Somalia - Central Rangelands Development Project

Document of The World Bank - FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Report No. 2163-SO SOMALIA CENTRAL RANGELANDS DEVELOPMENT PROJECT STAFF APPRAISAL REPORT April 17, 1979 Eastern Africa Region Northern Agriculture Division This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed witbout World Bank authorization.  CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Currency Unit = Somali Shillings (So.Sh.) = 100 cents US$0.1589 = So.Sh. 1.00 US$1.00 = So.Sh. 6.295 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 2 I hectare (ha) 2 = 10,000 m 2 1 square kilometer (km ) = 100 ha 1 metric ton (mt) = 1,000 kg ABBREVIATIONS CRDP - Central Rangelands Development Project DAP - Department of Animal P:coduction FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization GLU - Grazing Livestock Unit ICB - International Competitive Bidding IDA - International Development Association, World Bank IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development ILCA - International Livestock Center for Africa LDA - Livestock Development Agency LU - Livestock Unit MLFR - Ministry of Livestock, Forestry and Range MOA - Ministry of Agriculture MOE - Ministry of Education MMWR - Ministry of Mineral and Water Resources NRA - National Range Agency NRDP - Northern Rangelands Development Project ODM - Overseas Development Ministry, U.K. PPF - Project Preparation Facility RMEA - Regional Mission for East Africa, World Bank UNDP - United Nations Development Program USAID - United States Agency for International Development WDA - Water Development Agency WFP - World Food Program GOVERNMENT OF SOMALIA FISCAL YEAR January 1 - December 31  FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY SOMALIA CENTRAL RANGELANDS DEVELOPMENT PROJECT TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. I. BACKGROUND .................................................. 1 II. THE TRADITIONAL LIVESTOCK SUB-SECTOR ........................ 2 A. Resource Base ........................................... 2 B. Related Government Institutions ......................... 4 C. Education and Training .................................. 5 D. Range Development Projects .............................. 6 E. Grazing Cooperatives and Grazing Associations .... ....... 6 F. Ongoing Bank Group Assistance ........................... 7 III. THE PROJECT AREA ............................................ 8 A. Description ............................................. 8 B. Resource Utilization .10 C. Infrastructure ....................... .................... 11 D. Assistance Beyond the Project Area ..... ................. 12 IV. THE PROJECT ................................................ 13 A. Project Design . ......................................... 13 B. Project Costs ............................................ 21 C. Financing ............................................... 23 D. Procurement .............................................. 25 E. Disbursement . ........................................... 26 F. Accounts, Audit and Reporting ...... ..................... 28 V. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT ......... ........................ 28 A. The National Range Agency . .............................. 29 B. Formal Training .......................................... 31 C. Veterinary Services ..................................... 31 D. Regulation of Grazing Reserves .32 E. Annual Work Program .32 F. Technical Assistance Staff .32 G. Construction .34 This report is based on the findings of a mission which visited Somalia in February-March, 1978, comprising P.A. Sihm, E. Goetz (IDA), D. Wilcox, E. Hall, J. Moller (Consultants). This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.  TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page No. VI. PRODUCTION, MARKETS, PRICES, COST RECOVERY AND GOVERNMENT CASH FLOW . .......................... 35 A. Production ......................... 35 B.- Markets and Prices ..................... 37 C. Income of Pastoralists .............. .. ................. 38 D. Cost Recovery and Government Cash Flow ........ ......... 38 VII. BENEFITS AND JUSTIFICATION ................................ 39 A. Quantifiable Benefits ............... .. ................. 39 B. Economic Rate of Return ................................ 39 C. Risks and Sensitivity Analysis .......... .. ............. 40 D. Non-quantifiable Benefits ............. .. ............... 41 E. Beneficiaries ..................... ..................... 41 VIII. AGREEMENTS REACHED ........................... 42 ANNEXES ANNEX 1 Chart 1 Project Implementation Schedule ....... 45 Table 1 Schedule of Disbursement .... .......... 46 Chart 2 Schedule of Construction .... .......... 47 Chart 3 Employment of Internationally Recruited Staff ...... ................. 48 ANNEX 2 Chart 1 National Range Agency - Organization Chart.. 49 Chart 2 National Range Agency - Headquarters Organization Chart .50 ANNEX 3 A. Selected Documents and Data Available in the Project File ...... .................... 51 B. Table of Contents of the Implementation Volume ........ ............................... 52 MAPS I13RD No. 14175 - Somalia - Central Rangelands Development Project 53 I13RD No. 13868 - Somalia - Central Rangelands Development Project: 55 Project Installations  S OMALIA CENTRAL RANGELANDS DEVELOPMENT PROJECT I. BACKGROUND 1.01 Somalia is located between latitudes 11 030' N and 1 030' N and covers an area of over 637,000 square kilometers. Its surface forms part of two plateaux sloping from the Ethiopian highlands, towards the Indian Ocean in the East, and the Gulf of Aden in the North. Climatically, the country divides into: (i) a Northwest zone with a Mediterranean climate and an annual precipitation of above 400 mm in certain areas; (ii) a Northern and a Central zone with an arid and hot climate and annual precipitation between 50 and 200 mm; and (iii) a Southern zone with a more humid climate and an annual precipi- tation of up to 600 mm. Two rainy seasons prevail over much of the country, the long or "Gu" rains (March-April to June) and the short or "Der" rains (September-October to December). Rainfall is erratic with respect both to distribution and to timing and a total failure of two or more consecutive rains may be expected in one out of five years. Most of Somalia is conse- quently classified as arid to semi-arid. 1.02 The population of Somalia is estimated at 3.7 million of which 0.5 million live in major towns. About two-thirds (2.5 million), are pastoralists. The annual human population growth rate is estimated at 2.6%. 1.03 With a per capita GNP of US$110, Somalia is one of the poorest countries in Africa. On a 3 years average 1975-77, total annual exports were valued at about US$80 million. Exports of livestock and animal products provided 75-80% of total foreign exchange earnings, the remainder coming mostly from exports of bananas. Banana production and exports have been declining over the last 10 years whereas livestock exports have increased. Somalia's imports are dominated by investment goods and other essentials such as cereals, petroleum and chemical products. 1.04 About 8.2 million ha, or 13% of the land area of Somalia is con- sidered potentially suitable for crop production. Presently, only around 700,000 ha, or 1.1% of the total area, is cultivated. Thirty million ha or 45% is natural rangeland suitable only for extensive livestock production.  -2- II. THE TRADITIONAL LIVESTOCK SUB-SECTOR A. Resource Base Rangelands 2.01 Nearly half of the total area of the country is made up of range- lands receiving 50-200 mm of erratic annual rainfall and is described as semi- desert and wooded or bush grassland. It takes an average of 12 ha to produce sufficient forage for one head of cattle or 10 sheep. 2.02 The only possible productive use of these rangelands is to graze livestock. The Somali pastoralists have developed a system of production which minimizes the effects of drought and disease and achieves the best possible grazing by prudent dispersal of their herds. When conditions are favorable, uncontrolled breeding is practiced to build up herd and flock numbers as an insurance against losses in the next drought. In the past movements often led to disputes over grazing land, seizure of livestock and tribal warfare which confined the pastoralists to defensible areas, and limited the size of the herd. The improvement in law and order enforcement has removed this constraint, and long migrations have become common. With grazing being communal, no incentive exists to manage the feed resource and the increase in human and livestock numbers, as a result of advances in disease control now threatens to disrupt production. 2(.03 Without the introduction of management of the rangeland and live- s:ock, the forage resource would deteriorate and livestock numbers would decrease so that a lower output of meat and milk would have to be shared by an increasing population. Over the last decades, many interventions to improve the production system have been tried and most of them have failed because they were imposed without proper understanding of the key determinants of production and the cooperation of the pastoralists. Similarly, well intentioned plans to settle pastoralists in order that they may enjoy the benefit of social services have ignored these basic issues. The improvement of the living conditions of the pastoral population and the maintenance of a viable livestock industry depend on the organized utilization of the range- lands, the country's largest natural resource. Flexibility and mobility are pre-requisites to the utilization of areas with low and erratic rainfall and droughts one year in every five. Introduction of range management followed by a gradual allocation of grazing areas to pastoral communities within regions or, where feasible, within districts, would eventually reduce the migration distances and allow a measure of settlement. Livestock 2.04 No reliable census of the national livestock population exists, but estimates based on the 1975 census indicate that at the peak of the dry season, 15 million sheep and goats, 2.5 million cattle and the same number of camels are found in Somalia.  2.05 Sheep and goats are by far the most important animals numerically and as a tradeable commodity. Camels, although traded and important as a means of transporting loads, have a special significance by virtue of milk production and their ability to survive without water for long periods. They act as a store of wealth in an inflationary situation with limited investment possibilities. A man's prestige and influence is proportionate to the number of camels he owns. The relative importance of each animal type in exports is indicated below. Average Annual Live Animal Exports (1966-1976) Type of Number Value % of Total % of Total Animal ('000 head) (US$ million) by Number by Value Sheep 715 11.0 52 40 Goats 581 9.3 43 33 Cattle 43 3.7 3 13 Camels 27 3.8 2 14 1,366 27.8 100 100 Source: Statistical Abstracts (unpublished), State Planning Commission. Forestry 2.06 Trees play an important role in the economy of the rangeland production ecosystem, where they provide fuel, forage and shade and serve as wind breaks reducing wind erosion. Timber is produced only in limited quantities. Somalia is the traditional supplier of frankincense and myrrh, for which present overseas demand exceeds supply. 2.07 Sand dune formation caused by overgrazing, shifting cultivation and subsequent wind erosion of light sandy soils has become a severe problem in the coastal areas. Experimental sand dune stabilization has been carried out by the Forestry Department of the National Range Agency (NRA) under a food for work program assisted by the World Food Program (WFP). 2.08 Charcoal production and scavenging for fuel together with the graz- ing of the town herd have denuded large areas surrounding towns and villages and have laid them open to erosion. Dust is blown into the towns and creates a health hazard and run off unimpeded by vegetation causes flooding. The Forestry Department has established nurseries and carried out the first wood- lot plantings assisted by the WFP.  B. Related Government Institutions 2.09 The highest level of decision making is the Central Committee of the Somali Socialist Revolutionary Party. Decisions on rangeland development are made by vote of the committee or by presidential decree following consul- tation with the Agricultural and Livestock Committee, the Office of the Party Chairman for Cooperatives and the Water Resources Development Committee. The Minister of Livestock, Forestry and Range reports to the Central Committee. He is also a member of each of the above groups which meet 3-4 times a year to make policy decisions. He interprets policy and makes operational decisions and is supervised by a designated party representative. The Ministry of L:Lvestock, Forestry and Range (MLFR) comprises: (i) the NRA; (ii) the Live- stock Development Agency (LDA); (iii) the Veterinary Service; (iv) the Depart- ment of Animal Production; and (v) the Institute of Animal Science. 2.10 The National Range Agency (NRA) was established in 1976, as an autonomous agency to design and implement a national range development strategy. NRA is authorized to: (i) plan national range development; (ii) establish grazing and drought reserves; (iii) develop fodder production units; (iv) carry out planned stockwater development; (v) promote organiza- tions for guiding and educating livestock owners; and (vi) map the rangelands and classify rangeland areas. The transfer of the Forestry Department to the NRA in 1977 further made the agency responsible for: (i) creation of forest reserves; (ii) control of usage of disappearing plant species; and (iii) experimentation with forage or other plant species to achieve more efficient utilization. In 1978 the NRA had a budget of So.Sh. 14 million for activities other than those related to the Northern Rangelands Develop- ment Project (NRDP) (para. 2.22), which is financed by a loan from the 'Kuwait Fund. The agency at present employs 300 permanent staff. 2.11 The Livestock Development Agency (LDA) was established in 1966 and is currently responsible for livestock marketing and exports as well as the collection of relevant fees. A National Livestock Marketing Project is being prepared for which Government intends to seek IDA financing. 2.12 The Department of Veterinary Services headed by the Director of Veterinary Services has a staff of 2,500 consisting of 50 graduates, 1,000 diploma - and certificate level technicians and 1,400 vaccinators and junior staff. An internationally recruited technical director is financed under th!e NRDP. A UNDP supported Serum and Vaccine Institute produces vaccines against Blackquarter, Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Anthrax, Haemorrhagic Sep- ticaemia, Rinderpest and Newcastle Disease. A central diagnostic laboratory is being established as part of the Institute. 2.13 The Department of Animal Production (DAP) is responsible for animal production projects, state farms and extension services related to modern animal production (dairy, feed lots and poultry), whereas field extension services for traditional livestock producers are the responsibility of the NRA with technical support and supervision from the DAP.  2.14 The Water Development Agency (WDA) is an autonomous agency under the Ministry of Mineral and Water Resources (MMWR) responsible for research and development of the national water resource. It has three functional depart- ments for: (i) Drilling; (ii) Engineering; and (iii) Administration. The MMWR is responsible for all water development subject to policy decisions by the National Water Board which consists of the Ministers of MMWR, MLFR and Local Government and Rural Development, as well as the General Managers of WDA and NRA. 2.15 A comprehensive groundwater development project with technical and financial assistance from USAID is to start implementation at the same time as the Project. This would enable WDA to develop and construct water supplies for NRA. C. Education and Training 2.16 At present training in range management takes place at Burao Range Training School which carries out a two-year training course for range assis- tants. Government proposes to establish a Range Management Department at the Faculty of Agriculture, Somali University, as well as diploma level training of range technicians at the Livestock and Forestry School being constructed under the Third Education Project. 2.17 A Veterinary Faculty at the National i,riiversity of Somalia was opened in 1973, and offers a 5-year course in Veterinary Science. It takes in 30 undergraduates each year and the first class graduated in 1978. From 1979, a course in Animal Production will be introduced in the form of a two-year option during the last two years of the veterinary course. 2.18 The Institute of Animal Science which is part of the MLFR at pre- sent carries out all training in animal health and production at the technical level. With the start of the Livestock and Range School (para. 2.19) it would revert to training of animal health assistants and laboratory technicians. 2.19 The AgriculturaL Secondary School at Afgoi has 240 places for agri- cultural technicians. Government has decided to combine it with the Livestock and Foresty School 1/ (para. 2.16) which would have 360 places and to estab- lish a training complex for technician level training in agriculture, animal production, range and forestry. 2.20 The National Adult Education Center is located in Muqdisho and has been operating for several years with assistance from the Federal Republic of Germany. The center is managed by a Somali Director assisted by one German technician/educator. The purpose of the center is to support all non-formal training in Somalia. 1/ In the following called: Livestock and Range School.  D. Range Development Projects 2.21 Range development activities were started in 1967 with assistance from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) culminating in 1974 with the UNDP/FAO Rangeland Conservation and Development Project which has had as iis objectives: to establish a range management service; to experiment with soil and water conservation and forage production; and to investigate means of increasing livestock productivity and off-take. The project was pre- maturely terminated in 1976 due to the UNDP financial crisis, but its findings influenced the design of the NRDP as well as the proposed Project considerably. 2.22 The Northern Rangelands Development Project was identified, prepared and appraised in 1976 by IDA as part of the Drought Rehabilitation Emergency Program and was subsequently financed by the Kuwait Fund. Implementation started in January 1977. The project area comprises the 140,000 km of the three regions of Tugdeer, Nugal and Sanaag in northern Somalia. The project objectives are to arrest the deterioration of the rangelands. It is designed to establish grazing and famine reserves and fodder production units based on water spreading and water harvesting and to carry out stockwater development. It will further initiate non-formal education at all levels in order to create a dialogue with the pastoralists, and expand the Range Training School at Blurao and veterinary services in the project area. 2.23 NRDP's implementation has suffered from the premature termination of the UNDP/FAO project as well as from a considerable delay in the recruitment of international staff. The Somali project staff has endeavored to break these constraints and has succeeded in some training of staff and in estab- lishing an effective dialogue with the pastoralists. 2.24 The NRA is executing the World Food Program (WFP) Project (SOM 719) which supports reforestation and rangeland development activities through the provision of food for work rations to laborers employed. A three year exten- sion and expansion of the project (1979-81) comprising US$19 million worth of commodities was approved by the WFP in November 1978. E. Grazing Cooperatives and Grazing Associations 2.25 Formation of grazing cooperatives in Northern Somalia began in 1974, under the sponsorship of the MLFR. In 1976, responsibility for super- vision of rangeland cooperatives was transferred to the NRA and as of January 1978, 12 had been approved and were in various stages of establish- ment and 12 additional applications were under consideration. The majority of the established cooperatives are in Sanaag Region where grazing normally only requires short migrations. The average membership of each cooperative is 70 and the average land allocation is 16,000 ha of which a maximum of 10% may be cultivated. Emphasis is put on soil and water conservation and forage production under water spreading or water harvesting. The Range Law of 1979 provides for the legal aspects of the grazing cooperative (para. 5.04).  2.26 Government at present prefers grazing cooperatives to alternative types of land tenure reform. Any type of reform in the pastoral areas, however, faces similar problems of achieving equity in land adjudication while maintaining the flexibility and mobility demanded by climatic condi- tions. In Northern Somalia, an average of 230 ha of grazing land is avail- able per family. Eight out of the 12 existing cooperatives have access to more than 300 ha per family and the range is generally of higher than average carrying capacity. Furthermore, a cooperative retains the tradi- tional right to graze common land in a drought emergency. Thus, a general program of rangeland enclosure by cooperatives on such favorable terms would soon have adverse effects on the livelihood of non-members and, eventually, would exclude large numbers of pastoralists from access to grazing. 2.27 The concept of the grazing association as a representative body of the pastoralists grazing a particular area has been gradually developed in Somalia over the past 30 years. The association fits well into the system of village and district councils and allows for the representation of seasonal graziers from outside the district. Since members of an association are elders who enjoy the respect of their community they play an important part in the dialogue with the local administration. 2.28 Before the 1973 drought, about 17 associations had been established and there are now 34. The members of the association are elected by their respective communities and are responsible for: (i) mediating between the authorities and the graziers; (ii) helping with the demarcation of grazing reserves; and (iii) ensuring that grazing regulations, once accepted, are respected. 2.29 It is intended that the associations, as a result of the non-formal training program would be able to guard their range reserves under the con- tinued supervision of the NRA district range assistants. Over a period of 20 - 30 years a certain number of reserves would be allocated to groups of grazing associations, whenever possible, in their own districts. In this manner, migrations would be shortened and a more sedentary way of life would become possible. F. Ongoing Bank Group Assistance 2.30 Bank Group assistance to the agricultural sector in Somalia started with the Trans-Juba Livestock Project (IDA Credit 462-SO) in FY74 followed by two credits in FY76: the Drought Rehabilitation Project (IDA Credit 623-SO) and the Northwest Region Agricultural Development Project (IDA Credit 635-SO). The latter project has been delayed because of the security situa- tion in North-West Somalia. The Drought Rehabilitation Project is slowly being implemented. In the Trans-Juba Livestock Project stock routes and ranch development have made good progress but borehole drilling is behind schedule. An Agricultural Extension and Farm Management Training Project has been negotiated and a Bay Region Agricultural Development Project has been appraised.  -8- The Government has requested Bank assistance for the preparation of a Live- stock Marketing Project which would be an important backup activity for the Trans-Juba Livestock Project, the NRDP, as well as for the proposed Project. 2.31 Experience with ongoing projects reflects the overall absorptive capacity and the scarcity of trained manpower which are creating implemen- tation constraints. In order to overcome these constraints the proposed Project includes a large contingent of internationally recruited technical assistance staff of whom three would be technically responsible for the day-to-day running of key departments in the NRA. Government has further requested Bank assistance for the establishment of a Project Implementation Unit in the State Planning Commission. III. THE PROJECT AREA A. Description Location and Size 3.01 The project area is located between latitudes 30 10'N and 7 040'N and is bordered to the East by the Indian Ocean a9d to the West by the de facto border with Ethiopia. It covers 149,000 km and comprises the three administrative regions of Hiiran, Galgudud and Mudug. The seats of local government are in the regional capitals of Beletwein, Dusa Mahreb and Galkayo. 3.02 According to the 1975 (unpublished) census, the total human popu- lat-ion in the project area was 543,700 of whom 75%, (400,000), are believed to be directly involved in livestock production. The livestock population is estimated at 1.2 million sheep, 3.9 million goats, 0.9 million cattle, and 1 million camels. Seasonal fluctuations in numbers preclude accurate esti- mates. Moreover, large numbers enter the Project area during the dry season from the Ogaden, but no distinction is possible as owners are Somali and often relatives of the inhabitants. Most people in towns and villages keep livestock either in adjoining rangeland or on a transhumant basis. The average number of livestock per person is estimated at 1.9 camels; 1.7 cattle; 2.3 sheep and 8.0 goats. 1/ Vegetation and Soils 3.03 The only natural resources in the area are the range vegetation and the population of game, mostly antelopes and gazelles. The vegetation varies according to topography and rainfall which ranges from about 100 mm in the extreme north to about 250 mm in the south near Bulo Burti. In Galgudud and Mudug regions, the soils are mostly sand over limestone at variable depths. In Hiiran, the soils while being mostly sandy are also influenced by the Shebelli River floodplain in the extreme south. 1/ Survey of Average Herd Size (Mudug, 1971).  -9- Rangeland Systems 3.04 The vast Haud plain extends into, and occupies about one-fifth of, the Project area in a broad band some 50 to 100 km wide. The carrying capa- city ranges from 7 to 20 ha per Livestock Unit (LU) 1/. It constitutes, together with the Hobyo plains (para. 3.07), the best grazing country in the Project area. 3.05 The southern part of the Hiiran region is characterized by an extensive belt of low undulating hills. Limestone uplands with a relief of up to 200-150 meters carry a rich shrub and tree cover over relatively sparse grasses. The carrying capacity is estimated at 8 ha per LU. 3.06 In the extreme south of the Project area, the Shebelli River has deposited an extensive floodplain, characterized by deep, greybrown clays. The area is severely overused and erosion by wind and water is prevalent but observations of an enclosed area at Far Libaax indicate that it would be possible for it to recover if brought under controlled grazing. 3.07 The Hobyo plains extend as a 15-20 km wide band along the coast separated from the Haud by elevated plains of orange sands on limestone. Soils are greyish, very coarse sands over limestone and the limestone outcrops infrequently in low ridges. The grass component is rich and, even where heavily grazed, the grass cover does not appear to have altered floristically. Moving sand dunes are a potential hazard to stability and serve as an indica- tion of the effect which severe overuse may cause in this environment. Carry- ing capacity is estimated to be from 8 to 12 ha per LU. 3.08 The central part of the Project area, comprising somewhat less than half of the total, is a vast tract of orange and pink toned sands overlying limestone at variable depth. It rises in a series of benches from the Hobyo plains and finally merges with the Haud in the west. Ridges up to 50 m high are common, with valleys up to 5 km across to the next bench system. Shallow sands over limestone occur freely. In many instances, the shrub height does not exceed 1 m and the foliar cover is less than 5 percent but where the soil is deeper it supports a much denser grass cover. A carrying capacity of 15 ha per LU serves as an indication of an average of good and poor areas. 3.09 The gypseous areas are characterized by clay soils interspersed with slightly higher stony areas and appear to be the remnants of a much larger and more active drainage system of the past. Calcareous deposits resulting from the reduced drainage are frequent and some rise to about 20 m above the sur- face. Near Galkayo, Dusa Mahreb and Ceel Bur, the gypseous tracts are only a few kilometers wide and meander through other vegetation types. The gypseous areas have a high potential for sheep, goats and camels due to their 1/ Carrying capacities are expressed in the number of ha which would carry 1 Livestock Unit (LU). A mature cow or steer weighing 250 kg is taken as 1 LU. A camel is 1.2 and a sheep/goat is 0.1 LU.  - 10 - easily accessible water supplies. They are overgrazed but have the capacity to recover. In good condition their carrying capacity would be in the vicin- ity of 6 ha per LU or better. Hydra geology 3.10 The geology of the Central Rangelands area is a simple country rock environment containing two separate alluvial systems. The alluvials have a maxirLum thickness of from 100 to 150 m and consist of surficial gypsum and calcretes overlying clays, clayey sands and clean, coarse, rounded sands. Downstream from the main fault system, the area is covered with drift sands, dunes and deep red soils. There are two aquifer systems: an aquifer in the deeper sandstones, limestones and marls; and a shallow aquifer in the alluvials, the shallow gypsum beds and calcretes marginal to the drainage lines. The deeper or lower aquifer occurs from 150 to 200 m in the elevated inland regions and from 100 m in the lower central and coastal areas. It probably recharges in the Ogaden and underflows east towards the Indian Ocean. Throughout the area, all waters drawn from selected sites should be suitable for stock, and boreholes, with minor local adjustments, should produce good water, although the shallower ones may be high in sulphates. B. Resource Utilization 3.11 The current rangeland utilization in the area involves a more or less continuous use of the rangeland for as long as water supplies remain available in the area. There are no accepted stocking rates and no agreed maximum stock number for any part of the Project area. Due to the increasing livestock population and shortage of stockwater points, pastoralists are compelled to compete with one another for the available forage with little regard to the needs of the vegetation for rest. It is not surprising there- fore that areas around existing water points are severely overgrazed and there is no reservation of standing pasture to meet their needs during the recurrent droughts. Social Organization 3.12 The primary social unit is a family household comprising typically a mother, her children, and, when he is free of other commitments, the father. This group shares its meals together and shelters in small huts made of flexible poles and mats. The next significant social unit is the kinship group living and travelling together. The pastoralists in the Project area belong to several lineage groups which until recently, determined social and contractual relationships. Quite apart from increasing government influence, the need for constant movement of nomads among dwindling grazing resources is seriously challenging traditional affiliations, and it is becoming less relevant to view pastoralist behavior entirely in the framework of culture.  - 11 - Seasonal Migration 3.13 Somali pastoralists are predominantly transhumant in that they move from their home village, after the dry season, in search of water and grazing. Movement in the Project area is mainly on an eastwest axis and ranges from coastal areas to as far west as the Haud and parts of the neighboring Ogaden. Pastoralists using the eastern part of the Haud migrate eastwards into the central tracts of Mudug and Galgudud regions in the rainy seasons and return westwards to the Haud in the dry season. Pastoralists who normally rely on coastal water points during the dry season, usually range westwards into the same central tracts in the rainy season. Thus, the existence of these pre- sently waterless central tracts plays an important role in shaping migratory movements. 3.14 With fresh green browse, camels can go for 6 - 8 weeks without water. Their herders - young unmarried men and older boys - subsist on camels' milk and require little or no water. Goats, sheep and especially cattle survive less successfully without water, and their movements tend to be more limited. The dependence of animals on water increases in the short dry season (August - October), and reaches critical importance in the long dry season (December - April). Movement is therefore restricted by the scarcity of wells since cattle and sheep are usually grazed within 5 km of a dry season water point whereas goats and milking camels may be herded together up to 20 km away. The dry camels plus a small number of milking camels may be grazed 70 km or more away. C. Infrastructure Communications 3.15 A new 1,045 km bitumen road (Burao - Beletwein) connects the regional capitals and provides easy access to Northern Somalia. Beletwein is similarly connected with Muqdisho by hard surface road. Access to district capitals is by tracks or cut lines. During the rains, parts become impassable through flooding and mud and during the dry season parts are impassable because of sand. The cost of vehicle operation is very high. Hobyo, the only port in the area, has no facilities for handling dhows or larger ships. Services 3.16 Livestock is marketed mainly by private traders and with the ex- ception of supplies to domestic markets and the abattoirs at Kismayo and Muqdisho, the trade is dominated by live animal exports through Berbera port to Saudi Arabia. The marketing system operates fairly efficiently, and the construction of the hard surface roads from Beletwein to Burao and from Hargeisa to Burao has made transport of livestock by lorry more common. LDA provides only limited marketing facilities and services and mostly acts as a fee collecting agency.  - 12 - 3.17 Veterinary Services are established in each of the regions and in- clude a mobile vaccination team dealing with contagious diseases, and a number of small dispensaries sited near wells where drugs and dipping chemicals are available to stock owners. The service is constrained by shortage of trans- porit and therefore limited to vaccination at major accessible watering points, the investigation of large scale disease outbreaks and the sale of drugs and chemicals. Due to the large area to be covered, additional manpower, equip- menlt and transport is needed to reduce present high mortalities as well as to increase livestock off-take. Local Government 3.18 Public management has been decentralized in order to mobilize human and material resources at the local level. Communities are involved in planning and execution of development within the overall national plan. The three regions of the Project area are subdivided in 12 districts and within each district into villages (sub-districts). At each level, councils are established. In the case of village councils, the 7 members are elected annually by the permanent residents of the village. The Chairmen of the regional and district councils are the representatives of central government, and are responsible for good management and political, social and economic development. Although councils must clearly operate within overall national policy, their authority, responsibilities and initiatives are extensive. 3.19) National projects are both planned and implemented in consultation with local authorities. Staff of central ministries and agencies working in local areas combine accountability to local councils with technical supervision from the parent ministry. Service of their representatives on each council involves the pastoral communities in the planning and implementation of devel- opment and enhances the prospect of their cooperation. D. Assistance Beyond the Project Area 3.20 The technical assistance which would be provided by the Project to the NRA headquarters in the form of the technical directors of Administration, Range and Environment and Forestry and the technical officer of the Water Service would also support NRA's ability to carry out activities beyond the Project area. This would initially be confined to: (i) strengthening NRA's ability to execute the NRDP (para. 2.22), the WFP Project 719 (para. 2.24); and (ii) the formulation of a forestry development project. 3.21 In addition, direct support for the ongoing NRDP would be provided through: (i) an aerial resource inventory survey similar to that proposed under the Project; and (ii) the services of the hydrogeologist and drilling foreman, and equipment for the drilling of the 10 boreholes included in the NRD P.  - 13 - IV. THE PROJECT A. Project Design Project Formulation 4.01 The Government of Somalia is committed to the improvement of the national rangelands, and the standard of living of the pastoralist communities. It intends to: (i) improve the resource base of the traditional livestock industry through range management; (ii) alleviate the constraints on livestock productivity by providing better veterinary services; and (iii) achieve a gradual concentration of pastoral communities so that their standard of living may be improved through the provision of health services and education. 4.02 The Project is designed to assist Government in achieving this goal by: (i) stabilizing rangeland and livestock productivity through the intro- duction of range management, livestock water supplies and improved veterinary services; (ii) gaining the confidence and cooperation of the pastoralists by establishing a dialogue with them through non-formal training; and (iii) strengthening NRA's ability to implement range development by training staff at all levels and providing senior technical staff for the departments of administration, range and environment and forestry. 4.03 The UNDP/FAO Livestock Development Survey in 1966 was followed in 1970 by a survey of the Northern Rangelands (UNDP SOM/70/512) and in 1974 by the UNDP/FAO Rangeland Conservation and Development Project. In 1976, Govern- ment decided to establish the NRA as part of the NRDP with the initial task of implementing that project. In November 1976, a World Bank project iden- tification mission visited Somalia at Government's request and it was agreed that a project should be prepared to develop the Central Rangelands area of the country. In January 1977, a joint Government/World Bank team began project preparation. The preparation report was issued in October 1977 and Government's request for appraisal followed in November. The Project was appraised in February 1978 and negotiated in March 1979. 4.04 The main changes made in the project design at appraisal were: (i) the concept of range management by the opening and closing of boreholes evenly distributed throughout the Project area was abandoned in favor of demarcation of grazing reserves covering 30% of the area and the develop- ment of stock water in selected reserves; (ii) the proposed Range Research Institute which was considered premature, was deleted; (iii) non-formal and formal training was considerably expanded; and (iv) the woodlot planting component was replaced by 3 nurseries and town shelter belts. Project Description 4.05 The Project would, over a period of six years, consolidate and improve rangeland and livestock production in the Project area, improve the income of the pastoralists and through the introduction of a system of range utilization, make way for the gradual concentration of pastoral communities conducive to the provision of social services.  - 14 - 4.06 This would be achieved by conducting an aerial survey of livestock and human habitation in the Project area on the basis of which a vegetation map would be produced, followed by a ground survey of the rangelands and visits to pastoral communities to gather more detailed information and estab- lish a dialogue. Based on this information the location of grazing reserves wou:Ld be chosen, grazing associations formed and agreements reached between NRA, local government and the grazing associations regarding the use of the reserves, especially those where stock water supplies would be developed. In the meantime non-formal training of pastoralists and the formal education of staff would be implemented as would the strengthening of NRA and veterinary services and the establishment of nurseries, town shelter belts, soil and water conservation areas and range grazing cooperatives. 4.07 Range Development. Specifically, the Project would provide staff, equipment and transport to carry out range development comprising: (i) the demariation of 45 town and village grazini reserves each of 400 km , 12 famine reserves Sach of 600 km and 20 range grazing reserves each of 900 km ; (ii) the drilling and equipping of 32 boreholes, or stockwater ponds where appropriate, to provide supervised stockwater points in the famine and range grazing reserves; (iii) the construction of 1,000 km of access tracks leading to range reserves and stockwater points; (iv) the provision of staff, housing, offices, workshops, trans- port and equipment for the NRA field service in the Project area. 4.08 Training. In order to gain the confidence and cooperation of the pastoralist, the Project would provide staff, equipment and transport for a non--formal training program to: (i) carry out a survey of pastoral communities and initiate a dialogue regarding the Project while collecting information on seasonal movements and grazing; (ii) continue this dialogue by non-formal education regarding the objectives of the Project and the formation of grazing associations; (iii) produce simple educational materials directed at the pasto- ralists and a film dealing with the pastoral way of life which would explain the purpose of the Project; (iv) support the build-up phase of the training program by 3 man-months of consultant services;  - 15 - (v) field training in the form of short courses and seminars for the upgrading of field staff and for the initial on-the-job training of range assistants. 4.09 To assist the NRA in overcoming the shortage of staff trained in range management at both the technical and professional levels, the Project would provide: (i) 4 lecturers for training courses in animal production, range and forestry at the technical level at the Livestock and Range School at Afgoi; (ii) one university lecturer in range management as well as trans- port and miscellaneous equipment to support a professional level course in range management at the Faculty of Agriculture at Afgoi; (iii) 20 man-years of fellowships for overseas post-graduate training in range management; (iv) overseas on-the-job training of counterpart staff for the range monitoring team. 4.10 Rangeland Studies and Trials. In order to assist the NRA in the collection of basic data on range productivity and the formulation of a range research program the Project would provide: (i) 5 man-years of professional services, equipment, transport and housing for the establishment of range reference areas to observe the effects of grazing systems, range improvement experiments (firing, bush clearing) and a small laboratory for forage analysis; (ii) 3 1/2 man-years of professional services to continue the identification and registration of range vegetation (taxonomy); (iii) funding for aerial survey and vegetation mapping of the Tugdeer, Nugal and Sanaag regions in Northern Somalia. 4.11 In order to demonstrate soil and water conservation measures and to assist in experimentation with and the evaluation of grazing cooperatives, the Project would provide 4 man-years of professional services, with equipment, transport and housing. 4.12 In order to strengthen the NRA Forestry Department, and to demon- strate to the population in the regional capitals of the Project area the usefullness of town shelter belts, the Project would provide: (i) 4 man-years of professional services for the technical management of the Department and training of its staff;  - 16 - (ii) 4 man-years of professional services with equipment, trans- port and housing for the establishment of th ee nurseries and three town shelter belts each covering 10 km . 4.13 Veterinary Services. In order to improve the veterinary service in the Project area and to strengthen the capacity of diagnostic services of the Serum and Vaccine Laboratory to support disease investigations and control in the field, the Project would provide 16 man-years of professional services, with equipment, transport and housing. Six mobile vaccination teams and 12 mobile clinics, offering treatment and selling veterinary drugs and chemicals, would be added to the existing service in the Project area and would enable the service to be provided throughout the year by moving seasonally with the flocks and herds. 4 14 NRA Headquarters. The NRA is presently implementing NRDP, estab- li.shing 16 regional offices, supervising the stock water reservoirs in the interriverine area and has also been given responsibility for forestry and wildlife activities. This has put a great strain on the three-year old insti- tution. Staff, both in administrative and technical fields, are not suffi- c-Lently qualified and lack experience. To ensure that both the Project and the ongoing development activities get the benefit of strong headquarter support and direction the Project would provide: (i) 15 1/2 man-years of professional services, with transport and housing; (ii) 4 man-years of professional services, with transport and housing for the establishment of a range monitoring unit which would conduct continuous monitoring of the range reserves under the Project to form the basis for management decisions regarding the opening or closing of grazing areas; (iii) 6 1/2 man-years of professional services, with housing, a borehole drilling rig and equipment, and transport for the new stock water service to develop, operate and maintain stock water supplies; (iv) funds for the construction of a headquarters office building; (v) 4 man-years of professional services, workshop buildings, equipment, transport and housing for the establishment of one central maintenance workshop in Muqdisho and three regional small workshops to ensure the maintenance of vehicles, water pumps and engines. 4.15 World Food Program (WFP) Assistance. All unskilled labor required for range development and rangeland studies and trials would be provided under the WFP Project until 1981 (para. 2.24). In case the WFP Project would not be further extended, Government would provide wages for unskilled labor. A total of 4,700 man-years of labor would be provided for surveying and demarcating range reserves, the establishment of town shelter belts and nurseries, soil conservation and water spreading and experimental grazing cooperatives.  - 17 - Detailed Features 4e16 A Resource Inventory would be carried out consisting of two aerial surveys, undertaken in different seasons, and the production of a vegetation resource map (scale 1:200,000) as well as acetate transparencies. It would include a description of land systems in terms of geology, soils and vegeta- tion as well as information on human population and habitation, domestic animals, water points, wild animals by species, and cropping activities. 4.17 A Range Ground Survey would be conducted, based on the resource inventory, by a ground survey team consisting of two internationally recruited range ecologists and one Somali professional. The survey would: (i) verify and validate the resource inventory (para. 4.16); (ii) establish range condi- tion guides and condition standards; (iii) identify areas of high erodibility and areas suitable for village, town, famine and range grazing reserves, espe- cially thcse suitable for stockwater development; and (iv) locate access tracks. In the selection of reserves, the survey team would liaise with the non-formal education team, conducting the community survey and non-formal training to confirm the agreement of the pastoralists to the proposed sites. Ninety hours of aircraft hire would be provided to allow for overflights of areas not traversed by the team. 4.18 Following the range ground survey, a Range Monitoring Unit would be established consisting of two internationally recruited range ecologists and three Somali professionals. The purpose of range monitoring would be to establish, by repeated field observations of selected monitoring sites, a record of the condition of the range vegetation as a basis for management planning. In all, 284 monitoring sites would be established. The expatriate team would complete the work in 18 months but would return during the last six months of the Project to give refresher training and assist in the inter- pretation of the observations collected in the intervening period. 4.19 30% of the rangelands in the Project area would be put under controlled grazing in the form of surveyed, monitored and guarded grazing reserves. A grazing association would be formed for each reserve prior to its establishment in order to involve pastoralists in management from the outset. The grazing associations would be trained to take over responsibility for the reserves under the supervision and direction of NRA field staff after a period of approximately 10 years. 2 4.20 Forty-five Town and Village Grazing Reserves each of 400 km , about 4 reserves per district, would be established. Each year, one fourth of each reserve would be closed for grazing. The period of rest would be one or two years determined by the monitoring of range condition. The non-formal education and community survey team would solicit the cooperation of the pastoralists, assist in the formation of grazing associations and provide training in the range management system to be practiced.  - 18 - 2 4.21 20 Range Grazing Reserves each covering 900 km would be established around water points selected by the hydrogeologist in an area designated by the survey team as being suitable and safe for stockwater development, and each demarcated quarter of 225 km would be rested in turn in similar fashion to the village and town grazing reserves. The installation of water points in the range grazing reserves would extend the grazing period by 4 months. How- ever, in order to avoid overgrazing, this would be conditional upon grazing associations being formed by the pastoralists habitually using these areas, and their agreement, if necessary, to limit the numbers of animals they would graze around a new watering point and to follow the range management direc- tives of the NRA. The non-formal education team would identify groups and individuals who could conveniently form a grazing association. The range reserve would initially be policed by 20 guards. 4.32 In each of the twelve districts, one famine grazing reserve of 600 km would be established and equipped with a borehole designed to supply the maximum quantity of water during periods of use. The reserves would be selected by the survey team in consultation with the regional range officers and the pastoralists. They would be opened for grazing in times of drought or as required for the purpose of bush control. 4.23 The total distance to be surveyed and demarcated to establish the bounidaries and sub-divisions of the reserves would be 10,200 km. It is assumed that 5,100 km would be cleared by bulldozers and motor graders. The dozesrs would "pioneer" the demarcation lines where the bush was particularly heavy. The motor graders would finish those demarcation lines serving as roads and construct others where the bush vegetation was light. The 5,100 km assumed to be too rocky for the machinery would have cairns erected by crews of laborers directed by the surveyor. 4.24 Non-formal Training. The success of the Project would depend on the participation of the pastoralists affected by the proposed interventions. The reversal of range deterioration does not present a technological problem. The problem is human, namely to arrive at a consensus which subjects the short term ambitions of the livestock owner to long term development objectives. The alternative to force in the form of police type actions is a non-formal education dialogue which provides a slower but more enduring change. 4.25 The Project would provide 9 man-years of professional services, with equipment, transport and housing for field staff, to conduct a community survey of all pastoral communities in the area; train 15 regional and district range educators; conduct seminars and workshops with the pastoral elders and government officials; produce simple educational materials, radio programs and a film about pastoral livestock production - all aimed at explaining the purpose of range development and the promotion of the understanding and par- ticipation of the pastoralists.  - 19 - 4.26 The first step would be visits to all pastoral communities in the Project area by a Somali team headed by the Pastoral Training Adviser seconded from the Academy of Somali Studies. The team would establish a dialogue and in the process collect information regarding the population and seasonal move- ments of the livestock, thus preparing the way for negotiations with the NRA range staff on the formation of grazing associations and the establishment of grazing reserves. The team would liaise closely with the regional range service and the range ground survey team. 4.27 The internationally recruited Adult Education Officer and counter- part staff would establish the NRA Audio-Visual Center in Muqdisho in collabo- ration with the National Adult Education Center of the Ministry of Education. They would use the training support equipment, train the audio-visual tech- nicians and other staff and develop a program of writing, printing and taping of material to be used by the project field trainers. Radio programs would be prepared in cooperation with Radio Somalia and an educational film would be produced with the assistance of the Somali Film Agency. The center would also support the field training programs of the Livestock and Range School and the Range Department at the University. 4.28 The internationally recruited Range Training Officer would, together with his Somali counterpart, provide on-the-job training and support for the community survey team, regional range education officers and the district range educators. They would organize short staff training courses and pastor- alists' seminars, and assist in field training programs which would be part of the formal range-training curriculum. They would work closely with the Pastoral Training Adviser and would liaise with the nomadic training centers of MOE at Awooney and Gur El. 4.29 Range education officers located at each of the three regional head- quarters as well as one range educator per district would be provided. The latter would be pastoralists from the district who had some previous education and training in a responsible government job or similar activity. 4.30 Formal Training. In order to alleviate the acute shortage of NRA staff trained in range management, the Project would provide 21 1/2 man years of professional services, equipment, transport, educational material and staff housing in support of the Livestock and Range School at Afgoi; the establish- ment of a Range Management Department at the Faculty of Agriculture of the National University of Somalia; and overseas post-graduate training. 4.31 The Project would provide four internationally recruited lecturers: in Range Management (two); in Animal Husbandry (one); in Forestry (one); as well as transport, housing and equipment needed for classroom and field train- ing. The lecturers would be recruited in time to prepare the course curricula and field training program, together with their Somali colleagues. Similarly, the Project would provide an instructor in range management, transport, hous- ing and training equipment for the Faculty of Agriculture as well as 20 man- years of post-graduate fellowships in range management. An additional 20 man-years of fellowships would be financed by USAID under a Regional Man- power Development Program.  - 20 - 4.32 Range Investigations. In order to overcome the lack of basic data on the rangeland resource of Somalia and to build a research program on the basis of the information provided by aerial and ground surveys, the Project would provide 8 1/2 man-years of professional services, equipment, staff housing and transport to establish 92 range reference areas in various eco- logical zones of the Project area; the registration and chemical analyses of foriage species, and trials regarding the effect of firing and bush-clearing. 4.33 A Resource Inventory similar to the one carried out for the Project area (para. 4.16), would be carried out in the Tugdeer, Sanaag and Nugal regions (NRDP area). 4.34 To increase the knowledge of what may be gained by applying soil conservation and water spreading techniques in the Project area, two man-years of professional services, equipment and transport would be provided to design and execute trials in Far Libax, Roux and a third location to be selected, as well as to demonstrate anti-erosion activities in other parts of the Project area as required. 4.35 In the above mentioned three locations the Project would also sup- port three experimental grazing cooperatives by providing 2 man-years of professional advice and training. The cooperative adviser, together with his counterpart, would undertake an in-depth evaluation of existing grazing cooperatives and make recommendations to Government regarding their viability, and would assist the three experimental cooperatives in the Project area with respect to collective buying,. marketing and improvement of living conditions through provision of health and education services. 4.36 An internationally recruited Technical Director of Forestry would be provided for a period of four years to be responsible for the technical aspects of forest evaluation and administration, and to advise the General Manager of the NRA with respect to the operation of the Forestry Department. He would participate in the training of forest guards and forest officers in cooperation with the forestry lecturer appointed to the Agricultural Secondary School of Afgoi, and supervise the establishment of the town shelter belts and nurseries. 4.3,7 Towards the end of his assignment he would submit a plan for the implementation of a forestry program for the country and assist the NRA in drawing up a relevant Project for submission to aid agencies. 4.38 At each of the three regional capitals - Galkayo, Dusa Mahreb and Beletwein - the Project woull provide fencing, tools, equipment and labor for the establishment of a 10 km large town shelter belt and a tree and forage plant nursery as well as the services of a nursery specialist for four years. 4.39 Veterinary Services. At the national level technical assistance would be provided in the form of three internationally recruited veterinary specialists: a Senior Pathologist, a Disease Investigation Officer for the  - 21 - Vaccine and Serum Institute in Muqdisho and a Laboratory Technician. They would: (i) organize a central diagnostic unit; (ii) establish guidelines for the collection and dispatch of diagnostic material by the regional field services; (iii) conduct a national disease survey; (iv) monitor vaccination campaigns; and (v) train their counterparts and the technical staff on the job. To strengthen the regional field services, the existing post of Tech- nical Director of Veterinary Services, presently financed under NRDP, would be extended for four years. The specialist holding this post would be respon- sible for: (i) organizing and supervising the development of the field ser- vices in the project area; (ii) advising the Director of Veterinary Services on all aspects of the national field service; (iii) training his counterpart and the regional veterinary officers; (iv) improving the efficiency of the field diagnostic service in cooperation with the officers of the central diag- nostic unit; and (v) paying special attention to the cost effectiveness and manpower needs of the veterinary service. 4.40 In the Project area the physical facilities of the field service would be improved by the construction of a simple field diagnostic laboratory at Beletwein. Vehicles and equipment would be provided for six additional mobile vaccination teams and 12 mobile clinics which would follow the seasonal movements of livestock and offer services including dipping of small stock and sale of veterinary drugs and chemicals throughout the year. Funds would be provided for incremental staff, radio communication, postgraduate overseas training of one veterinary officer, as well as for the establishment of a revolving fund for veterinary drugs and chemicals. B. Project Costs 4.41 Total Project Costs, including contingencies, are estimated at US$46.3 million, of which about US$32.7 million or about 71% would represent foreign exchange requirements, as summarized overleaf:  - 22 - Foreign Local Foreign Total Local Foreign Total Exchange ---So.Sh. Million-- US$ Million