The poor of Bogota : who they are, what they do, and where they live

URg- eoo)G Urban and Regional Report No. 80-6 THE POOR OF BOGOTA: WHO THEY ARE, WHAT THEY DO, AND WHERE THEY LIVE* Rakesh Mohan World Bank and Nancy Hartline Northwestern University This report was prepared under the auspices of the City Study Research Project (RPO 671-47) as City Study Project Paper No. 11. The views reported here are those of the author, and they should not be interpreted as reflecting the views of the World Bank or its affiliated organizations. This report is being circulated to stimulate discussion and comment. Urban and Regional Economics Division Development Economics Department Development Policy Staff The World Bank Washington, D.C. 20433 PREFACE A rather large amount of data handling, documentation and preparation has gone into the work leading to this paper. We would like to thank Alan Carroll for the original cleaning and documentation of the 1975 and 1977 household surveys'; Bob Marshall for help in preparing some of the tables; Mattie McCarter for the laborious typing involved-in the many tables and finally, Manfred Wilhelm Wagner-Luna for most.of the tabulations,from both the surveys that went into this paper. His has been work much beyond the call of normal duty. A special word of appreciation goes to the staff of DANE for having painstankingly conducted the surveys and for making them available in almost raw form so readily. This paper is part of a program of research currently being conducted by the World Bank on Bogota and Cali, Colombia. The goal. of the program, entitled The City Study, is to increase our under- standing of the workings of five major urban sectors - housing, transport, employment location, labor markets and the public sector - in order that the impact of policies and projects can be assessed more accurately. This paper is part of the labor market and income distribution portion of the study which is coordinated by Rakesh Mohan. Other Project Papers in this series are: Rakesh Mohan "Population Income and Employment in a Developing Metropolis: A Spatial Analysis of Bogota." City Study Project Paper No. 6. Gary S. Fields "How Segmented is the Bogota Labor Market?" City Study Project Paper No. 9. ABSTRACT This paper seeks to identify the correlates of poverty by examining in detail the composition and characteristics of the poor in Bogota. This is done by analyzing two household surveys for Bogota in detail. The poor are defined as those who fall on the botton 30% of household income per capita. This cut off point is based on other' information which-indicates that this is also the proportion of malnourished in Bogota. Although it is found that larger households are more likely to be poor, small households who are poor are likely to be poorer still. Clearly, people with lower education are more likely to be poor but there are significant proportions of those with secondary and higher education who are also poor. Some life cycle effects are reflected in the fact that poverty is over-represented among children and middle-aged (35-44). Poverty is not concentrated anywhere spatially. There is considerably higher unemployment among the bottom deciles with about half of all the unemployed being in the bottom 30%. Furthermore, participation rates are extremely low for the poor giving support to the discouraged worker hypothesis. Among workers the poor are predominantly blue collar workers and they tend to work long hours. They are not in that sense underemployed. Smaller firms do appear to pay less than large firms. Spatially the poor are about equally represented in every ring but highly concentrated in the South of the city. The poor have higher rates of unemployment at all levels of education. In addition, the poor who do have higher education appear to have low participation rates as well as high unemployment. It would thus appear that the poor who attempt to "make it" have difficulty getting jobs. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. I. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Context of This Study 1 1.2 Objectives 1 1.3 The Data 3 II. WHO THEY ARE 6 2.1 Income and Family Size 7 2.2 Distribution of the Poor by Age and Education Groups 11 23 Migrant Status 14 2.4 Unemployment and Participation Rates Among the Poor 16 III. WHAT THEY DO 22 3.1 The Age and Education Levels of Poor Workers 22 3.2 The Occupation of Poor Workers and the Hours They Work 25 3.3 The Industry of Activity of Poor Workers 35 and the Hours They Work 3.4 Migrant Status 45 3.5 Size of Firm 47 IV. WHERE THEY LIVE 50 4.1 The Spatial Disaggregation of Bogota 50 4.2 The Spatial Distribution of the Poor 50 4.3 The Spatial Distribution of Poor Workers 54 � � .'� � � - 1 , �> ?� " ;� �( � �� h �: {, � �, w � �,. � ; � _ :�, _ .� , �� � r . �. х > ;г «. �ъ � � ь? че „ � ��s .t е� д@-^�. s� t» s; г� L1S � й � t,i� �� �г :,�с �tл F:Л �? i°ь �а.,� <� .. о .. . � У � � � . � List of Tables Number Title Page No. 2.1 Income and Family Size 8 2.2 Family Size and Dependency Ratio: The Poor and Rich 9 of Bogota 2.3 Sex Distribution of the Poor and Rich 10 2.4 Proportion of Bottom 30 Percent Among All Individuals 13 by Age and Education Groups 2.5 Distribution of the Poor by Length of Residence 15 2.6a Distribution of Unemployment Rates by Income Groups and Sex 17 2.6b Distribution of the Unemployed by Income Groups and Sex 17 2.7 Composition of the Unemployed 19 2.8 Distribution of Participation Rates by Income Groups 21 and Sex 3.1 The Incidence of Poverty Among Workers by Age and 23 Education Groups 3.2 The Incidence of Poverty Among Workers by Age and Education 23 Groups: The Proportion in Each Group in the Bottom 30 Percent 3.3 Distribution of Poor Workers by Occupation 26 3.4a Distribution of Hours Worked by the Poor by Occupation 28' (Males) 3.4b Distribution of Hours Worked by All Male Workers by 29 Occupation 3.5a Distribution of Hours Worked by the Poor by Occupation 31 (Females) 3.5b Distribution of Hours 'Worked by All Female Workers by 32 Occupation 3.6 Distribution of Workers Earning Less Than Minimum Wage 34 by Occupation 3.7 Distribution of the Poor by Industry of Activity 36 List of Tables .(Con't.) Number Title Page No. 3.8a Distribution of Hours Worked by the Poor 38 3.8b Distribution of Hours Worked by Male Workers by Industry 39 of Activity 3.9a Distribution of Hours Worked by the Poor by Industry of 41 Activity (Females only) 3.9b Distribution of Hours Worked by Female Workers by Industry 42 of Activity 3.10 Distribution of Workers Earing Less Than Minimum Wage 43 by Industry of Activity 3.11 Distribution of Workers Earning Less Than Minimum Wage 46 by Length of Residence 3.12 Distribution of Poor Maids by Education 46 3.13 Mean Monthly Income of Workers by Size of Firm 48 3.14 Distribution of Poor Workers in Bogota by Size of Firm 49 4.1 Distribution of the Poor by Rings 53 4.2 Distribution of the Poor by Sectors 53 4.3a Spatial Distribution of Poor Workers by Rings 55 4.3b Mean Income of Poor Workers in Bogota by Rings 55 4.4a Spatial Distribution of Poor Workers by Radial Sector 56 4.4b Mean Incomes of Poor Workers in Bogota by Sector 56 5.1 Unemployment Rates of the Poor and Rich by Education Groups 58 5.2 Participation Rates of the Poor and Rich by 58 Education Groups 5.3 Unemployment Rates of the Poor and Rich by Age Groups 60 5.4 Participation Rates of the Poor and Rich 'y Age Groups 60 5.5 Spatial Distribution of Unemployment Rates by 62 Education Groups List of Tables (Cont'd.) Number Title Pge No. 5.6 Spatial Disiribution of Unemployment Rates by Age Groups 63 5.7 Spatial Distribution of Participation Rates by Education 65 Groups 5.8 Spatial Distribution of Participation Rates by Age Groups 66 I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Context of This Study This paper forms part of a large program of research grouped under the rubric of the "City Study" of Bogota, Colombia, being conducted at the World Bank. The goal of the city study is to increase our under- standing of the workings and interactions of fi-7e major urban sectors - housing, transport, employment location, labor markets and the public sector - so that the impacts of policies and projects in urban areas can be assessed more accurately. The study emphasizes the conditions of low income households in terms of employment opportunities, housing consumption and the level of public services available to them. The program of research has three distinct phases: description, hypothesis testing and estimation of behavioral parameters and the development of policy impact models. This paper is the second in the series under the general head of labor markets and will be followed by studies somewhat more analytical in nature. 1.2 Objectives This paper seeks to identify the ccQrelates of poverty by examining in detail the composition and characteristics of the poor in Bogota. One approach towards the identification of the poor would be the estimation of income equations (or earnings functions). Subsequently, the factors leading to low incomes can be identified and the causes of poverty delineated. Here, however, the aim ie more to identify and describe and less to explain. Furthermore, the variety of experience that is found among the poor tends to get lost in. a more analytical summary approach. We attempt, in this paper, to lay out some of the more -2- interesting of the myriad ways by which the poor can be described through the use of cross tabulations. The poor are identified largely by comparing their distribution with the overall distribution. A large amount of attention has been paid in many works 1/ to the iturban informal sector". Much energy has gone into the appropriate defini- tion of this elusive concept. It has been variously taken to include all those earning less than a minimum wage; or all those working in small (or unanumerated) establishments; or all those working in serviceioccupa- tions, and so on. It seems to us that the correct objective of policy should be the identification of and removal of poverty regardless of whether people work in small or large establishments, whether they are enumerated in economic censuses or not or whether they work in manufac- turing or service occupations. Such criteria should only be important if it is found that poverty is related with the characteristics of certain employment conditions. The questions being addressed here are simply "Who are the poor? What do they do and where do they live?" Are they unemployed, underem- ployed or overworked? Are they young or old? Are they predominantly males or females? Are they concentrated in certain occupations or indus- tries of activity? Are they migrants or non-migrants? These are fairly standard traditional questions to ask in such an enquiry. The additional 1/ See Mazumdar (1977), Webb (1976), Sethuraman (1974) Schaefer (1976), Joshi and others (1976), Lubell (1974), Sethuraman (1976) among others for studies of the informal sector. -3- dimension investigated here is that of space. Are the poor concentrated in certain parts of the city? -Is there some indication that people are poor because they are spatially disadvantaged? Such are the questions and concerns addressed in this paper. In addition, data sources are examined in some detail to comment on problems associated with (i) the use of sample surveys of households for the purpose of drawing strong conclusions, and (ii) the use of a series of surveys for examining time trends. To this end, all tabulations are reported fbr both the years 1975 and 1977 from which data are examined, This serves a dual purpose: on the one hand the differences between the result of the two surveys point to the hazards of using one to reach strong conclusions; and on the other hand, the similarities between the two surveys suggest robustness of the results giving confidence in our conclusions. 1.3 The Data The City Study has assembled a data bank of existing sources of data in Bogota and Cali, Colombia in the form of copies of the original computer tapes prepared by the respective originators of the data. All have been documented in Nelson Valverde (1978). This study utilizes two of these data sets; both originally collected by DANE. I/ DANE has conducted a regular program of household surveys from 1970 with the main objective of collecting information on the labor force. Since 1975 these surveys have been quarterly and are conducted alternatingly in the four largest cities and the seven largest pities along with an 1/ DANE: Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica (National Statistical Agency of Colombia). 4- occasional national survey. This paper utilizes the Special Bogota House- hold Survey (EH8E) for 1975 and one from 1977 (EH15). The 1975 survey sampled-3,953 households and contains information on demographic and labor force characteristics. The 1977 survey was conducted in the four largest cities and sampled 6,082 households of whom 3,161 households were in Bogota. Both these surveys contain the location of residence of the respondents. The 1975 survey also has firm size information on the number of employees working in each respondents' work place. This question was not included in the 1977 sample. In carrying out these samples, DAAE classifies neighborhoods into six socioeconomic strata: 1 low-low, 2 low, 3 medium low, 4 medium, 5 medium high and 6 haigh. At the conclusion of a survey weights are assigned to each of these strata which are then applied to the members of these strata for all expansions of the sample. These expansion factors are supposed to account for 'over and under sampling that might occur over the course of the survey. These expansion factors are used to expand the 1977 sample, but none were available for the 1975 sample so that has been expanded uniformly for all households. In comparing these samples with the 1973 census it appears that the poor.areas of the city were somewhat undersampled and the rich oversampled CXohan, 1978). It also appears that the very highest incomes were either underreported or undersampled. If - the incomes reported in these samples are converted to 1973 pesos, there is little real growth in incomes, while those in the very highest categories -5- actually decline. We have therefore not deflated incomes from either sample to make them directly comparable because such a comparison may not be consistent across all income groups in the samples. All incomes are reported in current pesos and all incomes are monthly incomes. The 1977 sample had the additional problem that about 20% of working respondents did not report their incomes - a proportion that is atypical for these surveys. Thus a method was derived to impute their incomes and this is described in Appendix 1. -6- II. WHO THEY ARE Throughout this paper we have chosen to use the concept of house- hold income per capita as the relevant income measure. 1/ A better measure would be that of household income per adult equivalent where individuals of different ages receive different weights in conformity with their shares in consumption. It is difficult, however, to arrive at a satis- factory set of weights and there is no general agreement in the literature on the appropriate weights to be used. Furthermore, weights would be different for different income groups since consumption in low income groups is dominated by food consumption while it is not for higher income groups. We have therefore chosen to weigh individuals equally and have used the bottom 30% to comprisethe poor. This cut-off is arbitrary but has some basis in relation to the cost of minimum nutritional require- ments in Bogota. For 1977 Garcia (1978) calculated 475 pesos per month as the minimum cost of subsistence for a person in Bogota and that low income households spend close to 80% of their expenditures on food. Hence, 594 pesos a month per person emerges as a logical cut-off for the poor: we have used 580 pesos per month household income per capita as the cut-off and this then includes 30% of the population, that is the bottom three deciles. 1/ See Sudhir Anand (1978) and Bourguignon (1978) for elaborate justi- fication of this. -7- 2.1 Income and Family Size: Table 2.1 shows the mean household income per capita (HINCAP) by family ,size for the bottom 30% as well as for the top 70%.- It is striking that larger households have lower HINCAP than smaller households .for the top 70% but the situation is opposite for the poor. Among the poor HINCAP increases as family size increases. Columns 7 and 8 give the proportion of households in each size group who fall in the bottom 30%. For 17oth the years it is the larger households, those with over seven people, who are more likely to fall among the poor. It is somewhat surprising that among the poor themselves the larger households are somewhat better off. We suspected that this result may be caused by the inclusion of zero incomes 1/ among the poor. Thus smaller households would be more affected by this group where household income is more likely to decline to zero when one member is unemployed. We therefore repeated the Table 2.1 tabulation after excluding zero incomes from the counts. The mean incomes for the small households (1, 2, 3-4 members) increased substantially but incomes still increased with household size. Thus we must conclude that while larger households are more likely to be poor, the smaller households who are poor are likely to be poorer still. Table 2.2 is a rather revealing table showing higher dependency ratios characterizing the poor as compared with the rich. For the bottom 1/ People unemployed, for example, in the reference week, report zero incomes and these would be transitory. THE POOR IN LOOTA Table 2.1; INCOME AND FAMILY SIZE MEAN 1ICIUSEIOLD 114COMIR 11"R CAPITA (Cu. rent iasc) Percent Percent All Households in Households Household Size Households Bottom 307 Top 70 Bottom 307. in Category 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1 4299 3258 31. 4 5961 4453 28 27 3.5 5.0 2 1770 2253 33 72 2358 2956 -25 24 7.0 8.0 3 - 4 1184 1841 170 286 1489 2391 23 26 27.9 30.8 5 - 6 1008 1937 194 320 1403 2514 33 26 30.0 31.5 7 - 9 806 1263 193 326 1132 1811 35 37 23.8 20.2 10 + 639 1129 222 387 889 1438 37 29 7.7 4.5 All households 1149 1827 177 283 1570 2438 30.2 28.4 100 100 .1ource: 1975 DANE Special Ilouchold Survey for Bogota (W18E). 1977 DANE Household Survey (LI115). Wx -9- THE PCOR IN BOGOTA Table 2.2: FAMILY SIZE AND DEPENDENCY RATIO: THE POOR AND RICH OF BOGOTA (Number of People in Household/Number of Workers) Dependency Ratio Bottom 30% Too 70% All Household Size 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 ~ 1 5.6 22.5 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 2 6.4 6.1 1.6 1.5 2.0 1.9 3 - 4 3.9 4.2 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.7 5 - 6 5.0 4.8 2.8 2.7 3.3 3.0 7,8,9 5.7 5.3 3.1 2.9 3.7 3.5 10 + 5.9 4.5 3.2 2.9 3.8 3.2 Total 5.2 4.9 2.7 2.5 3.2 3.0 Sourca: 1975 DANE Special Bogota Household Survey (EH8E) 1977 DANE Household Survey (EH15) Tabla 2.3: SEX DISTRIBUTION OF Till' POOR AND RICII (ALL INDIVI-DUALS > 12 Yks.) Botton 30% Top.) 70% Total 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 Male 46.40 44.75 45.79 46.57 45.97 46.08 Femnale 53.60 55.25 54.21 53.43 54..03 53.92 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 572,432 693,944 1,454,754 1,882,676 2,027,186 2,576>620 Source: 1975 DANE Speelial Bogota lousehold Survey (Ell8E) 1977 DANE llousehold Survey (EH15) . . , � - к , �& � . У�"� 'г �Ран.''�'а й:о а.� м.,'�iад;wц��й36��л,ч.'"К. .. , j' s К� �� � ы� иЧ:б �i.N+W� Ч.iы/Wв.N�.r � ' . . . й !Р ч �.'S ьг, -1�п�$ �st'•�"'`~�а рр а�т"пв и.�дв?�vг�hYCw� Чьм'.3 , .. . . . ''Ух . � ':ГF , , ,�+w °'гл`,"<`-:. ` ,ufSxй:� -м.Т' �йА'rf�'�w r . . '{`а `и Sй Rd г'�м+ ^+'д' � `�г�i , �...�еsм 1м=А��iйt biь4.l�i.} ' . .. .. 4.. $ а1 ' +v !� м N Лм� ` 'й R а'аЕ � ю' w� гу�k w ш�d1, � и�ь -. z � у У� г'ы � iY м"� �,�"�, � �'�. 4V �`э. э°�".; w%: �+и'�` ц� й. w вrtV: k� � . . . . ' . . � � г � ' � "� Sr k'г � w г• йr n � й'] .a �ia .°Ь`t �, дК"+s ,�г. ц 4i К tп м i i�L ' г ' �. . . я го .<w :а � "GS г . ", � Ъд 4v'.! ю � °'TM+t С� � пt +гг A�Wd'+f.b'вМ� м _ 'S ж" �г-Wей "� '^. . . ._ . . , .. . ,е .м л {^а4, � R1 �F ,� f � � i - � „ .. ; r` , _ , � °r 't��;i= т � ы` w +� • � . � . � �.Р � „ � ��� `" ;� � а�: ��и�"аl� м ��*"w�'.'� З + . . � ' � � � ' л� .r .. ,�ж ..� , . . i . LT ' н�r "S д. � ., . � с .�. х� �'Й� Ч �#s.4 й �. л в i � и . ,. �, ��?'; ю�.� '�. чм�л^l+.хя�яцы �� Ю,�� � ' с. .. . _ „ м"4 °�'`�? ь С +.k�r � п f '. т 1 !I � .. .. .. ` � +� � �; . .. � ч% К го ., ы ц м 14(�ц"'d q+,+ � 1 � I . . - .. »4 � `JY..a� �дм.�р�г �чТ�Фв . .а < � . ' .. � ., а�г гjs' ь` л. ,..3 м м r .М«l � ^ v . . М . § M1 ' . . ^l�l' •�� А _, ы а4п'�Мг�rц4ь�лУ й 7 ' j д' й & е � k й l г Р. � ( � ! 12 60 to 65% of the poor are those with primary or less education only about 40 to 43% of the total population (over 12 years of age) falls in that category. Table 2.4 gives more summary measures of poverty in each age/ education group. the table gives the proportion in each group falling among the bottom 30%. Thus, if poverty was evenly distributed across all age and education groups we would expect 30% in each group to fall among the bottom 30. The poor are therefore over-represented in all those 'groups with numbers higher than 30. Several interesting results stand out from this table. ?eopla with no education are highly likely to be poor at all ages. Overall, people with primary education are also likely to be poor but with different likelihoods at d4ffererit agas. The effect of different stages in the life cycle is ver7 evident here. It appears that children under 14, people in their middle ages (35-44) and the old (63+) are more likely to be poor. We expect the old to be poor but it is surprising to see the poor over-represented among the prime earning ages of 35-44. While this effect is particularly evident for people with low education it is also evident for people with secondary education. Several factors are at work here. First, people complete their household formation in this age group so the household is at its peak size during this period, thus reducing HINCAP. This should be mitigated by higher incomes during this peak earning period. However, as shown in Mohan (1978), people with primary and no education have rather flat earnings profiles: thus the same income has to feed more mouths as family size increases until the � ,. '1'11С Р(К11i 1N BUUl1'fЛ � , Tn61c '2.4: ri;nwг,rtuи ир иоч�еим 3[г !'[:и[:егrг Лг¢,ис лl.г. lиlнvlииЛ!"s L'У AC1i ANU 1i11114:AL'1UN С1:ц111':: � Ма1си Лgи/1цlисnсlо„ Нипс: _ Ycl�uary _ :;есиида�у_. 1гlг;L�r А11 'focal " 1975 1277 1975 1')17 1975 1977 1975 1977 1ц75 1Ч7"1 1975 1ц77 , S: % % % % 0 % % У %. (in [liиичаида) �"-� ._--`. -_' 12 - 14 l 7Э 6G (fe,G 4_" й4 70 30 - - 4� ' Эу 116 132 15 - ц� 54 53 ЭЭ Э4 'l4 2Э i8 14 24 2й 3(11 4дб 25 - Эй Ьб 4G 35 33 14 15 5.Ь 11 12 • 2'! 1д'l '14l 35 - 44 77 72 й6 44 � 2д l5 Э.5 5 33 2') 14д UJ й5 - 54 5'[ 'чц 31 Э1 2Э 11 д.3 7 .'27 2l 1U4 119 55 - бб 43 40 31 26 22 17 4.S 12 '27 32 52 69 65 and uvt:r бц 61 15 37 14 11 2ц 2Э 35 �37 '2`7 йб А11 G1� 5Ч 37 _ ЭЬ 23 20 10 11 2ц 2б --�.�_ '1'и[al (1n th�usaudь) 24 35 4W йG! Э'J7 516 10у 17j 932 11д7" , l°.:и,м 1 е в Л•е 1alucatiuu tlune PrlшarY SecuuJaryi 1llgher А11 'f�[al 1h75 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1ц75 1977 1975 1977 % % % % % % % L i� % _ (Iq [lшичаПд91 i.! - 14 / LB _.. '. 52 ( �,6f _ 43� 3(1 'L9 - - .19 Эб 1'2д 15[1 t � . L�. _ _� 1S -'[4 1" Э'2 Э9 i 26 27 24 22 13 1l 24 2Э 3ц4 й')Э 25 - Эй � 4] 54 � �Эц J7� 1Ь 1б д.4 ц 27 'L5 2'г1 2ц3 Э5 - й4 . 54 47 - \[�д 39 " '22 17 б.5 12 (�З:1. _. 't_-�1 1б1 1цб i --� "_ _.." _._ 45 - 54 � г,0 4rл � 25 33 td lG 1'3 - 2Ч 37 1UU 14b I 55 - Ь4 i 31 Э2 � 2� :1'! 1Ь 26 11 29 't4 Э! 5S 7д ' ' - --•- - • / " - Ь5 лnд OvL:c i 51 5J 1 15 41 16 25 - 5Э l"�У_ 4l� t�U 55 ' 1 л11 й2 4� :74 �75 �22 Yt 11 • ` 11 2ц ^_ 1<S ---�пs----- _ __' У � _ !", а , w '1'иваl (Le tuuuчauds) ЬU dD 5!J 5`JL l�53 G16 70 9! 1[195 1Эд'1 ► 5uuicc: lу75 UAP74 Sресlдl UuguLa 11uus�huld SurvL:y (L•'t1tlL') 1ц11 !)А1д1i 1luusehulJ !iuevey :Ef1l'i�. ... , 1r ' ' ',1I ' � � . , +. 14 children grow up enough to work (usually when parents are in their 40s) and we see that older age groups are better off except the very old -who are presumably largely retired. It is wotth noting from Table 2.4 that while the poor are heavily over-represented among those with low education, as many as 20% of those with secondary education have incomes below what is probably necessary for minimum nutrition. Furthermore, 11% of even those with some higher educa- tion are afflicted with poverty. ome of these are those people who are transitorily unemployed but the majority basically do not earn enough. 2.3 lvfligrant Status: Convention wisdom has it that recent migrants are disproportionately poor, that they work in the "murky sector" while waiting for the prize jobs in the organized or formal sector: Table 2.5 presents tabulations of the poor according to their length of residence in Bogota. It shows that only 15% of the poor are those who have been in Bogota for less than five years. The group with largest representation*of the poor seems to comprise those who have been in Bogota for 11 to 20 years. The problem of poverty is clearly therefore not of migrants. It is much more true to say that poverty is widespread among all groups. If anything,' recemt migrants appear to be somewhat better at supporting themselves and only 20-25% happen to fall in the bottom 30%. The two surveys are not in full agreement though the broad patterns are clear. The 1975 survey shows that 31.3% of all migrants with less than one year of resi- dence in Bogota were poor while the 1977 survey shows only 24.06%. The pattern is reversed for females. Similarly, the 1977 survey shows a higher THE POUR IN lOW)TA Table 2.5: D[STIIlTION OF T[E POOR liY IENGI of LESIDENCE Males Females 1975 1977 1975 9777 leccenL of Percent Percent of Percent Percent of Percent Percent of Percent Category of Category of Category of Category of Ycat. II logoLa in bottom 30/ Bottom 301 in Bottom 307 BoMtoM 30 in Bottom 30/ Bottom 30% I Bottom 307 lottom 307 0 31.3 4.9 24.6 4.3 21.8 4.5 25.1 5.5 1 - 2 21.9 3.9 28.2 4.3 20.2 4.5 21.6 4.7 3 - 5 23.0 6.5 28.3 6.5 24.5 7.8 26.5 7.0 6 - 10 26.4 10.6 26.7 12.1 27.4 11.0 28.9 12.9 11 - 20 32.0 47.4 28.4 45.6 33.2 48.3 29.5 40.6 20 + 26.5 26.8 22.5 27.2 24:8 24.0 26.7 29.2 Totl 28.5 100 26.2 100 28.0 100 27.6 100 No. of People 266 311 307 33 (in LhousIands) 1/ Only peop"e-over 12 years of age are included in these tabulations. !ource: 1975 1)ANE Special BoguLd llouselhold Survey (Ll8L) 1977 DAIIH Household Survey (L1115) In - 16 - proportion of the poor with 1 to 5 years of residence. Are these sa=pling artifacts or reflections of reality? We cannot be sure and these data indicate the unrealiability of drawing strong conclusions from sample surveys without corroboration from other sources. These results are in agreement with Helena Jaramilla's (1978) careful study of the characteristics of migrants drawn from a 1973 census sample for the whole country. She concluded that migrants earn more than non-migrants at all education and age levels; that migrants of long standing earn more than non-migrants; that migrants born in large cities earn more than natives. Mohan (1978) also showed that migrants are also spatially distributed around the city fairly uniformly, as are recent migrants. We can thus not attribute the existence of poverty in the city to the arrival of masses of unskilled migrants in the city who cannot find jobs or are underemployed while waiting for better paying'jobs to appear. Overall, migrants, recent or of long standing, are not very different from natives and, if anything, are better off. This is worth emphasizing since poverty is often laid to the arrival of poor migrants much like cheap imports are often blamed for the existence of unemployment rather than low productivity. 2.4 Unemployment and Participation Rates Among the Poor Unemployment and participation rates will be examined in greater detail in a later section of the paper. Here we merely look at the broad picture of unemployment and participation rates by income groups. Unem- ployment is defined as open unemployment and includes only those who said that they were seeking work in the reference week of each survey. ( } 1'11L•' YOU1t 1N BU(Yl'РА '1'иЬ1г: 'L.Ьы: U1S'1'ltC0l1'P10N (1l•' (1NliM1'1дУЛцiN'1' 1tM1'1'L5 цУ , � r. � - 1.NU1NL' i:КОцРS лN0 SEX � LLLuC L•'Ua'а:С - Sеи / цссllг 1 L Э 4 5 6 7 Н 9 1U Overall (in сцоииш�дs) 1у75 3U.8 11.4 7.Э д.7 8.0 5.2 3.8 2.5 'L.6 0.4 б.у 624 Ме1е 1у�7 30.2 12.2 6,2 6.5 6.6 5.5 Э.9 4.4 2.7 0,5 Ь.2 7Н'L i975 2'!.2 12,1 12.% 9.6 7.9 7.8 6.1 3.7 1.9 1.1 6_4 Э31 Fиги®1 в 1'!77 16.Э 11.1 Ч.k :г.5 7.7 6.4 5.ri 4.2 1.7 � 2.1 ' S.U йб9 1915 Э0.4 11.6 д.б 9.0 д.0 6.1 4.6 Э.О 'l.3 0.8 G.7 9LU '1'ucnl 1977 24.Н 11.9 7,2 7.4 7.0 5.8 4.6 4.3 2.Э 1.2 6.1 1251 Source: 1975 UANE Sрасlиl 1logotn 1lдиsецоlд Survey (Е![цЕ). 1177 UANE 1lиичсЬоlд 5urvey (G1115). _ . .l'!цi 1'tH/lt '!N ц0(.и'fA '1'лL1с 2.бц: ll[S'1'1t1цц'1'10И (1i� 't111; UNLh1Ni.0YEU цУ 1NC(1Mti Сц0Иl' AtiO SEX '1'и [и 1 ,:1ех / Ucc11n 1 2 Э 4 5 6 7 8 � 10 Overnll UnewuluyeJ 1975 23.д 15.5 11.'1 14.2 12.4 д.1 б.б Э.7 4.0 0.6 100 4281G !tы fl r 1977 23.2 l5_0 9.0 10.) 10_3 10.2 7.1 д.1 5.U 1.5 100 49Э5Э l97S 15.0 11.В 1Э.0• 12.4 11.2 12.4 1U,6 д,1 4.3 3,1 10U 2141'2 1•`r�nu 1 е � 1977 1s.1 1Q.o 11.о 10_7 11_1 10.5 11.о 9:7 5.1 б.0 100 275l15 ( _ • ьJ 1975 zл.z 14.з 11.д 1э.6 12.о �.5 7.9 5.2 t 4.1 ►.4 1,а�71 � •г'иси( ! 1977 zn.г ьз.2 9.7 1о_7 1о.б 1о.Э e.s 8.7 �_д �.1 1и0 7ьvзд Suurcc: 1Ч75 11MJE 51�ес1и1 циьиLа ilои5еЬдlд Survey (E11dL•'), !`JП UAWli Uousehold :iurvey (Ll115). ... � г г , , � �3ь1 r .. , ' , 1 13 Table 2.6a gives the decile specific unemployment rates for both males and females in 1975' and 1977. The deciles are ranked according to HINZW . Not surprisingly, there are more unemployed among the bottom five declines. As.many as 30% of all people in the bottom decile are unemployed and 11-12% in the second dacile. Unemployment rates decline as income increases quite regularly for both miales and females. The two surveys are largelyin agreement except for the bottom decile for women. Table 2.6b gives the distribution bf the unemployed by deciles. Almost 50% of all males unemployed fall in the bottom 30%. The women unemployed are somewhat more evenly distributed and only about 35 to 40% fall among the poor. We are left with the question: "Are people unemployed because ,they are poor or are they poor because they are unemployed?" It will be addressed partially in a later section by looking at a spatial and age- education disaggregation of unemployment rates but here we disaggregate the unemployed into primary and secondary workers in Table Z..7. If the large proportion of the unemployed who fall in the bottom 30% are poor because they are unemployed we would expect the majority of them to be primary workers (heads of households). Table 2.7 shows, however, that more than half of them are,secondary,wor cers. Indeed, the large majority of primary workers who are unemployed do fall in the bottom 30%. Even if we regard all of them as being transitorily unamployed and not "normally" belonging to the bottom 30% we are still left with rates of unemployment among the bottom 30% which would be substantially higher than in higher deciles. We may therefore conclude that at least some of the unemploy- ment among the poor is because they are poor. TilE POOt IN 110O0TA Table 2.7: COMPOSTTION OF TRE INEMPLOYED Male Femnale Bottomli 30% Top 70% Total Bottom 30% Top 70% Total No. 1 No. , % No. 7. No. 7 No. °. No. °% Primary 1975 10108 47 2926 14 13034 31 665 8 399 3 1064 5 Workers 1977 8264 36 2033 8 10297 21 1452 15 840 5 2292 8 Secondary 1975 11571 53 18221 86 29792 69 7448 92 12901 97 20349 95 Wlorkers 1977 15009 64 24047 92 39056 79 8487 85 16806 95 25293 92 Total 1975 21679 100- 21147 100 42826 100 8113 100 13300 100 21413 100 1977 23273 100 26080 100 49353 100 9939 100 17,646 100 27585 100 ||- - 20 - If we now look at participation rates in Table 2.8 the picture becomes clearer. Not only do the poor have higher unemployment rates they also have substantially lower participation rates. Thus the bottom deciles have a substantial proportion of people who are not working in one way or ,another. The rates of participation rise for the men until the sixth decile and then flatten out. Female participation rates rise regularly until the last decile. Female participation is therefore directly related to income. The very low participation rates in the bottom decile indicate a certain number of discouraged workers and, per- haps, a certain number old, infirm or incapacitated who cannot work and are therefore poor. We thus emerge with a composite picture. In the bottom decile, that is among the very poorest, only about 40 to 50% of males over 12 years participate in the labor force and only 15% of the women as compared with the overall participation rate of about 70% of the men and about 30% of the women. Of those who do participate almost 30% are out of work in the bottom decile. Consequently, only about 35% of all men over 12 years in-the bottom decile have jobs and only about 8 to 10% of the women. Of the remainder some must be discouraged workers and others incapacitated by age, sickness or injury. Employment generation is therefore only partly the answer. Many of the poor are probably unemployable and their poverty must be attacked directly. TIE POOR IN UOMTA Table 2.8; DISTRiBUTNION F PAwTcIPAION itATES" BY INCOME CItOUPS AND SEX Sex / Decile 1 2 3 4 5 b 7 8 9 10 Overall 1975 49 59 66 66 66 70 73 68 72 77 67 Male 1977 37 60 64 69 66 71 71 72 70 71 66 , 1975 11 19 20 24 27 31 33 41 43 54 31 Femalec 1977 17 21 25 24 29 34 37 42 50 50 34 1975 26 39 43 45 47 52 si 55 59 60 49 Tøtal- 1977 26 39 43 45 47 52 53 55 59 60 49 Source: 1975 DANE Specl Bogota liouåehold Survey (E1188). 1977 DANE loucihold Survey (EIIIS). 1/ Thse participation rates are iin relation to all individuals over 12 years in age. - 22 - 11. WHAT THEY DO This section attempts to identify the labor force characteristics of the poor, that is, of those who work among the poor. Workers here are defined as all those who say their primary activity is work and all others (students, for example) who work more than 15 hours a week. Once again, the poor are those whose household income per capita (HINCAP) fall.s among the bottom 30% regardless of their.own wages. 3.1 The Age and Education Leve-Ls of Poor Workers Appendix Table A.3 gives the distribution of poor workers by age and education groups, and Table A.4 gives a similar distribution for all workers. To find out which groups are atypically poor we need to compare the two distributions. This is done in Table 3.1. This table gives an index of concentration of poverty by age and education groups. If poverty was evenly distributed among all age groups within education levels all the indices would be 100. The index of concentration reported is: w i - Proportion of Education Groups.i in Age Grout J in bottom 30% Proportion of Education Group i in Age Group j among all workers Thus, for example, if among the bottom 30%, of those male workers who have primary education 16.7% fall in the age group 15-24*and the comparable proportion for all workers is 20.0%, the index of concentration is 84%. The index gives an idea of how likely it is to find the poor in an age group within a given education level. .N~ ~ ~I AGEl til ELJCKHNtMIIIS Table 3.1: TIE N IDENCE (OF V'VEIMY AMt1NC W.StKEIIS iY ACE ANIO EMUCAT3tN BYitPS: THSE 5INDEX 01F CONCEtIitIA1I0N Nonu l'rimar Secondary liigher All Nnti _PCIU.ary Sdcondary Ilfiighir All 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 2 14 - .) 75 78 150 - - - 100 150 - 0 102 53 300 275 - - 120 70 15 - 24 2 136 84 82 02 119 1 1 87 90 54 46 70 75 97 81 40 79 25 - 34 106 91 104 107 73 95 89 104 bli 95 10 117 129 111 71 99 56 42 99 95 35 - 44 33 140 132 139 117 19 1 98 '131 13DB 150 140 150 145 133 f10 134 11 Q4 139) 45-4549 94i 81 911 140 14 1340 45 - 54 96 94 82 85 125 113 145 72 99 93 ti0 122 55 115 177 45 - - 14 540 55 - 64 55 bl 7a 49 113 38 113 73 89 58 153 53 100 121 80 td - - 120 110 65- 124 102 1 45 15 54 - - 105 76 144 67 56 0 240 233- - 113 66 S.urce: TalAm A.3 and A.4 kl,ke: Isdex of conhcentrationl WIj Prolportion f Educatlon Groupi 1 in AMe Grou I n oL Lo 3 Proportion of Education Group 1. In Aga Croup j In all vorkert IlE P00lt1 k IN IOCOTA T.ble 3.2: TH11E ieCI)ENtcE OF 1OVER1TY AbMONG U0UIKERS BY ACE AfD EOUCATION GROUIPS: TIiE 101,RTION IN EAL CIUMP IN TlIE lR0T1,Om 30 PEICENT tiFeale N..4. primoary secouddu mir Total fiDne Priary Secondary 11liper TLal 19 n1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 12 -14 0 100 23 23 23 - - - 23 29 - - 18 11l 33 30 - - 17 11 15 - 24 46 61 211 25 16 14 5.3 5.0 20 58 10 13 13 15 10 10 5.8 11 11 13 25 -34 60 46 32 11 Il 4.0 3.7 21 19 19 34 23 22 7.6 11 1.9 3.0 14 15 35 44 75 10 44 42 111 13 3.7 3.5 (31 27) 27 41 27 29 14 12 4.4 ä.5 21 23 45-54 54 41 2y 26 19 10 6.6 2.6 23 1a 14 35 10 23 19 16 - - 12 23 55 - 64 31 31 26 15 17 5 5.1 1.9 21 11 2Y 15 1 24 11.3 10 - - l7 18 65 1 70 5") 24 14 13 7 - - 24 5.5 25 19 10 - 25 26 - - 15 1t 56 50 33 30 15 12 4.5 3.6 23 20 29 18 20 11 t 3.3 7.2 14 å6 cc: Tah1u...larl.IJnum 19)15 IANi'l SpeciaL hoota 1outehold Survy (EUE) M9i DAI: llo-useod Surv.y (ELLI5) We have circled the atypically high indices of concentration in Table 3.1. Only those groups have been circled where the two surveys are in agreement. Among males it is interesting to note that the distribution of poor workers is not strikingly different from that of all workers except that they are over-represented in the 35-44 age group. Note that workers over 65 are only over-represented among those with no education. There are very few among males 12 to 14 years old who are workers and the poor are not over-represented in this group.- although owing to the small sample at this level of aggregation the two samples are not in agreement. It is surprising that the poor are not clearly over-represented in this group since one would have expected only the very poor to go out to work at much earlier ages. It indicates that those who work clearly contribute to household income and thus, perhaps, help .in lifting the household out of poverty. Indeed, the age group 35-44 is atypically poor probably because their children are foregoing current income in order to go to school. It 'may be recalled from Section 2.2 that of all children aged 12 to 14 almost 40% were poor. These data point to the real economic hardship undergone by the poor in educating their children even if the education were free. Among females, the story is similar and the age group 35-44 is again atypically poor. In addition, the poor among those with primary or less education also predominate in the lower age group of 25-34; old women (over 65) with secondary education who have to work are also poor. T 7 as at*!; s name ata. I \V ~ ,- . . e W*44'agry r4hO fall in 444 . tt o ag 4h $bottomØ< 30, Thus e t f vomen - 2 - 4. :nt household a e a n a tn;m tz who ork people aninwould be to .ave thdouble . ord pressed as well ?tr Overty is :p;ver workers are nd f all workers by e--ecolla r occupa- c- re bXm collar workers ь �. . •гп1: r�ии! зг1 иисх►•►•л •г�1,1.: :1__;-_�: u►srulua►►uг► ur t'иик_ыиln<a;us па ис�:ие'л•r►ur► !__ llold'иш 3д"/.__ _ 11va,'ыll 1'uvг:cLy 1идиУ_ (lссиоиСl�,n (11.и Сиде) ALг.1s: цетnlе FIL1� Female Malt Fииаlв - Э975 1ч77 1975 1977 1975 1ч7� 1975 1ч77 19)У 1977 W1�1ic Culittr 2и�'l 26.1 Э4.3 'tа.и 4't.8 44�,__;__$ 43.5 42.5 5И Ь r,-г,r�;,�1,,,,�1 а,�а 'с��ь„►�а► З.:в 1.а s.>i 2.1 1►.s 11.и 1а.в ч.о 14 г:s (1-19) АJш1иlыСе'цLlvc/llu,tages 1.9 и.б и.3 - 3.6 4.2 и.б 0.) 1k %1 (24-29) la�rlг� nud '1•урlи�и 5.7 б.и /.� ч.о 11.3 11.И 1а.1 •18.6 . S7 4и ' с�о-зч) ._ 5и➢си Маыаgец' ыеьд Рв'�►�ыlиi�ь 11.и 1.Э 14.1 7.и ч.3 7.6 Ь.б 5.2 '16 l5U (��и-!е1) иtЬеь Su1ca (4'2-49) 5.5 И.7 7.2 9.� 7.1 9.о 6.4 ч.и ИU 11U (t1,,;a_Си1 i_ ь�с 71.а 74.и G6_1 71,�2 57��3 ti5.5 56_;,4 5�5 1�;j i24 5crvlь:u 61uь;tur (и��С ыwlд) ч_2 1о.ч 25.3 2a.U %.Ь a.U 1'2.д 17.2 • �1G-- _- !Ь!} (5и-з3; 55•-5ч) � rlulгiy (J4D и.7 - 17.5 22.1� и.5 о.!_ 27.6 24.4 - � ч's AgelculLUra1 U�rkcc'и 'L.7 1.6 0.6 и.Ь •l.1 1.6 и.3 O.S 10и 12и (гсо-•б�) Yrщluctlon ьupervlsucn Ut6 0.6 U.9 - О.б (!.� О.'! 0.3 Ь) - ( ! о) -------- ,'�•.,аг,��1�,� 1►�,�►г�,у z7.� 34.и гn.о 1ч.г 27.и 2ь.4 �s.з 15.1 12г 127� (/l•'Иlь, ЧЬ-')!) �'- Cuun�nicLlии 6Jиьlгсаи lи.и 1_3.'l 1.2 U.3 1u.U и.3 и.2 d).U4 157 - (ч�) - •ггL„�,,�,ге и��•1г�гь 1о.7 11.ч - - а.и 7.6 - - 15и - (')►1) . 1►11,�г 2.4 1.s и.б о.:э ►.4 и.б - - t5u - ( ч'� ) _1 •г,,, � 1 ш�► 1ии 1ии 1ио iuu > ио tou вии '1'utиl 1Vuwbua t,1 Wu,-kc:rы ' (11ы �и:;n,г�1у) 1•S3 1��J 43 72 572 726 3l1 442 , I 1'i�pu�'е 1ии иС еьВ! Чоn�lсе:rкг 1и "13.2 ]1.7 lЗ.и 16.3 i 1fu l l иие 311% � 1V ' � � 1 J/11�16.1:: ►'IJ) 1)ЛiII: J►1ul:it.l 11U�Jttl IItJ�1:iCI1U1J Чг1а•VUy (L•11и1:) 1Иl7 11А1'11i lluuacliuld :iцiv�y (L•'1115) 11�,ic: 1'иv��гу 1��дск 1•,nl�uicl.,u uk бŭrlwь-s fn 11uClAm 3U% 1и Uccul,acluu 1 --- wi - . . _- - --- -------___-.._-_�__�.`-- х 1uU 1'i.,pur�iuu и1' и1t 11ur1c�i� l1t OCCU1,dl1uU i ` ... . , 1 , • ь �• 27 and about 65 to 70% of all female workers. In the overall distribution only about 55 to 57% of both male and female workers fall in that category. Table 3.3 also gives a poverty index for occupations (as defined in the table and similar to other poverty indices in this paper). We have circled the occupations which have an over-represention of poor workers. These are service workers and production workers of both sexes (not including maids), male construction and transport workers and female sales workers. These categories cover about 65% of the poor male workers and M% of the poor female workers. Note that maids who comprise about 20% of the poor female workers are not particularly poor. They are relatively better off than their counterpart who work in service and manufacturing jobs. The two surveys are in broad agreement in these distributions except that there seems to be a problem between the classi- fication of sales manager and other sales categories. Mary more sales people seem to have been classified as sales managers or proprietors in 1975. Do poor workers work long hours or are they short of work? To answer this question we tabulate the distribution of hours worked in each occupation by the poor and by all workers and compate the two distri- butions. Table 3.4a reports the distribution of hours worked by occupa- tion for poor male workers while Table 3.4b gives the same distribution for all male workers. In Table 3.4a we have circled the cells where a larger proportion of the poor are found in the hours worked category as compared with the distribution for all workers. It is striking that � R '1'11G 1YR1N 1и u1H71'1'А У'и1.1g 7.4иа и65'1'111и1П'1и_,_и U►� IY1111f:i ииЧИЕ1, UY '171Н.1'lМ1И 1ЧР1'ГиН 91Г иУ uCL111'А'1'luil (им.ес ыи1.и) 1'и[ L'ыCCS6l• U- i4 ОЪ - 2! Э(i - 1'1 4U_,1lЧ__ SU - 5ц 4и - 4'1 1и - 1ч A1j.^___ и Cr1LK11!'У._ и.�ы,�1�„1(1,,,�,� и.,�и�а еч�s вчi� ёчаs �тi iч�s е� 3ч7s 19а� o�as i9ia iчas lчii йэs 1чл i?is ►vn �i5 }И�7 4!L11к..!�_11цt Уrиtи�иlл„л1 •пs '1'лсЬиl...В а.9 д �16.tl _`1%J а.ч 11.а б1.д 4и.4 u.n 1.l 5.ч ц 3.ч� и • tuu 1ии Э.4 2.и AJwle.luuotlvcJtlлunцuь' U и U U 5J U ?ч.0 7�� ].7 a4.1 5.а U 5.3 U 1UU 1UU ►.ч .о сlи.ые ,,,,,1 •rrнw(tl n и э.9 2.2 1.1 а.ь ач.� аь.1 д.ь ь_1 ]_а у.э 1.1 2.е ►си 1w s.d ь.а 5o1en rmn.grr ена l'.лнгlиwr д1 а.и 4.4 U 4.4 1.ц 41.ь :fu.L 11.] ч.1 14.1 1'!.1 27�Ч _` �а.Э 1иц !ци t1.9 /.4 и,1,и, sаlсн и а1 's.o л.и Y.tl 1и,3 ]5.4 Эз.S д.ч 1ч.2 l4.Э 1ь.б l4.] 14.I tuu бии ].ь ч.а U_ 1 и.: l'..11 л, � �_ � .,�,v1�u u.,rьCr (.�С mslа> и и Э.t а.ч а.а и на.з 45.1 и.] u.s ►Ь_и а.а 2и.z з►.n) !ии 1ии у_► 1и.и _ �f гиь�� и U U и 51.6 ц 2tl.6 U ц и U и 14.J и 1W 1цц .1 U ли,lн.,еь.иаl. uuakrcы и ц и и l2.и аь.з ьи.и sn.u ►а_и о д.и ьо.д з.и и ►ии 1ии a.s ►_1 -----�_ н.ил..и,w„ s„нu:�luusm и и� ц и и и w.u гs.и и и (зз.з ts.u 1о.т и 1ии ►ии .ь .ь 1•а,..1.,,.�1ш, ы.иkееи .а ц 4.U Э.4 й.7 �.tl 65.ч L�.4 1UJ l2.] tl.a IU.L ] tl_ _ б.з 1uU ►ии у1.1 �г..] �^�"�_..._ ---- (.,иь1,и..г1�п Чи�И�гл U и 2.а 5.4 4.ч 2.2 L].U 51.4 1l.ч 1J.5 ).! 11.U 4.ч 4.� 1ии 1ци tu.4 tl.1 'nвлюр.,�t l1oC►.a,r 2.ч ц t.ч 4.2 2.ч L.3 г.ч.5 JtlJ 1а_А l].] 1]�.2 `- 6'4,.0 ----15.г '!1_U iuu !UU lu.i 11.3 . �._........ _ .............�_�...._ _ ,� идi,<ь U U 4,а U tl.3 U бо.а иИ.ч tl.1 1U.2 1а.5 U и Ц WU lUU 'L.4 1_7 'r�г.е .ь .2 �.г ].s 4.6 з.и Sч.а ]з.ч ta.] и.з ---1и.и��►►.] tи.ь 12_� ----wu----1uu -----tuu!_ ьии . и.и�.1.и. ..е 1ы.► ы у 1Ии 21з 425е ]!оэ ь71tl 7104 7uaso а11ич и2ч] 1ч22л tззии 16ьа1 ►нЯVи 1ы2зч 1J2au► 1442/7 �__ Ь'J1] идU1f Sрьс!-w1 Uugulв 1lauaulwW :'su:vy (k11dE). . iчЭ1 uA,�G 1W.,seL..la suC�uy (k111]). . . ! s 1J 1:Л , l • , � I f � 1 '171t (циК 1N 1ц1[%гГл т.ыС Э.йл: uis•rиlципии ut: lытиs моиl;ыи uv л1.� гиlе ыинкr:кs uv nсс2lглrlим 1'с•Сеигвь� и- 14 15 - 2ч JO - Эч 40 - йч 5U - 5ч 6U - Ьч /о - чи _ л11 1п cytevo°у_ Urc�r1w111�,urs и_1 U,��1k lч75 --'147) 1ч75 1971 1975 1977 ]Ч7S 1977 U75 1977 1Ч75 1977 1975 19Л 1975 1977 1975 1977 ИJае 1:..11лг • Ргаlcnaloual виJ 2'ecLulси! !.U ,2 7.А 6.4 6.Э 1.0 64.3 65А ч.'! 9,6 д.1 5.5 J.4 4,6 100 1и0 11,5 12.U AJm1u1u(rл[2ve/lWUвger V 0 U "L,tl 1.3 ,tl 7�.6 64.0 14.д 1Ь.'L b.S 11.3 7.Ч 4,Ч 1W 1ии Э_6 4_Ь :a sвkn .nJ 'ryplьгы 0 0 7,5 L.д 2.0 2.и ь0.0 tl1.Y tl."t д.0 4.9 3.2 1.4 2.3 ' 1UU IUO 11.5 U,ь 5.1еь RWu+gec rиJ Pruprlutoc .Э .4 Э,Ь 2.Э >.4 6,U й7.7 ЭЧ.1 15.5 1b.5 1U.6 11,7 1b.U 16.U 100 WU 9,U "1.7 u.b.r 5ь1аь � 1,� и Э_Э й.7 4,Э 6,5 61.! SЭ.Ч 11,1 16.7 10_1 12.4 О.и 5,ч 10и 100 7_! ь.ь ь1и,ч (:и11ь1 5и уlса ЧигkеГ (1ш[ мtJ) .Э и _ 1.5 3.l 2.5 2.Ч 51.7 40.5 lb_ч :Ь_4 и,б л,6 1и,5 ЭU.й 10U 1и0 7,л 7,ч rмlds и U >_U 0 20,0 25.7 ЭО.О 14.Э 2U.t, U ц.U и 10.U U !OU !UU .5 .1 лgг1си11ш ь1 Uлr4crn и U• >.б 5.7 Ч_0 16.1 4д.3 йч.1 Уи.2 11.2 ч_ц 1и.7 ).Ч 7.2 l0U 10U 2.1 (.'l 1'1иПип 1ип Sи1,ш vlaura и и о и 0 3.г, 51.9 7ь.5 1и.> ч.и 22.'[ ч.4 7.а и tuu , 1и0 .б 1.и еь.lJисциц иов{.есь ,Т ,2 У,7 Э.1 9.5 Э.9 71.u tiЧ.! 1U.5 10.Э 7,0 и.5 4.) >.1 tUU l0u 27_1 2и.4 с„иьгги�сlол Чи�Аtгь и l.1 l.u Э.1 Э.4 4.2 6f.> >д_l 15.! t7 J 7.ь 12.6 4.4 Э.д 1и6 luu 10.2 u.l '1•cвnnlwrr Чогри,ь ,'1 0 1,3 3.1 Э.д b,U 5Э.4 4и_7 14.! 15,5 11.4 14.9 l1.и t•ч.0 l110 100 7_у 7,6. a.Lut , 0 U !.7 0 tl.3 0 72.') tl4.J 11.Ч S.4 5_1 10.4 0 д 1UU 10и 1,4 ,5 --- -- - _- - .�___..._._�_.._.__. i '1L1л1 .> .2 Э,1 1.4 й.0 4.и Ь4.Ь 4U,'1 1'L.4 12,и и,1 9_4 7,{ д.б 10U 100 Wu 1uU 1 гLи•,ьи1ь иС ЧurF�1n 2ч2ь t473 17>56 25077 z27S�:J 350v5 36y341 4470ЭЭ 7и7iь чэчии 46417 ьичч0 й2гч4 л2ь4ч >7tu�3 7Э4,05 ..�,,,,�.. 197> 11Аиг: 5р�ес1.1 uugurn и•.инrьиlа survгy (tLдE? " '�--- -- --'--- ' 1J77 11A11L' 1lпиьеl,лlд su,vcy (1.111]) . , ( • N . 1 � .. � .f ' { ` � . ( 1 j 1�1 1 � �. 30 the poor are over-represented among workers who work long hours. About 20% of poor male workers work-over 60 hours a week while only 13% of all male workers work such hours. Sales workars, construction workers and transport workers who are poor appear to work particularly long hours. Among the poor, it is only professional and technical workers who .work relatively short hours. Only about 8% of the poor work less than 40 hours and about 35 to 60% work the "normal" 40 to 48-hour week. Note also that sales and transport workers work the longest hours in general. The'story is somewhat di ,ferent for female workers. They appear to be over-represented among those working shorter hours. Table 3.3a gives the distribution for the female poor and Table 3.3b for all females. Once again it is the sales workers who workvery long hours along with the maids. It would seem therefore that, perhaps, there are many poor women working part-time who would like more work but cannot get any or cannot work longer hours because of responsibilities at home. The picture we emerge with is therefore a composite one. It appears that the poor men are largely not lacking for work: there is little overt or open underemployment. Indeed, if anything, the poor are overworked in low productivity occupations. The sales workers are perhaps actua" y underemployed, that is, idle for a substantial part of their working hours. But they comprise only about 25% of all poor workers. I/ 5ee Appendix Tables A.3 and A.6 for Distribution of Hours Worked bv Occupation (where columns seem to be a hundred) for poor male and female workers. •гое г1Киь 1и циьх,rn '1'.L1c ].5.: o1s"гиltlигl0ю иР lдтих 17uuKLU UY Т11С У�К1ц iиrrluq ]ь2 4У иССи1'АТ1ии ' , (ь�ы:нАl.ts ииl.х) 1�еьсаы ь.цс U- 14 15 - 2у ]о -]Ч 4ц - 4Ч 5U - 5у бц - 6Ч ]0 - 9tl A1l Lь С.�сеигу u�nn,ailuu/илига tiuьked 1Ч75 1977 1975 ]977 l9Т5 1977 1975 1777 19)5 ]971 l975 1977 1l75 . 19)] , 1975 197Т •1975 1у'17 iц�lie Г (1аг l'го1`глаАиn.l.ид'l'асlьиlсаl U о 5-у "LЧ,ц 17,7 42.1 )4.5 2ц.1 U и 0 0 (1 U 1цц 1uU 5.2 2.1 личиььlнr.сwс/гтиацаг и и о и и и wu.u и о о и и и и tuo tou .э - Clciky апJ 'ryрlлса U ].] 4.ц U 4.и о (tU.U ц9,8 и 6,9 и U 12.0 0 l11о lUU ),7 у,9 "" -'� r �.lиа llльиgаг аьw Nropd etur и и 9,! !!.2 !!.4 7.о '[Т,] ]].! 1l.4 11..z 1ц.2 э.7 2.Т i4.U lи,о !ио t3.5 7.ц дц�сг snlw U о П tl,Ч �3 �•2uf� So.U 2у.7 20.ц 2].5 tl.9 2,U l2.i 1й.7 !цо Wц 7,] у,у hlue Ш11аr 3.:.vtee Ч...kег (иы� vюlд) 1.z ],! t6,Ч_ Iу. fU.ц _ 17.4 4ц.2 ] L у ц.а 1й.4 б.и 7,6 о_4 6_2 !иа !ии '2�_ч 2ы.о l1аWл 0 U ц.А ^ 1.] 15.tl U 31.6 1ц.] 17.5 ц.у lй.U 4S.) 1'l.] 22_Ч 1цU 1uU 11.й 22_ц луьlсиtььы�.! Nwketa D U и U U U lOU.O U и о U 5U.7 О ЧЧ.J 1UU lW .L ,е PьuJvcl(ыы 5ираьvlаога U J! 0 0 и U ОЬ.) L ]Э.] о и U и U 1UU 1ио ,у и .-�---- PruJucituu Чuьkein 1-5 U 15.4 l'!.� у-2 Ч.4 35_й 6].4 у.2 4.7 э.1 7.6 6_2 !.4 1UU 1uU l9.9 lу.2 L'uualьuctlun Чoakcrn U и 75.и U 25.U U U 1oU_U U U U ц U U 1UU 1ии !,2 -] s•.иьт • и U U U U и 5U,0 lUU,o Su.U U U U и U 1ци 1ии .6 .] '!'иьn! .L1 1,2 11.b 1и.7 1t,o ш,! йц.и 4и_1 1и.7 lо,ц 1.7 и.57 lо.й 1t.6 1ии 1ии 1ии 1ои Иитl.иь uf Чльkига 2L6 tl4U 5ц�4 7Ы ] 47ptl 73ц4 2цtlц! 2UЧlK 46i5 ])tlU ]725 l12цэ 452't tlэЧS й74Ч1 72,111 -- -- 1Ч75 иане s1�c�l.1 пиgаьа а�ы.сьи w Sыrv.:x (еиие) л-+-- 1у)1 1Иг{1: Uogыc. 11auaJwld Survex (ku15) � 1 • � W i N . � .. , , � . . � � �+��' . , (• '11 � 18�.lр. W^'uLR �`D 4l-.�34• lili�lРlац�iц 11 .f�P?. '+}^'ьi'Е� У1.У � 1л1 , 1 а s 2С ��!LT!<� • i1.u.ru_l1и.IlЧи.в и[ М...л ё1 _ 1/у- 1) -!1 5U - 1Ч 4U - 4Ч �U -!'J 1.ц - 4'�` )ц - Чр �У1 �i qч� �ч)S '� еч�7 4чrs ' )vit �lч�5 у� lv�i ---iч�i 1яtS - �р/в '�у�_5 - �чi� wia ��iчiэ� �ч�s �ч)) 1H.11u 1.и11в. tчие..,л.и.1 ..д •г=.1и.):.1 ).и .а 11.ь 1n и ги.� �).а 54.ц lг.ь l.: i.u 7.! г.4 .с 1.1 )ци ).х1 11.ч ч.1 л.L,1о1ь1..1WвlМ..ихи. - - ' ).Ч 1l.� ).У 1.1.! 71.ц 't2.) 4.Ь ' ' - L.4 - и1ц )uU .1. ./ с1..ы. ..w xrr1•1• .� .� е.я .r c.s 1.� иь.� n).о 4.ч а.ч ).1 :.и 1.ч .n uw 1ци 1а.х аа.! д.1.�. гwлихr. •uJ v...y.e�1u. 1.4 - 4.а !.) U.o ).) 7).Ь эц.о 11J )а.� 14 л 1и.7 7ц.л е).4 1иа 1иц 6.t �.е 1111.ь• �i«ь - .! !.f 9.11 4.б ).м вц.Ч �ц.р 14.4 ll.ц д.4 4.и ■.U 1ц.ц 1цц 1цц 4.5 у.ц иlис Lи11и. sнвlч мп►ь. 1..Н. .�.1r) .г В.1 )e.i и.Т У.� Ч.) l).1 55.а i'з.) 17.'s м.7 �.r w.) У.4 1оц 1цц 1x.n ы.z Ч+1.1. .д• - 7.1 .4 4.1 г.с 2s.i 1u.i Тг.Ч tS.! 3U.ч ьй.с У].е 1ч.и ьиц 11w е/.> е4.1 л11.1.ии....1 wль1,. - - - 11.) - - )1.ь )ч.n �s.c зn.i - тц.4 - ч.ч 1ии 1.и1 .1 .� 1•ви.1�и11ии ]..raYVlaи.• - � - . - - )l.1) Ьц.! 2�.U Il.i - - - - 1(М1 111ц .., .! h.иJи.llии w11г.ь .и - 1e.! и� 1и.а ч.ц и1.а LU ■ tl.7 1.1 2.'У 4.1 J.Y l.] 1ци 1и� ai.� 1].1 1уи.....,а1ии мпвил - - ьц-ц . iu.U - - 1ци.ц - - "tu.u ' ' - 1ии шц .2 ' 11у...,,..1. Чи.4ь.• ' - - - - ' . - 1uu.U - ' ' - - 1иц l1ы1 - " u.L.. - . . - . - 5и.ц 1цц.а �ц.ц - - - - - 1ци 11w .1 _ _. .. __°° ._. .. ____ - -_, _-- .. _ ..._..- . ° _. ° . ° _ .. .-_�_---_. . _.--. ._ . _ -_-._ _ _ . _ . . . . ь.1и1 .а .� г.х ь-4 и.г ..7 �1 i l1.г )е.tь 1ц.ч ч.в 1t.� 1и.4 11.за юц 1ци 1оц 1wь W1.1 иWьь. n/ Ч.л1.:и ха7) lлсb )Уц4 2n1l9 У!Л'1о )9ииц ич4ь) )2)го1 7чеµ 4b:uu 1udL) lN12 ц11ч lи4и9 7ии.ыи 4L1:1.1 ' " "' _ _" -"......' _ '_'---_"."-.�-.._.. _ . _ .�.-..__ "____--.._._______'_��.__-'. '- ___� _'�..,_-'__-. .. ..-. . . _. ... _.. . " "."_.' ' .. , _,-_ 1У7! lцци' �1..ь1.1 Ь..хи.. 14w..dwEJ Su.vиy lq1uKl - - � � - . - _ . . . • 1ч/1 илц4 1ы.и.W.и1J su.v.:y lии51 � 1 I � lJ 1 . с� 1 ' S , и . 1� � . �' 33 Almost half of the poor overworked men are transport or construction workers, It is unlikely that they are idle during much of their working day. On the other hand, a subs antial portion of the women ate either genuinely underemployed (i.e., willing and able to work more hours) or unable to work longer hours. Poverty will therefore not be alleviated by more expansion of employment opportunities. For men what is needed are higher productivity employment opportunities, and this may imply the provision of training programs for the least skilled and overworked. For women, perhaps, more employment opportunities are needed along with day care programs so that they can participate in income producing activities. Note that the provision of day care is itself an employment generating activity. The last tabulation of poor workers; according to their occu- pational distribution is Table 3.6 which gives the proportion of workers earning less than the minimum wage in each occupation. The proportion in the two st rveys are somewhat different: i 1975 17..6% of male workers and 21.8% of female workers earned less than the m=imum wage while in 1977 only 6.8% and 15.3% respectivel7 earned less, The 1975 survey'. was conducted shortly before the next increase in minimum wage and the 1977 one was conducted soon after a minimum wage increase to adjust for inflation. The comparative position of the occupations is, however, not affected by these discrepancies. Recall that 20 to 23% of male workers fall among the bottom 30% and about 15% of female workers. t 1й . 'С11� 1УЫ)l( 111 W.lUD'l'А '!'ub1.: З�б: l11S'1'1fU5lГI'111T1 д)l+ ЧU1{K1t1t:; LA1iN1Nd: 1.1i55 'д'11AN M1tд1N[I1�1 дlАС� UY UL'L'Ul'Л'1'1uN Ма1�ы ___ __ F'mwuluy __ _ -_--- I975 - --� -- 1977 , 1975 ` l977 - 1'e�tcued_ 'Сл1•а1 i'вгсеиС Тиеезl YercвnC 'fnCa� Усtсеьь[ 'tutвl < L'а:[crдL ди < L'crccuL' 1и � 1'cr�nut.' 1fc < 1'еа'сса6 Ас1 1v11Y M1n�11a1;�1� Ca,d.e�;�ry _ F11n. 4{р1;�г/ Cul'и(lыгу 1D1d. Чад;и1l -CлLChury М1и�Чв1;и�� Саlсциrу 1'СиУеsаlиывl tlыJ '1'есlьеtlсдl 1.6 11.$ 3.U 1'2.U 1и.4 11.8 3.7 9.1 i"'_ ' Adwl,ilвLtnllva(Ми,lнgсь 17.1 3.б U.6 4.b ( 23_D� U_Ь Ь_4 и_7 Сlсьkа ыпJ ТУр1ыLь G.7 11.3 2.4 11.8 5_Ч 1U.1 "J.1 1tl_'1 :;ьlсы Pluungur auJ 1'хирсlь:Сиг `36.ll � J_3 11.Ч ' ].8 ЬU.5 б.б 33.и 5.! 1 и4Ьег Sulus lд.5 7.1 11.1� tl.И 2b.3 Ь_4 33.9 9.д1 :icrvlси 1lutkiY (uuL и,л1,➢) 12.3 J.6 4.7 7.у 36.В 12.1i 1').9 � !!.О гltьlа� • гь_б 11.� - • ta.l 15.2 2'е.б 4.4 24.3 А1;ьiсиltиь•а1 Nuikuыn �31.9 ; 'l_1 !i2.6 1 1.? U.k 0.! '1и.и и.5 • -._�- �__. _ % C;u,lucii,u, Sид,еrvдыиьв 7.4 (1.6 - 1_ll - и."L - д1.3 r,.�,1u�lди,ь ии.l;е;а 1э.б г1.и н.4 2е.ь гч.и� 15.3 �г.i) 1�.1 • . С= � д�,,,и�,,,,+;,,и 1i.,ь�l,иь•а � аа.б iu.u (11.о= и.1 ►.и и_z - - 'l'iuual,u,1 1�utknCS 12.6 li.0 4.U 7.6 - - - � - и�ьvь• s2.u . 1.4 4.r и.б Stь.U о.1 - - "д1,1и1 1'.:ь,:�иl 1%.б 1U11 L.U 10и 21.й 1110 iS.J lllu В � га„�„1,�ь „д и,,,kиг:; i�ь (:ие.:ьогу 1uz 5ии iu 1J6 � LH 314 6/ 4й4 � {iu tЬии�иnдь) � -� - � --- �• - - -- - �-- -- --..._ . _- �-•- ------------ -�....._ _�._._.__.-___..__ 1/ Mluiuwm lJa1,e iu 1)!5 ыиь t:u1.;7ti.511 lьиг дау 1.и., Си1 $l1UG рnг uwutб. '_,! F1iud,uцw ll�,�t• 1и 1у7! иа:. Си1.у�и д,ег +1ау 1.С.,'(л,) �!➢5(1 1,иг wuudh. ;�uuicu: l9/'_+ UANI_ ti1,еь•ial 1fu�uta Пuuse:l,ulJ S},rvг:y C1atllG) . 1`)/1 1:=1ь1: Э1ou::clwld :iurvcar (1СЫ15� . , .. , ` , .. , .. +. 35 If the bottom 30% indeed fall below the minimum adequate nutrition requirement this would indicate that the minimum wage should be raised somewhat to make it posr:Lble for workers to achieve at least the minimum nutritional standards for themselves and their families. Clearly, if the minimum wage is raised the demand for labor would decline resulting in higher unemployment. But workers can scarcely be expected to work at adequate productivity levels without the barest of minimum nutrition. Indeed, if productivity is raised-by raising the minimum wage it can have an employment generating effect in the long run, through the normal multiplier of increased incomes. Among males it is large proportions of sales workers and construction workers who are paid less than the minimum wage. Recall that they were also over-represented among those who work long hours. Once again we can speculate that the sales workers fall among the disguised underemployed but the construction workers do not. Among women it i's noteworthy that a very small percentage of maids are paid below minimum wages. It is mainly female sales service and production workers who are paid below the minimum wage rates. Note that on the whole for more women work for below minimum wage levels but recall that many of them also work part-time, 3.3 The Industry of Activity of Poor Workers and the Hours They Work This section examines the distribution of poor workers by industry of activity that they work in and the ho%, Is they work in these industries. The results corroborate those on occupations in the previous section. тиk tчи,к 1н 1ulurrn ч•лы1� �./: �,1sт1ициl•1nn uF_•гие_ии�к цУ iнuus•ц иУ лrr�vl9;y . _ _ _ tlииол 1lfL _ �_ Uvc�o11 _� 1'uvct/y �ыiсн __�__,4 ilW1u }еlылlL�- lдlи Fинл1С 21а1@ Ь•сииlе . - - -1 ' г з - а "-s "�- G -5 ы ч `--ао "fi мГi лсU v11y (ц.1-с. wau) 1ч75 1ч71 1vl] 1И71 (ч7] 1у7! 1ч7] еу?� 1ч75 . 197J lv7] tv)! iиltNцY 3:0 1.6 1,�_2 д_9 У_0 1�9 �4 U.U Il1 цй j [uU 117) -- - - - - -- (.- . - - .r лц.1.:.�►w�� {1ц-ev) z.3 ь.4 ц.т u.t, t.у 1.ь ц.з и.ь te/ 1ии zuu ьии гилtиg (zu-2v> и.7 - о.4 и.'s и_и и.з и.3 u-z ць - ( гии 15� Sf1LNuлц7 42_ц 44.ц '[7^] 21.4 11_`J 34.ц '2u.1 22�5 (11]•-- 11� l17. . ч] Fo�J l•��Jисал, Ьcvc�ugur '` . лпJ '1'иЬьсеи (3!) "L.tl 5.4 '2.L 6.! 3.U З.ц 1.7 "t.2 у3 !47 l'[4 J] , '!'uctLl�r м�J t'олlыиес (32) 4.2 �.7 14.'[ 11.1 5.] �.j 1U.ц 1U.3 7L 1W1 �1)1--'- 1lZ 1 1..u.�.4r лла и..иа {3з) 3.ч 4.и 1.b и.4 3.4 з.и и.1 и.4 <t15 _-�1зз 2]! tuU Ри1•сг, Уil��циц, ku1+11s1�1uц ,(:14) t.'J t.5 ).S 2.U 2.U 1.у 0.1 i.'2 ч5 79 lЭ4 141 Р1lииавl BroJ.l�tu (7Ы 't.1 'l.U U.] и.3 � ►.5 1.у U.4 1.] .114U ^ 1U�]�. �7S 'L') `�.__. �_ LuJuaLrlлl L1..�,иlcalu, !'oisol.:u+u {]ib 2.3 '[.U 1_5 2.у 3.U 2.4 '2.3 3.4 /7 /% 4] - цl ги:ьиi 1uJuul.y (31, Зи) 4.ч 5.! 1.5 1.ц б.и 7,7 . 1.5 t.1 nt 74 1ии и4 u�nu, 1пач.�.у {Зи -;у) и.г и.4 и.Э и.б и.з �_n и.5 и_з о) 1аи 4и 2ии ии Uи�л (4и -�;у) о.а ц.б - , - U.e O.l ц.г a.z 1ии и4 - - 1..,1и1,���и.у. {]и -]ч) еч.1 еl.Ь u.s - е�.а 1z.3 ц.ч o.i е�ч ^-----13v) 33 - �-------" �1•е1а•1лкУ _��ь s�.n 7��3 !!_b �ч,5 �ы:4 )у.2 ?4_у чг _ ч'[ _ И] 1и1 w...1с:,л1� ro•�л�� (ь1) х_� и.л и.ь и.у х.� ►.ь ь.г ц.! %ь ]] �] 1zч ы�1и►► •г1е•1и (4z) 14.и 1ц.] г1.2 Ьч.ц и.3 ь4.а es.4 1s.o (11и ._и3� % 13ц 1zг � oцiui и,и.ниесс 14и, с1) 2.! '[.3 ).и й.4 2.3 2.2 4.S 4.J уt • lu] ja t]4 1ur / 'fвы�и1швLа[1ии, Cawшwlce:loи{7ц-/у) у.1 Ч1.5 1.2 О.Ч tl.1 ц.ч 1.6 L4 С72- 11ц � 1] 4] � ..._.._....--- 4•tили.:lл1 к:.1.л41Аи1ш�ы,tм (цц - tlу) 4.! а.з 4.� х.и !.з ц.у 4.ч ь.� са 4ц чz 4з � r��611c л4и.1и1иАи�lии, . � ..ис1.1 Sевvlссл (`1Ь • уу) ь.и 4,4 2.7 1.у ц.3 ц.3 й.tl S_1 tl2 ци ]ь ,1 PuL11c lиииыиllиЧ ('1J) }.1 1.7 у.! О.У Ь.L 9.7 14.4 11.4 qU Jl L'1 ц. ' l'eisuuлl лиJ 1ь.л��лцс цл[vlьn■ . у.ц 9.3 'Lу.ц Зч.7 tlJ ).l 'J1.9 Э6.') �i15 1'16� '!1 1''4 О . ('!]D ' ' '--. .. . � '1'.�ta1 ' 'l(ц1 1uU !UU 11и1 ^ 1ut1 1uU А 1UU 1 1U11` -- --'-----'---'----� W � ил- �t 1т.е<r�л (!�< <1.и..илоал) и4 14з 3! !У 4чz %2n 247 442 У. t'tU1.u�Llu�t .+l Ч��1.ева {ef цULLUW ЗиХ 'L'J.I 1у:1 I3.y t4.� ._.._-_. �. _ _ ..._-__"_-".____ ..._�_.___-._" '--`__.-__'_`--' -_--_'-.�-.__.....-_-'_�_-..... �_..- --_ -' . .... -. _ t1.,lc; '1i1o P..vclly 1uJc[ !е е1ш11еt' l0 lhet ииьJ lu'1'е1+1л 3.3 ---� ,ч1] ипгlе s1.��1л1 з�лци.. и�ии<ь.,а.1 s�.u<r (ыlnk) . � !'1// 1�ЛN4 11a.��u1.ulJ �иа4лу {L111]) ... � . � I' . � ,. 37 Table 3.7 gives the distribution of the poor and of all workers by industry of activity. Cnc e again poverty, indices have been calculated to show which activities have an over-representation of poor workers. In correspondence.with the fact that.blue collar workers are more likely to be poor, this table shows that secondary activities, that is manu- facturing and construction, are more likely to have poor male workers employed in them. Within manufacturing, lumber and wood products and mineral production appear to be tAe industries employing an atypical proportion of poor workers.* The 1977 survey also points to food products, beverages and tobacco as employing poor workers but this is not borne out by the 1975 sample. Among tertiary activities, retail trade, trans- port and communication and personal and domestic services stand out as activities employing a large proportion of poor people. About 40% of the bottom 30% men are employed in these activities. For females the picture is similar but with some differences. Within secondary activites, poor women are disproportionately employed in textiles and shoes, lumber and wood industries and in printing and publishing. About 16 to 18% of poor women are employed in these indus- tries as opposed to about 12% in thd overall distribution. Within tertiary activities the poor women are overly represented in retail trade and in other commerce. Once again, personal and domestic services do not employ a disproportionate number of poor women. Table 3.8a and 3.8b give the distribut-ion of hours worked by industry. 1/ of activity for poor men and all men-respectively. We The column distributions for poor men and women is given in Tables A.7 and A.8 respectively. Э ' у � Э м '!'ifИ: l'lHlИ (11 1Ии:И'1'А '1'eЫe 3.t1a: 111�17i11111�1'1ид (iF_1N1iNtц UullK1!1ь И'( 'f1lL Уiхь1< 1ц)'1'УОИ1 7и 1'l'.1<i:kNT рУ 1N1>a1:i'1'ИУ UF А(:'1'1V1�1'У tIA1.Fц UN1.YA л._�е_vi�yjN.,..r� и,,.кеJ и-_аи l5-2ч Эо-�у_ 4о-ич ,О-5� ло-ь9 7ое� 'е'.ни1 •1'..�:,t У.:.,� JS �7 75' -77 ?� �� 77 75 7Э 75 17 75 ��77 75 Э7 75 77 75 77 1'1с 1 U.I1t У Аь;,l�'.,t:u�� U и и :) [Ъ4.з !_б.): 41.ч �И.2 9.,2 и �.5 25_1 Ч.tl� и 1И0 1UU 2.t 1.И г1!„ьи1; tи.1 и и и 1Ч.1 и� l4.з и 57_1 и 0 и t1 и 7GU lllu .7 U :�kl'игЭ1�Лl:У � Fu.u1 1',иJисlв, 11аце�ьgич. . _. ._._, _ .._" _ .,,ь.! 1•,�ь,,L„� •ь.б и з.� 2.ь и з.а s7.1 и1.� 7.е 1s.г z1..4 аи.� ).l гь.г � 1ои 1ио 2.и з_б !,.•�ь,l�:, ��,л ы�„ь„".�• и о т.� �! 2.4� а.ь s�.s o►.n 11.ч 1о.1 ',.1т<.7 .��1.и. 7.► 7.7 1 1ии 1ио a.z s.6 , - .. _... l,,,,,ь,:, ,ь,,,, w�ы� и о •s"1 з..s.. z.6 о 6i.s sи.з 1s.4 ей_s `r.ь---а2.э - ��__...__� 1z_� 1,41 1ои 1аln з.� з_ч г..l,.:,, !чь„ь)„и. г..ьlь�ьl,�,; и о s.6 и_ s.6 и ьв.1 7и.б 16.7 ч.и s.6 ч.д �'-3�6"- ч.в еао еио 1.и 1s ru�,.:e.,1 1'rо.1,,.:ь� а и й.и +! 4.т и dt.u rs�.5 ч.5 14.5 и , о и и 1uU 1и1э 2.1 х.и !мl,.лtiьлi t:6e,i,1cдls, l'иеь.,lи,пп 0 и д U и и )i.9 7l.2 f3.U (4.6 д.1 7_1 4.4 7.l I6u YuU 2.Э 2.U И�елi 1„dusery и U 2.и 2.L 4.и 1i 7'L.0 U2.0 tU.u 5.l tl.U %.) 4.U 'l.6 1uU 1uU 5.U 5.4 ш1,.:, ►иа,иь,у и 0 U и с1 и Sц.U 14.8 SU.U 25.2 и и и 0 10U 1ио ..'L .G и1ьlьььа� sэ и и !а и и 1аи.о 1ии.и и и и и и и 1ии 1ии .и :ь ь:.пlль�,,.lдип и U 7.и S.Ч б., L.u � 1,7_а1 �у.з 17.и 1t�.? 1.и 1'1_Ч , S.5 4.1 1ии 1ии 'tJ_1 11.и '1'1'!i'1' 1 А1: У � иь,�+�,�1,. 'r..,a.: и и и и и о' ьы.2 7з.и �.1 24.ь 1И.2 _ о 4_б и 1ии 1ои г.г .� И.:ь�ь1 а'е„а� n .b э.7 2.4 4.7 7.7 й5.1 з1_5 ►и.5 l5.4 1p4,2 1L.4 2''_У i�3,d� 1ии tив lь.э 1и.5 ш1ц.� с,т+ис,си и U ti.з 11.9 и U 52.6 5Ч.5 1U.5 7.5 15.8 �� 1У 11.д`..•1у.1 1i1� 1uU 1.9 "l.'1 'г�л,,:.р„Бьиь.ь„и. с:��wи,,,,1.�л11,.,, и и е.е и_s "з.и ь.ь �ь.И ».д 1и.2 11.2 �i4,u 1ь.� 1з_а 25.1) 1ии !ии и.> 1и.4 F�r,,.,,..1u1 Laьal.li'sbmwlla �.1 и и �.4 ч.2 ).И 7и.д su.� и.2 l�.а ь_з и ►z.� г�.ч 1ии 1ои й.ы и.и г.,1.1ь. Адшlиi+.ь�,цi�и. .,о.1д1 ...:,�ь,.:л о и 5.J U и.4 U L/1.3 оИ.6 и.и l�_G !!.и а.и и.ц 9.и' 1Ии 1ии ь.и G.� �_ . 1'.,1.1�. lusti„cьь„u 4 1 1! "1.з 1.и з.1 и �l:.U bз.1. 1'3.1 'Li.1 з.7 7.4 26l,0 U Wu 11IU 7.U 2.и 1'..,.,.,u.J :,нJ 1ьии.рьь. :n,чь.,:> 1.и U L.! l,.7 b.7 G.b �ll.'2 56.2 !1).'L E6.U ц.2 'J.2 1и_'1 ').з ЬUО 1U0 Ч�И ц.7 1•��•,�н ь�ь 1:�ь�l��ьr .ь .'1 з.2 !.� и.ti з.и 59.4 51.� 11.6 l1.з tu_! Е1.5 1и.1 lх.ь 1ио 1ии 1ии fиц 1 гь„иьс, и1 flw9:c,: 1vN 21] 425h �tиз ]Jь, 71Ьb 7И41и '171uJ 1�2�� 1у22Ь !'7зии 1оьz1 1йсlг•и 1и279 - - - - 1,� ' . � � _... _ .. _ ._ - __-." "-.-..._...._-. ._'_ - '"."__.'-_-_"`--"'_""__.-_..-,.._..._-__....'---_._..-".�._�-___-____`"'_'-.�___-_.._.-_."_"...-._._�..�..-"'-"._ ........ . . _....._..'_'"_" 1 i _...и,,,.. i9!'� Ui �.1 :ы,�. �г1 11.,�.па lЧ,ы ьсЬиlд 5иьvсу (k11ЦЕ) 111! 1ьА1И. 11,.�,:.,1,..1.1 :;,,,vсв (F.111�) .,. , � � . � , � t � . ,,_ х , ... . . • � � � ., . � � �: � ,,. . ,.... s' , `з . � .Я. �� и, ц,. , � . , е , . i � .. у .. . g .. � т . . . . .. . ., л . е , . ц �у} w аа ь ., �у , а ., �_у, а ., . ы . . , и - §� - � . _ -м�1 , ::г я . _, -� , ! � м �� � - � & . � ц ь .. 7. ,> , ;� ., 1k =.г:К- �,.;�k а , .х' �� � � .н. . вы�г ы�r �а.а . . � и п . ж -ж в тя � � . г .s я я , ., s . ,� .н , а ,� , _ , -_л г _г_ �ха �s „ в Л ы а 1ь ,ч к.�..l�ц , ь д ъs ,. 'г3 -ffi .. . ak � ;з �у �k � �:г г:�г _ _ � iR t У i� $ Я 1? рх Q Q ц 4 k s4S ir й й$ нь3 3 l Ч - $ M1 5. ; 1ь . Аь � ..п i';1'� '� J & . т.у� Ю� х �s:n;�.u's �{{ it ы 9� $ k G 9F tд � 1'111 ы� i tR 2 , г,� . . х- ыr п rп й iг в 31 ti'4 У?1 Я4 а'7 � Ъ у д 4 !4 г ЭС k,' .g '� д 6 ф л Э" z.lb w„ у . .. ч,,:дк - д5 & �-Ai{ #zнг�.ыiЧ Uд �-иWд'чм � ?цс нц ,! :Ф я...т 'F е} S Уы А k 4 д . 4Е ет х� r. ц ti.d $ •�; 8 ц '. � Я D � ч,r д н � -ь+-я- слk-и.еt и R р� � RC R n6 76 #,£ а 4 ц i'16 z_ spa у � ц ттоА, с�в ts ► #t i aw 7+ 4 и а fi w и s ю ,., , аг 3 г�я.ен.:. хдЕи � 4�4 3 k 4`# аЬ 7 �kхг +Е Ре У' ОЧ 4 4а :iг н м 1k мС $ А iЬ 7. А г.-в +� ы ik _ а АФhс9М! • гжя.r.я.1ы 6лмаа i и ,г й ! 3 вt 0 sS В ё! 9ы 45 Т rf йУ t� k 4 r у F AR# е?гw д .д �. ктанiF tx«Jм п 7 3 ?'} i i 3 2 л3. Q ;'б 0 4L $ s4 Ё� 8tl $ iW 3 я3 К ё� К [# А Е+зЯ [и [ 1+1 i е?дt.. 1тв...мтит, : Я г а � s ь г >г � иs 3 Ят . ас а 1г s . 3� s s ыg н ;3 я гrйъ ,с� 7 з ж¢ 1.м�теУ.,11ы.1..,. иы е.....wг...гн..� 3 и 4 и s з А w is ь ta а cg я ь7 ЯА Fь s 3а s ьь t Я► А tаы хгк: r� а. tlh.ип4ы4 tв{а611вl.ь..-�tт 3 � F[ i 1е l>У �'3 Ik # #h Ч� 7 я i 1 f# # i ! 3. tц } 1гнr7 А+iл ! и ti 3 Y�A�l1. w,И.Эн1вtl.ьсиы� 5Че1и1 ,vимl.н. q i.7 у К ♦#� 2 I 1Т 6 Т1 Т 'i 0 Fi i ;, i 4, ;1� I. t У S 1еЭц Е4Ч а А �{ Уи41А• 1ывilиьtlии t i . У} д j у й д i 4# i1 $гу t У! 1=.7 k} 3. 1 й tl 7 г, lW tW1 4 tl '� И 1'ть.идмt .uJ i�н+.+.1а Sк�оАеы. i 1 - i У 4 й 4-ь р 4 Ah и jM � �и м СУ 7 й 1 У о 1ь ) р i. t1W 1Ч� д ь J q У.+.сы�л1. 1ы с.?як..ды 3 .2 1 1 l � 1 У 4 и 1.и 4 4L У 17 с ('t.tl b. i У i # К ✓< 4 11W 1�ы1 flыt 11ы1 1w ы1 1а..�sь.+ 7чп 1ь}1 1755а. 7fu)1 1У41! l]Uч� 31.ддиУ 4S1�f1 �и73а ч1Уnи i�S1i WYЯi1 4тг94 Lxn;Y , . . . , � 5 (д3 �О . ' .. � ' 1 ,11 , } , . , . . -- � � . 40 follow a similar procedure as for occupations and compare the distri- butions in Table 3.8a with those in Table 3.3b. More poor men work longer hours than-shorter hours. Twentyfive to th-irty percent of poor men who work in food products and in textiles and footwear work over 60 hours a week. Within, tertiany activities, 35% of poor men work over 60 hours in retail trade and in transport and communication. Tables 3.9a and 3.9b report similar distributions for poor women and all women respectively. In corroboration of the results for occupations, poor women are over-represented in part-time work in trading activities and in personal and domestic activities where they are likely to be underemployed. About 40% of poor women who work in the manufacture of food products and beverages, however, work atypically long hours. These tables merely corroborate the information given for occupation and provide no surprises. They are included mainly for com- pleteness. The last tabulations of poor workers by activity of industry are the proportions of workers earning less than minimum wage and are reported in Table 3.10. Once again there are no surprises - mere corroboration. Among males employed in secondary activities a disproportionate number in lt:mber and wood and in construction earn less than the minimum wage. Others among the poor earning low wages are in trade and commerce and personal and domestic services. Between them these activities account + + � '!'!14 PUU1t 1д l1uG0'fA � . , ти1.'le 3.9д: р15rк1ии•rtun ие ииииц Чиккl:и иУ 'r�1F lчна( un'rгин_30 Рl�пеlеwеl дi 1И11и�'1'1lY UF AlYP1VL'д'Y,Sf1iPИ1,4:S ON1.Y � • act,viьvlпиигч 11.ь.Иад _U-14 _ 15-2Ч 3li_7! 40-49 3и-5у 6U-L) _7и+ 1'л[и] •fu_w1 Уепr 75 77 75 77 75 77 75 �77 7S 77 75 77 75 �7 75 77 75 ��? 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UngeY entegory bliti. LjöaJ- Göregory bilkl. 144M CALemory milk. wäg"ý- (.titebL>I,y 1110 RARY AgrIcultuce 29.7 1.9 12. 9 - 1.6 25.0 0.3 16.5 0.6 1.11 bli ug 0.8 - 0.3 ý42.9 0.2 SECONDARY rood Prodtectu, beverages, and Tobacco 10.9 3.0 5.2 3.8 17 5 1.7 .9 2.2 TexLIlL-b and Fijo-,wG-diý 5.5 7.41 r3 C2 10.3 16.2 5.3 P5ý33 10.8 ý9.0 LULOber and Wood (97.P 3.4 (!2.7 3.0 1, 4_1 ý 2 0.7 (1.6 PtalýGr, VVILIting, Ilublibibliýg 13-6 2.0 A-A 1.9 143 1.1 12.2 i.2 MInerål Produets 13.6 1.5 4.3 1.9 20.0 GA 18.3 1.3 Indostriel Clicatteatti, petrojetukk 4.7 3.0 1.1 2.7 5.5 2.3 2.7 3.6 Heta] Ilådustry 10.0 6.0 3.0 7.7 8.6 1.5 -22.3 2.1 Other Tuditurcry 13.3 oj (1.6 8.3 0.5 a - 3,1 0-3 8.6 0.8 (3.7 - 0.2 - U.2 12.4 (8.4 12.2 22.ý 0.9 0.7 TE.1MAILY III&Olouale Tråda 17.6 2-9 2.3 1.2 2-5 1.7 0.7 Iternil Tråde (26. 6 15.3 16.3 (-36-.4--. 15.4 1 27.7 1 15.6 OLber Commattrec 21.2 2.3 9.4 2.2 \4 . 2 l 4.5 4.3 Ct,UU,lljllictitlDtl 15.3 8. 9 l 6 6.5 YtlinaIL:Inl J,'stat)li!;1111ILllLt; 11.6 7.3 3.11 149 6-1 4,9 6.? 6.5 Pubije Ad,,kllltbtcctiotk, soefäl Scrvfc.:i 6.4 8-3 2-5 11.3 5.4 4.8 3-6 5.2 M.IIIIr labutructj<)41 7.1 6.8 4.6 5.6 12.1 14.4 5.9 11.4 1 PLvýooäl noj ok..114:411c ScAvleL.21 2 1, .'5' tj. 5 12,7, 7.0 21.0 31.9 to 31.11 Li 1,0 L tk 1 17.5 100 6.6 100 21.75 100 15.3 l 00 ritkjoher ut 1411s-kelh ätt cålýgory 102 579 50 736 68 3t4 6u 444 blikillikom MJBU in 197,5 ljas day l.e.. Col$886 per sninth. >ý rliglismsm 1,t 19ý'7 C01450 licr day i.e., C01QU50 pLC ~Aub. -44- for over 40% of those earning less than the minimum wage. Among women, those with low wages are disproportionately employed in the textile industry and in trade commerce. 3.4. Migrant Status: It is often alleged that recent migrants earn less than others and have to take up very low paying jobs while waiting for better paid opportunities to appear. The evidence to support this claim is mixed. Table 3.11 reports for 1975 the proportion of workers earning less than the minimum wage according to years of residence in Bogota. 22 percent of the most recent arrivals among men seem to earn less than the minimum wage as compared with 17.6 percent over all. However, among those who have been in Bogota for 11-20 years, as many as 20 percent earn less than the minimum wage. These data really indicate that those earning low wages are fairly evenly spread among workers of all vintages and any experience in the city does not appear to count for much. For women the evidence is strong that a smaller proportion of recent migrants earn less than the minimum wage as compared with others who have lived in Bogota longer. It is difficult to explain why this should be so and the answer perhaps lies in the large number of maids who are recent migrants. While maids are not particularly well off it has been show.n consistently in this paper that a large proportion of them are not among the poorest. The income in kind that they receive probably accounts for this result. Table 3.12 shows that -in 1975 only about 9 percent of the maids fell among the poor. What is remarkable, however, is that of the poor 5-7 percent had some secondary education. On the whole, it is clear that recent migrants have no monopoly on poverty: indeed, 60-70 percent of all earning below minimum wages have been in Bogota for over 10 years. - 46 - THE POOR IN BOGOTA Table 3.11: DIST7IBUT:ON OF WOPKERS ZARING ,ESS TNUAN MINIMt¶ WAGE BY LENGTH OF RESIDENCE (1975) Males Females Z Earning Z. Earning Less Than ,. in < Minimum % in Years in Bognta Minimum Wage 1/ Category Wage 1/ Category < 1 22.1 4.6 16.8 8.5 1 - 2 15.1 5.3 17.4 3 3 - 5 19.0 8.9 20.1 10.3 6 - 10 15,.2 12.8 20.9 11.9 11 - 20 20.4 31.2 24.6 30.6 20 + 15.6 37.2 23.1 30. Total 17.6 100 22.0 100 Workers in CaLegory 102 581 69 315 (in thousands) 1/ Minimum Wage in 1973 -.,as Col.$38.30 per day, i.e., Col.Y886 per =onth. THE POOR IN 30GOTA Table 3.12: DISTRIBUTION OF POOR MAIDS 2Y EDUCATION No. of Group Bottom 30% Total in Bottom 303% Education 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 None 13.8 12.6 11.6 12.7 10.5 16.0 Primary 81.0 77.6 83.0 76.5 8.7 14.0 Secondary 5.1 7.0 5.5 7.2 8.3 18.2 Higher - 2.2 - 3.6 - 31.4 Total 100 100 100 100 8.9 152 Total No. of Maids 771.4 16434 86849 107967 Source: 1975 DANE Special Bogo:a Household Survey (EH8E) 1977 DANE Household Survay (EH13) -47- 3.5. Size of Firm: It is widely believed that workers in small firms earn less than those in larger firms but there is often not adequate data to support this claim. Size of firm is also often used as one of the key criteria for defining the informal sector. Table 3.17 reports the mean income of male and female workers by size class of firm where the respondent was employed. This table supports the view that smaller firms employ poorer workers. The mean income of workers in firms employing over 25 pebple is just about double those with just one employee. The ascent for women is, however, not as great, with the highest income class being only one and a half times as much as the mean income for female employees in small firms. The question in size of firm was asked in the 1975 survey but not, unfor- tunately, in the 1977 survey. The quality of these data is somewhat questionable since about 40 percent of all workers did not respond to this question (Table 3.14). Furthermore, the non responses had a much lower mean income than the respondees. If a substantial proportion of these belonged to large firms, the results without them would be biased. The rate of non response was greater for the bottom 30 percent where only about half of'the people gave information on their size of firm. Table 3.14 shows that the poor are well distributed over size classes of firms also, although as many as 30 percent of the bottom 30 percent who responded worked in single eMRloyee, presumably as self-em lyd- establishments. ' � j. '1'1l1: lYH)1t ь ld Сц►(х!'1'А ' •ь'ьЬl� з.13: г•l1;л,. !•и�irь•lи.У 1nад,мl: г�д' lydarl:L!!S цУ sьи: и1� t'!!гл! , (1а75) --l- -�� lдии,l,цы иЕ tьиrka:iц 1n 1�1ыич `�_ �,_ _i5��,�ц _ i_- s ь- 1а ai - гу гs -а ___ l,ыh,:;l�и1 Actlvь�/1�drir Size ьНи1с Г�тn1е А1в1с Gетвlи Мц1и Lцwnlu Mn1a fiiauele Ми1е ~ka,tal� 1'1t! МlА1�� Аl;niculLure АJЬу - гу44 195U 219G - г1"L5 - ЬИи4 Ъ1НG Мьиьгьь - - 663 443 21G5 З15и 1(!bU - /iуG 414"L i I SGCUl�1�А1:У 1�иид 1'CUducCS, klcveыagus, ап,ь . I 'Yul,ucrU - - 3351 2з5U 1l5U 12у4 S5'L(1 'L411ц з%S1 201U •гцл�ьl�t. и„�! r.,ц�►,vda� а�ы - гга� 1r�t г141 1�е! г�зз lгыи sь5з lььs %.4„uLcr ипд Wuud - - 2l'ЗS 1G)9 ➢4U3 '18UU 2l194 10�iз зU20 1G1ь! ���цЯ�цЬ�, г,•ь„►а,�ь, lУ,ь11::1,1n6 - - 2i78 164J з17f! 1!8'1 ззьз 2ззз з14з tи14 лlt,,,игь! rru,Dыc1 a - - 15зti - 19')2 _ tbs5 t854 - 24U4 ' 2129 BudusLrlиl СЬетlсаlа, 1'цыУс,l�ы,и - - 22/�1 - 15Hb4 1JUU 4HU4 1571 5з'L'З 2351 л!�!ц! 1��д„5�,у ' - - 154) - 2о5и l4йы зэоJ гач :1ьзи 1tlas (ltб,zc lидиыыу - - 153Р 130U - 13U0 1791 '315и lз25 l'246 �1�111�1�:, - - - - - - 14UU - 3са6 г%21 и,и:,�,vц�1и„ - - z191 1G2a 1442 ttiчl 15su tilэ гэч's з2�i '!'!СlеС1 А1:У lil,и�.иаи1С '!'ruJa GгhU - 1!h!i 1г51D 10J1 й!!84 557ri 2616 Т'16"1 зl'L1 1;сецьl '!'iваг: 15u11 lзoU 218"l 2t17И 1�г*) 140ц 51fn'I 2u5U 41L5 2US1 1l�Ьи, Cuuuu�iuc - - 22`С) 15L2 2251 lGП 42Ч1 11L] 2b0�1 11гИ 'r,иыцl,,,,��,,�ь,,и ц,,,ь с.,,,,,,,,,,,ь.:ц�ь.,►, 1sг,ы - 2л�z ►!в5 4sиз - 37ы зьбг 34ьц гlltiл l�ьцц„4!ц! �:.�ц►,ь1::l,,,��„ы:, - ��оlз 65ы! !а!L 45з•� 7b9G 51zу 2U11 �594 з2iз � , 1'u611c Л,lо,luьstыu�iu��, 5исьцl Sцrыicces - - Э427 'l'9U� 74G5 42'fз 2/у5 3721 з144 3�l1S j ` Publlc 1иsи��сl.ьи, ' - 45U0 2l/'i 1727 1ц18 101L' 1�5!!г 2зз! ц,5'3 зU'L3 О+о , � - !'сгsиии! иы,! l,,,шиь1lс ::сыvlсеч 20'1'! fxLб 1597 !5(!у 2из1 г6!] luSl 12�lь :fzгt 1ь15 •!'�,,ц! 2114 'L11(! г'su5 ь7�,� 'rwu 21ии ,44z zzu�� у2�1и гьы� _- ----- --------------_.-----_----- --�--...----- --.._._.�------------•--•----- --•-- �------._.____---•-- :iu,ui�,:: UЛWti S�iL�1u1 !fulv,lu UuuSUlWlt! :iьofV�•у' (1•.I1lы_� .. , � . , . ,� - , • �� 49 THE POOR IN BOGOTA Table 3.14: DISTRIBUTION OF POOR WORXERS IN BOGOTA BY SIZE OF FIRM Percent in Size Group Percent Workers in Bottom 30% in Size Grow Size of Firm Mia I e FemalSL Male Female None 31.6 - 0.6 0.4 1 5 23.0 11.9 17.2 18.4 6 10 18.2 14.9 10.9 12.0 11 25 22.3 13.2 12.3 13.6 Over 25 17.8 9.5 59.0 55.6 Total 19.4 11.1 100 100 Number of Workers 76 is 393 164 (in thousands) Mean Income. 1212 954 3620 2377 (Col. Pesos) No Information Number of Workers 59 26 186 151 (in thousands) Mean lacome 780 640 2669 1409 - 50 - IV. WERE THEY L17E 4.1. The Soatial Disaggregation of Bogota 'aps 1 and 2 show a ring and radial sector representation of the map of Bogota. The basic socio-economic spatial unit in Bogota is a "barrio" or neighborhood of which there were about 500 in 1973 and about 700 now as a result of the rapid growth of the city. DANE geo-codes this unit-in a 4-digit number of which the first 2 digits identify a comuna--a collection of barrios. The last 2 digits theh identify barrios within a comuna. The basic unit that we have used for analysis is a comuna of which there were 1/ 38 in 1973. For convenience of exposition we have aggregated these comunas into "rings" and "sectors" as shown in the maps. The boundaries of the comunas shown in the maps are principal streets in Bogota. The city is bounded in the East by mountains and, therefore, has an approximately semi- circular shape, although it is longer going from North to South, as is evident from the maps. We have numbered the rings from 1 to 6 going outwards from the centre of the city and sectors 1 to 8 going clockwise also starting from the centre of the city. Ring 1 and Sector 1 are identical and comprise the Central Business District (C.B.D.) 4.2. The Soatial Distribution of the Poor: Mohan (1978) documented the distribution of people in Bogota by incomes and showed largely that the poor are concentrated in the South and rich in the North with various gradations in between. Here we take another look at the spatial distribution of the poor--first by rings and then by sectors. 1/ See Mohan (1978) for some comuna level distributions for the city. N N .5 S' 0 \ \C 3 *~ij §3131 \2 13\f Beap R Syte BOGOTA: Ring Sy stem Based on 1973 Comunas BOGOTA: Radial Sector System Based on 1973 Comunas Table 4.1 shows the distribution of the poor by rings. Unfortunately, the two samples are not in close agreement in the distribution of the poor. What is unmistakable, however, is that as we proceed outwards from the centre, first the incomes of people increase on the average and then decrease. The 1975 sample shows a relatively heavy concentration of the poor in the two centre rings. The trend is similar in the 1977 sample,but not as pronounced. Relatively fewer- people seem to have been sampled from the C.B.D-.in 1975. We have calculated the familiar in'dices of concentration: the 1977 sample indicates the two inner rings as poor and the 1975 sample the two outer rings. Rings 4 and 5 contain the majority of the population as well as of the poor. The C.B.D. is interesting since it has a high mean income in both samples as well as a high proportion of people (about 35 percent) in the bottom 30 percent. We may conclude that as far as rings are concerned, the poor are everywhere and each ring has around 30 percent of its population in the bottom 30 percent. The pattern is somewhat more pronounced when looked at over radial sectors, as shown in Table 4.2. Roughly, mean income increase as we go rlockwise from sector 2 to sector 8 (except for sector 6 which has a low income as well). The sectoral distributions are also not in complete agreement between the two samples but sectors 2 and 3 are clearly the poorest. They both have low mean incomes as well as a relatively large proportion of the poor. Between them they account for 52 to 55 percent of the poor and, about 40 to 45 percent of the total population. The greatest discrepancy between the two samples is in sector 8. In the 1975 sample,.almost 30 percent of the people in this, the richest sector fall among the bottom 30 percent while in the 1977 sample the proportion is only 16.4 percent. The lacter is nearer • , .. �rиг: wяnc 1и luьorrn ' . •гльlи Ч_1: и'1s•гlгlыигlии nr-rue г(н1и ыц 1Uисг: . _ ._.-._ _ 1 у / 5 _.- � -1'17 f ------ iВлиь iь ЭlУ,! еlvиглli UuC[г.ш 3(17, Oviceьlll � °_.- -- У -�- - � Х - . . • еиирlе Нсии 1'uupl� и�аь, Х оЕ 1UUg rcьpte Wсли Усг+рlс мелn 2 и( 1t1e:g 1и Uuuи�Lu1J ди 1luusclшlJ tидек ut 1и 0оиаш 1и 1Wиь�)ш1г1 lu 1lиилгJюlJ 1и,1сх uf 1и llnцuw ft1д1:_ lneuwu 1t1o1: lисиые Соосеци•лtlwь 3UX 1<1иь: Lьcown 1tl,ьд lисnьии ('дьисеис[лц�и _ 361 г.)лg 1 1.3 1ч9 1J ы])о 10и Э4.2 У.з 14Чы 2.0 ы21и г•11] • � 75.и : Riug 2 ).2 ц2z ь.о 5>Ч7 �Чи 29.2 Ч.1 1ЧJ2 ы."1 N4'tt { ЛU � 1 э9.:1 � �_. ._. 1г1иы 7 tl.5 9/еб 12.2 4G65 7U 22.5 10.4 14�Ч 13.1 '!ы)2 tl1 2Ч.Э 1t1ы ы Ч 24.G 1l>!3 2'J.6 5'[ыУ 90 2'!.U 30.U 1bОй , 3U.tl 7541 Ч7 2Ч.9 К1ng 5 47.7 1230 Ч2.У 4451 11Э� 36.6 И` 42.1 19'ltl 4U.'[ 44ыЧ 1U5 11.4 ы1иВ 4 а.7 tзиЧ ь.ы 5вчs 11г Сйt.7 'I �.ы ►7ач 5.в Ч�7s 1ио 7о.й 1 _f ТослС 1UU 114ц ` 1�U 525И 3'2.Э 1UU 1709 100 997й 9u.1 Sи,ь,ь 1'))5 иАИG S)ьесlаl llоl;о�л 1lousdwlJ survay (k:цыЕ�. , • 1�г/ ии+е аи,.л�ьиlа su�„�y �tиss). . 'l'f1L' {'U1)lC 1и ыUt/)'СА •гаь)л Ч.2: U]S7•ыlыtпУои uk •)3Ie г(юк uv secruыs - ._...-_�_� ._ 1975 ___ 1577 _ 11и[[uw 3fl7 __ Ovcrail Во[сош ЗОХ Ovлrnll -"� �-^_' .� у Х х ('г�ирlг N.:лn 1'г:ирlл ииаи Х оЕ 5ьctor l'лирlл Неви реирlг: Нлаье Z ut Seг:w[ 1и {Wиогал�lд 1и 1lииьи)ш1J 1пJеи ut. tu ыис[дw 1и 1lииsг:)ш1�7 1n 1WuadmlJ lидлв ut 1и tluewш 5cclur Lь 5.:�елг 1иг:,ии l:иисеььгал�(un 302. _ 5uciu[ 1лс�ше Sca[иr 'lисишг (:иисслСи,(шь Jб'Х s�cwr l 6.3 1чч ),Э е]1о 1UU 7й.•t 2.з IЧЧы 2.и tl2lU 1ц 2�.и 5ис�и, 2. 22.9 1uUG 1ь.8 Э:1Эы 1J3 '\ й2.у 'l7.Э 1ы16 1ы.4 ЧЧ1U l4tl ЧЧ.1 , 5лсlиг 3 Эи.ы )144 2ы.5 7)1ы )иbы1 : J4.J 2L.1 1U97 гS.й Lu24 lдЭ э1.и 9иг.(оь 4 4.4 2194 '1.0 5П1й ! 7З 27.7 л.4 1ц)'! tl.Lf 84�tl tl3 ?Ч.у ..�сгиг � Ч.) lиии 6.4 682В . 70 22.! i.Ч )ЧЭи . ., 6.S РЧS9 91 -.. 1 .,�с w[ и 1U.ь 121'2 17.1 5lу1 ь у4 3U.4 17.L 1U3% 1ы.>♦ бby8 1Ч ._ lп � � ::.:с1иг 7 ll.] 1!!2 1U.1 Lыбl � tl2 2ь.6 10.U 1й5D l:),Ь 111L3U /й t•_2 ' s�et�r С f.ь 1)4 ь.Э �ыtl1 91 ,21.1 4.и iвй 1.9 14о1У ,� 1ь.4 �_.�_---- ---- - �_.�_�-- -_ •- - _ . .. . -- -- coiлt )ии ---'��uho .'�_ `)ии �258 �в т. Э2_4 1ио 170у 1ии 1LЧ0 зи_) _,,нса. )Ч/h иAtili Sp�clal (fи�.,ьи 11.ьuochulJ 5,nvcy (L11)1LJ ,. 1'!/1 ❑Л1ьL 1louscL,ь1,1 Suьvcy (L111i) . • 1 '• 1 , ' . , �1 ы . , , 54 the census proportion and therefore somewhat more accurate. However, this is yet another pointer to the problem of using sample surveys for drawing strong conclusions about spatial dis t ribut ions -and about time trends. 4.3. Me Soatial Distribution of "Ooo-c -.orkers: Tables 4.3a and b give the distribution of poor workers by rings. There appears to be greater agreement between the two samples on the residence characteristics of poor workers, as distinct from poor people. The C.B.D. has an at7pically high proportion f poor women living there and the outer two rings have an aty.pically high proportion of poor men. Not only does the C.B.D. have a higher proportion of poor women but the poor women there seem. to have the lowest average income by far-among the poorest. Tables 3.4a and 5.4b give the distribution of workers by radial sector and the pattern corroborates that found for poor people. Sectors -2 and 3 account for 50-35 percent of all poor workers. Once again, sector 8 has a large discrepancy between the two samples. The index of concentration for the 1975 sample is 101 and for the 1977 sa=ple 35. Clearl7, the 1975 sample seems to have over- sampled poor workers within sector 8 and undersampled the rich workers since the' 1977 sample was sho m to be in broad agreement with the 1977 census in "-fohan (1978). £ х . 'CUC 1'1ц11С 1и UlllYil'А '1'иЬ7с й.Эи: м1'11'С1Л1. L1S'1�12111i1'1`1UN UГ 1УН1[: 1Ju1tK1:113-цY,1S1N(У5 __ _ _____U75 _ _ - _ _ _ - __ 1)77 �� - _ P�rccul uf �---- `-1'ercenl uf. Yercent и! 1'ессепС uf - 1'crceu[ uf . . Perceue uf 1SJLClь111 ЭО`J. A1I l17,1еХ uf kL17g I,7 цu1.lJ1t1 ЭО'К. А11 111деК иЕ uI1t6 fl1 iu ltiuk in 1tfu1; Соосеиl'rnLfuu uufWm Эи�; !и ltiut;- 11i R[uti Cuucen�tntiuu lSocwгu зд1"/. Ft F И, l•' М L' М Г М F Н l•' М1 F Р1 F `'. I;iuu 1 l.4 1.1 1.6 1,ы ыы .'117 1Ч.7 �16.Э 1 2.3 3.L 1.') 2.и 1'21 l'!9� � 14.1 2U.1 .... ' ` • � . - - � Uб 12Э � 21.2 6'1. ы есиь z б.а 1•).7 и.) 1о.1 �ы ` 126 ± 1и.4 ti.7 Э.7 1i.a Э.о Э.Э ��-, . , �_.. ulug Э и.0 1U.2 12.2 14.7 G5 7U 15_2 9.� `I.И 11.Ч 1J.7 15.7 72 76 1�i.1 12.7 пI1,l; 4 27.5 26.ь Эи.Э Эи.и 9t ы7 2t.2 12.г 21.а 3и.9 2t1.u 31.2 9й 99 1и.б 16_U luug 5 47.и 9ы.3 4ц.б ЭЬ.1 ;�llG 1U6 : �'17.t -.� .14.9^'� 43.Э Эи_7 �117_Ь 34_Ч '1и7 !11 • 11.U 17.'J 1 utub и 9.и �.9 7.и 6.s �i4u 1st� _3z.r г1.4 % 7.s з.s ь.и ь_1 112s ' •s> >zи_ы ч.з '1'и('ul 10U 111U 1uU tUp '2Э_4 1�7.1 lG)и iCU 1U0 100 19.L l6_2 •rablc 4.3ь: МЕАи [ис:омG oF 1'UOtг 11uI;KLПS lN uUar1'А иУ иlисs (CurrunC 1'ечиs) ___ :a,PS _ _ 1977 _ DuCCUin Э01 �-� А11 14uCCuw Эи"/. _А11 . м в н в м г r� r � lctug 1 1062 'l43 5G7C '2914 16Эы ыи2 tiN73 323G и1,76 г ыии иг7 Эеза гlаь 1s9u зЭи9 Ьи9з z7ыб 1Nug Э Ч2:7 647 4UH6 20у! 17'12 1696 Gыlu Э�41 кiilg 4 955 и16 J21ы 1иу7 ' 1ыдб 15'tG 514U z925 luug S 11U9 7S9 2ии3 U5Ч lыlо 1452 45ыЭ 235и Rьпg b `)чи H�t 3911 1и07 t59t Ь"/4 659L1 Э061 1 •r.7<<ь[ 1о21 V V 767 зэгб 1914 , 17ьи 1�14и s4uz 2иtи � , "' и -- - - ._. _.__---- ------ ----- -- -- --- - - ------ - ----- - - --- - -- ---- ---- _____�. _� .-- -- 1 :3„и,,с: 1'115 иЛР11S :;peclnl uouseЬulJ 5игvсу (L11ыU) . . tvll 11А1l1: 11.и,лсЬи1J `ни,vвry (1:111]) ' ... , ', , �' ' . t , г в 1 Т1и� 1�и11г 1rt 1и,и1•гл '1'и1,!_ 4,4n: :У'А'1'tA�. u1S'1'1i11111'1'1uN 01? /YM,1t UO1i1:lE1;5.UY 1cA1qA1. 51!1:1'и1г . .___ 1у%� ----_°�---...- _ _ _ __ _ _ _ 1у%/ _ _ l'urcuuб и(' �Риаеси( uF �►'гвссиl uf. l'лгсии4 ut'-"Pciauб( oF ~ -�-- 1'сасси[ иС Uu1Luw JOL A1l 1л 1иаlах a1F $и�lиг iu 11..uuw 3(1'�. А1! !д 1uJex ul' Sиlur iu in 5acn.t-_ __�1�.,� _ Cuur..:u(au1i._n 1l�пtа.ш "1U'% !n S_ сс[и1_ . Sие1.`г_ CuucuuCautlu`а Ви1�ит 1U'L k F f1 ! И F N t Н F' Н F М 1' N У , ��с1.,а• 1 1.4 2.1 e.G 1.ь ь1► ; U1 1ч.1 iа�.з 2.з з.ь 1.ai z.u 121 lхч ; Izs.u 2u.i , (с1н11 . 1 � наси,. 1 У].3 'l'!.8 l6.N l'!_Ь !!9 1!) 3"l.S 24.71 29.] 23.4 1U.% 14.'L 1Stl 1L] �: ]1.U '16.! sи�lиь J ?ч.9 1ч.6 xp.J 2's.6 1ии в3 У4.% 11.'! '16.У 23.1 2Ч.f1 2х..2 1иь !1>41 . 2и.и 1ь.и -._ • �. s�.:wг 4 ь.и ь.и ч.:► 1u.i ьs из 1з.1 11.% /.t ь.ь �_и %.s ии ич 1�_s 14.а 5ucwe- � Ь1.1 ).'2 6.5 %.5 57 96 t$.S 13.G Ь.J S.4 6.1 4.4 И4 ц't 1U_] 13.3 Sccaur Ь 1Ч.! 16.3 1ц.9 19.1 tUt 85 27.% l1.U 14.2 (t1.4 1tl.1 1G.Э . 8tl 01:! 1>.2 1U.3 ::ис[ur % ll.4 11.1 1р.'1 11./ tlT )� 79J 1Э.4 Ч.b l"{.U l:1.4 ttl.U 77 02. 14.4 ct.% .,u�6ua t1 и.� tl.s и.г 12.а еи1 ч1 z�.з 12.и z� G_ь !.1 1�.и » i1 t_и_ и_.а ' Ъ'ulsl 1uU 10и 1ци 10U 't:1.4 14.1 1UU ~^ ll1U -�---- 1').Ь � 1L_'2 '1'oLlc 4.l�1,: kILAN 1ИС11ИВ UF 1УА11[ HЫiК121tti (И U111К1'д'А bY :i1:C1Y11( ZC'а,г[ги[ Ривиь�-���-` _ _ __ _ ,1у1S,--�_ _ __ - _ _ _ 1911 __ __ _ • 11о11аиь 30;(� А11 1lorkeгn • !lu(Ьит Jl1'L--" А11 1Juaktrл М S Н h М } !1 k' s.:�6ur 1 111�г г4� :,41и z�14 1ь�и иыz Sигз эzзь 5a:ciua У 9'L7 %1l1 '2U1J 14l') 1J79 i'154 3Uq1 '[цлд �и�1иа � 1lJU 795� 2]t� ►7l] 1n9u 14z4 4и2� гзив Scrlur 4 1и'L! B4ll "ltlll 1L'[5 fl41 lьвh bU�1 '[43ы чаг.4ан' � 'I1.'! %'L!� � 46�9 'L'L/у 1л(.и ,, 1и�и ь�иг, ггч1. 1 sccl.,a ь 1еи't iru з4l.z 1ь1и . , "' а , lьaL {sэ1 �iu74 1бей и ::ис1.�� ! 74ц S1t{[а t,bl� "L1't'д 1I1! l`J71 )GlU J4'!4 1 - :im.lua !! 11U //о G4L! 11/У l'1d11 ld1Ud .. �'_j0'J._-.. . .�jlJ1 .,,: �1 16г� 1 n.! . � 1sь 1� 14 1/ии 144+1 �4и2 zuzu ,..�narr: 1ЧГ'� UЛ1:1 :.1rec1nl 1lo�;wu П.н,ьсЬ..1J 5иа'v�y (ГUB1i1 1•, , 11A1i1- 11..uьtLutd 'ни�tlсу (1:111�) • ,. , . ~ � , 1 57 V. THOSE WHO DO NOT WORK: UNEMPLOMENT AND PARTICIPATION RATtS OF THE POOR In section 2 we showed that unemployment was particularly high among he poor and is therefore regarded as one of the key causes as well as results of poverty. la this section we attempt to disaggregate the unemployment and participation rates somewhat more by age and education groups and then spatially by sectors. 5.1 Rates of Unemployment and Participation bX Age and Education Groups Table 5.1 and 5.2 repor the unemployment and participation ra.tes, respectively, of the bottom 30 and top 70 percent of the people, disaggregated by levels of education. The rates of unemployment are much higher for the poor at all educational levels. For males, while for the overall population or for the top 70 percent, people with higher education have the lowest u-n- employment rates, among the poor they have the highest. Indeed, in general, for both poor males and females, the higher the level of education the larger the difference between the unemployment rates of the poor and rich. It would seem that those among the poor who "make it" and receive more education have greater trouble finding jobs as compared*with those with less education. This story is corroborated by pattern of the rates of participation. It is striking that among the poor the,rates of participation are the lowest among those who have higher education followed by secondary and primary levels, In the overall distribution those with secondary education have lower participation rates than others but this is mainly caused by the low rates for the 15-24 age group (see Table A.10). The causation here is difficult ' to ollow but it is probably a comb1nation of two kinds of phenomena. There is probably one set of people who are poor because they are going to school, r г 7'l1k: 1Ч)С►1t ➢И 111ы YrfA � '!•адчlе 5. �: tt.rll�lrWYruiPrr tl.А•r4s UP '1'ыl: Уоиц иУ �:l1иСА'Рlигд г;�tuui'S - _ _ Сiг,lиы _ __ __ _ __ kcu,nLвs ___ 11.,�в�ш 30% ��➢Lt� �0"/, L^ _'l'urnl _ циСtьа,и Зи2. '1'ор_7�Х._ ---�-�--_•Pi,cn1 ➢а?7S 1977 ➢915 1977 1975 1977 ➢975 I97? 1)75 У977 1975 ]971 N„uu fl5_'1 З.ц 6.3 3.5 12.и Э.7 4.:1 5.U d.U. U.U и.ц 1.5 Рrьшису ➢1.Ь t1.6 4,4 3.9 7.U 6_4 1t.1 7.В У.у 1.1 3.7 4.l :;ucuudary 1ц.5 1'1.9 S.4 5.9 7.7 %.4 25.и 21.5 U.0 а.б ви.9 7.7 11!};1aur 1ц.tl 'lа.б 2.5 2.4 3.4 3.5 31.7 17.4 4.5 7.ц 5.'1 д.6 '1'иьыl 1'!.U 13.ц 4.9 4.2 6.9 6.Э 15.4 12.U 4_7 ц.б 6_�i 5.ц '1',аl,➢л: 5.2: еАц'cic:➢PA'eluN 1и'fц5 и1' '!'11l: l't}O1t А1l1) 1t1L'1➢ 1iY 1iUUCA1yoN CRUUPS _ S1u1uu _ Гииа➢си _ , ➢fuflст,_3и% _'1'оа1 70�.� __'1bCal_ ци[l',�w ЭО'х_ _Тир 76% _ 'Сиьn1 _ 1975 д9'/7 1975 1977 iЧ75 1977 19Т5 ➢977 1975 1977 1975 i97'1 • t1„uu 62.'L ;7.6 G7.b б'1.д 64.Э 63.2 12.2 22.ti 39.и 43.5 "L7_ц 34.и ➢�,imsry бц.9 62.9 77.ц 76.И 7�а.5 71.b 1ц.ц 'tl.7 39.tS 44.➢ 32.2 зL.2 I s�:с�ил�,-у й5.и 42.з ь2.о ь2.ь 5и�г tiц.5 ➢�.2 зц.ц �и.и 3➢.f.� 26.7 2�.и ыеglь�ь• ЭЧ.и 31.G 75.4 77.4 7➢.U 72_5 2➢.U 3D.7 51.9 5lL9 4t1.6 49_4 ' _,.- -- - - ---_-.---------.___�,-- ---------------__-__-_._---�----------- ! '1`u�ul 59.2 SЭ.ц 7u.U 1и.2 66.9 G5_9 17_1 2l_2 3G�u зц.ь зи_! 7з.13 w . ' а � :;�аи.д:: 1')l�а l1AN1". йтс�и! 11и5и1д 1lunsa.l,u1.1 Survc ! . i 1 у (k1l�Sli) 19Г7 11AN1S !lичsсlшlд :;u�vuy (1-1l1]) . .. . , , � i 59 not participating in the labor force and therefore existing on low incomes. The extremely low rates of participation suggest that there is probably another group consisting of discouraged workers who have withdrawn from the labor force after having been unemployed for a long period of time. There is evidence that, of all the unemployed, about half have been unem- ployed for over 3 months: that some graduate on to being discouraged workers is therefore not an unreasonable supposition. Tables 5.3 and 5.4 repomt the unemployment and participation rates of the poor and rich disaggregated by age groups,, While among the rich unemployment is high only for the young, for the poor it is hi4h for both the young and the old. Among the poor over 12 percent of the age group 45-54 are unemployed. For females, there are discrepancies between the two surveys so the same pattern 'cannot be verified: these older unemployed are spread over all the education groups though relatively more concentrated among the lower education levels. In getting unemployed at that age,.it is presumably difficult for these people to find jobs easily and some probably have to retire early and spend the rest of their lives in poverty. This conjecture is.supported by the data reported in Table 5.4. The difference in participa- tion rates between the poor and rich,is more pronounced at elder ages. People with low education withdraw from the labor force relatively early and, moreoverp after having had rather flat age-earnings profiles. Policy measures to relieve poverty among this group have to be direct: either direct provision of employment for which they are qualified or direct welfare measures. It is quite likely that these early retirees have always been poor and consequently retire early for health reasons. aII.5._13: Ir10l113.0YNU:sr_lIATES ( Ti POl Allt) 10 ii 1Y ACE. 03tu1111S h.: a ""m 307 - Top~ 707 Tud ) jRrc r r 30' Tl 70 . - 975 1977 1975 1971 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1977 12 - 14 30. a 19.4 13..9 25.9 18.4 24.3 9.1 19.4 0.0 3.0 1.7 5.3 15 - 24 25.8 2/.2 11.2 10.5 14.6 14.0 29.3 1t.3 B.3 6.2 11.3 8.0 25 - 34 10.0 12.6 2.8 3.7 4.4 5.5 11.3 14.5 2.) 4.7 4.0 6.3 35 - 44 9.0 5.0 1./ 0.5 4.0 17.6 2.2 6.9 1.8 1.4 1.9 2.7 45 - 54 13.7 12.0 1.5 0.5 4.6 2.8 8.0 0.0 0.6 3.3 1.5 2.6 55 - 64 4.8 7.6 1.7 0.0 2.4 0.9 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 1.) 0.0 65 -1 4.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tutal 13.11 13.8 4.6 4.2 6.9 6.3 15.4 12.0 4.7 4.5 . 6.4 5.1 Tabl ~5.4: l'ARTCIPATION ItAES OF TIlE IWI< AND 1001 ILY AGE GIcUtIPS Males _F&zain 1 ts 8&>ttom 301_ _ Thip 70~ Total Bot 30t __ To 701 Tra_1 19755 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 12 - 14 3.11 2.0 6.8 3.9 5.6 3.1 3.0 1.9 8.2 7.5 6.1 5.4 15 - 24 46.2 43.5 54.3 52.9 52.2 50.6 21.6 24.1 41.6 43.0 3-8 388 25 34 94.0 1.6 94.4 96.1 94.3 914.3 24.1 30.5 4I.L 51.5 42.2 46.1 35 -44 94.5 93.1 91.0 U7.5 96.2 96.2 21.2 32.4 40.2 44.9 33-9 41.2 45 - 54 86./ 89.0 93.8 96.6 91.9 94.9 13.7 24.5 30.3 33.4 26.3 31.0 55 64 58.5 38.5 /9.4 8l.9 13.8 12.0 10.0 10.0 16.1 21.0 14- li.s 65 g 3(.7 12.3 48.2 46.6 42.1 33.1 3.1 2.0 K.S 10.9 6.1 7.2 1 59.2 53.7 /0.0 70.1 66.9 65.9 1.1 21.2 36.0 38.6 3-1.7 33.11 N ac9: 1915 PAIN fa lokschud Situvey (ILE) 119// 11i1. llii,utehl.gd Sufvey (1`1115) - 61 - 5.2 Where Are the Unemployed? The spatial disaggregation of unemployment rates helps in approaching the question "Are the unemployed poor because they are unemployed or unempldyed because they are poor?" Table 5.5 and 5.6 disaggregate unemploy- ment rates by sectors for education groups and age groups respectively. For males, the unemployment rates are somewhat evenly distributed except that the two poorest sectors 2 and 3 have higher rates and the two richest sectors, 7 and 8 have somewhat lower rates., In particular, sector 2 stands out with high rates and sector 8 with the lowest. Furthermore, it is striking that unemployment is particularly high for people with higher education in sector 2. indicating the difficulty that poor highly educated people have in getting jobs and, perhaps, suggesting some kind of labor market segmentation discri- minating against the poor--sector 2 being the poorest sector. Sector 2 has higher unemployment levels at all age levels as well and sector 8 the lowest. Compared to the others, sector 2 has a particularly high rate of unemployed among older people reinforcing the conjectures made about discouraged workers and retired workers that were made in the last section. Tables 5.7 and 5.8 report the spatial disaggregation of participa- tion rates by education and age groups respectively. Participation rates appear to be evely distributed among the sectors: though the richer sectors have somewhat lower participation rates because of larger numbers of years spent in education; and women in poorer sectors appear to have marginally lower participation rates. Similarly the participation rates by age groups appear to be evenly distributed. Poorer sectors have overall higher participation rates because people enter the labor force at lower ages. As suggested в ; • - '1'11� 1�Кl1с В N вUl�1'1'А '1'аЬ1�: }. i: Sl'Л'l'1А1. U15'1'lQ1цU1'ltlti l1G 11N1il11'!.(1Уl1idN'1' UAT<:5 iiY tillllL'А'!'ll1M CHOl1!"i _ ___ t•lаlеч _ kгчиьlеs _ __ No�cc !'riwary SLCUUdtlCY 11! •t,1�cr '1'игиl Nunn i�riu__�__игу $ecui�Jыcy !1! •1��i '1'и1и1 :.���ги� 1 iч�5 о.и 1э.б 7.4 о.0 ь.б О.и v_и U.0 �_о 0.0 l'J��7 б.б G.4 I%.Ь ll.L �.Ч O.U '1.'1 и й.5 � U.0 G.4 54cL�, � 1уl} 15.Ь н_7 �.б f0.8 ц.5 5.Н 6.1 10.6 5.U 7_} fИ77 7.4 д.0 ��.7 ц..ц б.9 6.8 4.S 9.4 !).5 1.1 S�rt,�r 3 1'J7h 5.l) 6.N 7.b 2.7 б.if 0..9 4.7 1}.5 ).Ч И_Э 19п и.и }.г� �.5 з_4 i,u 0.0 6.i u.s 1�,.ь �_} :;L���,�� �� lчтs сь.� �.о ы.� �.в �.з О.а з.4 iи.ы lt.з г,_ь 1ч�i и.и 4.2 ч.о э.о ь.т о.0 и.� �.! ы.� � �_г 5.:и1�ь } 1)-/S J.S1 5_? ц.U �5�4 G.Э 0.0 5.2 L2_9 lf.l ?.L' lу7) 0.!) 9.9 4.1 2.3 Ь.7 � O.U 0.0 .+_5 2."1 4.7 Se�a��r 6 1��)} 6.9 б.5 Ь.7 �.0 b.4 U.0 1U.Ч 1У.д 2_0 5.у iИ17 5_4 Ь,5 ц.4 ].4 7.s дl.0 }.2 d1.8 G.5 7.D Sariu� l 197} 2.7 Э.Ч �).О 2.! Ь.А О.О i-5 Э_Э 6.l 'J.5 1Ч77 O.t1 4.9 S.1Э 4.2 4.) U.0 l.ti k.0 Э.ц 2_U S..r�.�� tl w97,} D.% 5.9 ��.9 !.} 4.0 0.0 !-7 3.Ч Ь.А 2.Ь 1Ч)1 U.0 0.0 1.Э , U.й 0.3 0-0 j.�� 2.`J '2.7 i.9 ч'�,г�1 1�,�} 1'�.и ь.ч 7.U :f.4 ь.у t.u j.7 fl.u }.� ь.4 1�1) 3.7 6.t, -/.4 3.5 �.3 1.5 4-► ).7 N.G S.e л�п���с: !'1/5 UANГ 51�.:.1и1 11в��,и1а 11uЧSU1i�1a1 Survuy (1i11UG) 1Ч7I 1)Лt�Г 1Р�ы�иЬиl�f SЧУиеу (1!1115) . ё � � • N ь ... , , 1, � 1 1 1 I '1'11Е 1чн1и 1Ч ииln'ед 'СыЧ1ы 5.67 ыРА1'1A1.1115'191111U'f111N UF l1иlд•11ЧАУtФ:N'Г !Lq'fL•'S 1lY АСВ G1lUд8 _.__._______ .. �'-�__� Nьtes _ _ _ _ __ Femnlus _ _'_�. __ __ t'l�14 1 i•'L4 У5_____74 75_44 45`54 55_64 b5_! _ '1'�in1 12,�1G�l5_____'г4 п25-34 � Э5`44 45�54 �� 55-i�4 а�. s- ��p1i„j s��1�r l 1Ч75 - 22._ О.и 6.7 0.� и.0 0.0 Ь.5 U_0 и.и 0.0 и.сх и.0 р.и а.и и.и 1Ч71 - 7.5 9.д U.0 t2_б U.0 0.0 1.4 U.U 7.4 12.0 0.0 0.0 � U.U U.0 L.4 5ncrul "l 1Ч>5 1n.tl lS,Ь б.д д.U 4.д �.0 �.и Ч.5 1'1.5 lУ.э 5.7 2.6 4_д и.и U.u /.S 1977 зЧ.7 ►7.ч с.1 2.0 О.о 2.д 0.0 6.9 о.0 10,5 !1!.► э.д 0.0 0.0 о.и 7.! snct,lc 1 lч75 Э0,7 у7.Ь 4_7 4.Ь 2.ь 1.4 О.и Ь.Ь о,и 1ь.Ь 6.4 2.Ч 2.и и.и U.u и 9.7 1 1777 0.0 19.4 5.7 Э_3 5.4 0.0 О.и 7.0 10.Ч 1l.1 4.у 4.l � 4.1 О.и U.0 7_5 s��1,.r 4 1ч75 и.о 14.а з.д й.7 !и.! о.0 и.и 7.7 О.о lэ.Ч 2.Ь и.0 0.0 и.и и_и б_ь tЧ77 о.0 1Ь.1 б.д 2.7 '!.5 (1.0 и.0 Ь.7 7.2 д.4 7.4 7.L 11.1 ' и.д 0_и 7.7 ,,ип „г S lЧ7S 0.0 1L.Ч 7.Ч 2.6 6.1 O.U и.и о.7- 0.0 11.7 S.1 3.U Ь.7 !'[_5 O..U 7.b 1Ч)7 O.U 17.9 д.д 0.0 2,> Ч.7 0.0 6.7 G.U _ tl.! 2_Э 0.0 9.4 0.0 N.U 4.) 5сс1и, 6 1975 1u.U 14.4 4.7 2.Ъ 4.д 6.5 0.0 L.4 О.и 12.1 и.9 U.0 и.и U.U и.р �.Ч �1 1Ч77 U_0 l6.7 5 J l.2 4.0 0.0 0.0 7.1 U.0 10.д 9.U 1.7 2.7 О.и U_li ).д Snciw� / iу?5 11;0.0 1Ч.L 2 J 1.0 7.9 O.U 5.2 6.l U.U 9.6 2 J 2.и О.и u.U U.11 7.5 1Ч П 1и0.0 14.1 7.6 0.В 1.1 0.0 0.0 4-Ч 0..'1 7_5 1.2 O.U 0.0 U.O 0.0 2.д 5�с�ог д 1715 0.0 Ч.Ь 4.4 l.2 9.tl 0.0 U.0 t1-0 U.U 3.д 2.и 1-Ч и.0 O.U г..U 2.е � 1Ч77 0.0 1.9 O.U 0.0 0.0 O.U u.U 0.l� O.U 2.5 1_G 2.д 0.0 U.11 О.и 1.И '1'ислl 11i15 1д.д 14.tl 4.4 7.Ч 4.Ь 2.4 !.1 6.9 u.U 1У.7 '---`4_U � !.у-'---_ l.� -п' 1.7 '- -- 11.U �--'Ь �� 1Ч77 24.7 14.и 5.5 1.д 2.д О.Ч 0.0 6.7 5.7 д.U 6.7 2.] 2.5 U.u O.U 5.0 :.1ипс: !')7; uAf74 5pnclnl Uogoca 1lоыьсlьоlJ 5urvny (И11дЕ) � `-"--'- -�-_.------л. lЧ71 1)ANL' 1Шusehold 5игииу [L•'1115) , : • . I j 1 Q� удi 1 " 1 � " � 1 1 • , �. , г�1 �1 , , . у 64 earlier at higher ages the poorer sectors have lower rates of participation because of earlier withdrawal from the labor force. Overall,,there is some support for the idea that a component of the unemployment is reinforced because people are poor. Poverty leads to malnutrition, disability which makes people unemployable as well as dissoll'usion which leads to withdrawal from the labor force. TilE POORt IN BOOTA Talde 5.7: SPATIAL DISTRUSIríON OF PARTICIPATION KATES BY EDUCATION GR1OUPS Males Feiniles None Primary Secondary Iliigher Total None Prim_y_ Secondary Iligher Total Scetoi 1975 100.0 75.9 62.8 96.3 76.0 66.7 40.4 33.3 75.0 42.6 1977 50.0 72.0 51.1 85.7 67.0 66.7 38.9 '46.2 39.2 43.2 Setor 2 1975 62.5 76.8 58.2 69.8 69.3 15.3 27.3 27.3 55.6 27.0 1977 73.0 73.5 65.8 70.8 70.6 29.9 29.4 29.0 56.5 30.1 SecLor 3 1975 48.8 73.4 57.4 .66.1 65.3 24.0 24.7 27. 55.3 27.2 1977 54.4 68.1 57.8 67.6 62.9 27.8 30.0 29.4 56.7 30.6 Sector 4 1975 54.6 76.6 66.9 73.5 71.4 29.3 34.8 28.7 55.8 32.9 1977 50.0 79.5 67,3 73.1 72.4 13.4 31.4 34.0 52.5 •32.7 Sector 5 1975 100.0 72.6. 67.9 77.0 71.7 36.7 40.0 25.2 53.5 34.4 1977 60.1 79.5 59.8 93.7 72.5 37.0 34.7 22.8 6[.0 32.0 Sector 6 1975 76.2 72.9, 56.3 75.0 65.9 27.1 30.1 29.9 52.6 31.2 1977 59.7 70.5 57.7 78.3 65.1 21.1 31.5 29.3 54.2 31.5 Scetor 7 1975 78.6 76.7 56.3 66.4 65.3 44.9 39.4 21.7 41.3 31.6 1977 70.4 71.7 53.7 66.2 62.4 59.9 49.8 26.9 42.5 38.1 Scelor 8 1975 79.0 73.0 49.5 71.6 64.4 48.3 57.8 23.6 32.4 39.7 1977 66.4 64.6 45.8 72.4 60.6 48.2 74.3 27.4 44.4 46.5 Tutal 1975 64.2 74.6 72.0 67.1 27.9 32.3 26.7 48.6 30.8 1977 63.2 71.8 58.5 72.5 65.9 34.0 36.2 29.0 49.4 33.8 Suiirce: 1975 DANC Speeial iogota Hloselìold Stervey (2118') 1977 DANE llousselìotd Survey (E1115) i i д Y61k WЫU !И 1и�и1ТА r..ь1�`_ь: seA•г1м�аlsrи�ии•�оИ ли rли.1'l�rn•rdnN нл'rts иУ ACt clwurs Nmlun _.�_.._.__..t'=��1_ь.'--'-' '.-- --°". . ' .. .._.-� . . ..-- "--' __-п-^-.--" - -'-"----' ----°--'-" - `_ .°"" "- _ ._.' 12-14 15•14 25-74 !5__=__4й 45_____,54 55-G L+_ ?ог.`1 l;2-i4 f,�24 YS-Э4 f5=44 65_5й ц-L4 S; i_ У'.,�1.,.t .;���.., 1 еэ7� U.u ии.и 9ь.Ь 91w.u и1_и nэ.з 3].Э 7Ь.и 9.! 41.о Ьи.и �и.и еь.7 �и.и ;и.ц 4z.ь 197% U.d1 5Ь.4 АОи.И 9U,2 1иб.и 2%.4 49_1 LЬ.г 16.7 4Ь.9 й2.Ч Ь2.Ч 35.4 J4.9 ;;.2 43.2 s�rd�u 2 eJl; >.й ьй.Ч и2.и ч�.3 ч1.9 7У.1 йи.5 Ы.9 5_Ч Зи.] ,9_9 76.4 21.2 7.4 и.и zi.u 1911 и.] Ь1.4 ЧL.О 95.5 94.L рS.Н 39.5 7U.6 2.7 ]7.4 3b.) Gf.S 1й.Ч '!'е_э и.] Эи.1 .,�.,�, з 1ч�� а.ч ;а.и 9�-Ь ч).1 чи.4 Ьа.� е�.ч G;.a 2.ч ц.) az.u 2ч.г Yz.% � и.и в_т z�.2 1� n е.ч se.s ч1.s Чз.% �ч.z Ьs.1 з2.и ьз.ч 4.% эз_т 4з.2 эи.ь ги_и 1з.Ь з_ч эи_с ..с,.�и� 4 !Ч!5 4_4� ;Ч.О Ч4.'1 'l1.Ч Ч'!.U L2.� Gu.U %1.4 l1.4 -Jl.Ь 45.5 1У_U 15.1 '!.'t 4.2 92.'1 1'J1T 2.ti 52.Ь 97.2 9д.Ь ч1.t иЧ.S йь_1 %2.4 %.Ь 1u.U й2.5 4}.t 2U.0 1и.4 и.и )р.% ...:г�.и 5 197; '2.1 Sь.S Чl.д 96.з 91У.7 %:1.9 йд.f %l.% Ч.и 42.и 45.7 Э�_3 зи_2 э.4 и.и '14.7 1ч,% 7.о iй.и �%.s 1дю.и ч%.4 и1.% зи.и %2.5 а.Ь зт.ь 4э.и зз_ь эи.Э zc.+� а.� зz.и �.c..,i Ь hчl5 1./ 4и.4 94.7 Чй.U Ч'l.0 /5.й 4ъ.% L5.9 ь.:д 41.у 71.Ч '11.1 't7_Э 14.] 11_4 ц_2 {ч17 %.7 5'1.2 уS:4 ИU.2 94.2 7Э.9 16.0 Ь5.1 4.U 5и.3 42.i 95.1 1U.2 > J '!.4 7 L 5 .�.:с�.н 1 l71; !_й 41.Ь ЧS.и ч7.о чУ.и %7.й ь;.5 а5.� а.и 39_4 45_! 2�_] 2ц.4 15.1 7.ч 7t.ь !Ч)) 1.+i г,и.5 92.2 1Ь.'t 9b.2 )У_] ]l.4 42.] Ч.1 41.5 5i_L 4).'1 'i].5 1ll.0 7.5 зи.1 ��г,.,, и 137; - 4./ 7и.й цО.'L 9b J Ч;_l uU_1 J1.5 G+e.4 /.: 4;_] ;Э.3 ]и.В '11.й 4о_и 1i b 72 % 1Ч Л 1.в ]'1.% b].2 95.1 9).7 9г.Э й1.tl LU.o 5.и 5ь.4 60.1 5U.5 74.4 2i.Y 9.У 4Г..� У„�л{ 1'11; 5.4 ti':.й 9й.з 9G.] Yf.u %з.tl 41_l Ь%.l Ь.а 77_1 4'е.1 Э].� 26.Q, 14.7 ь.и :UU_и � 197) 1 l 9и.4 94.9 )6.2 94.Ч 72.U 91.% Ь5.9 5.4 Jtl.tl 46.1 41.У ]1.ц 17.5 %.! ]].и .,.ли� . 19/; unNY til,u.iл1 и,.1;.�,и 1L..�:.•-Ьа1.1 :.�„v.•У (L''11иЕ1 1•�]1 l�Ац1'. q.u„�N„1.0 �.нv.у 1!`.U1S) , . . 1 . � О� i Q� ... , . , • 1, � � , , 67 VI. APPENDIX 1. A Technical Note an the Calculation of Incomes 2. App,endix Tables: A.1 Distribution 'of the Poor and Rich by Age Group and the Incidence of Poverty A.2 Distribution of the Poor and Rich by Education Group and the Incidence of Poverty A.3 Distribution of Poor Workers by Age and Education A.4 Distribution of All Workers by Age and Education A.3 Distribution of the Poor by Hours of Work and Occupation (Males only) A.6 Distribution of the Poor by Hours of Work and Occupation (Females only) A.7 Distribution of Poor Workers by Hours of Work and Industry by Activity (Males) A.8 Distribution of the Poor by Hours of Work and Industry of Activity (Females) A.9 Unemployment Rates by Age and Education Groups A.10 Participation Rates by Age and Education Groups - 68 - APPENDIX 1 A TECHNICAL NOTE ON THE CALCULATION OF INCOMES DANh- household surveys are now conducted quarterly in the four largest cities (Bogota, Mnedellin, Cali and Barranquilla) and in the seven largest alternatingly, mainly to study urban employment and unemployment and the characteristics of the labor force. Characteristically incomes are reported in the following manner: 1. For Emplovees (of all kinds): (a) Cash income from employment is reported according to periodicity of payment which has 5 categories: monthly, fortnightly, every 10 dais, weekly and daily. The multiple used to --onvert theve incomes into monthly equivdlents were as follows: monthly - - 1 fortnightly (quincenal) - 2 ten days- 3.04 (365 1 ) 10 12 weekly - 4.33 (52/12) daily - 21.75 This method obviously overstates income for those workers who are paid at less than a month's periodicity and do not work the whole month. However, less than 5% of the workers report that they are paid daily (where error is most likely) so the overall effect of this computation is not likely to be unreasonable. (b) Value of income received in kind (food, shelter, clothing) is rep(rted separately. Total labor income was then computed for employees as the sum of (a) and (b). 2. Employers and Self Employed: The question asked is "Net earnings last month from job." This was interpreted as labor income although that is not strictly correct for the self employed. 3. All: Income sources other than employment which are categorized as interest, rents, pensions, cash aid and other were assumed to comprise 1/ Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica. (The Colombian- Statistical Office). -69- each individual's non-labor income. Consequently, each individual reporting any income had 2 types of income: labor income and non-labor income. 4. No Information: A large proportion of the sample - about 20% - did not -report their incomes but did give all other characteristics. They could not be omitted from the sample because they were not uniformly distributed over the sample but were concentrated among sales workers and sales managers and proprietors - as might be expected. The method-used for imputing income was similar to the method used by the U.S. Census Bureau. The objective is to impute incomes such that the new distribution retains the "true" mean and variance values. As the file was read a 19 x 4 x 4 matrix was created with the following dimensions: - Workers were classified - as employees and self employed by sex and 3 categories of place of residence which yields 12 groups. - Male employers were classified by the 3 categories of place of residence which yields 3 additional groups. - Female employers constituted one group and domestic servants from the three residence categories formed the remaining 3 groups to form a total of 19 groups. - Four categoreis of years of education (0), (1-5), (6-11), (12+) were used and 4 categories of years of experience (0-1), (2-4), (5-9) and (10+0) were used. Each cell of the resulting 19 x 4 x 4 matrix then contained the income of the most recently read record with these characteristics. The records with missing income were then given the income of the most recently read record with the same characteristics. The rationale behind this procedure may be seen as follows: a - 70- Consider the distribution f (ytlxt,8) which is the estimated distribution of incomes yt of individuals given their vector of characteristics xt, the estimated vector of parameters being '. Such a distribution may be estimated from the set of individuals with known incomes and characteristics which will give 3. The procedure described above approximates imputing income tothe non-respondents by a random drawing from the above distribution estimated from the set of individuals with known incomes from the sample. if a - 1 n~ drawings were made n = 1, 2, ..., then the average y , t,n n .= ti could be used as the predictor. But ytn t as n - where ye E ; y X 1 Thus, the expected value of incomes generated by the method used (method 1) is the same as that that would be generated by method (2) where the non-respondents jaave im=uted incomes ziven hv Yt = yt Ix t ' This would be the result if income equations were estimated and then used to impute incomes to the non-respondents. Method (1), results in greater variance than method (2). Method (2) gives the Best Linear Unbiased Estimator for the missing incomes but in giving the non-respondents with characteristics x,, the mean income of respondents with characteristics xt, the effect is a reduction in variance of the overall sample: an undesirable result where we are inteested in retaining both the central value and dispersion characteristics of the parent sample.-/ Another way of interpreting this method is to view it as utilizing extra "non-economic" variables which would not normally be captured in a standard human capital type predictive equation., The result is that all individuals who work now have incomes 1/ I am indebted to Michael Hartley for clarifying my thoughts on this issue though he should not be implicated with my interretation of the U.S. census method used here to impute incomes. - 71 - except the non-renumerated family workers who have zero incomes. 5. Household Income: Household income was aggregated from its constituents' labor and non-labor incomes but care was taken to exclude live-in domestic servants' incomes from the aggregation. - 72 - APPENDIX 2 Number Title Page No. A.1 Distribution of the Poor and Rich by Age Group and 73 the Incidence of Poverty A.2 Distribution of the Poor and Rich by Education Group 74 and the Incidence of Poverty A.3 Distribution of Poor Workers by Age and Education 75 A.4 Distribution of All Workers by Age and Education 75 A.5 Distribution of the Poor by Hours of Work and . 76 Occupation (Males Only) A.6 Distribution of the Poor by Hours of Work and 77 Occupation (Females Only) A.7 Distribution of Poor Workers by Hours of Work and 78 Industry by Activity (Males) A.8 Distribution of the Poor by Hours of Work and 79 Industry of Activity (Females) A.9 Unemployment Rates by Age and Education Groups 80 A.10 Participation Rates by Age and Education Groups 81 i-i- A. D.S_.: 015ThIIITC0N 01'iv TIl P1 (1 TT1ff 30 PEICENT) AII RICIl (TOP 70 PLOCElT) IY ACE C.RoUP ANI TIE INCIDENCE OF PiVERRTY klu I.mn 10 PT.ic,t Top 70 P-ac-nL Tut.al Incide.nc of Pa-vet e_F-m 1Male Fema1e HAI. V.-male .HMIe FOGmA. . tl'enent ..I»r. L._1 _P.rcent _Percent P.rce._ Percent prc.r Percent Alt ."u 15 191 1975 197 1915 191? 1975 1911 1915 1911 1915 1917 1915 197 1975 197 12 39 4 35.3 37.8 32.9 25.9 22.9 24.8 23.0 30.4 26.6 29.0 26.0 130 133 130 127 12-14 10.5 10.8 10.0 19.1 1.8 7.1 7.5 7.1 t.7 .2 C 3 8.0 121 131 121 121 4- I.1 20.5 18.7 19.6 24.7 27.1 21.8 29.2 22.5 25.1 24.9 26.3 80 l1 75 15 25- 14 9.1 10.9 11.9 12.t, 15.8 16.6 15.4 16.1 13.6 14.9 14.3 A5.1 66 73 83 84 5-44 11.1 10.5 11.4 9.8 RI.0 10.8 10.7 id.2 11.0 10.1 11.0 10.1 mi1 98 104 92 45-54 6.4 5.3 4.9 6.7 8.4 t.3 7.2 7.8 7.8 7.4 6.5 7.5 83 72 76 90 3.2 1.3 2.3 4.3 4.2 4.7 3.9 4.1 3.9 4.3 3.5 4.1 8i2 77 16 104 2.3 3.6 2.6 4,0 2.1 2.5 2.6 2.5 7.2 2.8 2.6 3.0 89 126 101 135 1(io 100 10t 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 OS1 la7 l.i aii Sjt.ur ih-'. 15 r,e). 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O.U 1 65 1 t U,U б,0 11.0 U,11 0,0 О.б � б.0 - U,O O.U О ------ - -- - --------------_ 1 � 'д'иtиl O.il l.5 3.f! 4.l )0.) 7.7 5.Ч tl.L L.t� S.tl 5uurct: l'J7� 11A1JL•' Spncdal Uugul.n 1louseLolJ 5urvey (1�111Э4) ' 1!)7! 11AN1i 11и�ьииlшlд Survuy ('kHlS) .. , ' � ,` 1 � , . у Till' POOR I N BOWTA Table -A.1 0 -PARTI UPATION RXHS IIY _AGL AND EDUCKrION (.IOtjil Education None Primary Secondary Ifiglier To ta I AAe Croup 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 1975 1977 12 - lid 13.3 15.8 7.2 4.5 3.4 4.2 - 0.0 5.6 3.1 15 - 24 61.5 46.5 80.t 78.2 43.2 42.5 33.6 41-5 52.2 50.6 25 - 34 81.0 86.9 96.7 98.2 96.2 96.5 911.3 94.3 35 - 44 90.0 89.5 96.4 97.5 96.9 94.3 95.1 96.6 96.2 96.2 45 - 54 81.8 97.4 92.6 92.0 90,9 97A 94.8 95.9 91.9 94.9 55 - 64 60.7 66.4 69.5 711.1 81.1 70.3 88.6 82.7 73A 72-0 65 + 37.9 25.8 39.8 32.1 53.5 34.7 38-1 52.2 42.1 33-7 Total 64.3 63.2 74.5 71:8 58.2 5B.5 71.8 72.5 66.9 65.9 FEMALES 12 14 24,0 32.0 9.3 7.3 0.7 1.1 - - 6.1 5.4 15 24 54.2 53.0 51.4 60.4 28.4 26.9 31.0 38.0 36.8 38.8 25 34 41.2 40.0 38.9 42.0 40.1 46.9 66.9 63.5 42.2 46-1 35 - 44 36.6 65.3 31.0 37.5 32.1 38.0 75.4 71.9 33.9 41.2 45 - 54 24.7 39.7 27A 31.3 1.3 23-9 51.6 62.5 26.3 31.0 55 - 64 16.9 18.2 13.5 17.7 14.8 15.6 25.0 29.2 14.6 V.5 03 65 + 4.9 7.2 6.8 7.1 7.5' 8.2 50. 0 0.0- 6.7 7-2 Total 27.9 34.0 32.2 36.2 26.7 29.0 48 6 49.4 30-Y 33.8 Source: 1975 DAUL SV,4-clal Bogota 11cusphold Survcy (018E) 197'1 DANE Ilotischold Survey (0115) - 82 - BIBLIOGRAPHY Altimir, Oscar and Sebastian Pinera. 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