Jakarta - Urban challenges in a changing climate

 65018 JAKARTA Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor The World Bank Jakarta Stock Exchange Building, Tower II, 12th Floor JAKARTA Jl, Jenderal Sudirman Kav, 52-53 Jakarta 12190 Indonesia Tel: +62-21 5299 3000 Fax: +62-21 5299 3111 www.worldbank.org/id Disclaimer: The document summarizes some, not all of the initiatives relating to climate change by the government of DKI Jakarta and other actors and stakehold- Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor ers. The analyses and data were collected by consultants and academics in consultation of the World Bank and government of DKI Jakarta agencies. The views and statements expressed do not necessarily reflect the official positions of the government of DKI Jakarta. The material presented here is to stimulate discussion and increase awareness about the many impacts of climate change on the city of Jakarta and steps to develop resilience. Photo Credits: Olivia Stinson (2011), Paavo Perttula (2010) and Kabar Media (2010) for the World Bank; Photos of Kamal Muara: Institute for Essential Services Reform, 2010.  Acknowledgements Foreword The Jakarta: Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate case study was Jakarta today is a vibrant political, economic and social metropolis includes investment and analytical activities within the thematic areas conducted under the Mayors’ Task Force on Climate Change, that embodies both the benefits and challenges of globalization and of infrastructure, environmental sustainability, poverty alleviation and Disaster Risk and the Urban Poor and developed by the World Bank urbanization. Jakarta’s unprecedented growth presents significant disaster mitigation. The case study is part of the work program of in partnership with the government of DKI Jakarta. Pak Tauchid opportunities for sustainable urban development, poverty reduction the Mayors’ Task Force on Climate Change, Disaster Risk, and the Tjakra Amidjaja, Assistant to the Secretary for Development and and resilience. Still, the city faces a range of challenges across sectors Urban Poor, an important initiative that emerged from the Mayors Environment, Ibu Sarwo Handayani of BAPPEDA and her staff, and such as transportation, housing, water supply and sanitation, and solid Summit at the UNFCCC COP-15 in Copenhagen in December, Ibu Peni Susanti and the staff of BPLHD provided invaluable guidance waste management. Climate change poses additional threats, and the 2009. It brings Jakarta together with three other cities from across and information. Ibu Sjaane Ellen Kasono Nasution and Pak Marzon city is increasingly vulnerable to disasters such as flooding and other the global South – Dar es Salaam, Mexico City and Sao Paulo – to Hermansyah of BPN, and the staff of the Kotamadya land use offices extreme weather events. increase understanding of the links among climate change, disasters of Jakarta helped with data collection for the maps. and urban poverty. With a work program supported by the World DKI Jakarta is developing important policies and plans focused on Bank, the Task Force provides the opportunity for shared learning Preparation of this publication involved a team comprised of staff climate change, and is actively engaged with international urban and knowledge exchange among cities, with a particular focus on the from the World Bank office in Jakarta and the Urban and Local networks in East Asia and the Pacific, and beyond. Within the perspectives and vulnerabilities of the poor and long term planning Government Unit of the World Bank in Washington, DC. Olivia framework of Jakarta’s ongoing sustainable development, as laid for climate change resilience in the world’s mega-cities. Stinson and Marcus Lee acted as the core writing team with World out in plans such as the RTRW 2030, increased investments and Bank colleagues Iwan Gunawan, Arlan Rahman, and Micah Fisher. improved service delivery are essential for addressing obstacles to This case study examines how all the communities of Jakarta Organizational and administrative support was provided by Suriani Jakarta’s continued growth and success. In support of this agenda, are affected by climate change and natural hazards – and why. Burhan, Ummi Kaltsum and Vivian Cherian. Technical material used the World Bank, along with partners in national and other regional Jakarta: Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate provides a basis for in this study was prepared by Rudy Tambunan and Syarifah Syaukat governments and other bilateral and multilateral organizations is strengthening DKI Jakarta’s engagement on climate change and of Universitas Indonesia, and Yani Witjaksono of Bronzeoak. Useful fostering an evolving partnership with DKI Jakarta to support the disaster issues. Supporting a global understanding of these issues comments were received from peer reviewers Sri Probo Sudarmo, objective of strengthening institutions in Indonesia. This support ensures a sustainable future for all Jakarta’s citizens. Maria Catalina Ochoa, and Arish Dastur. Thanks also go to Franz Drees-Gross, Abha Joshi-Ghani, Judy Baker, and Peter Ellis for guidance and leadership. Finally, thank you to the citizens of Jakarta for sharing your lives, stories and struggles. The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) Fauzi Bowo Stefan G. Koeberle provided the financial support that enabled this work to be Governor Country Director, Indonesia undertaken for Jakarta. Government of DKI Jakarta The World Bank ii JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Sunset over the Jakarta skyline. iii Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor  Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii Tables Foreword iii Table 1: Population Growth in DKI Jakarta 6 Executive Summary 1 Table 2: World Cities Populations 6 Introduction to the Mayors’ Task Force and this Case Study 3 Table 3: City, Regional and National Population Densities 7 Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity 5 Table 4: Jakarta’s Vehicles 10 Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability 11 Table 5: Area of Jakarta Affected by Flooding 12 Climate Change and the Urban Poor 19 Table 6: Rainfall during Last Two Major Flood Events 16 Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks 28 Table 7: Flooded Areas in 2007 by Municipality 21 Steps Towards Resilience 40 Table 8: Roles and functions of key DKI government agencies related to climate change and disaster risk management. 28 Resources 44 Table 9: Mitigation Activities in Jakarta 31 Table 10: Adaptation Programs and Projects by DKI Jakarta 33 Figures Table 11: Adaptation Actions by Communities 33 Figure 1: DKI Jakarta’s Administrative boundaries 5 Table 12: Climate Change Projects by International Organizations 34 Figure 2: Land Use Change in Jakarta: 1970 - 2000 8 Table 13: Poverty Alleviation Programs by DKI in 2010 35 Figure 3: Land Elevations in Jakarta 11 Table 14: Policies and Articles for Climate Change in the Mid- and Long-Term Spatial Plans 37 Figure 4: Jakarta Land Use and Flood in 2007 13 Figure 5: Land Subsidence and Sea Level Rise 15 Figure 6: Global Sea Level Rise 17 Boxes Figure 7: Effects of Sea Level Rise on North Jakarta in year 2050 17 Box 1. Kampung Melayu 26 Figure 8: Mean Surface Temperature Jakarta 18 Box 2. Kamal Muara 27 Figure 9: Dengue Cases in Jakarta 18 Figure 10: Slum Areas and Slum Area with Flood Map overlay 20 Figure 11: Percentage of Unregistered Parcels by kelurahan 22 Figure 12: Spatial Land Patterns Plan map in the RTRW 2030 plan for DKI Jakarta. 36 iv JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate v Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor  Executive Summary Strong and sustained growth in Jakarta’s population and economy have resulted in a vast increase in the urbanized area, and concomitant land use change. Between 1980 and 2002, almost one-quarter of the land area of DKI Jakarta was converted from non-urban uses (e.g. agriculture, wetlands) to urban uses for industry, commerce and housing. Undeveloped space in greater Jakarta fell by 60% between 1992 and 2005. Urban sprawl into surrounding provinces has been accompanied by increased density in the urban core, characterized by high-rise buildings and mixed use developments. Growth in the metropolitan area has also raised issues of jurisdictional coordination with surrounding provinces. Jakarta’s rapid growth and urbanization have given rise to large-scaleinfrastructureproblemsthatare acknowledged and analyzed by the DKI government, and experienced regularly and directly by public. These include urban sprawl, massive traffic congestion, informal settlements, widespread flooding, lack of clean water and solid waste management services, and land subsidence. Land subsidence, caused by high rates of groundwater extraction, reflects the pressure that the growing population is putting on limited resources and infrastructure. Jakarta is now highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The greatest climate and disaster-related risk facing Jakarta is flooding, which imposes very high human and economic costs on the city. Forty percent of the city’s area, mostly in the north, already lies below sea level, and is thus vulnerable to tidal flooding, storm surges, and future rises in sea The Jakarta skyline from Monas. 1  levels. Both total rainfall and the intensity of rainfall events have increased, while rising global temperatures and the urban heat island Along waterways, the encroachment of physical structures and the disposal of solid waste reduces drainage capacity and contributes Introduction to the Mayors’ Task Force and this Case effect have increased average temperatures. The size of the flood- to flooding. Any sustainable solution to flooding in Jakarta will vulnerable area has grown over time, to more than one-quarter of need to address these issues with the active cooperation of local communities. Study the city. Major flood events like those in 2007 are estimated to cost the city more than USD 400 million1 from stalled traffic, property damage and lost productivity. The government of DKI Jakarta has started taking action on climate change, but much remains to be done to mainstream climate change across all sectors for the long- Jakarta’s poor are productive and integral members of the term. Most actions so far have been related to mitigation, focusing city’seconomy,andarethemostvulnerabletoflood-related The impacts of climate change and natural disasters pose risks to on transportation, solid waste management and energy efficiency risks. They are also highly resourceful and adaptive, with many cities due to the high concentration of people and economic assets, in buildings, with the Governor’s stated commitment to reduce actions taking place at the individual or community level. Jakarta has emissions by 30% by 2030. Major infrastructure investments to particularly in the hazard-prone locations of coastal and deltaic a vast informal economy that provides the unskilled labor on which reduce vulnerability include large flood canals and sea walls along the areas. Within cities, the impacts of climate change and disasters are the city’s formal economy depends. Official statistics indicate that coast. There is a great deal more to be done in terms of planning distributed unevenly among different populations – there are often 3.48 percent of Jakarta’s residents – over 312,180 people – fall below for the future and preparing for climate-related disasters within high concentrations of poor households living in locations that are the poverty line, but the total number of people living in informal communities and improving and updating government policies. more exposed to hazards such as landslides, floods and tidal surges. settlements is unknown as census of those communities has not The adaptive capacity of households and communities, in the face of been completed. Living on the coast and along waterways, they are A few basic principles can guide the way forward for disasters and changes in climate, is also uneven. Low-income urban physically vulnerable to injury and property loss, and economically addressing climate change, disaster risk and urban poverty residents have less information and fewer safety nets, limiting their vulnerable as their livelihoods and employment are mostly based in in Jakarta. First, climate change adaptation should be not so much an awareness and choices for responding to extreme weather events, these same areas. Although the homes and livelihoods of the poor additional challenge to be layered onto existing policies and planning and making them reluctant or unable to leave their homes and may be relatively fragile, well-established social networks and cultural priorities, but rather an opportunity for the DKI government and key assets even when advised to do so. Yet, poor populations have also identities of place in Jakarta run extremely deep, and are an important partners to gather their focus and priorities for the future. Given developed mechanisms and strategies to reduce their vulnerability in element of adaptive capacity. limited resources, the initial focus should be on addressing existing high-risk urban areas like Jakarta. shortfalls in infrastructure investment and basic services, particularly in drainage, piped water supply, housing, and transportation. Policies The urban poor have important roles to play in addressing At the Mayors’ Summit in Copenhagen in December 2009, World and investments should be based on improved information, including Jakarta’svulnerabilitytoclimatechangeanddisasters.With Bank President Robert Zoellick and a number of mayors welcomed quantitative data and an understanding of community-level actions relatively low incomes, the Jakarta’s poor are not large consumers of the formation of a Mayors’ Task Force on Urban Poverty and Climate and adaptive capacities. Finally, enhanced collaboration – with the energy, and contribute little to the city’s greenhouse gas emissions. administrations of neighboring provinces, as well as with the local Change. Subsequently, at the Global Dialogue for Mayors in January However, urbanization pressures have led the poor to settle informally communities as active participants and partners – is crucial to the 2010, mayors from Dar es Salaam, Jakarta, Mexico City and São Paulo, in dense, but tenuously constructed housing. success of long-term action. together with global city networks, decided on the main elements of the Task Force’s work program. As part of this work program, case 2 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Rooftops in Kampung Melayu. 3 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor  Introduction to the Mayors’ studies in the four participating cities were undertaken to better understand the links among urban poverty, climate change and Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity disaster risk management and to share good practices in advancing climate-resilient programs to support the urban poor. The World Bank, in close consultation with the Provincial Government of the Special Capital District (DKI) of Jakarta, and other stakeholders and partners, has prepared this case study of Jakarta. Jakarta is one of the biggest cities in Southeast Asia, and also the Figure 1: DKI Jakarta’s Administrative boundaries Key DKI government agencies, such as the departments responsible capital of one of its newest democracies. The city has been an active for development planning (BAPPEDA), environment (BPLHD), and harbor area since the fourth century, and became a port city formally spatial planning (Biro Tata Ruang) discussed existing city strategies planned by the Dutch beginning in the 17th century. The province of and policies related to climate change. DKI Jakarta also hosted a DKI Jakarta is administered by a governor, and is comprised of five stakeholder consultation workshop in December 2010, to review and strengthen the findings of this case study through conversations municipalities – North, South, East, West and Central Jakarta, each with different city officials and NGOs. with their own mayor. DKI Jakarta also includes the regency of the Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu), a collection of 105 small islands The approach used in this case study is based on the Urban Risk in the Java Sea (see Figure 1 for a map of Jakarta’s administrative Assessment framework developed by the World Bank2. Accordingly, it boundaries). includes an assessment of the hazards, socioeconomic vulnerabilities and institutional aspects related to climate change and disasters Jakarta proper grew at a fairly steady rate through the middle of the in Jakarta. With a focus on the urban poor, this study considers 20th century and national independence in 1945. However, beginning how poor communities are affected by climate change and natural in the early 1960s, intense growth and urbanization began and has hazards, examines approaches that have been taken to address these continued to the present, resulting in the sprawling capital that is challenges, and identifies priorities and options for further action in Jakarta today. Table 1 shows the strong increases in population that Jakarta. This study draws on a number of other existing reports and Jakarta has experienced over the past 50 years, growing at an average resources on disasters and climate change issues in Jakarta, as well as of 2.4% per year. In 1961, Jakarta’s population was 2.9 million, on interviews and discussions with government officials, local NGOs, and by 2010 there were almost 9.6 million inhabitants. During the and community leaders. workweek, the population swells to over 12 million people due to people commuting into the city each day. In terms of world cities, Case studies were undertaken to better understand Jakarta ranks 10th by population size (see Table 2). the links among urban poverty, climate change and disaster risk management and to share good practices in Jabodetabekjur has a population of more than 27 million advancing climate-resilient programs. people according to the 2010 census, making it the second largest total metropolitan area in the world. Source: DKI Jakarta. Bajaj are transportation fixtures in Jakarta, but 4 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate they are considered outmoded, loud and polluting. 5 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor They are gradually being phased out.  Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Table 1: Population Growth in DKI Jakarta As a metropolitan region, the urban agglomeration is commonly Table 3: City, Regional and National Population Densities Year Population Increaseoverpreviousdecade referred to as Jabodetabekjur (derived from the names of the city Metropolitan Republic of DKIJakarta 1961 2,906,500 28% and surrounding provinces – Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, Area Indonesia 1971 4,546,500 56% Bekasi and Cianjur), and has a population of more than 27 million Land area (km²) 662 7,297 1,919,440 people according to the 2010 census, making it the second largest Population 9,588,200 27,067,133 238,000,000 1980 6,503,400 43% total metropolitan area in the world.3 DKI Jakarta itself is extremely Population 14,483 3,462 134 1990 8,259,300 27% densely populated relative to Jabodetabekjur and the rest of Indonesia Density/km² 2000 8,385,600 2% (see Table 3). From a regional planning standpoint, the water Source: Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2009. 2010 9,588,200 14% management, solid waste, transportation and other policies of the Source: Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2009. neighboring provinces profoundly affect Jakarta. Beyond the size of its population, Jakarta has singular importance as the economic hub of Indonesia, the world’s fourth most populous country and largest Muslim nation. Jakarta’s economic output in third quarter of 2010 was IDR 220.5 trillion4 (USD 24.4 billion), indicating Table 2: World Cities Populations that annual economic output is now in the range of USD 100 billion, Rank City Country Population Definition Area (km²) Populationdensity(/km²) based on current nominal exchange rates.The city therefore accounts 1 Shanghai China 13,831,900 Core districts + inner suburbs 1,928 7,174 for close to one-fifth of Indonesia’s GDP, and its current per capita 2 Mumbai India 13,830,884 Municipal Corporation 603 22,937 income of USD 10,582 is more than four times greater than the 2009 3 Karachi Pakistan 12,991,000 City District 3,527 3,683 national average of USD 2,329.5 4 Delhi India 12,565,900 Municipal Corporation 431 29,149 5 Istanbul Turkey 12,517,664 Metropolitan Municipality 1,831 6,211 The strong and sustained growth in Jakarta’s population and economy 6 São Paulo Brazil 11,244,369 Municipality 1,523 7,383 has resulted in a vast increase in the urbanized area and concomitant 7 Moscow Russia 10,508,971 City proper (incl. Zelenograd) 1,081 9,722 land use change. Urbanization in Jakarta is characterized in terms of 8 Seoul South Korea 10,464,051 Special City 605 17,288 both densely organized sprawl as well as vertical growth of hundreds 9 Beijing China 10,123,000 Core districts + inner suburbs 1,368 7,400 of towers and mixed-use developments. During a period of just 10 Jakarta Indonesia 9,588,200 Special capital district 662 14,483 over two decades from 1980 to 2002, almost one-quarter of all land 11 Tokyo Japan 8,887,608 23 Special Wards 617 14,400 in DKI Jakarta was converted from non-urban uses for agriculture or wetlands and water, to urban uses for industry, commerce and 12 Mexico City Mexico 8,873,017 Federal District 1,485 5,973 housing.The high economic value of land under urban use, as reflected 13 Kinshasa D.R. Congo 8,754,000 City-Province 2,016 4,342 in ever-increasing market prices and rents for land and property, 14 New York City United States 8,363,710 City proper 789 10,452 continues to put pressure on remaining green space, which is crucial 15 Lagos Nigeria 7,937,932 Statistical Area 1,000 7,938 for absorbing run-off from rainfall and for replenishing the water Source:Various municipal data agencies and reports, (see end note 3). table. Figure 2 illustrates this land use change from 1970 to 2000. 6 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Much of Jakarta is low-lying 7 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor and extremely dense.  Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Figure 2: Land Use Change in Jakarta: 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 In the greater Jakarta area, undeveloped areas, which also include vast urban cemeteries, decreased from 17,956 hectares in 1992 to 7,166 hectares in 2005, Legend : a reduction of 60% in only 13 years.6 Source: DKI Jakarta. Rivers Wetland U Open Space and Farmland 0 5 10 Developed Area Kilometer 8 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 9 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor  Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Table 4: Jakarta’s Vehicles 2007 2008 2009 2010 Growth 2007 -2010 Climate Change Hazards Figure 3: Land Elevations in Jakarta Automobiles Trucks 1,916,469 518,991 2,034,943 538,731 2,116,282 550,924 2,285,802 564,776 19% 9% and Vulnerability Buses 318,332 308,528 309,385 322,440 1% Motorcycles 5,974,173 6,765,723 7,518,098 8,484,384 42% All vehicles 8,727,965 9,647,925 10,494,689 11,657,402 34% Source: Statistik Daerah Provinsi DKI Jakarta 2010, BPS. Even before the onset of pressures from urbanization and climate change, Jakarta had a number of existing characteristics that predisposed it to flooding and other natural hazards. Jakarta’s Jakarta faces a range of serious physical challenges - largely related to Jakarta also has institutional concerns that are critical for addressing geographical location is along the coast in one of the most seismically infrastructure and planning - that both result from, and define, its urban infrastructure development and service delivery. The DKI government and volcanically active areas in the world. This makes it vulnerable character. These challenges are complex, interrelated, and mostly grapples with financial and technical capacity constraints in delivering to natural geological disasters as well as hydrological phenomena already well understood by the DKI government and the community services and responding to the wide range of needs. Administration such as tidal flooding, a natural occurrence gravely exacerbated by at large. Infrastructure investments and basic service delivery like costs are a large part of local government expenditure, while spending sea level rise. The city lies on the coastal lowland north of hilly sewers, water, road construction and solid waste management have on basic services and infrastructure is lagging.7 Although many issues regions that naturally drain into the plains, and is characterized by not kept pace with demand. This has resulted in problems such require integrated regional approaches and solutions for the entire relatively flat topography. Within its perimeter are beaches, swamp as massive traffic congestion, illness, informal settlements which greater Jakarta area, implementation and coordination are hampered areas, mangrove forests and deltaic land. Thirteen naturally occurring are concentrated pockets of poverty, widespread flooding, and by jurisdictional boundaries between DKI and surrounding provinces. rivers drain from south to north, running through the city, as do land subsidence. The city has a reputation for having some of the Quantitative information on Jakarta’s poor population, the rate of in- now hundreds of man-made drainage canals and tertiary drainage LAND ELEVATION Legend : worst traffic jams in Southeast Asia, and for its densely populated migration, and the city’s large and important informal economy, are systems. As illustrated in Figure 3, it is estimated that 40% of Jakarta DKI JAKARTA PROVINCE Elevation (m) : <0 River kampungs (low-lying neighborhoods that are often characterized by also inadequate. The impacts of climate change on the city have been lies below sea level, as is the case with many deltaic cities built up 0- 5 Coastline Provincial Boundary a mix of formal and informal settlements). It is estimated that there difficult for the provincial government to quantify, and integrating over time on marshland, and a large proportion of this low-lying land 5 - 10 10 - 15 Municipality Boundary are currently almost 12 million vehicles clogging Jakarta’s streets, of climate change considerations into spatial planning and disaster is found in the north of the city near the sea.8 Because of its tropical 15 - 20 Subdistrict Boundary Urban Village Boundary 20 - 25 which almost 73% are motorcycles (see Table 4). prevention is largely new for the city government. location, Jakarta experiences heavy monsoon rains for half the year. Km 25 - 30 02 1,25 ,5 57 ,5 10 30 - 35 35 - 40 > 40 Integrating climate change considerations into spatial planning and disaster prevention is largely new Low-lying land (areas below sea level) is said to constitute approximately 40% of for the Jakarta city government. Jakarta’s land area, for the most part in the north of the city. This map illustrates Jakarta’s current land elevations in 2010. Source: Department of Land and Mapping, DKI Jakarta Province, 2000. 10 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 11 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor  Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Table 5: Area of Jakarta Affected by Flooding Figure 4: Jakarta Land Use and Flood in 2007 Area (Ha) 1980 1996 2002 2007 770 2,259 16,778 23,832 Source: Pengolahan Data Peta Wilayah Banjir, DPP DKI Jakarta, Currently, the greatest disaster vulnerability for Jakarta is flooding due to water inundation from the sea and increased rainfall. Jakarta’s floods are notorious, and the resulting stalling of traffic, lost productivity and property damage is said to cost the city more than USD 400 million per year.9 Table 5 and the land use maps (Figure 4) illustrate the increase in land area in Jakarta affected by floods – by 2002, more than a quarter of Jakarta’s area was affected. The most disastrous flood to date, in February 2007, cost 57 lives, displaced more than 422,300 people, and destroyed 1,500 homes, damaging countless others. Total losses to property and infrastructure were estimated at USD 695 million.10 However, flooding of that magnitude is relatively infrequent and is not necessarily the principal issue for Jakarta – flooding occurs regularly throughout the year, stalling traffic, damaging houses and gravely attenuating the flow of business at all levels of society. Even with just a moderate amount of rain, vehicular mobility in the city is critically impaired, often for hours. LAND USE Legend : LAND USE & FLOOD AREA Flood, 2007 Developed Area River The greatest disaster vulnerability for Jakarta is DKI JAKARTA PROVINCE Rice Field Coastline Forest (Mangrove) flooding due to water inundation from the sea and Provincial Boundary Industrial Area Fields increased rainfall. Municipality Boundary Green Space/Grassland Undeveloped Land Subdistrict Boundary Lake/Reservoir Urban Village Boundary Km 02 1,25 ,55 7,51 0 Jakarta’s land uses as of 2010.The map overlay on the right illustrates the areas of Jakarta that would be affected with a flood of the magnitude experienced in 2007. Currently extreme flooding is thought to occur approximately every five years, with the next anticipated event in 2012. Source: RBI Map, Bakosurtanal, 2003/2004 Up date from ALOS Image, 2010. 12 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate A mix of formal and internal settlements on the 13 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor banks of Kali Angke.  Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Flood impacts are aggravated by human action (or inaction) Figure 5: Land Subsidence and Sea Level Rise in organizing and maintaining the built urban environment and Nov 1989 Nov 2007 Nov 2025 infrastructure. Jakarta’s location in a major delta has required the development of an intricate and vast drainage network more than Pasar ikan cm 14,000 km long. Yet, the entire system may be inadequate even if the pumps and canals were functioning at their optimum levels. These 240 cm canals and drains are often clogged with garbage and debris that Nov 26, 2007 225 220 Climate change prevents their proper operation. Informal settlements along the canal 215 Sea level Nov 26 Sea level rise banks also contribute to causing these blockages. Sediment build-up 190 cm Critical level 2007 Oct 29, 2007 within the drainage system is ongoing, due lack of maintenance plans and weak regulation of solid waste disposal and service provision. 18.6 year cycle subsidence Land Subsidence 140 cm 2025: 40- 60 cm 80- 100 cm Land subsidence, although not a result of climate change, is one subsidence increase of the main factors contributing to Jakarta’s vulnerability.11 In the municipality of North Jakarta for instance, more than 60% of land 40- 50 cm is below sea level already, and some areas are sinking at a rate of 4-6 centimeters per year. The north has larger concentrations of This illustration dramatizes the combined effects of Jakarta’s land subsidence (measured in the area of Pasar Ikan on the coast) and trending sea level rise until 2025. poverty and less piped water provision. Other parts of the city are Source: Land Subsidence and Urban Development in Jakarta Brinkman, JanJaap and Hartman, Marco, 2010. also affected by land subsidence, albeit at slower rates. Major land loss by the end of the 21st century can be anticipated in Jakarta, when the significant levels of land subsidence already measured in Jakarta Land subsidence is a result of rapid and unchecked urbanization to drilling deep wells to access water. The most prominent issue are compounded by sea level rise, no matter how incremental the that has driven unregulated and under-monitored extraction of here has been the inability by the public and private sectors, due rising water level is as compared to sinking land, dramatized in Figure groundwater. Groundwater extraction causes loss of hydraulic to both budgetary and other resource limitations, to meet rapidly 5. pressure in the water table, leading to subsidence that is accelerated growing demands for piped water supply. Only about 60% of the total by the weight of the many new high-rise buildings that have come population gets its water from the city system.12 Land subsidence, although not a result of to characterize the Jakarta skyline. A wide spectrum of Jakarta’s climate change, is one of the main factors The most immediate solution to halting land subsidence is to increase residents, ranging from small informal communities to large multi-use contributing to Jakarta’s vulnerability. the provision of piped water supply, beginning with the areas that developments such as mall and apartment complexes, are resorting Land subsidence in Muara Angke in North Jakarta causes water 14 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate to pool and stagnate since it can no longer drain, increasing the 15 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor prevalence of mosquitoes and the diseases they spread.  Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability are experiencing the greatest subsidence. Increasing the coverage of Table 6: Rainfall during Last Two Major Flood Events Sea Level Rise Figure 7: Effects of Sea Level Rise on North Jakarta in year clean water supply also has the important benefit of improving the 2001- 2006- 2050 health and well being of many communities. Currently many of the 2002 2007 Rising sea levels are a long-term climate change challenge for Jakarta. Blue=inundation due to sea level rise at 1 cm/yr poor in Jakarta rely on well water that is consistently non-potable, Total rainfall for five stations (mm) 7,100.0 7,483.9 Figure 6 illustrates the anticipated rise in global sea level until the and so are also forced to purchase and carry expensive drinking and Maximum rainfall upstream (mm/day) 168.1 247.0 year 2100 due to thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of cooking water. Many of their other activities such as washing, bathing and toilet activities take place in the rivers and canals, contributing to Maximum rainfall downstream (mm/day) 172.0 234.7 polar ice caps and glaciers. In addition to rising sea levels, climate pollution and spreading disease. The search for water and the high Average rainfall intensity (mm/day) 21.1 25.8 change is also expected to increase the frequency and severity of percentage of time and money spent finding and transporting it are Average rainfall intensity upstream (mm/day) 20.6 24.8 extreme events such as storm surges and violent tides, a burgeoning a tremendous physical and economic burden for the poor. Women Average rainfall intensity downstream (mm/day) 21.9 27.3 trend in the region as a whole.15 are particularly burdened, as the responsibility for finding water Percentage of days with rainfall 69.9 67.0 usually falls to them. In the longer-term, a broader and more holistic Duration of event (days) 121.0 88.0 Figure 6: Global Sea Level Rise approach to urban planning and development can help to address Water level at Manggarai (cm) 1,050.0 1,061.0 1.0 land subsidence in an integrated manner. Flood level at Bukit Duri (m) 2.3 3.4 Source: Badan Meterologi dan Geofisika, Ciliwung Cisadane Project and Tempo 0.8 0.06 Additional contributions This illustration depicts the level of inundation Jakarta will experience in its coastal Increased Rainfall (2007). Adapted from Pauline Texier, (2008) “Floods in Jakarta: when the extreme 0.04 from potential ice-sheet areas by the year 2050 if no interventions are carried out. An assumption of a sea Sea level (m) dynamic processes reveals daily structural constraints and mismanagement