Childhood malnutrition and schooling in the Terai region of Nepal

7- - - - -- - - This aerfss <of uarsforetd Dfsrnrraioa Papem is intended Lo p t w i d t x an ialtlljal circulation of ~'b* ~rkpdr~d i l ~ ~ ~ i 6 8 6 f of the ?opufarltio;r a& i ? s B t ~ c e biviston. C 1~ atc~ ~~H8214 papam @ b a l d not bsr c d t d S 1 w t r b t l clarmncer by rbe 1 : atlr.)wr. Tho Pieva q r e a a a d ara wt adtpasarily tbse cf the , i 1 - : V a t M Blank Group. 1 1 I 2 1 1 1 I i I I 1 1 Poptilacloo a d B U & ~~uoorera! Jirlaloa I i Ii biscarrioa Paper Zo. 82-15 J I I 1 I f QZPUHUOD WBU1EUTXQfl M D SCiiOOLXS IEi 7?iZ T E W I!%IOiC QP HEPAL 1 i 1 I 1 1 I Oacarber 1982 A i i * % - i Prepared &y:' Peter R. Souck, Teachers College, Coltmbi, University ; Jaanne Leslie, Ecmmric Develo t Institute, World 3m.k ')" - * E, 3 Prepared for: * T h i e paper ves prepared as part of World Bank Besearch Project RPO 672-10, * c. %ealth and Rural Development in Sepal.' The World Sank Uaatdsgt~n, D.C. 20433 O-S.A*  CHILDHOOD Yr\L,tIJTRITIOS Ab'D SCflQOLISC k! TilE Y E N REGION OF ,YEPAL Abstract By o o s t a c c e p t e d r a s u r e s , Nepal is o n e of t h e p o o r e s t and l e a s t d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e world. Sepal's r e p o r t e d s c h o o l e n r o l l a a n t r a t i o s f o r 1976 were 0.60 f o r p r i a a r l ) s c h o o l and 0.12 f o r eecoadarl) s c h o o l , w i t h I g i r l s a t a l l a g e s b e i n g m c h less l i k e l y than b o y r t o a t t e n d s c h o o l . C h i l d a a l a u t r l t i o n is also a p r o b l e a o f m a j o r p r o p o r t l o o 8 i n Nepal. I n 1975, a . n a t i o m r f d s s u r v e y faurrd t h a t S t Z o f p r s s c h o o l dga c h i l d r e n wore s t u n t e d ( < 90% SCHS median h e i g h t - f o r a g e ) aad 7% v e r e warted (< 801 NCIIS median weight-forheight). The research r e p o r t e d i n t h i r p a p e r is b a s e d o n d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h e d i s t r i c t s a t S a r a and R n u t a h a t i n t h e t e r a l o r s o u t h e r n p l a i n s r e g i o n of S e b a l f n l a t e 1 9 8 0 and e a r l y 1981. The sample c o n s i s t s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400 school- age c h i l d r e n f r a a s u b s i s t e n c e f a r p h o u s e h o l d s , 411th had been t h e s u b j e c t of a n earlier. r u l t i f a c e t e d investigation of t h e e f f e c t 8 of e d u c a t i o n o n farmer p r o d u c t i v i t y , f e r t i l i t y , c h i l d s u r v i v a l and c h i l d n u t r i t i o n a l status. Our s t u d y o f t h e relationship b e t v e e n c h i l d nutritional s t a t u s and s c h o o l p t l r t i c i p a t i o n c o n s i s t s of two c l o s e l y related a n a l y s e s . The f i r s t is a p r o b i t a n a l y s i s o f t h e dfchotorrous d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , e n r o l l m e a t . The p r o b a b i l i t7 o f a c h i l a ' s b e i n g e n r o l l e d f n s c h o o l was p r e d i c t e d based o n a v a r i e t y o f t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t d e t e m n i n a n t s of s c h o o l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c l u d i n g t h e c h i l d ' s a g e , sex, and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s . W e found t h a t o l d e r c h i l d r e n a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y more l i k e l y t h a n y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , and g i r l s s i g n i f i c a n t l y less l i k e l y t h a n boys, t o be e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l . W e a l s o found t h a t b o t h h e i g h t - f o r a g e and % e i g h t - f o r h e i g h t a r e p o s i t i v e l y and s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t , .with t h e e f f e c c of h e i g h t - f o r a g e b e i q m c h s t r o t g e r . Four background v a r i a b l e s s i z e , h o u s e h o l d income a n d l o u caste a f f i l i a t i o n - - father's schoollng, f a n vere a l s o found t o be f a p o r t a n t d e t e n e r i ~ n c sof s c h o o l e n r o l l w n t . I n t h e s e c o n d of t h e NO a n a l y s e s , t h e e f f e c t s of these same v a r i a b l e s on t h e g r a d e a t t a l m e n t of t h e 53 c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l v e r e i r n r e s t i g a t e d u s i q u u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s . Ve Found t h a t h e i g h t - f o r a g e and h o u s e h c l d income w e r e r h e o n l y v a r i a b l e s t h a t had s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t e F f e c t s ' o n g r a ? e a t t a i n r r e n t f o r t h e sample as a v h o l e . Aouever, vhea t h e a n a l y s i s r e p e a t e d f o r t h e 53 boys e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l , h e i g h t - f o r a g e , s o t h e r ' s s c h o o l i n g , h o u s e h o l d t n c e , c a s t e , and r e s i d e n c e i n lrara d i s : r i c t were all f&nd t o be s i g n i f i c a n t , a n d t o g e t h e r t h e s e v a r i a b l e s ex -pla o: :ne s- - i n e d SOX. .. of th&ariance age. i n a b y ' s g r a d e a t t a f m e n t r e l a t t v e t3 o t h e r s R e l a t e d s t u d i e s from G u a t e s a l a , China, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and Botswana a r e reviewed and u e f i n d t h a t t h e s e r e s u l t s from t h e P e r a i r e g i o n of Nepal add :o t h e s ~ z l b l u t g r o u i n g body of l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t e f f o r t s t o Laprave c h i l d a u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s c o u l d have e d u c a t i o n a l as w e l l as h e a l t h and s u r v i v a l S e n e f i t s .  Page No. Abstract Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . ........ Backsround on Y a l u u t r i t i o n and Schooling I n Sepal r o r l d aank Research i n t h e T e r a i ......... . ...... 7 1 Xethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ........................ D a t a C o l l e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Data Analysis 12 3esuf ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ... Probi t Analysis of School Znrollmenc GLS Analysis of Grade A t t a i m a t ......................... 20 27 S-ry and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Ref erenccs .......................... 36 Tables .... . ............... 1 School E n r o l l m n t Ratios i a Xepal and Yearby h s i a a Countries, I936 2 2 Prfaary and Lower Secondary School E n r o l b e a t r r Zatfos i n Yepal by Grade and S e x , 1977-9 ........... 4 .............. -........ . 3 Health and S u t r i t i o n S t a t u s I n d i c a t o r s f n Nepal aad Yearby Asiaa Countries.. 5 4 6 - S - -. . . . . . . . . .Paces of Y a l a u t r i t f o n h o n q Pre-School dge_:iepalese Children by Age Graup, 1975 ............ * s 5 School E n r o l h u t Xatios Sy Sex and Age of C h i l d - - Sazaple of 6 395 Children, Dee-ber 1380 .. . ... .......... .. 14 5 Zates of Ya1mtrt:ion Sy Age Group -- Saaple of 395 Children, Sovenber 1980 ............... ..... ...  Page XO. T a b l e s (Contd 1 - - 7 Grade i n School by Age f o r t h e 53 C h i l d r e n ** Attending S c h o o l ..................... 17 - 8 P a r t i c i p a t i o n 8 c h a v i o r -- X i n i w m and Haximum Values, V a r i a b l e s Used i n F r o b i t and OLS A n a l y s r r of S c h o o l - YeansandStandardOcviatioas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 9 P r o b i t A n a l g s f s of School E n r o l l s e n t --- Children . . . All 22 10 P:obit A n a l y s i s of S c h c o l E a r o l l r r n t -- Sample Partittoned b y S e x a r i H e i g h t f o r a e . . . . . . . . . . 25 11 P r e d i c t e d C o n d i t i o n a l P r c b a b i l i t y of a Child's E a r o l l e d i n School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Being ...... 26 12 9I.S A n a l y s i s of Crede r.ctafrtaent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1 Saople of C h i l d r e n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 . ?earson C o r r e l a t i o n u a t r i r - q l a r i a b l e s Csed i n P r o b i t A n a l y s i s of S c h o o l E n r c i h e n t 3 F z r i a b l e s Used i n Subsample Analyses -- Yeans and Standard 9eviations C Pearson C o r r e l a t i o n Z a t r i x - V a r i a b l e s Gsed L i n OLS Analysis of Grade , i t t a i m e n t (R = 53) 8  CHILDROOD ~ R I T I O AND I XROOLIHC I N TEE TEBAI REGION OF NEPAL - by P e t e r R, b o c k and Joanne L e s l i e IHIRODUCTI O N T h i s paper examines t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between n u t r i t i o n a l s:atus and s c h o o l i n g i n a p o p u l a t i o n of a p p r o x i a a t e l y 400 ~ c h o o l - a g e c h i l d r e n from s u b s i s t a n c e farm f d l i e s l i v i n g i n the T e r a i o r southern p l a i n s reg'ioa of Sepal. The d a t a f o r tho a n a l y s i s w e r e ' o b t a l n e d i n December, 1980, and January, 1981, aa a follow up t o a s t u d y i n i t i a t e d i n 1977 by the World Sank t o l n v e s t l g a r e rha r e l a t i o n s h i p betveen s c h o o l i n g a d v a r i o u s dimtn- of r u r a l development. ~103s Background on H a l n u t r i t i o a and Schooling i n Napal Sepal is a Land-locked c o u n t r y l o c a t e d between China t o t h e J o r t h and I n d i a t o t h e South; i t had a 1980 p o p u l a t i o a o f 14.6 a i l l i o n , of vhoa 95 p e r c e n t were c l a s s i f i e d as r u r a l , By m e t accepted Ipeasures, Nepal is one of t h e p o o r e s t and l e a s t developed c o u n t r i e s i n the world. In 1980, ChT p e r c a p i t a * a s j u s t SILO. L i f e expectancy a t b i r t h was 46 y e a r s . the m s t r e c e n t a v a i l a b l e d a t a r e v e a l an a d u l t l i t e r a c y r a t e of 19 p e r c e n t , i n d i c a t e t h a t o n l y 9 p e r c e n t of t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t ' m have a c c e s s t o s a f e w a t e r , and e s t i c m t e t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y energy a v a i l a b i l i t y t o be 2,002 L 'kilocalories, o r just 89 p e r c e n t of the average requirement (World Bank, School e n r o l h e n t has i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y i n Nepal s i n c e t h e c o u n t r y was opened t o f o r e f g n e r s i n 1951, b* - a s Table 1 shovs, i t s t i l l t l a g s behind neighboring c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m of secondary - The a u t h o r s wish t o thank X c h a e l H a r t l e y and E r i c Svanson f o r t h e use of t h e CHOICE progran, Kalpana Xehra f o r h e r prograaming a s s i s t a n c e and J a n e Xonroe, Dean Jamison and Key ?tartorell f o r t h e i r valuable comments.  Table 1 School Entollmeat R a t i o s i n Nepal and Hearby Asian C o u a t t i e a , 1976 Country Kale Female Tot81 Nepal Bangladesh 1.06 .60 .83 -23 Rum India Pakistan .68 -31 50 .17 - Note: Sirrce many e n r o l l e d s t u d e n t s a t e l i k e l y to be overage (and sooc may be underage), t h e s e . r a t i o s m y w e r s t a t e the p r o p o r t i o a of c h i l d r e n i n school, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the p r h a t y level. Source: Adapted from Uorld Bank (1979), Table 111-4, p. 4 0 . -  s c h o o l e n r o l l o e f r t and female e a r o l l a e u t i n p r i a a r y school. T a b l e 2 shows t h e a m b e r of c h i l d r e n e a r o l l e d i n each of t h e f i r s t seven g r a d e s i n Yepal as a p e r c e n t of t h e amber of c h i l d r e n of t h e o f f i c i a l age I o r t h a t grade. S i n c e aany e n r o l l e d s t u d e n t s a r e overage, t h e e n r o l l s e n t ratios a t e l i k e l y t o be soneuhat inf l a t t d , p r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e p u n g e r c h i l d t c n . Nepal can p o i n t to s o w improvement i n t h e h a a l t t and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s of its p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e p a s t t h i r t y y e a r s . ~ v a v e r ,m o r t a l i t y , n o r b i d i t y and t m a l n u t r i t i o a r a t e s i n Nepal r e a a f n aoong t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e world. T a b l e 3 c o a p a r e s Nepal ' d t h t h e w e Asian neighbors, t h i s time La t e r n s of l i f e expectancy a t b i r t h , c h i l d o o r t a l i t y , and food energy a * r a L l a b i l i t g as a p e r c e n t of r e g u i r e a e n t . s o f t e n used as Child l o r t a l i t y L an i n d i c a t o r of t h e s e o e t i t y of o a l n u t r i t i o n i n developing c o u n t r i e s (Beaton and Bengoa, 1976), and T a b l e 3 shows t h a t d e a t h s i n t5e 1-to-4 y e a r age group i n X e v l a r e high, even i n comparison w i t h nearby low income cauncties. D i r e c t evidence of t h e e x t e n t of a a l n u t r i t i o n aaong preschool- age c h i l d r e n i n Kepal cones Lron t h e S e p a l H u t r i t i o n S t a t u s Survey ( C e n t e r s Lor D i s e a s e C o n t r o l , 1956). T h i s survey o b t a i n e d a n t h r o p m e t r i c d a t a and L h e m g l o b i n measures for a r a d o n s a d p l e of 6,501 S e p a l e s e c h i l d r e n who were 6 t o 72 m n t h s o f age. T a b l e L shows t h a t 50 p e r c e n t of t h e c h i l d r e n were - m o d e r a t e l y t o s e v e r e 9 s a l n o u r i s h e d (below 75% o f r e f e r e n c e median 1 w e i g h t - f o p a g e ) , 52 p e r c e n t were s t u n t e d (below 90% of r e f e r e n c e n e d i a n * helght-forage), aad? p e r c e n t *re v a s t e d (below 80% o f r e f e r e n c e median weight-forheight). These r a t e s of o a l n u t r i t i o n a r e among t h e h i g h e s t t h a t have 'men r e p o r t e d f a r any low lncoae country.  Table 2 P r l m r y and Lover Secondary School Enrollment R a t i o s l a Nepal by Grade and Sex, 1977-78 Grade i n School 30- Girls Total - Note: Xatios v e r e c a l c u l a t e d using number o f c h i l d r e n of t h e o f f i c i a l age f o r each grade. S i n c e many e n r o l l e d s t u d e n t s are l i k e l y t o be overage (and some m y * k underage), t h e s e r a t i o s may o v c z s t a t e t h e p r o p o r t i o n of c h i l d r e n of primary z - h w l and l o v e r s e c o n d a r ~ - s c h o o l age In each grade, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n g r a d e 1. 'r - L Source: Enrollment f i g u r e s a r e from b r l d 3ank (1979), Chart 3, p . 72. P o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s , used t o - c a l c u l a t e the r a t i o s , vere obtained f r m t h e D e ~ o g r a p h i cUni t of t h e Vorld 3ank, P o p u l a t i o n Health and S u t r i t i o n Department.  Table 3 - Health and Nutrition Strtur Indicators i n Nepal and Nearby Asian C o u a t r i e r axpectancy Child d e a t h A v r i l r b l e Food a t b i r t h , 1980 r a t e , 1980 energy, 1977 "/ Country (years) 1 a ( X o f require me^) Nepal 44 23 89 Sangladesh 46 7.0 91 BU- 54 13 103 Pakistan S r i tanka 66 3 97 - a/ Based oa Food and A g r i c u l t u r e Organization e s t i a a t e s of d a i l y c a l o r i e supply per c a p i t a and d a i l y c a l o r i e r e g u i r e a e n c per c a p i t a . L Source: Vorld aank (1982), Tables 1, 21, and 22, pp. 110, 150, and 152. -. * ? rZ  Table 4 Rates of Xalautritioc Among Preschool Age Yepalese Children by A%eCroup, 1975 Below Eelou Belov Age in 752 HCHS median 902 JCHS median 80% SCHS s d i a a Yonths waight-forage heigh~forage weight-forneight' 60-7 1 192 55X 22 Total 502 52% 72 Source: Centers for Disease Control (:?76). 4 Yorld Bank Research i n t h e T e r a i I n 1977, a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t MS undertaken by t h e P o p u l a t i o n and I Xuaan Resources D i v i s i o n of the Vorld Bask, i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n with a Hcpa- ? e s e r e s e a r c h and c c n s u l t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o a , t o s t u d y t h e d e t e m i a a n t s &I consequences of f o r a a l c d u c a t i o a a d c o g a i t i v r a b i l i t y m a g 795 s u b r l s t - ance fa= households i n t h e Ter.1 r e g i o n of Sapal. t9op.l is a c o u n t r y d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e e c o l o g i c a l zones running i n p e r e l l e l s t r i p f r c a e d s t t o west. The n o r t h a r % o s t zone, A l c h s t r a d d l e r t h e border b e t m e n tiepa$ a d China ( T i b e t ) , c o r s i r t s ef t h e Himalayen Range. The r i d d l e zone, uhi4h Include: : ( a t h n d u and t h e Kathmandu V a l l e y , is known as t h e H i l l ~ 2 g i o n . I t ranges i n a l t i t u d e from 1,000 t o 4,000 o e t t r r . The T e r a i to t h e s o u t h Is a f l a t , f e r t i l e a r e a s t r s d d l i n g t h e border k t v t e n t h e H i l l Begion of S e p a l and t h e I n d i a n S t a t e s of 3 l h a r and U t t a r Pradesh. The i n h a b i c a n t s of ~ e r a i on t h e two s i d e s of t h e Indian-Sepilese border s h a r e many cul- t h T t u r a l and econoaic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and are p r i n a r i l y a g r a r i a n . Althodgh t h e Nepal T e r a i c o o p r i s e s l e s s t h a n a t h i r d of t h e c o u n t r y ' s land a r e a and a c c o u n t s f o r o n l y about 40 p e r c e n t of the p o p u l a t i o a , i t produces v e l i o v e r halr' t h e c o u n t r y ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l o u r p u t , e x p o r t i n g s u r p l u s r i c e and o t h e r I c a s h c r o p s b o t h i n t e r n a l l y v i t h i n ZIepal a d f n t e r n a t i o n a l Z y , p r b a r l l y t o - L The icitial d a t a g s t h e r i n g phase ~f t h e World a a n k l s t~eatch took p l a c e f 3 t h r e e s u r v e y s c a r r i e d o u t betveen Yaverber, 1977, a& pe~ect Yay, 1973. During t h i s p e r i o d , t w o s e t s of a n t h r o p a a e t r i c measures of n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s =re obtained f o r c h i l d r e n 6 months t o 6 p e a r s of age, a& school attendance but ao a n t h r a p m e t r i c d a t a wen obtained f o r c h i l d r e n '6 y e a r s to 16 y e a r s of age. Thus I t uas i s p o s e i b l a t o i n v e s t i g a t e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s and schooling, but a stlrdy of o t h e r d e t e r a i s a n t s of school p a r t i c i p a t i s a found uala sex, high caste^, p a r e n t a l schooling, and 'sodera- a t t i t u d a to bo r i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i r o d e t e r o i l u n t s a t schaol p a r t i c i p a t i o n -ng the 6-eo-16 y r a r o l d cohort (Jorripon and Lockhced , 1981). A f i n a l survey of the same s a n p l e of s u b s i s t a n c e f a n households I was undertaken i n l a t e 1980 and e a r l y 1981. The purpose of t h e follow-ap s u m e y was t o c o l l e c t a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r j e t l o n on t h e a p p r o x i a a t e l y 600 c h i l - l dren, t h r e e ro nine y a a n o l d , who hdd been the s u b j e c t s of t h e e a r l i e r I - n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s research. : I l h e present study, which i n v e s ~ i g a t e st h e I impact of o u t r i c l o n a l s t a t u s oa school p r t ! c i p a t i o n , aakes u s e a € the d a t a I c o l l e c t e d tn t h e 1980-81 survey. I b T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l descri.bec i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l the d a t a t c o l l e c t i o n nethods and then w i l l d i s c u s s the d a t a a d y s l s procedures used i n t h i s s t u d y of school p a r t - i p a c l o n behavior i n che T e r a t region of *pal. $ I - l/ See L e s l i e , Baidya and Yandvani (1981) f o r an a n a l y s i s of the r e s u l t s of t h e 1977 and 1978 n n c r i t f o n s t a t u s d a t a . I  Data C o l l e c c f o n The data f o r t h i s study of m t r i t i o a a l s t a t u s an$ school p a r c f c i p a c f o n Vera o b t a i n e d f r a a a longitudinal survey o f rural houmaholds I1 -- in C ~ O of Yepal's 75 a d a f n f r t r a t f w d i s t r f c t s . - 21 The d i s t r i c t s , b u t a h a t , are l o c a t e d i n t h e C e n t r a l Beploa of t h e Hepal T a r a i . Baro and The i household m a p l e was a s t r a t i f i e d rand- sample of a l l housaholds f n s i x panchapets of l a r a ( o u t o f 109 paachapats i n t h e district) a d six pan- c h a y e t s of Stnutahat (ouc of 132). In compllfag t h i s sample i n 1977, a list of owners and canants of a l l dwellfngs i n each panchayat was obtained from t h e l w a l r u r a l h e a l t h workers. Then, u s i n g a t h r e e - d i g i t r a d o a a m b e r t a b l e obtafned from t h e s e p a l C e n t r a l Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s , households t o be included f n tho s e o p l o uere s e l e c t e d r a n d o ~ l pvLthfn panchayats m t i l 15 percenc of households h i 4 been chosen i n each panchayat. (Ten a d d i t i o n a l households - or panchapat e r e s e l e c t e d f o r replacement of households l o s t I rhrough s a o p l e s t t r i t ion.) As k d i c a c e d above, t h e -pled b u s e h o l d s vere a u k e i e d i n L977-78 ( t h r e e v i s i t s KO each household between October and 3ay) and - r e s u m e y e d t h f e e y e a r s L a t e r (between December, .$980, and e a r l y January, L - 1981). The foc*m of t h e 1980-81 r o u d of d a t a q l l e c t i o n was t h e c o h o r t of * * younger c h i l d r e n , those r e p o r t e d t o have been sf* months t o s i x years o l d i n 1977. Eoueoer, rhe cask of uacching i n d i g r i d u a l c h i l d r e n i n surveys 9 - / The survey was conducted by Sew 9 A , a Nepalese r e s e a r c n and c o n s u l t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n , and was designed j o i n t l y by s t a f f of new EEM and t h e Popu:acion and Huuaa Xesources D i v i s i o n of t h e World Bank's Development Economics DegartPent. See S h r e s t h a , Baidya, and S h r e s t h a (1981) f n r a f u l l account of t h e s a n p l e a r e a s and daca c o l l e c t i o n f n s t r m e n t s . conducted t h r e e p a r s a p a r t proved d i f f i c u l t . Hsnce, ua no a t t e m p t , i n t h i r s t u d y a t l e a s t , t o us& t h e i a d i w i d u a l - l e v e l loagitudinal data n o z i n a l l y a v a i l a b l e ia t h i r data set. A l l of t h o data on t h e 637 c h f l d r e a i YRO c o o p r i s e t h e 1900-81 sampla a r e d a t a o b t a i n e d la t h i s s i n g l e round o f data collection. Noreovec, i n Latenriaving r e s n ~ o d e ~ t a , f i e l d s t a f f experi- the enced c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t y i n o b t a i n i n g p r e e i s a q a e s t i o a t e s , d e s p i t e e l a b o r a t e p r e p a r a t i o r u beforehand i n a n t i c i p a t i o n oE t h i s problem. krr an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e e x t e a t of t h e e r r o r i n the e n t i p a t i o n of t h i s v a r i a b l e , re f i n d , when age is a e a s u r d i n months, t h a t f o u r o u t of every f i v e c h i l d r e n have r e p o r t e d a g e s t h a t a r e a u l t i p l e ~of 1 2 a o n t h s . Ve b e l i e v e t h a t p a r e n t s , f a r e o o r c f c q t h e a g e of c h l l d r e a , t c n d d to round upwards. Hence, s i n c e t h e r e f e r e n c e n o m s f o r b 1 g t . t and weight a r e all age- specific, the e a l n u t r i t i o a t b t ~e r e p o r t f o r the c h i l d r e n i n t h i s d a t a set nay be someuhat = e r s c a t e d (see %artorell, L e s l i e , and Hoock, 1982). " t r e n s o , o t h e r s t u d i e s c o r r o b o r a t e o u r f i n d i n g f o r t h i s p a r t of t h e T e r a i , t h a t !lepalese c 5 f l d r e a a r e a w n q t h e -l¶est i n t h e world ( C e a t e r s f o r D i s e a s e C o n t r o l , 1976; 3 r f n k e t a l . , i976; ZarquSarson, 1976). - - Four a n t h r o p o o e t r i c measures - height, weight, arm circumference,-5 L . and t r ice- skinfold - wsre c o l l e c t e d f o l l o v i a g s t a n d a r d techniques. - - . # e ! Seight wu=easured t o $ e m a r e s t d l l i r n e t e r v l t h a l o c a l l y constructed wooden z e a s u r f q board, and u e i g h t -as ~ e a s u r e dt o m i t h i n 0.1 kilogram using a p r t a b l e beam balance s c a l e . A Rsrpenden s k i n f o l d c a l i p e r was used to z e a s u r e t r i c e p s s k i n f o l d , and a Z e r f a s i n s e r t i o n t a p e %as used t o z e a s u r e a m c i r c u n f e r e n c e , b o t h l e a s u r m e n t s recorded t o t h e clearest  N u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u r i n d i c a t o r s were derived from the anthropometric ueasures using t h e National Center f o r Health S t a t i s t i c s ' r e f e r e n c e p p u l a t i o n ( H M i l l , 1977). I n ttr!s a n a l y s f s , the t h r e a a n t h r o p o s a t r i c i n d i c a t o r s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t - used a r e h a i g h P f o r a g e , weight-forage, and w i g h t - f o r h e i g h t . A c h i l d 8 # height-Cot-age fa hlr or her height as a percentage of th median height of th reference population of the ssma age and sex. Children who a r e l e s s than 90 percent of the median height of t h e r e f e r e a c e population a r e u s u a l l y considered t o be s t u n t e d 02 c h r o n i c a l l y malaourirhed. Weight-for-age i s derived s i m i l a r l y . Comet c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s a r e based on t h i s measure; c h i l d r e n who a r e less than 75 percent of J c d i a n veight f o r t h e reference population a r c i n the bottom two Coact c a t e g o r i e s . 3/ - Weight-for-height i s c a l c a l a t e d by d e t t r a i n i n g what percentage the c h i l d ' s a c t u a l veight is of the median velqht ~ l fthose i n the reference p p c l a t i o n who a r e of t h e sane height and sex. Children rho a r e l e s s than 80 percent of median w e i g h t - f o r h e i g h t a r e considered to be masted o r a c u t e l y nalnourished. C a p i l l a r y blood uas c o l l e c t e d by f l n g e r prick and a n a l y z d i n the t field. S l o d was put d i r e c t l y ott a s l i d e , s t i r r e d with a reagent and t h e ' s l i d e i n s e r t e d i n t o a reading chanber (method of -4merican O p t i c a l Coapany). - Values vere not corrected f c c a l t i t u d e s i n c e the T e r a i , u n l i k e the r e s t of Sepal, is f l a t . B I - 3/ Co~ez 0 (normal) is 90 pcrcenr o r above of aedian weight-for-age, Comez 1 (mildly malnourished) is 75 t o 89 percent of median weight-for-age, Coaez 2 (moderately aalnourished) Is 60 t o 7 4 percent of median weight-forage and Caaez 3 ( s e v e r e l y aalnourished) is l e s s than 60 percent aedian w e i g h t - f o r a s e (Gonez, 1956). Data Analysis The i n i t i a l s a a p l e of 631 c h i l d r e n had t o ba pared doon f o r t h i s s t u d y of s c h o o l p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Excluded Vera c h i l d r a n under ths a g e of 5, who were a ~ yte t e l i g i b l e l o r school. a/ Excluded d m was a n y c h i l d f o r v h m ua had a v a l u e solller than 50 p e r c e n t o r g r e a t e r t h a n 150 pcrce~tof cha SCMS a o m f o r k e i a h c - f o r a g e o r weight- for h e i g h t , s i n c e such extremes l i k e l y r e f l e c t e r r o r s i n t h e a e a s u r e a e a r o f body s i z e , o r age, o r both. fhe f u r t h e r e x c l u s i o n of a l l c h i l d r e a r e s i d i a g i n h o u s e h o l d s f o r u h i c h we l a c k d i n l o n e t i o n on such basic * r a r i a b l r s as l a d owned o r f a m i l y s i z e r e s u l t e d i n a reduced s a a p l e of 395 c h i l d r e n , as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1. T h i s u a s t h e b a s i c s a n p l e used f o r t h e a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s paper. T a b l e 5 t a d i c a t c s t h a t 1 4 p e r c e n t of t h e c h i l d r e n i n t h e m a p l e were e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l a t tk :lac of o b r s u r r e y . It may be noted that e n r o l l s e n t r a c i o s i n t h i s a r e a of S e p a l a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y saaller t h a n t h o s e r e y o r t e d f o r t h e n a t i o n a c l a r g e ( c f . T a b l e s 1 and 2). In general, the r a z i o i a c r e a s e s * 4 t b ase. Yoreover, boys a r e more l i k e l y t o be e n r o l l e d t h a n g i r l s a t e v e r y a g e ( e x c e p t a t a g e 5, and h e r e t h e p r o p o r t i o n s are n o t s i g a - f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from one a n o t h e r ) . '2 - L Although -awere i n t e r e s t e d i n a range of d e t e m i n e n t s of s c h o o l - C ?art*ipation, t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o c u s of t h i s s t u d y was on t h e relat i o n s h i ? becueen n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s and s c h o o l i n g . As T a b l e 6 i n d i c a t e s , t h e s t u d y saaple of school- age c h i l d r e n was q u i t e ~ a l n o u r i s h e dby s t a n d a r d 0 -/ The o f f i c i a l s c n o o l - e n t e r i n g age i n S e p a l i s 6 y e a r s , b u t a few c h i l - d r e n begin s c h o o l a t a g e 5. The 3 a j o r i t g of chose who e v e n t u a l l y a t t e n d s c h o o l do nor: Lbe~i3 u n t i l t h e y are 7 y e a r s o l d ar o l d e r .  table 5 School Enrollment Ratio8 by Sex and Age o f - C h i l d - S a a ~ l e of 395 Children, Decaaber 1980 Age in pears hys Clrls 84th focal r.213 (207) .ObG (188) .162 (395) - - - Soce: ~ o c a l sia parentheses. - ? '  Table 6 Rater of Halnutrition by Age C r o u p Sasple of 395 Children, November 1980 - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - Below Below Below Age in 752 SCHS madtan 90X SCRS oedlon 80Z YCHS oediaa Years we1 ght-loraqe height-for-age weight-foe-he1ght SOX 61f 65X 67% Total 72% 66% 3% a n t h r o p o m e t r i c ind!.cators; more t h a n NO- thirds of t h e c h i l d r e n were Gomez 2 and 3 (below 752 of t h e median weight- for- age), two- thirds were s t u n t e d (below 902 of t h e median h e i g h t - f o r - a g e ) , and t h r e e p e r c e n t were s e v e r e l y v a s t c d (below 802 of t h e median weight- for- height). Our s t u d y of s c h o o l g r a r t i c i p a t i o n c o n s i s t s of two c l o s a l y r e l a t a d sectioes. The f i r s t is a p r o b i t a n a l y s i s of tam d i c h o t o a o w dependent variable, enrollaent. The p r o b a b i l i t y of a c h i l d ' s bLng cn;olled in s c h o o l was p r e d i c t e d based on a v a r i e t y of t h a o r e t i c a l i y r e l e v a n t d e t e m i n a n r s of s c h o o l p a r t i c i p a t i o n b e h a v i o r , i n c l u d i n g t h e c h i l d ' s age, s e x , and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s . The p r o b i t s were run f o r a l l c h i l d r e n i n t h e s a o p l e , and then s a p a r a t e l y f o r boys and f o r g i r l s , and f o r c h i l d r e n of normal s t a t u r e and f o r s t u n t e d c h i l d r e n . In t h e second of t h e two a n a l y s e s , o u r f o c u s s h i f t s t o g r a d e attainment. S i n c e a c h i l d ' s g r a d e i n s c h o o l is c o n d i t i o n a l on the c h i l d ' s having been e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l . t h i s a n a l y s i s is r e s t r i c t e d t o 53 c h i l d r e n ;rho v e r e e n r o l l e d ar t h e tltae of t h e s u r r e y . 5/ T a b l e 7 p r e s e n t s the j o i n t frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e 53 c h i l d r e n by a g e ( i n y e a r s ) and g r a d e i n school. Xearly h a l f of t h e 5 3 v e r e only i n t h e f i r ~ t ~ g r a d e . Only two I * c h i l d r e n had advanced beyond t h e t h i r d grade. - Our a n a l y s i s of g r a d e a ~ t a i n n e n twas conducted i n two o r d i a a r y - a 8 l e a s t - s q u a r e s (OLS) s t a g e s . Ln t h e f i r s t , g r a d e i n s c h o o l was r e g r e s s e d on j1 - T h e r e v e r e no c h i l d r e n i n t h e s a o p l e -410 had a t t e n d e d s c h o o l i n t h e p a s t and dropped o u t by t h e ti- of the survey. Three c h i l d r e n who v e r e e n r o l l e d a: t h e time of t h e s u r J e y a r e excluded from t h i s a n a l y s i s because t h e i r g r a d e i n s c h o o l was not r e p o r t e d .  Tabla 7 t r a d e i n School by Age f o r the 53 Children Attoadlag School Qe in t r a d e l a School Total 25 !5 11 1 1 age ( i n aonths). 6 / - T h i s r e g r e s s i o n was used t o p r e d i c t a c h i l d ' s g r a d e i n s c h o o l , and t h i s p r e d i c t i o n t h e n s u b t r a c t e d f r m t h e c h i l d ' s o b s e r v e d arade level. The d i f f e r e n c e , l a b e l e d CRDAHD ( g r a d e s a!!ead g i v e n age), ?ms a a e a n of z e r o a d a asrandard d e v i a t i o n o f 0.875. I n t h e second OLS s t a g e , . CRDAHD was r e g r e s s e d on t h e r e r a i n l a g d e t e m i n a n t s of s c h o o l ; r a r t i c i p a t i o n - behavior. The v a r i a b l e s w e d i n t h e p r o b i t and OLS a n a l y s e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 9. School p a r t i c i p a t i o n b e h a v i o r is d e l t d i n t h i s p a p e r as a f u n c t i o n of ( i ) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c h i l d - n a o e l j , sex, a g e , n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s , and c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t y ( ~ e a s u r e dby 3 a v e n W sColoured P r o g r e s s i v e Y a c r i c e s , Raven, 1956), (2) c h e r a c t c r i s t i c s o f t h e c h i l d ' s parcnts-educa- c l o n a l e t t a i n r s c n t , a t t i t u d e s , end c o g n i t i * r c a b i l l t y , (3) c h a r a c t e r i s t f c s o f t h e c h i l d ' s h o u s e h o l d - f a a l l y s i z e , farm s i z e , caste membership, and iw c m e , and ( h ) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c h i l d ' s cornunit-~administracive41s- :ricc (which is o a e a s v .e of a v e r a g e e d u c e c l o n a l a t t a l n a e n t and o t h e r aggregate f a c t o r s ) a d d i s t a n c e t o the nearest prinary school* The 20 independent v a r i a b l e s in g r o u p s (1) t h r o u g h ( I ) c a n be r e o r g a n i z e d i n t o (a) t h o s e t h a t r e f l e c t p r i m r i l y d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p r i c e o f schooling-e.g., . . e d i s t a n c e t o s c h o o l and s i z e of f s m , (5) t h o s e that r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n - t h e r e a l o r p e r c e i v e d b e a e f i t s t o b e e x p e c t e d from a n i a v e s t a e n t i n school- - - =e.g-, c h i l d ' s a b i l i t y and p a r e o t a l a t t i t u d e s , and f i n a l l y (c)'%hase - t h a t r e f l e c t t h e E a o i l y ' s inccme c o n s t r a i n t . Our p r i n c i p a l n e a s u r 4 o f E a n i l y incone is t h e o u t p u t v a l u e of :he o a j o r c r o p s ( r i c e and vheaT? ?ro- * - 5/ 3 0 t h v a r i a b l e s e n t e r t h e r e g r e s s i o n i n natural- Log form. s e v e r a l n o n l i n e a r s p e c i f i c a t f o n s v e r e t r i e d . 3 e log-1% .3 l i n e a r and fom v a s r e t a i n e d , a s i t proved co g i v e the b e s t f i t . IP( F-la (l-fctllr, C-le) 0. AQ ly. ( m t h s ) 60. WlrCC b t u r a l I* of Al;e 1 IU Rtlght f o r a* (f 531tf OD*) 66.5 *a *lght t o r b i g h t (: SfX 60.9 mr8) *LA Wcht for ago (E SClE 40.4 mm) EI; Hawglobla (ga. p r 101)=I.) 3.8 tR4 k v r n ' s score Parental Chrarterfs:!cs FMO1 f a t h e r u a r t o oc-1 3ao) 0. (ly, XiSGI S x k r w a r t o x b l (I-, 9-00) 0. CQXP Elgh OCCJ?. iisplr. f o r 0. c h l l d cf th?s s e x (l-, bm) IRE4 Fat!ter's Paves's Score b/ 2. to. - . %chcr's Rsvcn's -re 51 1. 14. lmV ?bthet's k d g h t (&.) 12.55 16-12 FMIZ Fdly,flr~ 3- 22. 395 7 .36% 3.238 53 8.153 UN, ~ n cd ~ l c d(b . ) 0.01 29.u 395 1 . m 2.627 53 3.737 rn V d u c of =rap orrtplt 0.O 252.5 395 25.360 33.815 53 60.026 (190 pa.)?! EICST Rfgh caste ( ] + CI x l l other) k& , 3. 1. 395 0.043, 0.203 53 0.151 UXlST c a s t e (1-lor, Du l ochcr) l 0. 1. 395 0.324 0.49 53 0.113 f h a s t d t y (3aracteristfcs - F'ILS(I( MRA - 3 Sheat) - School l a village (i-ycs, h m ) M s c r i c t (1 b r a , 0 0 . . - I re 1. 395 395 0.772 0.415 O.Lm 0.693 D 0.792 53 0.453 - - ' 1 torrcct p r o b l s g in Set A (ibvcl, 1955). os 12 ~ l ~ ~ - rt; - b/, C/ r o u l correc: a s m t s t o 2a probL- f a Scta A and M(Raven, 1954). - ' 1 ;he o f f f c h l cnhutqe r a t e uas a p p r o r i . ~ t c l y12 b. t o the V.S. dollar. duced on t h e F a r a i n t h e year p r i o r t o t h survey. ~ Pl 'e i g n o r e income from 'I o t h e r s o u r c e s , which is judged to be m i n i a d i n t h i s area o f Nepal. 7 RESULTS P r o b i t Analysis o f School Enrollment . I 1 1 The p u r p o s e OF t h e a n a l y s i s r e p o r t e d i n r h i s s e c t i o n 1s t o h a t e r I I n i n e how i ~ d i v i d t u l . p a r e n t a l , household. md comaunity v a r i a b l e s I a f f e c t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a c h i l d ' s belng e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l (Pj)- The I I ? r o b a b i l i t y 3ny be e x p t e s s e d s j follows: I I Pj - Prob(IISCHj - - 1) F(Y and I I 1 - PJ = Prob(I:lSCflj a 0) = L - F(Yj) I I ~ I 1 where ISSCI: f s t h e d i c h o r o o o ~ sI n d i c a t o r of e n r o l l n e n t ( 1 i f enrolled l and = 0 L f m t e n r o l l e d ) , Y j is sorite l i a e a r c o a b i ~ t i o n of t h e o b s e n $ f ndependent v a r i a b l e s ( A , F(Y j) is t h e c m u l a t i ve d e n b i tj. i i ~ i )and I f u n c t i o n r e l a t i n g Y j and Pj- S i a c q P j c a n n o t exceed 1 o r F a l l below d, e - r h i s i n p l i e s t h a t t h e Eunction F(Y j) a u s t be n o n l i n e a r , a t least n e a r t h e ' I I b u n d a r i e s of 0 and 1. In t h i s s t u d y , we m k e use of t h e p t o b i t a o d e i , I - . which assumes t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n is c u m u l a t i v e n o r p a l . The parame_ters o f - 7/ Xlchouqh =st households do produce o t h e r c r o p s and keep s on; livd- s t o c k , r i c e and wheat a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l farm e n t e r p r i s e s i n t h i s b r t of t h e T e r a i . The r ~ c oo g e t h e r accounted f o r 1.0 ha. of Land usage i n 1990 on t h e ' t y p i c a l " €am o u t of a t o t a l o f L.3 ha. a v a i l a b l e foq cultivation. " os: ! m u s e h o l d s (88 p e r c e n t ) r e p o r t e d no of f-Farm ibcOOe, and f o r t h o s e few t h a t d i d , cbe amount u a s r e T * a t i v e l y s o a l l (Rs. 413 o n averaqe) . I t h e l a t e n t v a r i a b l e Y j ( A and Bi) are e s t i v l t t d u s i n g a =axiom L i k e l i h o o d technique. The ? r o b i t r e s u l t s f o r t h e sample of 295 c h i l d r e n are r e p o r t e d In. ? a b l e 9. - E q u a t i o n s (1) and (2) i n c l u d e o n l y t h e c h i l d ' s sex, a g e , $nd t h e n u t r i t i o ~ ls t a t u s m a s u r e . as i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . 01der c h i l d k e n I a r e found t o be r i g n i f i c a n t l y more l i k e l y t h a n younger c h i l d r e n , and gllrls s t g n i f i c a n t l y less l i k e l y t h a n boys, t o b e e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l . Of t h a ~ I n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s v a r i a b l e s , a c h i l d ' s h a n o g l o b i n Level Lo n o r found t o be I - r e l a t e d t o s c h o o l e n r o l l e n t . 9/ On the o t h e r hand, b o t h h e i g h t - f o r a b e (U) and w e i g h t - f o r h e i g h t ( V H ) c o n c r i b u t e p s i t i o e l y and s i g n i f i c a n t l b t o t h e p r o b a b i l i r y of a c h i l d ' s b e i n g e n r o l l e d i:, s c h o o l . The i n f l u e n c e bf t h e f o r m e r , the i n v e r s e of * A i c h is a rrcasure of c h r o n i c m l n u t r i t i o n , l a p p e a r s s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e i a f l u e n c e of t h e latter, a measure o f a c u t e ~ I n a l n u t r i t ion. I n equation (2), w e i g h t - f o r a g e (YA), which r e f l e c t s t h b I c o n b i n a t i o n of c h r o n i c Md a c u t e condi:ions, ts e n t e r e d t n l i e u of t h e two I I separate indicators. I I I The s t a t i s t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t s e e n r m t r i t i o ~ ds t a t u s and I e n r o l l m e n t teaaim s t r o n g when a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s are e n t e r e d i n t o the a n a l y s i s as c o n t r o l s . Four background v a r i a b l e s are found t o have s i g h i f f - I I I c a n t d i r e c t e f f e c t s on t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a c h i l d ' s b e i n g e n r o l l e d i n 1 - - -9 5 I - A n a t r i x o f zego-order c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e v a r i a b l e s i n * - T a b l e 9 1s protfided 13 Appendix A. I I -9/ Uhen t h e i d i c a t o r of t h e dti I d ' s s e x ( F N ) ts l e f t o u t of t h e fl4.t e q u a t i o n , t h e p r o b i t c o e f f i c t e n t f o r t3G j r n p s t o 0.79, b u t t h e t e i c s t a t i s t i c f o r c h i s c o e f f i c i e n t (1.298) s t i l l f a l l s s h o r t of t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e ( a p p r o x i n a t e l y 1.665 i f -4 u s e t h e - t- distribution). Ahhhh S%%SR :S=?<C! 6E -?% 8 geilyczlb b-a-lAl V- I Y Y Y hhh Ah un . 53 p ~ ~ l l ~ ~ l l l l l l 4- school. These a r e f a t h e r ' s s c h o o l i q (FASCH), fa= s i z e (WD), income from r i c e ard wheat (WVL), a d s ~ ~ ~ b e r s i one of t h e l o r s t a t u s (i.a., hni p nonfarmlng o c t u p a t i o n a l ) castes (L'rlCST). Other Independent v a r i a b l e s d e s c r i b e d i n Tabla 8 ware found Ia u o r l i a r rum not to Be r e l a t a d s i g n i f l - c a n t l y ts enrollmeat p r o b a b i l i t y , 4 t h e r e vora dropped lroa t h e t l n a l probit equations. E q u a t i o n l (3) and (a) a r e i d e a t i c a l i n f o m except t h a t t h e latter lncludee a d t h e f o r n a r doer aot i a c l u d e t h e v a r i a b l e CRWL. Of t h e o t h e r v n r i a b l c s appear;= la both e q u a t i o n r , only t h o e s t i m a t e d e f f e c t of LAW is C n l l u e n c d e n r k e d l y by t h i s difference. The p r o b i t c o e f f i c i e a t is p o s i t i v e i n caustlm ( 3 ) a d becorres n e g a t i v e i n e q u a t i o n (I). I n t h e tfrse inscarace, &A!i s e m e s 1n p r t as a groxy f o r household Lacme. In the second, however, CSPVt I s introduced as an e x p l i c i t measure of income, nod LAD r h e a yould scm t o f s n c t l o n o c r e am n measure of t h e value of t h e child" s i r s p e n t working on t h e b a n and, beace, a a e a s u r e of t h e c o s t of c b x spent s t u d y i a s . En e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) . the c h i l d ' s Baven's s c o r e (RPY) is e n t e r e d as a a e a s u r e of c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t y . l h i s e q u a t i o n ir based on o n l y 259 c a s e s , . I s i n c e 136 of t h e 395 c h i l d r e n were not g i v e n t h e Raven's t e s t due t o absence o r r e f u s a l a t t h e t h e bf t h e survey. The p r o b i t coef f lc$nt for - t h i s v a r i a b l e f a l l s s h o r t of being s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 0.05 p r o b a b u i t y * - level in a o n e a i l e d test. Even i f t h e coeff l c i e n t were s i $ n i f i c . t . however, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n uould be somewhat ambiguous beceuse of p o s s i b l e s i m l t a o e o u s c a u s a l i t y betveen a b i l i t y and e n r o l l o e n t . In e q u a t i o n ( 6 ) . p a r e n t a l a b i l i t y and mother's s z a t u r e a r e e n t e r e d as ~ d d i r i o n a lc o n t r o l v a r i a b l e s . T h i s f u r t h e r reduces t h e sample s i z e t o 139 c h i l d r e a m Sone of tha new p r o b i t coeff i c i e n t s is s t a t i s t i c a l i y d i f f e r e n t from zero. To s e e *ether the effect^ of any of the determinants of - e n r o l b e n t behavior d i f f e r according to the c h i l d ' s asx or p h y s i c a l s t a t u r e . we e r t i o e t e d s e p a r a t e p r o b i t e q u a t i o n s f o r g i r l s (FEN 1) and 307s (m a Q), and f o r s t u n t e d c h i l d r e n ('HA 4 90 percent of t h e HCHS % o m ) and c h i l d r e n of norirsl s t a t u r e (HA a90 percent of the SlCHS n o n ) . 'Ihese r e s u l t s a r e presented i n Tabla 10. lo/ - Sex:. In o r d e r to s e e !mu :he predicted probabi l i t y of a c h i l d ' s b e i w e n r o l l e d i n school changes with th exogenous v a r i a b l e s , ua e n t e r e d two o r =ore r e p r e s e n t a t i v e values of t a c h v a r i a b l e of i n t e r e s t i n t o each of t h e e s c i s a t e d p r o b i t e q u a t i o n s , holding o t h e r variables constant a t t h e sample m a n valuer. The predicted p r o b a b i l i t y of enrollment is t h e a r e a under the standard n9-1 c u r t e between a i n u s i n f i n i t y and the conputed of :he ~alue probic equation. Tke c m p u t e d p r o b a b i l i t i e s , based on equa- cion (a) of f a b l e 9 a d on t h e four e q u a t i o n s of Table 10, a r e presented En Table 11. , c 0.m n o t i c e s t h a t tbe i n f l u e n c e of rhe n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s v a r i - a b l e s (EU and ;iA) oa the p r o b a b i l i t y of e n r o l b e n t , c e t e r i s paribus, appears t o be g r e a t e r f o r h y s than f o r g i r l s . - The p r e d i c t e d p r o b a b i l i t y f o r a boy i n c r e a s e s f r o a .001 t o .587 a Z l U i n c r e a s e s from 70 percent t o I LOO percent of t h e K a S n o n , whereas t h a t f o r a g i r l i n c r e a s e s from -001 co only - 0 5 5 . S i n i l a r l p , the predicted p r o b a b i l i t y f o r a boy i n c r e a s e s f r o n .OlS t o .2&2 as L?i l a c r e a s e s l r o a 70 percent t o I10 percent of t h e !XHS n o m , * h e r e a s chat f o r a gf r l i n c r e a s e s from .905 t o only .C)21. Xore- - lo! Subsaaple jeans and starldard de.riacions a r e ~ i v e nin Appendix 3. - 2 10 . 3 (-3336) 43.70 (-3amk 4.726 (-1 6!2) -1.1 (-33m> oar, (3~70) 0.029 (3.t9.3) 0.m (2.W) 0.0% (2- O M (2.SS) oau (am) 1.763 (3.m) 1.w (3b#bB -3SS (->A%) 4.m (-LsS> 0.a (1.867) 0 (2-li 4 (4.954) 4.m (-1s) s3 02 65.3 70.0 8 a  M i e t e d G n d l t i d ho5abilit~ef Child's k i n a Lnralled in School - - 1JI Cirlr: boy: Stunted: Noml r Ql1dt.a m#-1 FEW we% PA290 frP.395) (>'la) Or-207) (S-263) 051132) Sex of Child Cltl bl m . a .OI6 - .012 - .090 .001 ,312 .074 m371 k l g h c for k e Ira of sas Y am Ueirht for F!elght 70X of %ZKSara Rice and L%eat k c p u t 3s. 1 . m A 15 Es. 3.m Ilr- 6 . m - - .ms P1.12,m .* i .lo2 .us me: 'Ihe f i r s t colrrnr of p b r b i l i c i u is Luwd a equation (4) of Table 9. The re=alcdm p m b . b i l l t i e s a m hsd c m the r e s u l t s in f a b l e 10.  o v e r , t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r e d i c t e d p r o b a b i l i t y of a t t e n d i n g school as a c h i l d grows o l d e r is ouch g r e a t e r f o r a boy t h a a f o r a g i r l . Finally, the n e g a t i v e h p a c t of f a n s i z e (LAS-') on c a c o l l n e n t p r o b a b i l i t y seems to be . ' g r e a t e r f 7 r c h i l d r e n whose h e i g h t f o r age f a l l s i n tha n o r u e l range than i t is f o r s t u n t e d c h i l d r e a , uhoro p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to farm production is probably s m l l e r . OLS A n a l y s i s of Grade A t t a i m e n t Once it h a s ken d e t e r a i n t d t h a t a c h i l d 1s e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l , a second q u e s t i o n to a s k i n how f a r that c h i l d h a s progcessed i n school. Given h i s o r h e r age, the g r a d e a t t a i a m e n t of an e n r o l l e d c 5 i l d w i l l depend on (1) t h e age a t r h i c h t h e c h i l d f i r s t e n t e r e d s c h o o l , d (2) t h e a v e r a g e r a t e of p r o w t i o n t h e r c a t t a r . tn S e p a l , t h e r e is c o n s i d e r e b l e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e age a t *which c h i l d t e n e n t e r school, and t h e r e p e a t i n g of g r a d e s , though not o f f i c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d , is q u i t e a coerrpoa p r a c t i c e . As a r e s u l t , it is noc uncoanon t o f i n d , i n a s i n g l e s c h o o l grade, c h i l d r e n h o s e ages d i f f e r by a s much 3s U v e y e a r s ( s e e T a b l e 7). . e 'Je view nonearollment (i.e., ooc e a t e r i n g s c h o o l a t a l l ) merely - a s an e x t r e w v a l u e on the continuum i a d i c a t t a g q = c h i l d ' s age- adjusted f - grade attainment. Hence, - che same e x p l a n a t o r y v a g i a b l e s used i n t h e analy- sis of s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t a r e uaed a g a i a h e r e i n t& a n a l y s i s of grade i n C school. We should e.xpect, f o r exanple, a c h i l d ' s p r o g r e s s t o be r e l a t e d p o s i c i v e l p t o nutritional s t a t u s , $Srt:cularly long- term s t a t u s as measured by h e i g h t - f o r a g e , and t o household income, and t o be r e l a t e d n e g a t i v e l y t o faru s i z e , c e t e r i s p a r i b u s .  The a n a l y s i s of s c h o o l a t t a i n m e n t was conducted la two OLS stages. I n t h e f i r s t , t h e n a t u r a l l o g of g r a d e i n school was r e g r e s s e d oci t h e m t u r a l l o g of age, where Ibg and bl a r e t h e r e g r e s s i o n e s t ? s a t c s of t h e c o n s t a n t tam and s l o p e , u j a rand- e r r o r t e n , and Zj t h e p r e d i c t e d v a l u e of t h e dependent variable. The c h i l d ' s p r e d i c t e d grade i n s c h o o l [ o n t i l o g ( Z j ) ] was t h e n s u b t r a c t e d from t h e c h i l d ' s t b s e r v e d g r a d e i n s c h o o l , GRDAHO, - G?U)Ej - antilog(Zj) The coaputed v e r i a b l e CWAHD is a a t a s u r e of how f a r ahead ( o r behind) a c h i l d is i n s c h o o l r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r s of t h e same age. - ''1 I n t h e second s t a g e of t h e a n a l y s i s , t h i s v a r i a b l e is r e g r e s s e d on t h e r e l e v a n t cx?lanatars, The OLS r e s u l t s a r e presented i n ~ 2 b l e - 12- L 2 / The e s t i m a t e s i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) a r e those t h a t *were used to c r e a t e CRDAEID, v h i c h is t h e dependent v a r i a b l e fa e q u a t i o n s (2) through ( 7 ) . Equations ( 2 ) through ( 4 ) a r e based o n t h e e n t i r e sample of 53 e n r o l l e d c h i l d r e n , v h c r e a s ( 5 ) through w ( 7 ) a r e based on t h e s u b s a n p l e of bops. Xs w e have seen a l r e a d y , g i r l s - 11/ Though it h a s no e f f e c t on the r e s u l t s of t h e subsequent OLS a n a l y s i s , t h e c o n s t a n t 0.1792 was s u b t r a c t e d f r a a each v a l u e of C2DXHD t o make t h e =an of t h i s v a r i a b l e equal t o zero. - 12/ A a a t r i x of zero- order c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n r s f o r t h e . r a r i a b l e s i n Table 12 i s provided i n Appendix C .  -- A A -7 A ~ ~ ~ r l ~ l l l ' l f *l # ' Nn -- 2s" 4 8 Y Y 1 . dd, ! = c o n s t i t u t e d a d i s t i n c t p i n o r i t y of t h e c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l a t t h e t i a e of the s u r v e y , a c c o u n t i a g f o r fewer t h a n one o u t of f i v e . - The a n a l y s i s of CRDARO p r o c e e d s i n a series of s t e p s . In t h e f i r s t ( e q s . 2 and S), a 1 1 of t h e independent v a r i a b l e s are e n t e r e d a t 0 once. I n t h e second ( e q s . 3 and 6 ) . t h o s e v a r i a b l e s h o s e c o e f f i c i e n t s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 0.05 p r o b a b l l l t y l e v e l I n t h e f l r m t s t e p a r e . removed. Then, v a r i a b l e s are d l 0 4 to r e e n t e r one a t a tima a c c o r d i n g to t--ralucg, u n t i l t h e n e x t v a r i a b l e to be l n c l u d e d would n o t b e 9:gnificant a t t h e 0.05 l e v e l . T h i s s t e p is t h e f i n a l one p r e s e n t e d i n T t b l e 12 ( c q s . 4 and 7). AS p r e d i c t e d , t h e r e g r e s s i o n cocf f i c i c n t o f o r h e i a h t - f o r a g e (*a) and household l a c o l e (C2PVL) a r e significantly p o s i t i - r e a l t h o u g h , i a t e r e s t i n g l y , che e s t b a c e d e f f e c t s a r e h r g e r f o r t h e ofxed sample t h a n For t h e a l l - a a l c subsa;?iz. ?am sire (LSD) a p p e a r s t o be u n r e l a t e d , o r o n l y o a r g i n a l l y r e l a t e d , t o a c h i l d ' s g r a d e a t t a i m e n t , g i - ~ c nt h a t t h e c h i l d goes t o school a t a l l . T h e r e a r e ao o t h e r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s f o r t h e 53- case sample, b u t :here a r e so3e f o r t h e aale, subsample. ?!other's education (though not f a t h e r ' s ) is foucd t o be r e l a t e d p o s i t i v e l y to a - - s o n ' r g r a d e a t t a i m e n t i n school. A l l else e q u a l , b o p f r a a f a m i l i e s .? L - b e l o n g i n g t o one of S e p a l ' s h i a h - s t a t u s castes ( e . ~ . , Brahmin o r C h h e t r i ) - & tend -- be f a r t h e r a l o n g i n s c h o o l than boys from a i d d l e s t a t u e f a m i l i e s !by about e i g h t - t e n t h s of a y e a r on a v e r a g e ) . Xovever, so do bays from a l o r s t a t u s f a a i l i e s (by h a l f a y e a r ) , t h i s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t c h i l d r e n f r m l o * r c a s t e f a a i l i e s are t h e l e a s t l i k e l y t o a t t e n d s c h o o l a t a l l (see T a b l e 11). A p p a r e n t l y , once a 10'-caste f a m i l y h a s a a d e t h e d e c i s i o ~t o  send a c h i l d t o s c h o o l , e s p e c i a l l y a son, t h e c-i tnent t o c h i s investaenc is s t r e n u o u s . F i n a l l y , e q u a t i o n s (5) through ( 7 ) s u g g e s t t h a t boys t r o a 3 a r a , one of t h e NC a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i s t r i c t s r e p r e s e n t e d i a c h i s sample, a r e f a r t h e r a l o n g i n s c h o o l t h a n boys f r o a Rautahac. Although d t f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n , t h i s f i n d i n g is c o n s i s t e n t v i t h what h a s been r t g o r : d i n nearly a l l of t h e s t u d i e s u s i q t h i s d a t a e a t . it m u l d reem t h t Bara has roo4 i a f r a s t r u c t u r a l advantages w a r Rautahac, encouraging h i g h e r c r o p y f n l d s ( s e e Jamison and Yoock, 1981). l o v e r f e r t i l i t y r a t e s (Cochrane, 1981). better h e a l t h ( L e s l l e , Baidya, and Nanduani, 1981). a d a l s o more rapid p r o g r e s s of c h i l d r e n through school. The n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s of poverty on c h i l d e d u c a t i o n , c h i l d h e a l t h , and c h i l d m t r l c i o n a l s t a t u s a r e *I1 recognized; I n r e c e n t y e a r s i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n h a s been p a i d , not ;nly t o t h e d i r e c t e f f e c t s of poverty on t h e s e e l e a e n t s of c h i l d d e v e l o p n e n t , b u t t o t h e i r e f f e c t s on h each o t h e r . 13/ - f h e =st s e v e r e f o r m of childhood m a l n u t r i t i o n lead t o . € death. Even aaong c h i l d r e n who s u r v i v e , s a l n u t r i t i o n c a u s e s growth - f a l t e r i n g and delayed s e x u a l c a a t u ~ a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is a c y c l i c as i n t e r a c t i o n between ~ a l n e t r i t i o n& ~ di n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s ; malnourished - " - c h i l d r e n a r e =ore s u s c e p t i b l e t o &pease, and c h i l d r e n who a r e ill e a t and a r e l e s s a b l e t o a b s o r b what thejt do nanage t o e a t . It has alsa been less suggested t h a c n a l n u t r i t i o n r e d u c e s t h e a c t i v i t y l e v e l s of poor c h i l d r e n i n - 13/ See %rid Bank (1980). pp. 58-70, f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e " seamless ueb" of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between income, r u t r i t ? . o n , f e r t i l i t y , e d u c a t i o n n t h e d e v e l o p n e n t process. and h e a l t h : d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ( 3 e a t o n , 1982). F i n a l l y , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n i n p a i r s m e n t a l d e v e l o p l e n t , i n t h e most s e v e r e case8 by a d i r e c t e f f e c t o n b r a i n c e l l u l a r i t y and i n o t h e r cases by l o v e r i n g t h e c h i l d * s n o t i v a t i o n and e n e r g y l e v e l and t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e q u a n t i t y o f e f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g time ( L l o y d - S t i l l , 1976; Faad, 1982). and u e i g h t r o f c h i l d r e n from t h e S e p a l T e r a i Our d a t a o n h e i ~ h t s . r e v e a l c h i l d h o o d a a l n u t r i t i o n t h a t is as s e v e r e u s ham been obaerved anywhere i n t h e world./ : I n c h i s s t u d y , v e h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d some o f t h e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o f t h f s u n d e r n o u t i s h a e n t o n t h e s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t and g r a d e a c t a i m e n t o f young ( 5 - t o - 1 1 - y e u r v l d ) children. A child9s h e i g h t - f o r a g e uas found c o b e :he s i n g l e b e s t p r e d i c t o r o f whether o r n o t t h e c h i l d was e n r o l l e d I n s c h o o l . I n a s t u d y o f r u r a l Guatemalan c h i l d r e n , 3 a l d e r s t o n e t a l . (1981) a l s o found h e i g h t t o b e r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o e n r o l l s e n t , o t h e r things held constant. men w e t u r n e d t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f g r a d e a t t a i n a e n r , o n c e a g a i n h e i g h t uss found s o b e a n i s p o r t a n t d e t c n i - nanc. Of t h o s e c h i l d r e n -who *were e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l , t a l l e r c h i l d r e n tended KO b e i n h i g h e r g r a d e s t h a n s h o r t e r c h i l d r e n o f t h e saae age. J a a i s o n (1981) h a s r e p o r t e d t h e same f i n d i n g f o r 3 e L j i n g and t h e Caneu and r . I J i a n g s u p r o v i n c e s o f China. C * - The i q m r t a n c e o f h e i g h t as a determinant o f s c h o a l e n r o l l m e n t - d and s c k o o l p e r f o r o a n c e d e p e n d s o n t h e g e n e r a l l e v e l o f n u t r e i o n Ln t h e population. I n a n y ~ p u l a c i o n ,h e i g h t s h o u l d r e f l e c t some & a b i n a t i o n o f t g e n e t i c and e n v i r o n n e n t a l ( a u t r i t i o n a l ) f a c t o r s . * Uhereas f o f a well- fed - The characteristics and d e t e m l n a n t s o f c h i l d h o o d a a l n u t r i t i o n i n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n are d i s c u s s e d i n ouch g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n a p a p e r t h a t a c c o a p a n i e s c h i s o n e (!!artorell, L e s l i e , and !-bock, 1982). and i a a n o t h e r p a p e r a n a l y z i n g t h e 1977-78 d a t a ( L e s l i e , Baidya, and Sandwant, 1981). p o p u l a t i o n , t h e g e n e t i c f a c t o r p r e d o a i u a t e s , i n aa h p o v e r i s h e d environment, h e i g h t (though s t i l l g e n e t i c a l l y d e t e m i n c d i n p a r t ) is a good t n d i c a t o r of an i n d i v i d u a l ' s long-cem nutritional status. lhe h p o r t a n c e of h e i g h t i n p r e d i c t i q c h i l d r e a ' s s c h o o l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e Nepal Tcrai is a f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n of b w p o r l y nourisl,ed t h e c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n is on average. We looked a l s o a t t h e e f f e c t s o t w i g h t - f o r h e i g h t an& blood henoglobin on s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t and g r a d e a t t a i n n e n t . tow ueight-forheight o r low hemoglobin m u l d i n d i c a t e a s i t u a t i o n of a c u t e n a l n u t r l c i o n , t h a t is, of c u r r e n t as d i s t i n c t f r m l o n g - t e r n n u t r i t i o n a l d e p r i v a t ton. r!encc, we might p r e d i c t t h a t t h e s e would have a n i n p a c t on e n r o l l ~ e n t ,s i n c e e n r o l l m e n t is a o c a s u r e of c u r r e n t s t a t u s , but n o t bn g r a d e a t c a i n a e n t , which is a measure of t h e c u a u l a t i v e e f f e c t of p a s t behavior. We found t h a t w e i g h t - f o r h e i g h t h a s a p o s i t i v e impact on e n r o l l s e n t , and as p r e d i c t e d , we found no d d i t f o n d ef f e e t of ueiqht-forheight - . p,.ade attaimrrent. Although g i r l s had l o v e r hemoglobin l e v e l s on a v e r a g e (10.97 g r a n s per 100 a i l l i l i t e r s as compared v l t h 11.70, t h e a v e r a g e f o r boys), and g i r l s v e r e l e s s l i k e l y t h a n boys t o be e n r o l l e d i n school (6 p e r c e n t of t h e g i r l s were e n r o l l e d , a s c d p a r e d v l t h 2 1 p e r c e n t of t h e boys), hemoglobin vas n o t found t o have any s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on e n r o l h e n t once sex w a s t a k e n i n t o accoufit. Neither was hemcglobin r e l a t e d t o g r a d e a t t a l m o e n t . I n a s t u d y of F i l i p i n o c h i l d r e n . Popkin and Lim-Ybaner ( 1 9 8 6 found a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n between weigh:- forheight and a measure of t h e c h i l d ' s a b i l i t y t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n s c h o o l , and a l s o t h a t c h i l d r e n v i t h h i g h e r h e a o q l o b i n l e v e l s were l e s s l i k e l y t o be a b s e n t Frcm s c h o o l .  Chernfchovskp (1981) and Paqueo (1981) h a v e developed h o u s e t o l d p r o d u c t i o n models t h a t p r e d i c t a n e g a t i v e i r p a c t on s c h o o l p a r : l c i p a t i o n of v a r i a b l e s t h a t r e f l e c t t h e c o s t of a c h i l d ' s time s p e n t i n s c h o o l . Paqueo d e m o n s t r a t e d 4 t h d a t a f r o a t h e B l c o l r e g i o n of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t h a t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , which vould tend t o r e d u c e t h e v a l u e of a c h i l d ' s time i n household a c t i v i t i e s such ne f i r e v o o d c o l l e c t i o n and u s t a r c a r r y i n g , v a a r e l a c e d p s i t i v a l y t o t h e p r o b r b i l l t l of e n r o l b e n t , e s p a c i a l l y i n t h e c a s e o f boys. 2 1 t h d a t a from r u r a l 30tsuana. Chernichovsky shoved a e 8 a t i v e e f f e c t r , on a n r o l l a e n t , a t t e n d a n c e , and a t t e i m e n t , of € e r a s i z e , thh p r e s e n c e of a baby I n C!IC household, and the number of saell l f v e s t ~ c k , a l l I oE chesc a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d p o s f t l v a l j t o t h e c o s t of t f s e s p e n t srudyinq. - Is/ C o n s i s t e n t w i t h rbe p r u i i c t ionu of Chcrnichovsky and baqueo. .-.e found a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t of fa- sire on c n r o l h e n t , once a measure of household i n c o ~ ewas l n c l - d e d as a c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e Pn t h e a n a l y s i s * Xcrcovct, c h i s e f f e c t of f a n s i r e was s t r o n g e s t f o r c l r , 1 4 r e n sf nobrl I I s t a t u r e ( h e L g h t - f o r a g e 90 p e r c e n t o r g r e a t e r of che SCXS narro). Fqr stunted children (height-forage less tiran 90 p e r c e n t ) , r h e f i n d i n g * a s s t a t i s t i c a l l y nonsignificant. I , t X e found that c h i l d r e ' n Ln S e p a l were amre Lfkelg KO go t o s c h o o l I if c h e i r f a t h e r s had done s o , and char iaother's e d u c a t i o n was positively related to grade a t t a i a a e n t , for b y s at least. A p o s i t i v e e f f e c t df p a r e n t a l s c h o o l i n g on c h i l d s c h o o l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e T e r a S wap. t i p o r t e d e a r l i e r by J a n i s o n a i d Lackheed (1951; . Paqueo (1991) i n t h e P h i l i ~ p i n e s faurd a r e l a t i o n becveen f a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n and v h e t h e r or n o t t h e c h i l d - 15/ On che o t h e r hand, C h e r n i c h o v s k l found a p o s i t i v e effect on a t t e n d a n c e on t h e nunber of c a t e l e awned. was e n r o l l e d , as d i d B i r d s a l l (1982) k t w e n f a t h e r ' s e d u t a t i o o d chLld's grade a t t a i n a e a t . B i r d s a l l , whose s t u d y Is b s e d on a r a t i l i a a ccneus q a t a , I found t h a t m t h c r ' s e d u c a t i o n too uae r e l a t e d LO grade attainment, a d I I B a l d e r s t o n e t a l . (1981). t h a t tSe c h i l d r c a of l i t e r a t e mothers i n I G u a t e u a l a were oore l i k e l y t o b = r o l l e d t h a n wre t h e c h l l d r u n of , I I i l l i t e r a t e mothers, a l l else e q u a l . I L i k e Jamison and Lockhad (1981), vs found t h a t g i r l s i n t h e ~ T c r a i were legs l i k e l y t o be e n r o l l e d t h a n boys, o t h e r t h i n g s t h e slu.i So I d i d S a l d e r s t o n c t a l . (1981) i n C w t e a a l a . r)n t h e o t h e r hand, I Chernichovsky (1981) found just the o p p o s i t e i n r u r a l B o ~ W ~ M . A s che above d i s c u s s i o n i . l d i c a t e r , t h e f l n d l a g of a p o s i t i v e ~ I a s s o c i a t i o n beeween a n t h r o p o a e t r i c i n d i c a t o r s of n u t r i t ional s t a t - and I I both x h w l e n r o l l s e n t a d g r a d e a t t a i m e n t on the p a r t of c h i l d r e n i n t h e f e r a l r e g i o n of Sepal adds t o t h e g r o r l n g evidence s u g g e s t i q t h a t ~ e f f o r t s t o iaprc=va c!!ild n u r r i t i o ~ ls t a r u s r y b v e e d u c a t i o n a l b n e f d t s a s v e l l 3s s u r - ~ i v a l end h e a l t h S e n e f i t s . I f t h e e c o n o a i c S e n e f i t e of ~ I Impraving s u t r i t l o a a l s t a t u s can be l e g l t i u t e l y c a l c u l a t e d to f n e l u d e t h e h i g h e r p r o d u c t i v i t y of a more educated a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n as w e l l as t h e ~ I r r e a t a e n t s a v i n g s from a b e t t e r . a w r i s h e d , l e s s diseaae-prone c h i l d ~ I p o p u l a t i o n , i t pay t u r n o u t t h a t an investment i n c h i l d n u t r i t f o n f s ode of t h e best i n v e s t a e n b a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y can aake. - f '  References B a l d e r s t o n J. B., A. 9. Yilson, 3 . 9. F r e i r c , 3. S. Siaonea. ,Wlaourishcd C h i l d r e n of t h e R u r a l Poor - The ueb of Food H e a l t h , Education, F e r t i l i t y and A q r i c u l t u r a l Production. Boston, Y a s s a c h u s e t t ~ , Auburn Hoyse P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1981. I I nutrition. . 3 c a t o n C H., I . !4. 3engoa. ? r a c t i c a l poptilalion i n d i c a t o r s of h e a l t h nnd I n C. J. Beaton and J . ? I3eno;on . (Us.) : P r e v e n t i v e Xediclne - The X a j ~ rD e f i c i e n c y S y n d r o w s , Approaches t o C o n t r o l . Geneva, Vorld H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n , 197 Seaton C. H., H. & h a s s e a t . Supplementary f e e d i q p r o g r a m t o r young I c h i l d r e n tn d e v e l o p l a g c a u n t r f e s . h e r . J . C l i n Hutr. 1982; 3 : 861-916 ( A p r i l Supplement). ! 3 i r d s a l l Y. The impact of school a v a i l n b i l i t y errd q u a l i t y on c g i l d r c n ' s s c h o o l i n g i n B r a z i l . Washingtan D. C., World l a n k ( P o p u l a t i o n a n d Huroon I Resources D t v l s i o n , b i s c u s s l o n Paper KO. 82-8, 1992). I , I a r t n k 5 . q., I. H. Khan, J. t . S p l l t c c r , S. "J. S r a e h l l n g , 1 . w.; b n c , 3. 2. ::i:hamn. X u t r l t L o n a l s t a t u s of c h i l d r e n 1n Sepal. LXO 9udl 1976; 54: 311-316. I I C e n t e r s f o r Disease C o n t r o l . Sepal l i u t r i t i o n S t a t u s Survey. qrlanta, G e o r g i a , C e n t e r s f o r D i s e a s e C o n t r o l , 1974. I Cher~li'lo~ D.~Z ~ lo-rconoa4c md deaographlc a s p e c t ?f schooil e n r o l l a e n t SOc 3rd a c ~ e n d a n c ei n r u r a l B a t s r t n a . Ynshington D.C., 'Jor?d Jan% l ( ? r ~ p u l a t l o n and i!uorn 2 e s o ~ r c c s D l v i s l o n , Discussion Paper So. 91-47, 1981)i. I Cochrane 5 . 9 . The d e t e n l n a n c s of f e r t i 1 i r : y and c h i l d s u r v i v a l 1. the S e p a l T e r a i . Vashington D.C., Uorld Sank ( P o p u l a t i o n and H w o Resources 3i- isi ion D i s c u s s i o n Paper 50. 31-35. 1981). I I Farquharson S. Y. Cr3r:h p a t t e r a s and n u t r l r i o n ln Nepali childken. 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Sepal (Populaclon end Hn bsources I)ivision S l s a s s ~ f o npager So. 52-15, 1982). ?aqueo Y . 3. i b e household p r d u c t l o n model of schoo? enrollment; n prof l c a n a l g s l s o i t h e 1978 a l c o l m u l t i p u r ~ s esurvey d a t a . Vashlngton D.C., Yorld 3ank C Popular loa and Hupan Resources D l * ~ l s l o n ,Discusston Paper No. 31-30, 5981). Popkin 3. Y., X. tit-15anez. !~utrl:lon a d school achleveaent. Soc. S c i . 5 Ye$. 1982; ?5: 53-51. Read 3 . S., .%l?utri:ion and bchavlor. Applied 4es. l a Xental R e t a r d a t i o n ( i n press). Sbrcscha 4 .. 3. 6 . 3aidpa, -4. Shrestha. The data: enviramient, iastrmcncs, c o l l c c t f o n procedures a d sa3ple c h a r a c c e r i s t f c s ( d i s c u s s f o n 2raft). Xor!d 3a3k. Sepal Dewelopeat P e r f o n a n c e and Prospect%. Washington D . C . , Corld Saak, 1979. L . Gorld Bank, Storld Devclopaent Report 1980. Sew 'fork, &ford U a f v e r s i t p P r e s s , 8980. Xorld 3ank. Yorld Developaent Report 1982. Sew York, Q%fo& U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1982.  f 0 ? € E dd B ii 8 d3 59s 3 d+ - i Q d l&t I a . 4 11 age 9' 6 g d 538 P ddd r d ? q qa 09'06 a 6 293 ddd assg: dp'9'dp a d $54 on0 4 - - * iE W a * 3 F SZb583 434 d didg'dp' o - 1 00 5 kz t n a g2Bsl33P pbdoo'++ 3 0 qgq 3 O"? t 2 A L 3 32ZBg!i3g ddddo??d 3 6 9 : ; 340 I - - 2 W =s,4=;S;IS=A- t.?c.c.55-398 -r C1 gsg . - 3 300C00940 Pi 0 dbd - dsz28P%a33 ddddddd?9'+ 3 i d qi$s ?p? 5 a L 3 *c;lt-.urr ad* z6 d a6-+so? &S~d~ja +dz gs g d 292 dd5 3 S ? dS d +E p d~ o oS o $~ $ ~ ~g jd d % %9.g ~6 O?? 2 ~ a s s s ~ g ~ ~ e5 md - ~ % Qd6&dO'ddddll;p'd d . a*b* d 5 = "$ ~ - s0 + ~ $~ ~~ g 7~ 0~ 0?0~.0%3 0 0 0 ~ -rrqgrhwy-Tr,gr es++5ga5?q?dqgQ - - 9 334 2 ?P??FF?3????000 9' 0 +o u--..-*n I X R ? G X ~ ~ P < ~ $ a ~ ~ 83: ---a*.. E ~ ~ 4 ~000~oodooooo+dd d 000 FR'O m'O. m '0 mo- EWO 900'0 m* 010'0- r '90 'C Qn)'0 bt0'0 S10'0 W O 1t0'0 CK'O fK~'0 LW'O m*o IWO- cm'0 6'lt' 0 lrfl'o m0- Itt'O S'O- RU'O ESO'O 151'0 5F110 ' 4'1'0 Lt L ' 0 ttl'O I:l*o. S'rl'fi 91I9(F mc*o 5 I YO Rrr'O  POPUUTIOH 6 H W Y RESOLRCES DIVISION DISalSSIO!? PAPERS [ A + by t h e uumber i n d i c a t e s t h e paper i r Bank-confidential o r o t h e r v i s e restricted.] Oey A. Xeesook, V e a o g r a p h i c C h a r a c t e r i r t i c r of I n d i v i d u a l r and t h e Xeasure=nt of L i f e t i m Incooe'. February 1981. Susan I?. Cochrane, T h e Economics of F e r t i l i t y v i t h Examples fram Asia'. February 1981. Rashid Faruqro, 'Social I u l r a r t r u c t u r a a d S e r v i c e s i n Zimbabve'. F e b w a r y 1981. Richard Sabot, A. B r r v , A. R u l t u o o d , J. Knight, J. A m i t a g e a d ?¶. and B o i s s i e r e , 'Cognitive S k i l l s : T h e i r D e t e r n i ~ n t s I n f l u e n c e on Earnirrgs i n Tvo Poor Urban Economier.' Februaty 1981. Dean T. J a a i s o n , Barbara S e a r l e , S t e p h e n Heyneaan, and Klaus Gal& 'Improving Elementary X a t h c a a t i c s Education i n Nicaragua: An Experiracqtal Study of t h e Tnpact of Textbooks a d Radio on Achieveuent'. n a r c h 1981. Rashid Faruqee, 'Analyziag t h e rmpact of Health S e r v i c e s : Narangval and O t h e r Experiences'. March 1981. J. B. Knight and B. 8. Sabot, 'Labor Harket D i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n a Poor Urban Econoay'. Y a r d 1981. between Demographic F a c t o r s and Ocy A. Xeesook, ' I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s Tncoae D i s t r i b u t i o n : Problems of Xeasureaent, D e s c r i p t i o n apd Interpretation'. A p r i l 1981. Susan 8 . Cochrane, Nirmla J o s h i and Kalpana Xandvani, ' F e r t i l i t y A t t i t u d e s and Behavior i n t h e Nepal Terai'. A p r i l 1981. J.B. Knigbt and Richard Sabot, 7 h e Role of t h e P i r a in'wdge D e t e r s i u a t i o n : An A f r i c a n C a s e Study'. A p r i l 1981. J.B. Knight and Xichard Sabot, 7 h e R e t u r r q t o Education: I n c r e a s i n g v i t h Experience o r Decreasing v i t h Expayion?'. Harch 1981. L J.B. Knight and Richard Sabot, 'From X i g r a m s t o P r o l e t a r i a n s : A. - Employment Experience, M o b i l i t y acd V a g e s a a Taztzsnia'. Berry and Richard Sabot, Uarch 1981. 'Uneaployaent and Economic Developcent". A p r i l 1981. 81-11 Rashid Faruqee and E t h n a Johnson, a e a l t h , N u t r i t i o n and "amily Planning: A Survey of E x p e r i o e n t s and S p e c i a l P r o j e c t s i n India'. A p r i l 1981. 81-15 Francoi s O r i v e l and Deaa T. J a n 1son, 7 h e Cos t - E f f e c t i v e n e s s of D i s t a n c e Teaching P r o j e c t s " . J u n e 1981 81-16 Richard S a b o t , X a b o r F o r c e C r a r t h , Eoployaeat and Earnings i n E s y p t r 1966-1968'. Yay 1981 81-17 K.C. Zachariah, 'Accualy of t h e F e r t i l i t y D e c l i n e i n Kerrla: S o c l a l D e v e l o p ~ c a t , Agrarian R e f o m , o r t h e Q a P i l y P l a n n i a g Pr3gr.p'. !fay 1981. 81-18 Richard Sabot, A. Berry, A. fiazlsuood, J. Knight, P. C o l l i e r , - J . Arrrftaga, !4. loissisre, ' E d u c a t i o n expansion and Labor Xadcat A d f u s t m n t i n Xrnya and Tanzania A Background Paper*. Hay 1981. 81-19 Jancy B i r d s a l l and Oey Xeesook, 'Child Schooling, Huaber of C h l l d r e n and I a t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l T r a n r d s s f o n of I n e q u a l i t y : A S l r u l a t l o a ' . H q 1981. 81-20 Hrancois O r i v e l , T h e Ia?acc of A g r i c u l t u r a l Z x t e n s i o a S e r v i c e s : A R t v i u of t h e L i terature'. J u l y 1981. Also a v a i l a b l e i n F r e n c h as 'L'inpact d e s S e r v i c e s d e V u l g a r i s a t i o n Agricole: Revue de l a Lf t terature'. 81-21 Saucy 3 i r d s a l l and 3 . Louise Pox, W h y Hales Earn Horc: Location, Job Pref e r e n c c s and J o b D i s c r i a i a a t i o a b n g B r u i l i a n Schooltw:.5ers'. Yay 1981. 81-22 A l t h e a H i l l , 7 h e 9 e s a g r a p h i c S i t u t a t i o n i n Sub-Saharan Africa: A Discuaaion Paper'. Yay 1981. 81-23* . Boissicrc R. Sabot, A. S c r r y , A. B u l c u o o d , 3. Knight, J. A n i t a g e , H 'Does t h e Zxpansioa of Education Cclapress t h e S t r u c t u r e of Wages and Reduce t h e Xncquali ty of Pay? A P r e l i o i n a r y Analysis'. J u l y 198Z- 81-24* Nancy B i r d s a l l and Cean T. J a d s o n . 'Income and O t h e r F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g F e r t i l i t y and X o r t a l i t y i n China'. October 1981. . E 81-25+ Sancy B i r d s a l l , Sulekha p a r e l a a n d K. C. Z r c h a r i a h , ' A l t e r n a t i v e P r o j e c t i o n s of t h e Chinese Population'. J u n e 1981. * 4 - 81-26* Dean T. Jamison, T.J. Ho, and F.L. Trowbridge. 'Food and t h e X u t r i t i o n a l S t a t u s of C h i l d r e n i n Chlnaw. Availabili September 3 8 1 . - * 81-27* . J a d r o n . 'Child Dean T Y a l u u t r i t i o n and School R e t a r d a t i o n i n &insg. Septeober p 8 1 . . - a 81-28 Deborah L h a w n Y a a i l l a n . 'Zanguage P o l l c i e s f o r A f r i c a n Priaary Education: Slrzrary of t h e Anglophone Research Lf t e r a t u r e . ' J u l y l98E- 81-29 Tania f h w e n i n . 7,ts I a p l i c a t i o n s Pedagogiques d e s P o l i t i q u e s d e langues dans l'enseignenent en Afrique: Une revue de la l i t t e r a t u r e Francophone'. J u n e 1981. Also a v a i l a b l e i n E n g l i s h as 'Pedagogical I s p l i c a t i o n s of Language P o l l cy i n A f r i c a n Schools: A R e v i e w o f t h e Francophone L i t e r a t u r e ' , Vicente Paqueo. A ' Rousehold Product i o n Yodel of School Z n r a l l a e n t : A P r o b i t A n a l y s i s of t h e 1978 B i c o l Yultipurpose Survey Data'. J u n e 1981 Bryan L. B a a l i e r and V i c e n t e 8. Paqueo. 'On t h e Theory and Yearurtmeatr of t h e D e t e r a i n a n t s of Y o r t a l l t j ' . J u n e 1981 aeynaldo X a r t o r e l l . 3 u t r i t i o n and R e a l t h S t a t u s I n d i c a t o r s : Sugsastiona f o r Surveys of t h e S t a n d a r d of Living i n Davelopiag Countrias'. J u n e 1981. 9 . Sabot, A. Berry, A. Razelwood, J. Knight, J. A m i t a g e , and X. Boissicre. ' C o r r e l a t e s of E d u c a t i o n a l Attai-at i n Tanzania'. J u l y 1981. Susan 8. Cochrone. s F e r t i l i t y a d Child T h e ~ t t e ; J i ~ n t of S u r v i v a l i n t h e Nepal Terai'. J u l y 1981. .k Joanne L e s l i e , B.C. Baidya, and K. Handuani. 'Prevzlence and C o r r e l a t e s of Childhood Y a l a u t r i t i o a i n t h e T e r a i aegion of Nepal". J u l y 1981. on P o p u l a t i o n H o b l l i t y i n West 3. Xiansell Prothero. ~ e r s p e c t i v e s Africa'. August 1981. T i m t h y Iiq. 'Population Crouth, I n t c r n a c l o m l Rcsource T r a n s f e r s , and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y l e r a t ion". A u g ~ 1981 t Tfaothy King. ' I d g r a t i o n f r o a 3 e v e l o p i z g Countries: Soce P h i l o s o p 3 i c a l Issues'. August 1981. W. Sabot and J. Knight. 7ihy Yages D i f f e r : Earaiags Functions i n a Poor Urban Economy'. August 1981. J o a o B a t i s r a de Araujo e O l i v e i r a and F r a n c o i s O r i v e l . 'la-Semice T e a d e r T r a i n i n g Systea: Logos I1 i n Brazil'. August 1981. R. Sabot, A. Berry, A: Sazlevood, J. Knight, J. A m i t a g e and ?B I.oissiere. 'Correlates of E d u c a t i o n a l Ateaimneat i n Kenya". August 1981. P e t e r Fallon. 'Incomes, Poverty and I n c ~ n e - D i s c r i b u t i o a i n Rural Botsuraj: A S y n t h e s i s of Evidence i3ased on t h e Rural Iacame D i s t r i h t i o n Survey.' September 1981. Barbara Vatambe and Eva K u e l l e r . A ' Povercy P r o f i l e f o r Rural Botswana.' October 1981. Eva X u e l l e r "The Value and A l l o c a t i o n of Time i n Rural Botsvana." . No-*ember 1981. 81-55 Robert E.B. Lucas. 7 h e D i s t r i b u t i o n and E f f i c i e n c y of Crop Production i a T r i b a l Areas of Botsvaaa.' Septcnber 1981. Roberc E.B. Lucarr. 7 h e D i s t r i h t i o n of Wages and faploymeat i n Rural Botrvana.' S e p r e a b e r 1981. Dov Chernichovrky. 'Socioecoaollc and Deoographic A8pects of School E n r o l l r n t and Attendance i n R u r a l Botwaw.' October 1981. Dov Cheraichovrky. 'Socioeconomic C o r r e l a t e s of F e r t i l i t y Behavior i n Rural Botswana." October 1981. S h e r r i Kossoudji and Eva H u e l l e r . T h e Econoaic and Demographic Statl~s of F a l e Headed Households i n Botswana.' October 1981. F r a n c o i s Orivel. Z. ThlCvision S c o l a i r e du SSnSgal: E v a l u a t i o n Econwique et Perspectives.' .lout 1981. (Suanary a v a i l a b l e i n E n g l i s h e) H i l l a r y P e t t a t o n , Dean T. J a a i s o n and P r a n c o i s O r i v e l . % a s s Hedia f o r Agricultural E x t e ~ ~ i o i n Halawi'. September 1981 Tho~as We Serrick. T h e Impact of Access t o Piped Water oa I n f a n t H o r t a l l t y i n Urbqn B r a z i l , 1970 t o 1976.' August 1981. 9. Krishnan ~ a z b o o dri. i ' D e t e r s i n a n t s of P e r t i l i t y i n S r i Lanka.' S e p t e o b e r 1981. 81-56 J . Krishnan Sasnboodiri. 'Age a t X a r r i a g e i n S r i Lanka.' Octobmr 1981. 81-55* 2 . Sabot, A. Berry, A. Hazlwood, J. Knight, J. Armitage, H . Boiesiere. 'The S t r u c t u r e of Wages i n Kenya and Tanzania: Uhat Role Has Pay P o l i c y Played?' October 1981. 81-56* R. S a h t , A. S e r r y , A. Razleuood, J. Knight, J . ~ x m i i h g e ,?f. B o i s s i e r e . - ; - '* - ?age Dyaaaics i n Tanzania and Kenya: P o l i c y S ~ u l a t i o n s . ' October 1981. - - 81c57 Dov Chernichovsky and Oey A. Yeesook. -Female Labor Force P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Indonesia.' October 1981. b 8 81z58 DOV Chernichovsky and Oep A. Xcerook. 'Poverty i n Indonesia: A Profile .' Novenber 1981. 81-59 Susan 8. Cochrane and Kalpana Nandvanl. T h e Determinant6 of F e r t i l i t y i n 22 V i l l a g e s of Korthern Thailand.' December 1981. 81-60 Dean T . J a n i s o n and P e t e r R. Hoock. " F a m e r Education and P a m E f f i c i e n c y i n S e p a l : The Role of Schooling, Extension S e r v i c e s , and Cognitive S k f l l s . ' Decenber 1981. 81-61 Susan 11. ~och;ane and Dean T. J a d s o n . I h a Determinant8 and Consequences of Educational Achieveoent i n the Rural Cbiang Hai Valley.' Dectaber l981. 81-62 Rashid Pamqec, Carl Taylor, B.S.S. S a m , Robert Parker and Williaa Rainlre. 'Benefit8 of Inregratlag Family Planning with Health Services: The Narangval Experieent'. December 1981. Hilary Perraton. ?Jars Yedia, Basic Education aad A g r i c u l t u r a l Extension'. J a m r a w 1982. K.C. Zachariah and S u l t k h a Pa:el. T r e n d s and D e t e r r ~ i n r n t sof I n f a n t and C h i l d Y o r t a l i t y i n Kerala'. J a n u a r y 1982. Soa P u d a s a i n i . Z d u c a t i o n and A g r i c u l t u r a l E f f i c i e n c y i n Sepal". J a n u a r y 1982. K a t h e r i n e Blair. Z c o n a i c Self-Sufficiency a d t h e E f f e c t 8 of Econooic Developocot on V i l l a g e Rousing i n Nepal'. J a n u a r y 1982. Yeena Acharya. Yioc Use Data and L i v i n g S t a a d a r d H e a s u r t a e n t Study'. Xarch 1982. Xancy B i r d s a l l . 'Child S c h o o l i n g and t h e H e a s u r t n e n t of L i v i n g S tacdards'. F e b r u a r y 1982. T e r e s a J. 90. Y e a s u r l n g H e a l t h as a Conponeat of L i v i ag Standards'. Yarch 1982. Sancy B i r d s a l l . T h e I a p a c t of S c h o o l A v a i l a b i l i t y and Q u a l i t y on Children's S c h o o l i n g i n Brazil". Harch 1982. J. Y. S u l l i v a n , S. 8. Cochrane and W. D. Kalsbeek. " Procedures f o r C o l l e c t i n g and Analyzinq Y o r t a l i t y Data i n LSXS.' A p r i l 1982. Sancy 3 i r d s a l l and J e r e Sehraan. " I n c c u t R e t u r n s t o Q u a c t i t y and Q u a l i t y of S c h o o l i n g i n Brazil: Is Q u a n t i t y Alone X i s l e a d i n g ? " J a n u a r y 1982. e !ea n Acharya and Lynn Bennett. -d'~o3en and t h e Subs'stence S e c t o r : Household Decision-Xaking i n Nepal". Econoaic ? a r r c i p a t i o n ~ n d A p r i l 1982. L Tania C a t r f h w e n i n . Z ' I a p a c t d e s Langues X a t e r n e l l e s Dans Les - I ? r o j e t s d'education R u r a l e U t i l i s a n t l e s Xass-Yedia'. A p r i l 1982 - - 4 Dean T. J a n 1s o n and X a r l a i ne Lockheed. T a r t i c i p a t i o n in S c h o o l i n g q L - L D e t e m i n a n t s and Learning Outcomesin Sepal" . (forthcoming). - B Joanne L e s l i e a n 4 P e t e r R. Uoock. 'Childhood X a l n u t r l t i o n and Schooling i n t h e T e r a i Region of Nepal'. Deceoher 1982., r .. Reynaldo > ! a r t o r e l l , Joanne L e s l i e , and P e t e r 3 . Xoock. ' C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and D e t e n i n a n t s of C h i l d N u t r i t i o n a l S t a t u s i n Sepal'. Decezlber 1982.