 years of basic education (6 years of primary plus 3 years of basic secondary)  - 11 - available to all, and 3 years of senior secondary education available to a selected number. While retaining this as the long-term goal, the interim structure in the transition from the current structure is to be on a 7-2-3 basis, that is, 7 years of primary education available to all, 2 years of junior secondary, and 3 years of senior secondary. It is the intention of the Reforms that all but one of the selection barriers in the current system should be abolished. These occur throughout all Zambia after grades 7 and 10 and in certain parts after grade 4. To a large extent it can also be said, since many children who are of the proper age to enter grade 1, are unable to do so because there are not enough places. The Reforms propose that the barriers at the entry to grade 1 and the transition from grades 4 to 5 and 7 to 8 should be abolished. The selection barrier at the transition from grade 10 to 11 will be moved to the point of transition from grade 9 to 10 where it will be retained (though for what proportion is not stated). In the interim stage, therefore, before the attainment of UBE, the concern will be threefold: a) to provide sufficient grade 1 places to enable every 7 year-old child to enroll and continue through to grade 4; b) to provide sufficient grade 5 places so that every child who completes grade 4 can proceed to grade 5 and continue through to grade 7; c) to change the structure of the current secondary system so that it consists of two years of junior secondary and three years of senior secondary. One of the factors that gave rise to the movement for educational reform was concern about the quality and relevance of what transpired in the schools. This expressed itself in dissatisfaction with the academic skills displayed by school children, with their level of performance in examinations, and with their inability to find employment, or fit suitably into the community, when they had left school. Not all of the criticisms, especially those relating to examination performance, stand up to scrutiny, while it is a common misapprehension to judge the relevance of an educational system by the success or failure of its graduates in obtaining employment. But given the climate of adverse criticism for much that went on in the classrooms, the Reforms are at  - 12 - pains to stress the need to balance quantitative developments with qualitative improvements: "While... .changes in the framework are part of the major and essential elements of the reforms, it is the content, the methods and the organization which must receive the greatest attention and these aspects embrace meaningful reform in the curriculum leading to its enrichment and being made more relevant to the needs and aspirations of the individual and society." 1 Accordingly, the Reforms devote considerable attention to matters affecting the design and development of curricula that will ensure that the education offered within the schools has real significance in terms of meeting the needs of individuals and of the country. Certain aspects receive special attention: the vital role that mathematics, science and technology must play in the curriculum; the importance of productive work; the priority that should be given to the needs and requirements for rural development; and the need for what is taught to be relevant to the cultural, social, and political environment of the country. Because of the social, educational, and economic value of production activities in educational institutions, these are to receive particular attention and are to be among the main features of education to be developed and emphasized in curriculum organization. In view of the massive quantitative expansion that the Reforms imply, and the need for sufficient educational aids and teaching materials required by a redesigned curriculum, and it concomitant syllabi, the document considers at some length the production and supply of educational materials and equipment, and makes specific recommendations on steps that should be taken to stimulate local production. The structural reorganization, quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement, aspired to by the Reforms, cannot be attained without increasing the supply of teachers and improving their quality. For this reason the Reforms document discusses the initial and in-service training of teachers, the problems affecting their work and morale and the high priority that should be given to the development of a suitably trained force of teachers and educators. The proposals call for the expansion of a new college in the lEducational Reform, ch. 3, para. 1  - 13 - immediate future, and likewise for the expansion of the secondary teachers colleges, and the construction of a new one. Other areas considered by the Reforms document, cover special education, technical education and vocational training, continuing education, pre-school education, the involvement of local agencies, parents and students in organizing and managing the educational system, the role of aided and private schools in ten education system, and the mobilization of the resources needed to support the system. The Third National Development Plan (1979-83) was primarily intended to implement many aspects of the Educational Reforms. The important aspects of the Reforms which the Third National Development Plan promised to take into consideration included the following: a) Quality of education and services will be improved; b) Quality of teacher education and professional development of the teacher will be improved; c) Elimination of regional and other imbalances in educational provisions will be undertaken at Grades 1, 5, 8, and 10; d) Provision for continuing (part-time) education will be expanded and diversified; e) Use of educational facilities will be maximized in order to avoid waste; f) New buildings will be simple, durable, functional, low in maintenance costs, and will use local materials and technology; g) Self-help educational projects by communities will be encouraged, and once initiated, such projects will be executed to completion; h) Recurrent and capital expenditure on education will be planned to avoid wastage;  - 14 - i) Production activities in all educational institutions will be consolidated to bring out educational values, develop correct attitudes and production skills; j) Localization of School Certificates Examinations will be completed; k) Development of resource centers and teachers centers will be undertaken; 1) Development of new curricula that will accommodate the educational reforms will be undertaken. Although repeated mention has been made of the document, it is important to emphasize that the proposals and recommendations contained in Educational Reform, have guided thinking and action in the field of education since 1978. But since "education is a social institution which will continue to reflect the characteristics of the Zambian society,' as the Reforms acknowledge, new factors and constraints arising within society have had their bearing on educational policy and on the implementation of the Reforms. In some respects this has led to a departure from the letter of the Reforms, as, for instance, in the decision to make the minimum entry requirement to primary school teachers colleges a grade 12 and not a grade 10 certificate. In others, it has resulted in a reaffirmation and extension of what is contained in the Reforms. A notable example of this is the ever greater stress that is being placed on self-help. The same extension is also seen in the vigorous emphasis that is being place on the development of science and technology. In 1984, a decision was made to establish a technical secondary school in each of Zambia's nine educational regions. In March 1985, Guidelines for the Formulation of the Fourth National Development Plan was published. This document advises that the formulators of the Fourth Plan should consider "the possibility of converting some of the existing secondary schools into technical and agricultural schools," raising standards of education in mathematics and science subjects." The guidelines also state that the implementation of the educational reforms should continue through the Fourth National Development Plan.  - 15 - The most recent policy statement is that of the United National Independence Party (UNIP) contained in its booklet The National Policies for the Decade 1985-1995. Aims and Objectives of the Third Phase of the Party Programme, published in mid- 1985. Two sections are of particular relevance to education - the section headed "Development of Education," and that headed "Science and Technology." The aim is to introduce "compulsory schooling which will combine seven years of the present primary system with two years and then three years of the present Junior School in progression with the productivity of Zambians".2 The goal of ten years basic education had been affirmed by the Party in its major policy Manifesto 1962, which is reproduced as part of the latest document, and confirmed in its policy statement for the decade 1974-84. The target of nine years universal basic education set by the Reforms is seen as a stage towards the achievement of the Party's goal, though this cannot be attained immediately, due to inadequate facilities, insufficient manpower and the scarcity of financial resources. The UNIP policy document for 1985-95 stresses that technical education at secondary school level will be major emphasis of its policy; partly, so that the principle of combining study with productive work can be adhered to; partly, so that young people will learn skills that will help them after leaving school. In an effort to increase rapidly the number of scientists, technologists and technicians, there is to be an expansion of technical secondary schools and an improvement in the science curricula of all schools. In Table 3, we summarize the changes which have been suggested and/or made to Zambia's educational structure since independence in late 1964. 2p. 34  - 16 - Table 3 Existing and Reconmmended Educational Structures in Zambia for 1964-1986 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Existing Existing by Proposed for Ultimately Education Level 1964-1965 1966-1984 1986-2000 with UBE Primary 8 7 7 6 Secondary 5 + 2 5 2 + 3 3 + 3 University None 4b 4 4 Total number of years 15 16 16 16 Source: Author's research a UBE means Universal Basic Education, i.e. 9 years of free and compulsory schooling, b Total number of years of university education are slightly longer for professional fields such as engineering, mining, agriculture, veterinary medicine and medicine.  - 17 - 3. IMPLEMENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES Information on primary school enrollment from the time of independence in 1964 to 1984 is provided in Table 4. The figures leave little room for doubt that progress in terms of actual numbers of pupils having access to all levels is remarkable by all accounts. An appreciation of Zambia's impressive accomplishments at the primary school level can be gauged from a look at some enrollment targets set in the past few years against actual enrollments. Thus, the 1977 Educational Reform Document set the target grade 1-7 enrollment at 1,194,364. The actual enrollment for 1984 of 1,260,564 (see Table 4) exceeds the 1977 target figure by 66,200. Similarly, the Third National Development Plan (1979-83) set the target grade 1-7 enrollment by 1983 at 1,154,160. Actual enrollment in these grades for 1983 was 1,194,070 thus exceeding the projections of the Third National Development Plan by close to 40,000 pupils. More significantly, as Table 5 shows, the absolute increase in enrollments was accompanied by a general increase in enrollment rates for various school age-grades for the period 1980-1984. This accomplishment is significant in light of the fact that some African countries school-age participation rates are either static or falling. As can be expected, the numbers of pupils who reach the secondary grades is much smaller. This is true of those who move from grade 7 to grade 8, the start of junior secondary and also of those who reach the last two years of senior secondary (grades 11 and 12). The progression rates at these two respective levels are carried in Table 7. The progression rate from grade 7 to grade 8 in 1984-85 was 21.6 percent for both sexes. It is clear that the progression rates for boys are higher than those for girls, whether in the entry from grade 7 to grade 8 or from grade 10 to grade 11. It is significant to note that the progression rates for both boys and girls have steadily been increasing, and this at a time when there are increased enrollments ar grade 7. What this means, then, is that larger and larger numbers of pupils are now entering Grade 8, as can in fact be seen from Table 6. The increases in the numbers joining Grade 11 from grade 10 are relatively more modest. 1984, was in fact, a transitional year, with selection for senior secondary at the end of Grade 9 (38.4X) and at the end of Grade 10 (34.42). From 1985 onwards, selection to senior secondary will be  - 18 - TABLE 4 : PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT, 1984/1984, ALL SCHOOLS -----------------------------------------------------------------__----------__------------------------ YEAR SEX GRADE 1 GRADE 2 GRADE 3 GRADE 4 GRADE 5 GRADE 6 GRADE 7 GRADE 8 E.S.N. TOTAL ----------------------------------------------------------------__-----------__------------------------ BOYS 38,414 38,427 38,826 39,081 20,936 20,281 9,903 9,234 - 214,881 1964 GIRLS 36,229 33,841 32,221 28,573 12,885 11,341 4,878 3,768 - 163,536 TOTAL 74,643 72,068 70,847 67,854 33,820 31,602 14,781 13,002 - 378,417 BOYS 43,745 40,076 39,678 40,194 23,943 21,648 12,164 9,186 - 230,631 1986 GIRLS 41,161 36,861 33,274 31,387 15,308 12,742 5,928 3,783 - 179,402 TOTAL 84,898 76,928 72,950 71,681 39,261 34,390 18,090 12,949 - 410,033 BOYS 63,410 44,698 41,886 42,488 34,490 24,978 23,672 - - 265,522 1968 GIRLS 60,297 40,151 35,498 32,474 22,633 14,452 12,404 - - 207,809 TOTAL 103,707 84,749 77,384 74,982 57,023 39,430 36,076 - - 473,331 -------------------------------------------------------------------__--------__---------------------- BOYS 59,744 62,836 46,216 43,076 36,795 36,388 27,781 - - 300,634 1967 GIRLS 56,159 48,375 39,087 34,723 24,806 21,324 14,192 - - 238,666 TOTAL 115,903 101,010 84,302 77,799 61,601 56,712 41,973 - - 539,300 BOYS 63,954 60,297 53,929 46,875 37,826 37,818 39,231 - - 339,928 1968 GIRLS 58,909 54,828 47,404 38,046 26,651 23,116 20,011 - - 268,965 -- --- - ---- - -- - ------- ------------------------------------ - --- --------- --- -- - - - - - - - - TOTAL 122,883 115,125 101,333 84,921 64,477 60,932 59,242 - - 808,893 BOYS 86,870 64,114 60,903 65,199 40,229 38,701 42,801 - 169 367,986 1969 GIRLS 61,293 57,080 53,035 45,397 29,639 24,877 21,858 - 116 293,295 TOTAL 127,163 121,194 113,938 100,596 89,8s8 63,578 84,659 - 285 661,281 -----------------------------------------------------------------__----------__------------------------ BOYS 66,162 64,485 64,608 62,120 43,435 40,896 43,811 - 69 385,586 1970 GIRLS 61,197 58,489 55,264 50,782 32,306 27,606 23,411 - 39 308,994 TOTAL 127,359 122,974 119,872 112,902 76,741 68,402 67,222 - 108 694,580 BOYS 66730 65403 66092 66793 46298 43723 47219 - 73 402,331 1971 GIRLS 62601 59569 57704 54990 35112 31106 26640 - 49 327,770 TOTAL 129,331 124,972 123,796 121,783 81,410 74,828 73,859 - 122 730,101 BOYS 73418 67353 67132 89319 51854 48214 51289 - 114 428,693 1972 GIRLS 69127 16191 59096 57182 38972 33917 29217 - 79 349,180 TOTAL 142,545 128,944 126,227 126,501 90,826 82,131 80,606 - 193 777,873 BOYS 73046 72970 68744 69276 64300 52983 53620 - 71 445,009 1973 GIRLS 69286 67185 60687 58116 41230 37106 31593 - 43 365,225 - - - -- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- - -- - - - - - --- - --- - --- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - TOTAL 142,312 140,165 129,431 127,390 95,530 90,089 86,213 - 114 810,234 -----------------------------------------------------------------__----------__------------------------ BOYS 76671 75272 75146 72723 56613 66203 68676 - 87 470,191 1974 GIRLS 70984 70247 86978 61066 43483 39904 36613 - 64 388,198 TOTAL___14__,555___45,519___142,__24_133,778___10__,076__96,107___94,089__--__141______858,389________ TOTAL 148,666 14S,619 142,124 133,778 100,078 96,107 94,089 - 141 858,389  - 19 - TABLE 4 : PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT, 1984/1984, ALL SCHOOLS -----------------------------------------------------------------__----------__------------------------ YEAR SEX GRADE 1 GRADE 2 GRADE 3 GRADE 4 GRADE 6 GRADE 6 GRADE 7 GRADE 8 E.S.N. TOTAL ----------------------------------------------------------------__-----------__------------------------ BOYS 75203 73802 74056 75962 58162 56953 81803 - 77 478,008 1975 GIRLS 71612 68292 87132 84732 46753 41021 37890 - 52 396,384 TOTAL 146,715 142,094 141,188 140,684 103,915 97,974 99,893 - 129 872,392 BOYS 76834 76733 76998 76303 825683 86030 83877 - 61 492,899 1978 GIRLS 73828 71430 88284 66540 50783 44483 39822 - 38 414,968 TOTAL 150,862 148,183 144,282 142,843 113,328 105,013 103,499 - 99 907,867 BOYS 79417 77780 77891 78241 82992 83383 84908 - 57 504,689 1977 GIRLS 76987 73885 70803 87656 52872 48692 42237 - 36 432,148 TOTAL 155,404 151,645 148,694 145,897 115,864 112,075 107,145 - 93 938,817 BOYS 80471 80485 79043 79363 64712 83834 88393 - 77 516,358 1978 GIRLS 78315 75937 73117 69582 54084 50546 48483 - 54 448,117 ------------------------------------------------------------------__---------__------------------------ TOTAL 158,788 158,402 152,160 148,946 118,798 114,379 114,878 - 131 964,475 BOYS 821S8 84858 81479 80666 86607 86613 71898 - 69 534,354 1979 GIRLS 80354 79171 76117 72111 56598 52457 49381 - 54 465,243 ------------------------------------------------------------------__---------__------------------------ TOTAL 182,620 184,027 158,598 152,777 123,205 119,070 121,279 - 123 999,597 -----------------------------------------------------------------__----------__------------------------ BOYS 86560 84429 83470 83097 70447 70440 76503 - 57 654,103 1980 GIRLS 83378 81316 78916 74699 60269 66460 62467 - 52 486,435 TOTAL 169,038 186,744 182,385 157,698 130,706 126,900 128,980 - 109 1,040,638 BOYS 89041 87667 85738 84628 76442 71718 76844 - 63 571,039 1981 GIRLS 88808 84721 80358 77004 63319 58760 54480 - 48 505,278 TOTAL 175,649 172,288 166,092 161,632 138,781 130,478 131,304 - 111 1,076,315 BOYS 92740 92311 89049 87841 75702 75222 80829 - 100 593,674 1982 GIRLS 89862 88081 83915 79531 67266 61961 57455 - 45 628,095 _______________,_______________________________________________________________________________________- TOTAL 182,692 180,392 172,964 167,372 143,037 137,183 138,084 - 145 1,121,769 BOYS 98037 98070 94677 92393 81204 80155 87363 - 84 631,973 1983 GIRLS 95343 92948 88898 84836 70872 68948 62414 - 44 562,097 TOTAL 193,380 191,018 183,673 177,029 152,076 147,101 149,787 - 128 1,194,070 BOYS 104116 102108 99348 96348 86449 84721 94049 - 162 668,301 1984 GIRLS 101073 98173 92767 88069 75869 70138 68118 - 76 594,263 ----------------------------------- ------------------------ -------------------------- -- -- TOTAL 206,189 200,281 192,106 184,407 161,318 154,869 162,187 - 238 1,260,564 Source--------Educationa----------Stati-----t--cs---1980----a--nd--u--publis-__---ed---MGEC----data.--- Source: Educational Statistics 1980 and unpublished MGEC data.  - 20 - Table 5 Enrollment Rates 1980-84, Both Sexes Grade 1 as Z Grade 5 as I Grade 1-7 as Z Year of 7 y.o. of 11 y.o. of 7-13 y.o. 1980 88.4 93.4 87.3 1981 88.5 93.4 86.3 1982 88.6 94.8 87.3 1983 89.5 97.1 89.6 1984 92.4 99.3 91.2 Source: Calculated from MCEC data and CSO Population Projections (with interpolations)  - 21 - Table 6 Secondary School Data, 1980-84 Enrollment 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 Grade 8 24,437 26,091 27,279 30,906 35,098 Grade 11 11,478 11,538 12,179 13,052 13,471 Junior Secondary 72,378 75,883 81,002 89,602 99,087 Senior Secondary 22,217 23,029 23,857 25,486 26,724 Total 94,595 98,862 104,859 115,088 125,811 Number of Classes Grade 8 586 614 643 743 826 Grade 11 304 302 324 346 345 Grade 8-12 2,342 2,395 2,495 2,735 2,904 Average Class Size Grade 8 41.7 42.5 42.4 41.6 42.5 Grade 11 37.8 38.2 37.6 37.7 39.0 Grade 8-12 40.4 41.3 42.0 42.1 43.3 Number of Teachers Grade 1,796 1,767 1,605 1,542 n.a Non-graduate 2,508 2,883 2,997 3,230 n.a Zambian 12,496 3,077 3,280 3,721 n.a Non-Zambian 1,808 1,573 1,322 1,051 n.a. Total 4,304 4,650 4,602 4,772 n.a Pupil-Teacher Ratio Pupils per Graduate 52.7 55.9 65.3 74.6 n.a. Pupils per Non-graduate 37.7 34.3 35.0 36.6 n.a Pupils per Teacher 22.0 21.3 22.8 24.1 n.a Source: MGEC unpublished data  - 22 - Table 7 Progression rates from grade 7 to grade 8 and grade 10 (form 3) to grade 11 (form 4), boys and girls Grade 7 to 8 Grade 10 to 11 Year Boys Girls Both sexes Boys Girls Both 1979-80 21.13 18.72 20.15 50.62 46.20 40.06 1980-81 21.10 18.81 20.17 53.57 39.85 48.72 1981-82 21.99 19.06 20.76 52.73 45.24 50.06 1982-83 23.66 20.57 22.38 53.59 42.91 49.77 1983-84 25.10 21.10 23.44 49.78 41.89 46.80 Source: Ministry of General Education and Culture (MGEC) Unpublished Data after grade 9 only, and will be targeted around 50 percent of the enrollment in that class nationally. Enrollments at the tertiary level educational institutions are shown in Table 8. There was a steady increase in these enrollments from 1971 to 1978; between 1979 and 1981 the enrollments declined somewhat, but shoed signs of picking up again in 1982. The point to note, is that there is a wide variety of tertiary institutions, some of them administered by ministries other than Education, such as certificate and diploma programs in agriculture, forestry, and veterinary health, which are under the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development; various nursing programs under the Ministry of Health; and other programs under the Ministry of Cooperatives offered at the Cooperative College in Lusaka, etc. The institutions shown in Table 8 pertain specifically to the Ministries of Education. Tertiary level programs with which the Ministry of Higher Education is concerned fall into three categories: programs in teacher education; technical education and vocational training programs which fall under the Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT); and degree and other programs at the University of Zambia. A comparative enrollment in DTEVT programs and in Teacher Education, has been shown in the form of a bar graph in Teacher Training Colleges for all the years shown (1974-1983), enrollments in both types of institutions have been characterized by oscillating trends.  Table 8 ENROLLMENTS IN DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING INSTITUfTES, 1971-1982 FULL-TIME PRE EWLOYMENT TRAINING PROGRAMS ENROLLMENT BY INSTITUTION AND YEAR OF STUDY, 1971-1902