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Industrial and hazardous waste control : a collection of papers presented at WHO (PEPAS) Regional Seminar held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 4-8 October, 1982

31 décembre 1982 Organisation mondiale de la santé

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Texte intégral

111

FOl<ElJUIW

Wl"t/t the rapid lndustrinlization

many of the countries and areas

the Western Pacific Hegiun, proper management and sate disposal of wast,~s

industrial and hazardous prohlem.

are becoming an increasi ngly serlOUS

A regional seminar was cOllvened at tlie WHO \4"stprn Pacific

Regional Centre for tile Promotion of Environmental Planning and Applied Studies (PEPAS) trom I~

to i:l (ictoiJel" 1'10:< to assess the extent of til"

problem, to evaluate the tecllnology and nlanagement strategies available for handling the problem alld L,) suggest further studies and aclions needed to achieve the objective ot enviroll1J1ental protection in the Region.

This document contaIns a selection of technical papers presented at the seminar tur possible reterence use by environmental policy makers, pollutiun control personnel and educators in relatea fields. Some ot

these papers have been revised by the authors to bring the contents up-to-d ate. Othe rw i se, Lh,' paperb .3

re reprodllced a:; 'I,,'y were presenLed.

IC---'rL Dr K. ~1.

()tficer-i -Charge PEPAS

1. Paul

l 0 N TEN T S

Page

Hanagement of waste plastics ill the Republic 01 Korea, II. M. Guo and Kyu-Eung Kim

The hcaltll and environmental significance and management practice ut industrial and hazardous wnste, S. J.wnj

lndustrinl wnstewater control - Malaysial' policy and legislatic)(1, A. ~lalteswaran

Risk assessment and Industrial and hazardous waste.

control,

~I.

Nakamura

Strategies and enforcement o[ inclustrinl wastewater control in Halaysia (a case study), G. Singam

(,.

!1azJnlous ';;lste disposal, N. E.

U. 'laylor

152

Sugar mill waste problems

11'

Fiji, T. Videnov

190

l.egLslative measures and management strategies for hazardous wasLe' control, K. [>I.

203

Yao

Note;

Fapers are arranged author's namE'.

III

alpltal>etical ord,'r

accordlll)c~

to the

.... -1-

....

.... MANAGEJ'1ENT OF WASTE PLASTI CS

IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

....

by Pau 1 H. M. Guo 1 nnd Ky u- IOu ng Kim 2

.... 11.110 Sani t.1ry Engineer

2Director, Solid Waste ~1.1nagement Division, OffJCP of EnvirOllllle!1t.

....

Spoul, Republic of Korpg

....

-2-

Abstract The use of plastics has become so popular in the Republic of Korea that plastic products can be found everywhere. Plastics are used in the

packaging, construction, agricultural, electrical and footwear industries as well as many others. It is estimated that approximately • <'UU,ooo tons of plastic wastes are generated in Korea annually.

,... Waste plastics, if not properly collected and disposed of, can r~sult

in air and water pollution problems.

They could adversely

atfect the visual qual i ty and the aes thetic value of the environment.

Sani tary landfill and composting are generally not sui table for plastic disposal, because plastics are resistant to biological degradation. Heclamation {recovery, reuse and recycling) of waste plast~cs

appears to be a technically and economically viable solution.

The

Korean Government established the Kor'!a Hesources Recovery and Reutilization Corporation (KHHHC) jn September 1';18U to specifically deal with the waste plasbcs produce(i in the countr:,'. The organization, functions an.i

activities of KHHI:{C, together with thn practice of plastic collection, recovery and recyclinG are elaborated in this paper.

-3-

1. Introduction

Plastics are synthetic organic materials which have large molecules made up of chains of atoms. tion accepted ~

According to the official defini-

the Societ,y of Plastics Engineers and the Societ,y of the

Plastics Industry, the term plastics applies to "a large and varied group of materials which consist of, as an essential ingredient, a substance of high molecular weight which, while solid in the finished state, at some stage of its manufacture is soft enough to be formed into various shapes - most usually through the application of heat and/or pressure".

Most plastics

originate

from petroleum sources.

Production of

plastics begins at oil refineries

and natural gas purification plants

where the crude oil and gases are separated into many components. Petro-cheml.cal plants use these products to produce the basic entities of plastic.;etQylene and propylene. lene. Etl\:""lell(' Cl.J If

Ethylene is polymerized into polyetQy,,,' :, :..:' (>(:'_'Cl:

I.:~ '0:: i! 1r..

C!.J'

(l ~. "

vinyl chloride which

is then polymeri~·.p(l into polyvinyl ehloride (PVC). processed into po~erized

Eth,yIeile and benzene are J'ropy lene is

styrene monomer and (;hen into pOlystyrene. po~ypropylene.

into

-4-

Although petroleum prices have substantially increased during the past decade, plastic consumption is steadily accelerating because pla.stics are still more economical and have more applications than many other materials. Plastics can be formed into any shape, made in any size, dyed Th~

-, are

to any colour and produced in aIrJ thickpess, density and strength • .: inert to many substances, waterproof and corrosion resistant.

These

r.haracteristics render plastics ideal for packaging, insulating, coating and making containers, toys, tools, utensils, foot wear, garments etc ••

2. Classification of Plastics

Plastics, based on their thermal behaviour, can be classified into two groups; namely, the thermoplasts and the thermosets.

Thermoplasts, or thermoplastic meterials can be remelted and They become soft and

reformed by the application of heat and pressures. moldable when exposed to heat.

"lh,>p cooled, they become hard and rigid.

Thermoplanticl" tend to soften at temperatures from 65 to 120°C.

-5-

In thermoplastics, the atoms and molecules -.

are joined end to end When Upon

l.nto a series of long chains, which are independent of each other. subject to heat, the individual chains slip, causing plastic How. chi 1 ll.ng, the chains are again held firmly together.

The structure 01

themoplastics is shown in

Fi~re

Some important members of this

group are presented as 10l10ws:

1) Polyethylene lPE): This is probably the most common plastic used.

It is opaque, flexible, resistant to impact and inert to many chemical

corrosives.

It is widely used as an extrusion material

for the

production 01 plpes, Dotties, 1ilms, sheets and lor Wl.re and cable coverings. THBRMOP LAS'! S

------. THI~ml0SETS

Fif\11re 1,

~truct'lre

of Flasticf'

-6-

2) Polypropylene (pp): The chemical properties of Polypropylene are very similar to polyethylene. Its primary advantage over polyethylene is Polypropylene packaging is becoming

its good resilience properties. very popular.

...

3) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): More PVC is now used than aqy other single plastic material, taking advantage or its toughness, good

weathering properties, chemical and solvent resistance, non-inflammability, high electrical resistance, colour possibilities, and choice of hardness and flexibility, especially in the lower temperature ranges. PVC plastics are extruded as wire and cable coverings, The common

•

garden hoses,piping, tubing, sheets and film. product name vinyl Is actually an abbreviation for PVC.

4) Polystyrene CPS): Polystyrene is one of the least expensive and most widely used thermoplastics. It is transparant and rigid and has

numerous applications as plastic containers, toys, appliance accessories etc.

Thermosets or thermosetting materials become hard and rigid after being subjected to heat and pressure. returned to their original states. They can not be remelted and

Most teermosets start softening their

at temperatures above 150o C, but they will not return to original shapes or flow conditions.

-7-

Tne molecular structure 01 thermosetting plastics is also cha~n

l~Ke

and,priOr to molalng, ver,y similar to that 01 thermoplastics. ~n

The

curing or nardenlng resul ts

the lormation 01 cros_linICs between Tne

adjacent

.o~ecules,

leaQ~ng

to a complex interconnected network. 01 ~naividual

cross bonas prevent the pl!Lstlc 110w IDlpOsslDle.

Si~ppage

cha1ns, tnus rendering

The cross bOnas also relnlOrCe and streDgUlen '!'he

:' 'the' thermosets, ma.Klng them more heat ana corrosion resistant.

structure 01 thermosetting plast;1cs IS shown in Figure. 1.

Prominent memoers 01 thiS group 01 plastics are

pneno~ics,

polyesters, ePoxies and allQ'ds.

Tne

maJorl~

01 plastiC products are the thermoplastiC t,ype.

Ther-

mosetting plastiCS comprises only a small portion, approx1mately 20%, 01 all plastic proaUctlons.

,. ProDleas lssociated

Wi~n ~ne

Use and DlspoSa! 01 PiastlCS

'L'he use 01 plastiCS nas oecome so popular that plastiC products oan De lound everywhere. agrlcul~l,

PlastiCS are used In the packaging, construction,

electrical, and footwear industries as well as maqy others.

-8-

Almost

a~~ p~ast1c

proaucts nave a t1n1te usual~

usel~ ~1le.

PacKag1ng

mater1als, lor examp1es, are protect are openea. Utner

d1scardea as soon as the 1tems they usetu~

p~ast1c

proaucts maf be

tor weeKS or

years, out aU end up as years, out eventua11y tney a~1

wastes;, .!!u11ci.lng materlals Maf last many J01n the waste stream.

~last1cs

a1scarctea on 1arm land m~ prevent water and air aaverse~y

C1rculat1on 1n S011, ~lastlcs

atlecting plant growth and crop productlon. m~

wnlcn enter a water body

interfere with the operation of

navlgatlng vesse1S. tne spawn1ng ground

'l'nose that sink to the bottom of a wa.ter body ma;y dam3.£" 01

11sn ana otner aquat1C launa ana ~

t~ora.

~1astlcs

wnlCn enter a aralnage system

p1Ug sewers ana 1mpa1r the pump1ng

laCl1lt1es ana otner equlpment 1n a sewage treatment plant.

Waste plastics, if not properly collected and disposed 01", could have adverse impacts on our environment. a water body burninp, 01" m"1'y

The dumping of waste plastics into UncontroUed Improper

result in water pollution problems.

plastics could generate air pollution problems.

disposal of plastic wastes cou lo adver8ely affect the vimlal quality and the aesthetic value or our environment. it is important that disposed of safely. ThE·refore

waste plastics be collected properly and

-9-

since The most common methods used for solid waste disposal are sanitary landfill, composting and incineration. However, they present various problems associated with the disposal of plastics.

There are disadvantages in sanitary landfills most plastics are resistant to biological degradation.

because No species of

microorganisms can biologically decompose plastics at a significant rate to promote effective disposal. In addition, plastic wastes are usuall.

very bulky and may require compaction prior to landfill.

For the same reason, composting is not suitable for plastics these materials are resistant to biological decomposition.

There are also problems associated with The combustion of po~vinyl

burning of plastics.

chloride generates fumes of hydrogen chloride

(Hel), a toxic gas which,in combination with moisture, will form highly corrosive hydrochloric acid. Incomplete combustion of plastics

under low temperatures could also result in the production of unoxidized hydrocarbons, creating environmental pollution problems.

-10-

In view of the above problems, reclamation (recovery, reuse and recycling) of plastic wastes appears to be a technically and economically viable solution. Furthermore, because plastics are oil-based products,

recovery and recycling of plastics presents additional benefits from savings in resources and oil imports.

4. SuantiSl and Composition of Solid Wastes in the Republic of Korea

The quantity and characteristics of municipal solid wastes vary from community to community and season to season, depending on the size, socio-economic environment and other conditions of the community. The

average solid waste production rate in Korea is reported to be 1.2 kg per capi ta per d~ with an annual growth rate of about 3.2% (Rhee and Choi,

1918). There is a significant variation in seasonal productions; with 12% more in winter and 13% less in summer. The major variation is mainly

attributed to the use of anthracite coal for domestic heating in winter.

The typical composition of municipal solid wastes in Korea is presented as follow:

Table 1, TYpical Composition of Municipal Solid Wastes in Korea Component Coal ash Range (%) 61.0 - 93.4

Average

(%)

70.9

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Table 1, (Cont. )

Component RanS! (%) 0.7 - 24.7 2.7 - 6.8 0.2 - 2.7 1.8 - 3.4 0.2 - 0.7 0.1 - 0.5

Average (%) 11.1

Food wastes Paper Wood Plastics Metals Glass Others

7.4 2.0 2.9 0.4 0.3 5.0

For comparison, the t.ypical composition of .unicipal solid wastes in

the United states (Tchobanoglous et aI, 1977) is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. TYpical Composition of Municipal Solid Wastes in the United state Component Paper Food wastes Range (%) 25 - 45 Average (%)

6 - 26

15 12 4 3 2 2 1

Garden trimmings Cardboard Plastics Wood Textiles Rubber and Leather

3 - 15 2 - 8 1 - 4 0-4 0-2

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Table 2, (Cont.) ComI!onent Glass Tin cans NorU"eI'TOus metals Ferrous metals Dirt.(ashes, brick, etc.) Range

(%) 16

Average 8

{%l

2 - 8 0

6 1 2

1 - 4

As can be seen from the tables, the Korean municipal solid waste has a much higher inorganic content than the American waste. The high

inorganic content, attributable to the high coal ash concentration in the waste, renders the solid wastes extreme~

difficult for compo sting.

The plastic

content in the Korean municipal solid wastes ranges from

1.8 to 3.470 by weight, with the average being 2.9'}(, which is very comparabh to the plastic content in quantity, about 540 Korea. t~ns

American municipal solid waste. of waste plastics are produced every

In terms of d~

In 1981, ahout 200,000 tons of plastic waates were generated in the whole country. It Clccounted for approximately 30;{, of the total national

production and import of synthetic resins.

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zmLicipatecl thztt the "roducti on of ,,1;lGtic vln.cten \·rill increase in t.he future. Ba;;ecl on the quzlllti t:, o~' virr;in synthetic roninc used 3Ild the pI?!"'

amount of

tic

tm.;;

tee {;enorated in the rrevious years, the future j,G

increase in the plztGii.c ,·raste,;

pro,icctml as folIous: of~2:

'rable Year

3. Future Prol£.ction of 'Jaste Plan tics in the He12ublic 1901 1982

.1.2 0 3 ;)76

1901 )~O

.1~2

1906 412

(~uanti ty

231

3(;7

( 1000 tonj-rr "

It can be Goon .f.roll'. the tabl'? that the '1uantit:f of vTante plaflticfl Hill double in the next five y'e3.r,·.

5. HiGtoncal1?.evelopment of the Korea tion Corromtion (rllImc)

Heno1J.rcef''...-,(eco~J

and neutHiza-

'rhe idea to have all excllwi ve machiner,r to recover and recycle the

w;:wte plasticG in

I;h(~

i(epublic of r,oroa Has concej,ved in IT'l,,/ 1979.

2U Decemher of the emnc yeZlr, the ;;ynthetie '[eein '.!aete Jia.nn.cement I,ml (1'0. 31(2) vIas rroTIl'J1CCLteci.

U:".ler Uw 18.\·r, 11 prepara.tol:,! committee 1'01"

-14-

The Corporation, a nOli-profit making orgaqization, is a semi-bovernmental and semi-autonomous body. It consists of three departments- namely, In

Planning and Development, Operations, and General ·Affairs Department. addi tion, there are 10 regional offices; 1 in Seoul - the capi bl c1 ty of Korea, and one in each of the nine provinces. There are

;oJJ tor-ether

plastic wastes collection stationn acrosn the nation, SUTl€'rvi sed hy

whi ch are directly

the regional offices.

The Corporation

employs V1 st.aff; 62 working in the headquart.ers, ')6 in the regiona.l nfTiees ;rnd )?~

in the colLectinr; r,tationG.

'I'he

KHTlHC is prencnt.eil in F'il';t!re 2.

The major function:; of IGlHRC '1.rc as follows:

Cleaning up '1.n([ protection of the environment. Colle(~tion ;mel

purchase

of waste plastics.

Sep'1.r,'l.tion, tranrmorlation, transfer, sale ;\nd disposal of waste plastics, and DevIClopment of teelmoLor;y for waGte p.lastic recycling.

!II l·'iJu."h

I he

"" t.i v i Ly

i·

the management

of plastic wastes, Its operations have recently been expanded to

;

)

Figure 2,

Organizational Chart of the Korea. Resources Recovery and Reutiliza"tion Corporation

Board of Directors

... Q)

tr.l ...

~ ol)

::t:

...... CJl I

(Ij

'rl •..;

02 Q)

Q) .... ",,0

to ....

...;Ol

~ ~

•..; rl+' rl (Ij

o Q)

OCf.l

O+'

Note: Figures in the boxes indicate the number

ot collectian stations in each provincial office.

-16-

• - Installation of heavy oil recovery facilities and other solid waste recycling plants. - Development of refuse derived fuel (RDF) for heating and electric pover generatio~

- Establishment of a resource reooyery research institute. and - Promotion of waste exchange programmes.

6. Finanoial Aspects of KRRRC

The financial resources of the KRRRC

main~

come from the follovingl

1) Funds received from tic resins.

plastic manufacturers and importers of syntbe-

2) Subsidy from the central government. and .5) Revenue

from the sale of items recovered from plastic wastes.

According to the Synthetic Resin Waste Management Law. plastic importers and manufacturers shall bear the costs and disposal of waste resins. for the collection

The law l-urther stipulates that the cost

paid by the plastic manufacturers shall be less than 1% of the income from the sale of their plastic products. Similarly. the cost paid by for importin

plastic importers shall be less than 1% of their expenditure the plastics.

Depending on the cost incurred in the handling of plastic

-17-

wastes, the actual percentage of pa,yment by plastic manufacturers and importers is jointly decided by the Administrator of the Office of Environment (OOE) * IWd the Minister of the COJllllerce and Industry

Ministry (MOGE).

1~81,

the figure agreed upon by OOE ana. MOCE was O.'jfo, i.e. the

plastic manui'acturers and importers respectively paid O.'jfo of their plast sale and import values to the Corporation. the p~ent

In terms of' monetary value,

amounted to 066 million won {USI 0.95 million) which accountE Al though the plastic impor 1

for 3j.410 of the total KRRRC income in 1981.

and. manut'acturers sti U pq u. JYo of their import and sale prices

respectively this year, their contribution, in terms of

monetary

value, has been substantially increased to 1,517 million won (USS million).

c.L

This is attributable to an increase in the price of the

imported s,ynthetic resins and the sale volume of plastic products.

Government subsio,y which is the second. income ot' KRRHC, amounted to LlJU million won (USS U.4 million)in 1'J81, representing 14.t1% 01'

the total KlUillC revenues.

This year, the government BUbsidy has been

increased to 1, )'(b million won (US$ coj million).

------.-------------------------------------------------------------dealing with the environmental pollution problems in the ReP\1blic of Korea. It was established in January 1'J8U.

The Office of Environment is the highest central governmental agency

-18-

The third source of revenue recovered plastics.

of KRRRC comes from the sale of

In 1981, 13,295 tons of plastics were sold to At the average selling

privately owned plastic recycling plants.

price of 78 woDVkg (USS O.11/kg), the sale value totalled 1.037 millioDVwon (USS 1.48 million). This accounted for 52.0%> of the total This year, the revenues of KRRRC, 1,~8l

financial resources of KRRRC in 1981.

through the sale of recovered plastics are estimated to be increased to million won (US$ 1.8 million).

7. Collection and Separation of Waste Plastics

Collection and separation of municipal wastes are carried out manually in the Republic of Korea. People engaged in solid waste

collection are, apart from the city sanitation workers who collect municipal wastes on a regular basis, students and individuals who

collect saleable items such as plastics, paper and metals for profit maki.ng. The voluntary services provided by governmental officials,

members of the Samaul Undong (New Community Movement) and some private organizations involved in environmental preservation activities also play a very important role in collecting solid wastes from public resort areas, stream beds, river banks, beaches, parks etc. effort of the voluntary groups Jo to clean up The main

the environment, not

for profit making.

-19-

Waste plastics are separated from other solid wastes either at the time of collection or after the collection. The price paid by KRRRC for waste plastics provides an incentive to solid waste collectors to sort out plastics from other municipal wastes. It also encourages the

separation of waste plastics at individual households by housewives and school children who can make a small profit by selling the separated plastics to private garbage collectors or KRRRC. Recovery of waste plastics

also takes place at public sanitary landfHl sites where people salvage plastic materials and other reusable items from mixed solid wastes.

The individual garbage collectors (privately operated) only buy waste plastics of good qualit,y and value (such as vinyl film, fertilizer bags and wine bottles) and sell them to plastic recycling plants. The mixed waste plastics collected b,y other groups are

transfered to cit,y, district or town storage centres where the plastics are sold or given to KRRRC. The 135 vehicles owned by KRRRC are used for

hauling the collected plastics to the KRRRC collection stations where thermoplasts are separated from thermosets, and the saleable items, such as those indicated in Table 7 are further sorted out from the thermoplasts. To facilitate plastic sorting, KRRRC has prepared a table (Table 4) which li3ts the major plastic products made from various types of resins. \.]j

th the help of_the

tabl~,

personnel:'

;'3B'ecl

-plr>-f:tic

,.,epnrn.tion ci:m, r:ort out different type,., of resin,.,

relativelyeiwi],'f.

-20-

cOlltainers for packa..dng etc. ""materials 1'0

(:~-'-~-';' :-'(1!,-

['(Jr'

j~l~~t[!,;1t (i-·r.'.iJ:1:~-. (co_~~fe(J, -:-,00 t'~

COC~_\O,

,..,.!.( .... ),

"'u::'ll~'ll(~:':, t02"~~,

~a~)il1ct~::,

r.i.:. c;~

J'8.c',in,;

)'l(j.·l,r_·ri~'~.l~',

~;OC)lrt bott)Of~t

-21-

Table 4, (cont.)

-Type of Plastics Name of Products Cases for electrical appliances (radio, T.V. etc.), butter containers, car accessories (bumpers, handles, etc.), toys, SPl7rt equipment, pipes, telephone apparatus.

----

-Copolymer (ABS)

Acrylonitrile ButadieneS~rene

....

Acrylonitrile Styrene Copolymer (AS)

Telephone accessories, ash tra;y, battery cases. bottles of LPG and other solvents, boxes for electrical appliances, pressure resistant pipes •

POlymethyl r-Iethacrylate

Lenses, optical instrument, T.V. filters.

(PMMA)

f----

-----Hame platf·, sign board. (pM}~

---

Polymethyl Methacrylate styrene Copolymer

..._--

---

----------

....

-22-

The thermosetting plastics and the non-saleable thermoplastic materials are shredded, compacted and incinerated as mentioned in Section 9. Figure ~

is a schematic diagram showing how waste plastics are handled

at a KRRRC collection station.

As KRRRC currently has no plastic recycling plants, the salvaged plastics, after washing and drying, are either sold to privately operated plastic recycling plants for reprocessing or stored until a buyer is located. In 19~1,

onLy

15,~9)

tons of recovered plastics were

sold while 6,)00 tonTI had to be stored.

The KRRRe plans to construct 9 waste plastic recycling plants by With a capacity of 3,000 ton/yr per plant, KRHHG

will be able to recycle

~'( ,000

ton/yr of waste plastics

upon completion of these plants.

There are prenently approximately 250 privately owned waste plastic recycline; plants in Korea. It is estimated that about 100,000 ton/yr of

plastics are TPprocessed by these plants into a variety of products; rane-ing from water containers and garbage cans to septic tanks.

It is worth mentioning that th€ government 01'

Seoul City, on a

tri.al basis, ini tiated a separate e;arbage collection programme on 1 December, 1'}Bl •

)

. )

)

. )

Figure 3, The Handling of Waste Plastics at a KRRRC Collection Station

Storage

Recycling by , Selling Privately Ownea f-i. ~ ~~tablishments J !

t .,..-1

Saleable Plastics

I--

Washing

Drying j~

I W t.l

lying and/ or j----. )llection

•

Separation

, 1

for Domestic and/or Commercial Use. Hea~

r '-

Heat Recovery

f 4 --

Non-Saleable Plastics -------

j-... ---

Shredding or Compacting --- -

---

I-- L

Incinera. tion _________________

-24-

According to the progTamme, the city GOvernment requests individual households to sort out the Garbage into three categories; incombustibles (mainly anthracite coal ash), combustibles and reusables (waste plastics, paper and scrap metals) and to place them into different containers. The separated solid wastes are collected and

transported to different places by city sanitary workers on different days for disposal. The proGI'nnune offers the ·followinG" advantages:

1. The total quanti t-y of solid

~lastes

to be disposed of is reduced, due

2. The non-combustibles which mainly consist of coal ash can be used as covering materials for the combustibles at sanitary landfill sites, thereby reducing the quantity of covering materials which need to be procured from other areas.

3. The non-combustibles can be used as filling materials for the lower quarters of the city without creatine nuisance conditions. It is not

necessary to haul the incombustibles to the same landfill site where the combustible solid wastes are disposed of. in transportation costs. This provides some savinG"l'

-25-

...

When the porgramme was initiated last year, only 68,440 households were involved, representing 4.6% of the total households in Seoul city. As the results have proved to be advantageous, the programme was ~n

substantially expanded

1 July 1982 to cover 831,000 households, which

accounted for 48.5% of the total households in Seoul.

8. Buying and Selling of waste Plastics

In 1981, the 45 plastic waste collection stations under KRRRC purchased 19,748 tons of waste plastics, of which and 155 .tons were inCinerated. 13,2~)

tons were sold

VI tne remaining 0,500 tons which were

kept in stock, 4,000 tons are waiting for potential. uIJ"Y", ... r:i in the future and 2,300 tons have to be incinerated this year.

The buying and sell1ng prices of waste plastics differs i'rom

item to item and lrom place to pl.ace.

As uau

UI::

011::1::1' l.L\.IDl

'l'auJ.t,

the average buying price in 1,)81 for beverage bottles and fertilizer bags were substantially higher than thoseot other items, amoun-cing 214 and 20~

won/kg respectively.

p'or food packaging materials, IlliJlliU In terms 01'

paid only 24 won per kg which was the lowest.

location,

Seoul city and Je-Ju Province paid the highest, with tBe average purchasing price being 11) and 114 won/kg respectively. The average sellin{ il

prices of waste plastics in Seoul city and Je-Ju Province, as shown

-26-

Table 6, were correspondingly higher than those in other provinc,es. Table 7 presents the selling prices of waste plastics b,y item. indicated in the Table, price As

beverage bottles were sold at the highest

of 334 won/kg; while the food packaging materials were sold at For comparison, the average buying and It

the lowest price of 25 won/kg.

selling prices of some waste plastics are summarized in Table 8. can be seen re-sale value, followed by that beverage bottles have the highest fertilizer bags.

The profit gained from

the sale of food packaging materials is minimal.

)

. )

)

. )

)

Table 5.

PurchasL~g

Prices (1981) of Waste Plastics by Item and Location (Won/kg) Types

1$ US - 700 won Other Plastics 72 169 63 94 65 ~

Average [Jocation ',verage ,eoul ;it'J

Vinyl Film 57 68 60 51 41 57 55 60 61 61

Building Materials 80 86 72

Household Plastics 137 153 170 147 102 128 86 151 124 116 321

:Beverage Bottles 214 214 210 197 270 168 160 212 243 194

Fertilizer Bags 209 200 226 170 182 185 180 221 217 221 209

Food Packaging Materials 24 74 21 28

67 115 74 74 44 61 55 69 71 58 114

:yunggi "'rovince {angwon ~rovince

77 59 92 60 68 104

~hungbuk

Jrovince ~hungnam

39 33 31

I I

"'rovince jhunbuk ?rovince ~hunnaIII

71 30 68 63 48

?rovince '(.yungbuk

Province Xyungnam Province Je - Ju Province

Table 6, Average Selling Prices (1981) of Waste Plastics by Location (Won/kg), 1$ US

= 700

Won

Seoul City -

Kyong-Gi Province 87

Kang-Won ProviIlce

C~Buk

Province 59

Chung-Nam Province 74

Jeon-Buk Jeon-Nam Province Province 67 74

Kyung-Buk Province 89 ~

Kyung-Nam Je-Ju National Province Province Average 66 122

131

Table 7, Selling Prices (1981) by Items of Waste Plastics (Won/kg) 1$ US

700 Won

Vinyl Film 67

~ertilizer

BagS

YOgurt :Bottles

Household Plastics 160

Floor Sheets I N CD

250

228

111

Beverage Bottles

'water Containers 84

Food Packaging Materials 25

Building Materials 102

Other Plastics 60

Average 78

334

)

. )

)

, )

)

Table

Comparison of Purchasing and Selling Prices (Woo/kg) of Wa.ste Plastics

Items

Purchasing Prices

Selling Prices

Profits

Vinyl Film Household Plastics Beverage Bottles Fertilizer Bags Food Packaging Materials Building Materials Other Plasti-cs

57 137 214 209 24 80 72

67 160 334 250 25 102

10 23 120 41 1 22 6 I

N tD I

-30-

9. Incineration of Waste Plastics

As mentioned previously, KRRRC is a non-profit making organization its major responsibilit,y is to clean up and protect the Korean environment. Unlike the private, profit-making establishments which

only deal with waste plastics of good quality, it is mandatory that KRRRC purchase and accept all waste plastics which have been collected regardless of their quality. Consequently, a large quantit,y of waste to be properly

plastics purchased by KRRRC has no resale value and has disposed of.

In 1981, about 12% of the waste plastics purchased by This year, the amount is expected to

KRRRC were not resaleabile. increase to 20%.

There are several alternatives which have been considered by KRRRC for the disposal of the non-saleable plastics. After comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each

alternative, KRRRC has decided to employ incineration, because 1) plastics have a very high calorific value of 8,400 Kcal/kg as compared to 4,300 Kcal/kg for waste paper and 2,700 Kcal/kg for average municipal solid wastes (Table 9), and 2) plastics are bulky and very resistent to biodegradation; sanitary landfill and composting are generally not suitable for plastic waste disposal. Since plastics have a vary high

energy content, no additional fuel is required for incinerating plastics. In addition, the heat generated from the incinerator can be recovered for hou~eho]d

anrl

~oml'l"'rd"l

uses.

-31-

Table 9. Energy Content of MUnicipal Solid Wastes

Component

Range (Keal/kg)

'l)1!ioal (Keal/kg)

Food Wastes Paper Cardboard Plastios Textiles Rubber

900 - 1,800 3,000 - 4,800 3,600 - 4,500 7,200 - 9,600 3,900 - 4,800 5,400 - 7,200 3,900 - 5,100 600 - 4,800 4,500 - 5.100 2,400 - 3,300

1,200 4,300 4,200 8,400 4,500 b,OOO

Leather Garden Trimmings Wood

4,500 1,600

4,800 2,700

Municipal Solid Wastes

-32-

plastic There are currently 9"incinerators in operation in Korea, one in each province. The location and the treatment capacit,y of the inci-

nerators are presented as follows:

Table 10, Location and Treatment Capacity of Plastic Incinerators

n: Kyunggi Kangwon Chungbuk Chungnam Jeonbuk Jeonnam Kyungbuk Kyungnam Jeju

Prov. nt: y

Prov.

Prov. 60

Prov.

Proy.

Prov.

Proy.

180

)

,""

The capital cost in 1981

for constructing a 180 and a 60 kg/hr

incineration plant was 33 and 18 million won (US$ 47,000 and 26,000) respectively. The incineration costs for 1 kg of plastics was about In 1981, 10.4 million won (USS 15,000) was spent

67 won (US! 0.1).

for incinerating the 155 tons of waste plastics which are nonsaleable. Table 11

presents some important features of the

incinerators.

Table 11. Type

Some Important Features of Plastic Incinterators

MPB-6 180

MPB-4

Trea tment Capaci t,y (kg/hr)

---33-

Table 11, (Cont.)

'lYPe

MPB-6

MPB-4

Size

Height (m) Width (m)

1.8 2.1 4.0

1.6 1.4 2.2

Length (m) Combustion Chamber Volume (m5 ) First Chamber Second Chamber Stack Height (m) Diameter (mm) Total Weight (ton)

3.0

1.1 0.6 8 383 8.2

1·5 13

750 22.6

10. Financial Consideration and Futu"l"e ProsEect of KRRRC

Financially, KRRRC has never been self-supporting since its establishment in September, 1980. It still relies very much

on governmental Last year, the govel This year, l

subsidy for its management, opera.tion and maintenance.

ment subsidy accounted for 14.&% of the total KRRRC budget. the subsidy is expected to be increased to 36.CYf,.

-34-

Much discussion has been made on how to reduce the government contribution without jeopardizing the normal functions of KRRRC. The

following alternatives have been considered by both the government and KRRRC as possible solutions to. the finanqi~l prQ~1e~:

1. To establish waste plastics recycling plants to reprocess the collected and . purchased plastics. Profits made from the sale of KRRRC,

the recycled products can be used to financially support thereb,y reducing the government burden.

As indicated previously, KRRRC plans to install 9 waste plastics recycling plants by 1986. These plants, each with a processing

capacity of 3,000 ton/yr , will be able to produce <!'7,UUO ton/yr of plastic powders which can be sold to private establishments for further processing. The capital cost; of each recycling plant is estimated to

be 238 million Won tusS )4U,oou).

To expand the KRRRC activities to reclaim waste paper and scrap metals which can maKe more profit than waste p~astics.

On a trial basis,

KRRRC initiated these new activities in February

thi~

year.

Preliminary

results from the 6-month operation indicate that the collection, buying and selling of waste paper and scrap metals, generated. more revenue .-'

than waste plastics. -35-

This is attributed to the fact that there is

alwa;ys a market for waste paper and scrap metals, and the quantity of paper and metal residues which have to be disposed of is very minimal.

Efforts are being made by KRRRC to proceed with both of the alternatives mentioned above. It is anticipated that KRRRC . will

become financially self-supporting b,y the end of the Fifth-5-Year Social-Economic Development Plan (1986) through the implementation of the above activities.

-36-

Conclusion

The increasing use 01' plastics, shortage of natural resources, environmental pollution due to waste plastics, decreasing availability and rising costs of landfill sites have rendered the reclamation of waste plastics a technically and economically viable alternative for waste plastic management. Plastic reclamation uses less energy and costs less It extends the useful life

than the equivalent use of virgin materials.

of plastics, either in the fonn 01" goods or energy and reduces the quantity of solid wastes to be disposed of. Plastic reclamation, in

addition, significantly reduces its adverse impacts on the natural and living environment.

In the past two years, considerable efforts have been made by KRRRC to reclaim the waste plastics generated in the Republic 01' Korea. The

Corporation, a non-profit making organization, collects, treats and disposes of waste plastics in an environmentally acceptable manner.

As KRRRC was established only two years ago, much work has to be done in the future and additional funds will be needed for capital investment in recycling plants, incinerators, vehicles, office buildings and other facilities. Because its current operations are limited to waste plastics

only, KRRRC has been in a

...

-37-

financial de!icit since its establishment in September 1980.

However,

efforts are being made b,y KRRRC to expand its operations to include the scrap metals. reclamation of waste paper and it

As these operations will bring in more revenue,

might be possible for KRRC to become financially sel!-supporting within the next few years.

-38-

References

--, 1. Rhee, J. Y. and Choi, F;. S. "The Characteristics of Solid Wastes in Korea", Journal of the Korean Society of Civil Engineering, Vol. 26, No.5, December, 1978.

2. Tchobanoelous, G., Theisen, H. and Eliassen, R. "Solid Wastes-

Engineering,Principles and ManaB"ement Issues", published by McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1977.

Acknowledl)emcnt

The authors wish to express their sincere appreciation to the management of the Korea Resources Recovery and Reutilization Corporation for their kindnes8 in providinp, the neceGGary data for preparing thi::: paper. In particular, the authors would li1:e to thank Messrs. Kim,

Lark-~;ung <l.nd J.P€',

It,,'1Tlg-::hilc, both I"rom KRRRC for thei r invaluable

:;lJpport

8Jld

<l.S' i:, t;:1.nrp.

-39-

THE HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICE OF INDUSTRIAL AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

Shigehisa Iwajl PEPAS Consultant

lprofessor Emeritus of Kyoto University

-40The> hpalttl <lnd E'oV][onrnE'ntnl ~jgPI iJC~llCE' of 1 ndustri al apd hnzflrclous wastE'

By taking an E'xnmplE' 01 Japan, thp SigojtlCBOCE' of industrlnl and hazardous wastE' on thE' natioo's hE'alth and E'nvironmE'nt is introducE'd as follo"s. f-!JstorJudlv. Jfjpan clOSE'd lt~ g8tE'~

to fOTPJgn cOl1otr;E's.

E'XCE'pt Holland, China and KorPfI for about 300 YE'ars in thp past Edo pra bpforp ahnut the lnJddlE' of tnE' 14th ceotury. ThE' nightsol I which was

systE'maticallv coll('ctpd from the urbap arE'a of Edo (afterwards reoamed Tokyo) iohahite.\ bv OOE' mi 11100

peoplp

WAS

carrJPd aod USE'cI as fprtillzpr

ill thE' suburban farm lands aftE'r it was anE'robically digE'stPu in pits. FarmE'rs uspd to 8pll v('gE'tahlps and fruits to thE' .trhan pE'oplE' who could obtain thp fnrm products frE'P in rptllTIl for thE'ir wastE' Ilightsoi 1. ppi dE'mi c oms prevpntE'd aod W,1stE'-rpcyc 1 i "g was pE'rf ormE'd hoth vE'ry E'ffE'ctivE'ly but with slightly filthy E'nviroIlmE'ntal conditions. custom partly contintJPd \loti I 30 YE'ars ago. Such a Thlls.

ThE'o almost all farmprs bpgan

to USE' chemical fertilizE'rs as a COIlSPQUE'ncE' of which many Ilightsoil treatment plants WE'rE' ioevit<lbly copstrllcteu lP J'lpa!l.

As far as industrial wastE' is concE'rnE'd, thE' well-known casE' of Asbio CoppE'r i11(lP

which s('rio11s1y dmnagE'd farm lands occur",! from 18l8.

As E'arly as 1877, O~aka PrE'fE'ctural Ordinance E'otitled "Regulation on Control of MIlIlufacturipg Plant" was i sstlE'd and in 1895 BE'sshi CoppE'r Refining plant wa9 forced to movE' to Shizaka [sland ln the SE't,) Inland Sea so ~s

to minimize PPvironmE'ntal disruption. In

Japan, thE'rE'forE', lIas

trflditiona\ly \,-"pn activE'

lI"lE' fiE'l<l of E'nvironmentlll policies.

ThE're arp flve caliSE'S of rE'CE'nt E'nvironmE'ntaJ dE'gradation In Japan:

(1)

Japan acceptE'd WE'stE'rn cultures aI-out 100 years ago.

SincE' thE'O

mE'apllrE'S to enri eh at,d strE'ngthE'n thE' eOlllltry havE' bE'E'n promoted and the above-statE'd tradition III anti-pollution policy was somewhat overlnokE'd until JO years ago. AftE'r ,",orld War II, ttop prE'ssurE' of

economic growth on E'nviro!lmental Quality has bE'E'n - and still is /l:rE'ater i" Japap tban inmost other countri E'S. bE'came ap econollllcAlly dE'vpioped cllntry. SE'lE'ctE'd E'CnOOmlC ioclic3tors per capita ME'aI'whi IE', Jap.qn show~

Tal-IE' I !H1Cb

somE' of thE'

as output basis

compared wi th sE'vE'ral d"vE'loped cOllntriE's.

-41-

(2)

(;rowth ralps, f'sprcally in Industry, havE' oeE'n excE'ptlonal1y high In Japan (['Clbtf' 2) cOIlRPqllPntiy thE' volump of output in tpnns of

pnvirorrrf'ntal df'gradation has rapidly increllsed.

Polluting

industrips SlIch as stppl, powpr, cement, pulp and paper, foodstuffs and chpmicals plaYf'd a kpy role in thp procE'ss of economic growth In Japap dnring tilE' 19()Os. ThE' plastic production whch amount"d to

(3)

100,000 tons in 1960 rosp lip to 5,000,000 in 1970 - a fifty fold 1nCrpaSf'.

Thp producti on and consumption activi tips arf' psppci ally very concpntratpd In Japan, having more than 100 million inhahitants In thf' wholf> Lwd arf>'l of abol1t 370.000 km 2 • Among OECD membE'! countriE'I', Bf>lgium and thE' NethE'rlands hClvE' rathE'r bip,\1 population dpnsitif's. IlowE'vpr, thE' npt dpnsity, hpncp thp polluting activity

(4)

ppr squarE' kilomptE'r of inhllbitablp arpa with a land slopp less than 10 pprCE'(lt IS thprp(orp highPr in Japan than plspwhprp. In TablE' 3,

"urban arpas" WerE' defined rpsting on administrativp boundarips, and arp thf'Trfar£' not comparablp bptwepn countrips. Japan is a highly

urbanised country and still continuing hpr rapid urbanization l1npvpnly ovpr hpr inhabitablp land. In addItion to this, many

factorips werp constructpd by the national or local govprnment over thp last 20 ypars. mainly cl'Jstprpd in npwly dpvploppd industrial zonps among which most we!p on land claimpd from the sea. Such

zonps promotpd industri al growth, but i ncrpased the pressure on environmpnt.

Public invpstmf'nts in social oVE'rhE'ads which in many casE'S reducE' thE' burdpn of pollution arp traditionally small in Japan. rE'mainE'd smallE'r il' Japan tl'·1n ill most othE'r countrlE's, ThE'Y

(5)

Japan did not fully rpcogn1zP that social attItudE'S and evaluation ~~pre

thE' factors controlling E'nvi ronmental degradation.

In thE'

early post-war pE'riod, Japan gave priority to industrial dE'velopmpnt. AI" ambitious tllrJ;."t which aimE'd at "doubling thE'

incomp in thE' futurE' 10 years" was spt and finally actual growth rates bE'camE' highpr than plannf'd onE's. HowE'vpr. sInce no effort was

-42-

spared to reacll them, alternative or competing goals - such as environmental protE'ct ; "n -

"E'rp sacri fi CE'd to a great E'xtent.

the 1950s and early 1960s, this strong commitment to industrial growth and its corollary, a relative neglect of environmental quality were shared by most segments of the Japanese society, Social attitudE' and evaluation had to be change,\ drastically at the end of the 1960s, so as to immediately require any of implicit or explicit environmental policies,

Resulting from the above causes, environmental degradation occured of which some E'xamples follow. Although comparativE' measures of

E'nvironmE'ntal quality as an amE'y>ity are extremely difficult, we have to provide quantitative data to support any proposition. It was observed

that ln the late 1960s, the quality of envirionment was lower in Japan than ln the other OECD countries, because the ambient concentrations of pollutants as well as the degrE'e of pollution-induced damage seemed to have been higher in Japan. Fig. 1 demonstrates thE' trend of annual data

of OOD-Mn concentration at Chofu-weir in thE' Tama RivE'r, located at the southern edge of Tokvo ME'tropolltan District having drainage area of 2 1,234 km , 60 per CE'nt of which is urban area with 1.8 million dwellers but fE'w industries as of 1970. The trend shows that drastic incrE'ment of

pollution had begun sincE' 1961, whE'n rapid E'conomic growth had SE't in and that the pollution somE'what decrE'ased in 1972, because lE'gal regulations, national awareness and practical abatement measures had been initiated. Since 1972, the valuE' of COD-Mn concentration has been kept at an almost constant value, bE'cause the oil embargo limited financial resourcE'S and thE' E'ffects of pollution control began to be apparent.

Fi g. 2 depicts the trE'nd of annual records of BOD-5 concentration with flow discharge at Asaka (Old Inlet) Station 1n the Yamato River, located on the southern border of Osaka Citv. at a pOlnt about 5 km above the river mouth. IhE' drainage arE'a at tnis Station is 1,066 km industries, wi ttl 1.8 million inhabitants. 2

including farm land, communi ti es, food procE'ssing, texti Ie and mE'talli c The trend of BOD-S shows a

rapid incrE'asE' from 1960, a deep trough for 3 years from 1974, a high peak in 1':177 then again a decline. Al though complete rE'cords of flow rate are

not available, they are not always invE'rsely proportional to the BOD-5

....

concentrations.

-43-

The delay of sewerage construction ]n this r]Ver basin

rendered thp Yamato Rivpr notorious as the riv!"r wi th the worst wat!"r

quality in Japan.

In the !"ar I y pos t-wa r per i od. the Japau!"s!" p!"opl!" acc!"pted to pay th!" price of !"conom]c growth in t!"rms of environmental degradation, even though thprp mav havp hapn fatal cas!"s for victims. peopl!" b!"gan to find that the price ,,'as too high. In the 19605, some Quit!" a few proj!"cts,

construction of pptrochemical complexes, !"tc., Wf're rejected dHe to local resistanc!" groups and finally local gov!"rnml"nts. The number of complaints

and p!"tjtions on !"nvironmental obstructions to regional and pHblic bodies reach!"d about 20,000 in 1966 and incr!"as!"d to 60,000 in 1970, whil!" it was virtually z!"ro in 1960. Tabl!" 4 sbows the pr!"ss cov!"rag!" of !"nvironm!"ntal

issu!"s, among ,,,hich many editorials calling for iDUll!"diate action app!"ar!"d. Economic growth brought about not only pollution. but also For !"ach individual, th!" disutility of given amount

pollution awareness.

of pollution ipcr!"as!"d mor!" rapidly than incom!".

This awaren!"ss was pr!"cipitated by the horrible character of ~linamata

and Itaiitai Dj S!"llSPS.

Had not such cases - ,,,bich w!"r!" in a

s!"ns!" accidental and should not be r!"peated again in th!" future - occured. !"nvironmental awarenf'SS Dnd accordingly political and practical count!"rnl!"asures to meet the pollut i on would not have deve loped so strongly and so qU1ckly in Japan. The past significant diseases caused by

hazardous industrial wastes containing toxic substances were briefly introduced as follows:

(1)

Mercury

It was r!"veal!"d that ]norganic m!"rcury 1S easily converted to alkyl-m!"rcllry in water by the pr!"sence of several SpeC1f'S of

12 unl]pr a c!"rtain condition. Islands in 1956. ic\pntified.

bactprja and vitamin - 8

, then accumulated and enriched ]n fish Minnmata diseasE', caused by

alKyl-mercury h"d pr0Kpn Ollt in the south!"rn parts of the Kyushu At firgt, the caus!" of this disease could not be

An ilwpstigatiol1 c(Onmllttpe organized t>y th!" Ministry of

lIealth and WelfarE' po]nted out that th!" patients presented th!" toxic

-44-

symptoms of alkyl-mercury.

It was in 1964 when effluents from

mercury-cell chlorine caustic-plant were identified as the cause. In 1977, the national government officially recognized that there were 198 fatal cases and In addition 910 patients, while the other 4,108 persons were applying to be officially recognized as

'"'

patients.

Unfortunately, a second Minamata disease broke out in the After this case, the government started

Agano River Basin in 1965. compounds.

to restrict the production and usage of mercury and mercury All mercury-cell caustic plants have been changed to Also, the usage of agricultural It was to be regretted that take up the membrane method.

chemicals for herbicides and insecticides containing mercury and mercury compounds have been prohibited. Minamata disease. (2) Cadmium The Jintsu River, from which water was used for drinking as well as irrigation of paddy fields, was receiving the effluent being discharged from the Kami oka Zinc Mine without thorough treatment since the end of the last century. symptoms of Itaiitai disease. According to a clinical chart 1n such administrative treatments were too late to prevent tbe second

1919, one patient, aged 35 years was found to have almost the same In 1955, this disease limited to In 1963, the Ministry of rather old multiprae, was reported to the Japan Society of Medicine by a local medical doctor and a chemist. Health and lelfare organized an investigation committee and 10 years later, the national government announced the official findings on the disease. The cause of this disease was found to be due to a continued ingestion of cadmium contained in water, rice grain, etc., associated with several abnormal physical conditions caused by symptoms of senility, internal secretion, lack of calcium in the diet, etc. In another district polluted by cadmium, there were no patients with Itaiitai disease.

....

-45-

.... (3)

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) PCB was first synthesized in 1881 in Germany.being manufacturE'd in

....

1929 in the U.S.A. and imported to Japan as heat insulating medium in the 1950s. Japan started its production in 1954. In the later part of the 1950s. several doctors in Sweden and Japan warned about thE" toxici ty of PCB. About ten years later, in 1968, a lot of

....

patients with skin disease were found in the northern part of Kyushu Island. A spE'cia1 committee was organized, which soon concluded This case happeneed that the cause was rice oil. contaminated by PCB, leaking from a pin-hole in the heat insulating medium piping.

....

rather as an acute one which might be sometimes fatal. but many chronic cases would be suspected because PCB is an undecomposable matter, retained and accumulated in soil and deposited in water bodies, migrating through various food chains, being finally

....

enriched.

The Ministry of Health and Welfarp, therefore determined

the acceptable daily intakes of PCB and permissible standards of it for foods in order to avoid a recurrence of the accident, although the production and import of PCB are restricted now, except for

....

spE'cial usages of it which are under rigorous control • Many countries can draw a lesson from the above-stated Japanese

....

experiencE" on the health and environmental significance of industrial and hazardous wastes. thE' other countries • It is sincerely hoped that any failure which has been experienced by Japan will not be repeated in

....

The above-stated 3 cases bE'long to the four noticeable pollution cases in Japan, among which the remaining one is the case of Yokkaichi asthma which was airborne •

....

-46-

Management Practice

In the 1960s, many groups and movements were created to protest against pollution and, by means of demons trat ions, lobbying, lawsuit s, etc., people tried to stop or to reduce existing pollution and to prevent future pollution by halting, scaling down or modifying planned developments. As a result of the aforementioned serious diseases and public anti-pollution campaign, the Japanese Government started to devote itself to the prevention of environmental destruction and later to the conservation of natural resources. Legislatively, the Basic Law for In 1970, a special

-.,

Environmental Pollution Control was enacted in 1967.

session of the Diet was devoted to stipulate a set of 14 pollution related laws, of which detailed regulations were enforced for the standards of water, soil, air, etc. for the protection of human health and the conservation of the living environment. In 1971, the Environment Minister of State. Agency, which is not a full-flE'dged

ministry, was created but the DirE'ctor of thE' Agency has the title of a In particular, thE' Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), which has created a special Directorate, called Industrial Location and Environmental Protection Bureau, plays an important role in policy formulation and implementation. policies. The judi ciary also played an important role in the dE'velopment of environmental The "four major lawsuits" WE're widE'ly covered by thE' media and All in the early 1970s the Courts decided in favour of the plaintiffs. political parties and practically every national supported nE'W environmE'ntal laws and the AgE'ncy. Established bureaucracies and even industry did not tly to oppose such a tE'ndE'ncy, belng rathE'r cooperativE'. Such unanimity would not exist to the same extent in most other countriE's. However, it did not last. It would seem that the policy, which succeeded in controlling environmental degradation, did not succeed in controlling social disruption caused by environmental degradation. Pursuant to the Basic Law, the environmental quality standards relating to water quality were established. into two categories. shown in Table 5. These are largely divided Those relating to the protection of human health are

These standards apply to all the public watE'rs such as

ri ver, lake and sea. potable water. -47-

Among the Olne items l.n the Table, the standards for

lead, chromium (VI) compounds and arsenic are the same as those for

For total mercury, alkyl-mercury and PCB, the standards

are set by taking into consideration their contents in fishery products and the rates at which they are concentrated because they are often taken into the human hody through the fish of which Japanese are fond. 6, apply selectively to different type of waters, such as rlver, lake-reservoir and sea, according to the purpose of their uses for municipal and industrial water supplies, fishery and the conservation of natural water by taking into account the current state of water quality involved. Public water bodies bordering on different prefectures were For categorized by the national government, while other water bodies were done by the prefectural government concerned according to a cabinet order. The standards relating to conservation of living environment, shown in Table

instance, river waters are classified into six categories ranging from AA to E, as shown in Table 6. Each of the six categories are divided into Similar five items of pH, BOD-5, 55, DO and MPN of coliform.

environmental quality standards are established for application to the waters of lakes and reserVOlrs (four categories from AA to C, COD-Mn instead of BOD-5) and coastal waters (categories from A to C, similar to those for lakes and reservoirs but Normal Hexane Extracts instead of 55). As a means to attain and maintain the ellvironmental quality standards, the effluent standards were established pursuant to the ~ter Pollution Control Law, so as to apply uniformly to all effluent discharged into public waters from specific factories and places of work across the

country with such facilities discharging wastewater or liquid as lS designated by Cabinet Order. The effluent standards relating to toxic Those substances (the protection of human health) are shown in Table 7. 14 items as pH, BOD-5 and others (partly in Table 8) apply to the effluents discharged from specific establishments which discharge 3 effluents at a daily average rate of 50 m or more. ThE' E'ffluent standard values for toxic substances are set at ten times the environmental quali ty standard values, taking into consideration the

relating to the conservation of living environment as measured in terms of

-48-

dilution

f't[f'ct~

rIvpr wCltprs, wbi] .. tb,1t for alkyl-rnprcllry is Sf't nt C,1S'"

thp undf'tf'('tablf' ]pvpl as ill the

with tbe .'nvironmental qllality fbI' efflupnt ~tan,]ards S~ ,""

standanl, because of its acclllllulativp cilAractf'r. rplating to living rnvironm"nt arp Sl't III

till' casp of BOD-5 and COD-Mn.

and pll, for instancf', at the level of wntpr quality comparablp to that of primary treatpd (only by sp']impntation) hOtlsphold spwpr; while In thp case of soluble iron, manganese and flouride at ten times the fishpry water standards (tile pprmlssiblp values for 811uatic livps); in the casp of copppr and zinc, at the effluent control valups applied to minI's: and In thp cnse of coli [orm, at L1IP

level of wiltpr quali ty comparable to that

obtainablp a[tpr n chlorinp disinfpctioll.

It must bp noticpd that In casp ar,y prpfpcture hnds that the

.-"

pfflupnt standards in general are inadpquate (the CE'ntre rows in Tablp 7 and Tahlp 8), thE' prpfecturp is empowprf'd by thp "ater PollutIon Cor.trol Law to makp the standards stricter and also to aLi11 npw items to thE' gpneral ones by means of pre[pctural regulation. Examples of strictpr

prefectural standards are shown in thp right rows in Table 7 and Tablp 8.

In order to achIeve the standards relating to thp living pnvironmpnt, spwpragp systPnls havp bf'pn constructpd in thp battle against organic pollution originating from municipal apd industrial wastf's.

Five-ypar construction plans for the installation of spweragp systpms, have been repeatedly pxecutpd sincp 1967 and thp sixtll plan was started in 1981. Thp rpcorrl of such a rlpvplopment of spwprage

construction up to 1981 is shown in FI g. 3, In tprms o[ the numbpr of population servpd by spwpragp and its ratio as a pprcentage "f ti,e total population in Japan. Standards of quality for sewagp effluents wprp made The suggpstpd standards are shown ]n

legal In thp Spwprage Law (1970). Tablp 9.

According to thp Spwpragp Law. strictpr standards could be

adopted if npeded to mppt the pnvlronmpntal standnrds, spt by the Water Pollution Control Law (1970). Botb thp Laws should bp strictly pnforcpel

in conjunction with pach other to prpvent watpr pollution.

Indiscriminatp discharges of industrial wastes into public sewer systpms must bp kppt under control, as tilp lack of monitoring systems to

-49-

detect the sudden discharge of toxic substances into sewers may lead to interference with the operational conditions of the biological sewage treatment plant and to formation of sewage sludge which would be neither utilized nor disposed of. polluters. It would defeat the purpose of the P.P.P. (polluter pays prices) policy and diminish the responsibility of Therefore. ordinances and regulations are adopted by the The wastes The municipality. limiting the discharge of industrial wastes that would

damage or interfere with the operation of the sewage works. must be subjected to adequate pretreatment before discharge. discharged into public sewers are shown in Table 10.

qualitative standards of wastewater from the pre-treatment facili ty being The stricter the municipal standards (not lower than those values in Table 10), the more industries existing in the municipal area wish to flee from the area. or alternatively, to upgrade their wastewater treatment processes. This serves to encourage the recycling of the wastewater as industrial water

which, ironically, reduces the income of the municipal sewerage department. The legal and administrative practices which have been undertaken in Japan for water pollution control, in connexion with industrial wastewater management. are as stated above. in 1975, the Federal Government of Switzerland issued an ordinance for wastewater discharge including similar standards as shown In Tables 5-8 and 10, but they are more strict and comprehensive than Japanese standards.

Technologically, the management practice of industrial wastewater usually starts from the following procedures for planning.

Preliminary survey (a) (b) (c) grasping of the substantial condition; analysis of collected data; investigating the possibility of reducing the flow rate and pollutant concentration (loading) of wastewater by improvement of facilities or reformation of processes used for production in the plant; a~d

(d)

engineering.

-50-

Engineering In detail (a) (b) process design of wastewater treatment facilities; and final decision to realize the facilities.

Among the above items, 1 - (e) I s called "inplant treatment" which compri ses: (1) Reduction of flow discharge of wastewater (a) (b) (c) separation of wastewater flow systems; saving of process and cooling waters; process changes; and

'"'

(d) elimination of batch-typed discharges of wastewater. (2) Reduction of pollutant concentration In wastewater (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) process changes; facility improvements; segregation of process wastewaters; equalization of wastewater flow rate; recovery of byproduct8; proportional control to wastewater flow rate; and monitoring of wastewater quality in the whole system.

Recovery of wastewater is performed by a system of either partial or total recycling as well as by a no-discharge system which recovers only solid wastes after a proper evaporation or drying treatment. wastewater recovery project is planned: a. b. To aIm at th process here y

The

following precautionary measures must be taken into account when a

reuse of wastewater to the last, even the treatment used 1S

quite similar to usual one for wastewater.

Lower the op' ration cost and save the energy consumed for the treatment, e'en by sacrificing the recovered water quality.

-51-

Wastewater to be selected as a source for recovery must contain distinct pollutants on1y,being not mixed with any uncertain wastewater. This is important to perform the treatment and to prevent the production of undisposab1e sludge. J.

Acknowledgement

The writer wishes to acknowledge Associate Professor Arata Ichikawa of the University of Tokyo, who kindly made available two papers, contributed by him to the two symposia which were sponsored by the Asian Productivity Organization, held in Japan in 1976 and 1982. present paper by the writer. Reference was

made to a large extent to these two papers in the preparation of the

....

-52-

Table 1

Selected Economic Indicator. per Capita Japan and Selected OECD Countri.' 1974 or 1975

GN,a) I(US$) (1975) Jlpan

Indultriat Output (U5$) . (1974)

£ner&t) Con.umption (TOE) (1974l

Nua\ber ~r Automobile. (1974)

4,428 7,044 4,009 6,188 3,026 8,419 5,921 5,291

1,513 2,067 997 1,816 907 2,l26 1,600 n.a.

:3. 05

0.25 0.62 0.)1 0.34 0.28 0.35 0.28 0.38 .'

U.sJ.

8.09 3.82 3.)9 2.47 5.45 4.55 4.82

uJ. France Italy

-Netherlands OECD

Sveden

Sour::e: a) OECD

Table 2

Crowth Ratti, Jaoan and Selected DECO Countries, 1960 - 1970 (per cent per year)

GNP

Industrial Production

Ener~y

•

Consumption

Stock of Automobl1ea 1n Uae

Japan U.S.A.

0.8 4.2 2.7 5.6 5.5 4.6 5.0

14.8 4.8 2.8 5.9 7.0 6.1 7.3 5.9

11.6 4.5 2.3

25.3 3.7

U.K. Prance Italy

5.3 8.9 5.0

6.6 8.2 24.1

S\.Ieden DECD Sourcl!; DECO

6.4 15.7 6.2

Netherland. 5.)

8.4 3.0

-53-

.... ;~bi~ j: Se1ected Economic Indicatorl

pet km2 o!

Inhabitable Area in Japan and Selected OECD Countries, 1974 or 1975 CNP a ) Indultrial 6 (10 US$) Ou~ut (1975) (1 U5$) (U74) 6.05 . 2.04

Japan

Population " Density ot Urban Area (197~) oer.so~/km

of Urb'n PopuUtion (1970)

u. s.l. U. it.

0.32

1.04

0.S7 italy . 0.81 S\leJen 1.67 Ne therlands 3.10 OECD 0.31 runc.

0.09 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.44 0.83 n.a.

13.48 0.43 2.61 • 1.38 2.64 1.98 5.19

56.3 5S.j

, "

71.7 42.6 29.4 :H.7 ' 45.2 49.3

Sources and Note: a) OECD

•

Table 4: Press Coverage of Environmental Issue.! 1960-1971 Number of Articles a) Share of New. (7.)

1960 1961 1971

14 31 124

0.4 0.7

Source: Environment Agency, Quality of the Environment, 1972 Note: a) Average ~onthly number of articles on pOllution in a single representative newspaper. b) katio of .pace devoted to environmental l.auea to apace devoted to all new •• c). In the pas't 10 years. such statistical records as above have not been taken by the national government of Japan because the number of articles gradually decr~ased, •

-54-..

....

Fifo 1

Trend of COD-Mn at Chofu-weir in the Tama River

mg/l 8

• arithmetic 6

4 2

....

-55-

....

Fig.2

Trend of OOD-5 at Asaka(Oid Inlet) in the Yamato River

ig/l 60

....

, , I I I I

,30

, I I

I I

, , r

I \

1\ I\ \

•

I,t ~

,, II

•

I \

I I I I I

I , ,

, I I

I I

\ ~

:'~ , \

I I I I I

1 , I I I

, \ I I

\ \

....

, "" , , : \, \ I \

, I

,I \1

\ I

\ \

II 1r

i \

\ r \ I

, ' 10

....

-56-

Table 5: Environment.l qu'lttySt'nd~rd lel!tln' to the ProJ1iction of HOlman Health . . -.,...,. .

...

St'nd~rd O.Olppm values

---

;

Cadmium or leu ,

Cyanide

OrB·nic phosphorouj . Lead

Chroal1um(VI)/ __ I

. ,

Not Not detectable detectable Totd mercury 0.0005ppm or less Alkyl mercury Not detectable

O.lPPIII ,i- Ie .. PCB

O.OSpplII

or le ..

I I I

Areenic . Standard values 0.05ppm or l!!ss

Not detectable

Table 6: lnvironmental Quality Standard. Relating to the Conservation of Living Environment (Those for lakes, m3rshes and seas are ommited.) Rivers (except lake. and marshes) lHydrogen . ion con:lass Suitable for eentration i(pH) \A Potable ~.ter Class 1. conservation 6,5-8.5 of natural environment and those referred to in columns below A hereof Potable water Class 11. Fishery Class I. bathint and those re[erred to in columns below B hereof B

Standard Values Biochemi- Suspended Dissolved Number cal oxygen 10Uds oxygen ~oliform demand (55) (DO) group (BOD)

1 ppm or less

25 ppm or leIS ., 2S Pt'm' or 11:ss

7.5 ppm or more

SO MPN/ 100

,,,I

or less

6.5-8.5

2 pplll or less

7.5 ppm or more 5 ppm or more

1000 MrN 100

! --,

",I

potable water Class III. fishery Class Ii and those referred to in columns belove hereof Fishery Class III. industrial water Class 1 and those referred to in columns below n hereof Industrial water Class II, .ngr1euttural water and those referred to in columns below E hereof Industriai water Class tIl and conservation oC environment

6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 , 6.0-8.5

3 ppm or less

25 pplll or less 50 ppm or less 100 ppm or less

sooo I1tHI loe er

",I

5 pplll or less • ppm or leas

5 ppm or lIIore 2 ppm or IDOre

I.. 55 -

6.0-8.5

10 pplll or Ie ••

2 ppa No susor 1II0re pended soUd. at observabl

-57-

Table 7: !ffluent Standard relating to Toxic Substances (general)

Kind. of toxic sub.Itance. Cadmium and ita compounds Cyanide compounda

Permiasible limitl per onetlitre of efHuen"l 0.1 ~ of c~dmium 1 mg of cyanide

Standards of Kanasawa Prefecture mad. atricter by virtue of th~ Law Not detectable ,. 0.5 mg per one litre Not detectable

,. - . -

OrBanic phosphorous 11118 compounds (parathion. .. thyl-~arathlon. me- . thyl demeton and EPN only)

i;.J

t i. tl compounds " .. ' •• " •. .j.,.!"

thr~um (VI) compounds

Ar ••nic pound.

t lts

com-

of lead - of sexiva0.5 ms lent chrome 0.5 1118 of arsenic 0.005 ... of mercury

. 't . • - . •

~ per one litre 0.05 mg per one ittre

0.1

0.05 mg per one Htre 'I~~"

'II

Mercury. alkyl mercury & other mercury compounds Alkyl mercury compounds

Notdetectabie

Ht$

Not detectable 0.003 mg

Not detectable Same .slthe,national standard values

PCB .

Table 8: Effluent Standards relating to tivtnR Environment (general)lmain items only) Item

Hydrogen ion concentration (in pH)

Permissible limita

(Note) Standard A of Kana.awa Pref. made strict.r by virtue of the Law • The .ame as the nationa' standarda

8iochemical oxy&en demand (1n mg/l) Chemtcit oxygen demand (in mg/l) Suspended solids (in mgll)

Effluenta discharged into pubUc waterl_ other than aea: 5.8-8.6; those dhcharged into lea: 5.0-9.0 160 (daily average 120) 160 (daUy average 120) 200 (daily average 1< 1)

20 mg per t litre 20 mg per 1 litre 50 mg per 1 litre <

.....

-58-

'""

-.,

Table 9: Sewage Treatment Plantftn Japan Type of Sewage Treatment Number of operation ~tandard8

i975

of Di.eharge. for Effluentl to Stream BOD 55 Coliform pH (mg/l) ,(m.g/l) 'unit/eel leu 3,000

~onventional ~tepped aeration ~ontact

178 89 4

5.8-8.6 le88 20 leu 70

stabili8a-

tion ~ero-accelerator ~odified aeration ~ota1 Oxidation

Pxytien aeration bxidation ditch ~U&h rated- trlckllnft filter Primary sedimentation Total

24 2 17 2 1

5.8-8.6 le88 £.0 leas 120 leas 3,000

29 17

. 5.8-8.6 les8 12l 1e.' 150 1••• 3,000

363

Source: Ministry of Construction

-59-

.. '. for !>retreatment Table 10: QualltI Criteria foUnt ;

(1 )

Temperatur. (·C)

45 5 - 9

(2) (3) (4)

pH 1100 ~I'P!11)

600 600 Volatd. Non-volatile )0

(ppm)

(5) (6) (7)

Hatter Extractable by N. Hexan Iodine Con.umed (ppm)

5 220 5

Phenol CN Alkyl Hg

(pp.n) (ppm)

(8) (9) (to)

1 ND

Total Hg

(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) ( ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

0.005 1

....

(11) (12 ) (l~)

Otganie P Cd

0.1 1 0.5

Pb Cr+6 A. Total Cr Cu

(14 )

(15 ) (16)

O.S 2 l 5

(17 )

( 18) (19 )

Zn Fe ~In

10 10 15

(20)

(21 ) (22 )

(ppm) (ppm)

pca

0.003

..,

i ~

640

\ 6.7 \ 7.4 .7.9

\ 9515 ' 9616 \

. 709 ...,

.. -8 1-3 0

til

\ 766

\ . 816 \

\ '\.3

1,9718 \ \

' 9827

, 998

\. 1112 \ 1283

\° CIl CD

\ ;:rJ

0 1 .11.1 \,

' 9905 \ 10024

~ tv

III 0

\-',

g >u 0

•

\. 12.7

\ 10141 \ 10258 \ \

i ...,

~~ ~

\',1439 \ \ 1616 '\ 1746 \

\ '1

~ III 0

ij Po 0

C'l

·14.0

~ 1:1

.....

~ p.

'~506 '\16.6 ,

.If

\ 10372 ',1050 1 . , 10733 to c+

'-c

'C: 0

\~ 1986

a 8

, 1<';.5 \19.5 '~0.5

\ '\ 10371 \ \

a 5i' .:I 0

\ 2116

" 2253 \·2551 \ \

" 11005 \ 11194

, 22.8 ·~.o

~ 1

\ \ 11323 . 11428 \

i~ '-'

... 2716

; 2934 \ \

26.0'· 27.0 "-

~ \

3073 , 3352

\ 11529

\\ ',30. 0

26.0 '\116 20

3454

J !~,'

11706 11778

•

3610 t--'

\ , J IV

31.0 W

,-..c+

j;'

Gj I

....... 0

'lA ....

) '-'

-09-

-61-

...

INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER CONTROL - MALAYSIAN POLICY AND LEGISLATION

...

A. Maheswaran, KMN Director, Water Pollution Control Division of Environment Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Malaysia

...

-62-

INTRODUCTION Industrial water pollution, until recently considered a lesser problem in numerous developing countries has now been recognized as a serious one and a major health hazard.

'"'

..... For many years, the major environmental problem in developing countries stemmed from the relative lack of development and inadequate infrastructure facili ties, in short, poverty itself spemed polluting. Therefore, developing countries have generally considered economic growth and industrialization as key devplopment priorities and preservation of the environment has not been given the same weight. As such, development proceeded apace, indeed that very process of rapid development brought to the fore problems of a second order, namely, damage and disruption to the human environment which not only began to emerge but to gain in significance from year to year. It has now become urgent for developing countries to recognize the rapid deterioration of the environment that can occur, particularly the quality of water flowing through rivers and streams and therefore the quality of life in rural and urban areas. It will not be possible to sustain long-term growth, development and improvement in the standard of living if the water courses carry toxic chemicals and other pollutants which endanger human and animal life. Action should be initiated immediately to prevent further deterioration and preserve the environment for future generations. To its credit, Malaysia showed sensitivity to the environment following upon the realization that development must be seen as more than quantitative growth, indeed as encompassing all those activities through which individuals and societies seek to meet human needs and to upgrade the quality of life. Far from being incompatible and mutally exclusivp, environmental quality and development are indeed inter-linked viewed in their proper perspective. Development cannot confer lasting benefits on any nation unless environmental considerations of man and related ecosystems become central to development planning and decision-making. Environment consciousness in Malaysia can be said to date from as far back as the 1920s when various Water Enactments and the Enactments in three East Coast States of Peninsular Malaysia establishing what has since become the National Park were passed. There are currently about 34 environmentrelated legislations as shown in Annex 1. These pieces of legislation, while not necessarily devoted entirely to environmental matters, contain provisions or references that are related to environmental control. For example, the National Land Code 1965 divides land use into three categories: (a) (b) (c)

agriculture; building; industry.

Ths National Land code therefore enables proper land use planning taking environmental factors into consideration as well as control of siltation. The Land Conservation Act 1960 helps to control soil erosion and siltation.

-63-

The Water Enactment, 1920 prohibits the disruption of any river so as to interfere with the flow of water and restricts the discharge of specific substances detrimental to the beneficial uses of the river. Similarly, the Factories & Machinery Act, 196"1 takes care of the working environment, the Mining Act controls discharges from mining activities into water courses, the Forest Enactment (1934) and Rules (1935) provide for the establishment of forest reserves as well as control logging. However, with passage of time and with the environmental problems becoming more complex, these legislations have been found to be limited in scope and inadequate to deal satisfactorily with the newly emerging problems. Hence, the Environmental Quality Act 127, 1974 has been enacted as a comprehensive piece of legislation and provides a common legal basis to coordinate all activities on environmental control throughout the country. This Act gives the Division of Environment (DOE) the mandate and means to accomplish national goals in environmental protection. STRATEGY FOR POLLUTION CONTROL

Malaysia is a developing country and economic growth is an important national objective in order to provide for the material conditions of an accepted standard of living. At the same time it is evident that our economy depends and will continue to depend on the renewable resource sectors and these for a small country like Malaysia are limited, fragile and in urgent need of comprehensive protection and sustained production. The environmental policy therefore should aim at sound management of both renewable and non-renewable resources so that exploitation of these resources does not adversely affect the environment. The capacity of the environment to produce essential renewable resources must be maintained, restored or improved, otherwise counter-productive side-effects on the environment will result with realized benefits from development significantly less than hoped for. It is important, therefore, that environmental policies are integrated with development planning and regarded as part and parcel of the overall framework of economic and social planning. Environmental concern should be integrated as yet another dimension of the process of development not viewed separately or in isolation from overall development. Malaysia has a three-tier system of Government - Federal Government, State Government and the Local Authorities with each level having legislative and administrative competence in specific fields and, through their actions, with potential for impacting on the environment. This implies division of responsibilities among the three levels of Government in our approach to solving environmental problems, through effective coordination and willing cooperation so that available resources of manpower and funds are deployed to good purpose, avoiding waste through frittering resources by spreading them too thinly or at the other extreme by duplication of efforts. The current environmental problems 1n Malaysia may be divided into two groups, namely; (a) those arising as a result of development of Malaysia's lar,d anu natural resources; and

-64-

(b)

lIlD:--iC ari:;in~ ur (ot ~ Ll1('llls

trt'l1l

til(' Llll'

Jjsch<-ll~ge 01 cnvi_rOllllli.~n! III

uLHj(·.=;irobl.e waste til,' pr~)c.l~)'S ot

prodll\:ts

i 11L()

urb':'illizal i')!l ~Ind

indu:.,l"rlaii.zflLltl)l.

TlH~ EnvirolllllPntC:l.i QualiLy Act, 107!~ and lilt:' V:lrl()IIS Hegui...ltloliS ulllir'!" lt are dlrectetl principally LOWClrcis tile second group of environmental prOLJlems, llarnely, il1<1uStl'i~al pollutioll ill tile' fUrTH of discllarges and emisslons allu sl'w,-:1ge trlJI!! durne;::;tic sutircps which clamagl' our common propct-t \'

n . ~sourcl's,

tlamely,

laud,

aLL

...lllU water.

IfllWevel",

tlley

arL'

by no means

conclusive In tllemselves In tackling tile broad environmental issues 01 till! first group emanating beom the developml!llt ol land and natur,J! rl!SUurc"s which are considered to present equally serious problems as compared to thl! second group. Nevertheless, tnese Regulatlons COllstltute a positive step towards th" control "f puilution trllm the POl!Jt sources. The first group uf problems can only be OVerCO!Tlle thruugll proper enVllronmcntal planning ancJ through measures laken at the initial planning stage of a project or development. It is evident from 1I1e above tllat al. tllllugh tile task of proL<;c t ing tile environment has been set in motion by DOE in the Ministry of Science, fecllnojogy and Env1ronment. It is not POSSll>!" tor it to be involved in the technical procedures and control mechanism fur coping with various environment-related matters (such as USe of pc·stic tdes, solid waste disposal, control of mining discharges) and it would mean unnecessary encruachment on tile dt'parLmenLal jurtSdll'tioli of lIlller agencil.~s. It is therefore only logical tor the implementing agencl,'s to pay heed to till' environmental safeguards in tlle course oi the implcmentat Ll.\[l ni tlll~ir various programme of activ1ties. The DOE therefore ilas adoptl!d a two-pronged strategy for the protection and enhancement of the quality of the environment encOlllpa!'lsing both statutory al1<1 non-stdtutory means. The clhlice of tiles" control measure,; and their application would dCPl'lld SigllltiC(llllly Oil

,..

lite

areClS

ue cuntl-lI1Lcd.

Tile

st;Jtul ur)'

c()[lIl"nl

is adopted in areas which are expressly wlthin the competence ur tile 1Y74 or mure precisely In tllose nldtLcrs WlllCl1 are specified in the Federal or Concurrent Lists. The nOLl-stiltulilry controL, all the ulher hand, LS JPpllt...'d in areas will~rc~ th~: eXlsLlll)~ rl~Sp )[1-sibilities are shared by various government ;lgenci"s and in those "r";ls WhlCtJ are WltllUI Lllt.~ competellce 01' tIle SLILc CUV\'rllmellLS. It \)11 L be 11 )ll~1I that matters sllcil as land, agriculture, foresLry, mining, SOLI erosion. solul waste cl1spusal, dralrldge and irrigatiun, etc. willetl are fUlIdC111lL'lIL.llly important in environlllental mana[;ement arc, categorically undel' the Statl' and Concurrent 1.1StS, and it IS ill lIlt'SL' <Jrl:dS thaL UH.~ llUIl-sLdtlltur\i control must be tlirected with great care to ;]vold unnecessary admlliLs' traLive conflicts and dupl1calion ot eflurts. EnvlroumcllLll ()llalit:y Act,

,..

Statutory control The Environmental Quali.ty Act, [lJ74 provide"i hroaJ powers lor tl«' pL'ot.ection and enllancement of the qualilY of tile aquatic environment. Such puwt'rs -illclude contrul ot effluent disclLdrgl._ 's illtu the etlvinHHlH::'IlL eilllt'l lilt'l)u~~11

through licensing of industrial premises or

the specilying of

acc('ptable condtti.oLls 01 ulscnarge. In Plt!II..'r caSt!) tile dtscllarg,\ standards are tile main instruments 01 pollution contro l.

-65-

Based on the extent of pollution of various sources and the corresponding impact on the envirorunent, water pollution sources are classified into three groups to facilitate the setting of priorities for their control. These are palm oil mill effluent, natural rubber processing effluent, and sewage and (other) industrial effluents. Different modes of control are used for tne different groups to achieve the objectives of environmental protection and high priority was given to the control of pollution from the palm oil and the rubber industries due to their being major polluters and their widespread pollution of the nation's water resources. The palm oil and rubber industries together constitute about 90 percent of the industrial pollution. Standards for palm oil mill & rubber factory effluents

As palm oil and rubber are industries important to the economy, great care had to be taken in the formulation of standards. These standards have to be not only environmentally effective but also sensible within the framework of the economies and technology available in these industries today. Thus, in consideration of the difficulties faced by the palm oil and rubber industry in terms of the lack of available technology, it was decided to formulate a 4-generation set of effluent standards for oil palm effluent and a 3-generation set for the block rubber factory effluent and a 3-generation set for the latex concentrate factory effluent based on available and economically viable technology. Separate committees comprising representatives from related government agencies and industry were appointed to develop and recommend appropriate standards for the palm oil and rubber factory effluents. These Standards are shown in Tables I, II, and III respectively. The powers derived under section 18 of the Environmental Quality Act, which enable the exercise of control through the issue of a licence were deemed to provide the most pragmatic regulatory approach in the case of palm oil mills and rubber factories. These have been incorporated in the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations, 1977 gazetted on 3 November 1977 and the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations, 1973 gazetted on 30 September 1978. The actual exercise of control is through the attachment of conditions to the licence to be issued by the Director-General of Environmental Quality. The 4-generation set of effluent standards constitutes the principal conditions to be attached to these licences. While these effluent limitation standards are to be widely applied throughout Malaysia, the Director-General may impose more stringent conditions of permissible effluent discharge wherever deemed necessary according to the prevailing environmental situation. Other conditions to be attached to licences include requirements pertaining to various pollution control measures, installation of pollution control and monitoring devices and general conditions of permissible waste discharge. An interesting feature of the palm oil mill and rubber factory effluents control Regulations is the levy of effluent-related fees based on the amount of BOD discharged. The palm oil mill Regulations came into force on 1 July 1978 and during the first year of implementation, namely, 1 July 1978 to 30 June 1979, the permitted BOD level of the waste discharge, i.e., 5000 parts per million (ppm) was not mandatory due to the technological difficulties for

-66-

effluent treatment faced by the oil palm industry. Mills were allowed to discharge their effluents with BOD greater than 5000 ppm but they were charged fees for polluting the rivers on the amount of BOD load over and above that which correspond to the BOD concentration of 5000 ppm at the rate of $100 per metric ton of the BOD load. In addition to this, a licence fee of $10 per metric ton of the BOD load was charged for BOD discharges equal to 5000 ppm or less. On the basis of the above rate-charge, an average size-mill (20-30 metric tons capacity) which discharged effluent having a BOD concentration of 5000 ppm paid an effluent-related licence fee of approximately $4,500 for the first year. The above-average size mill, if discharging raw effluent (i.e., effluent without any form of treatment) was required to pay up to approximately $140,000 irrespective of the ultimate mode of disposal. Mills were also permitted to dispose of their untreated effluent on land. In this case, licence fees were charged at the rate of $50 per 1000 metric tons of effluent disposed on to land. In addition to the higher rate, a charge of $100 per metric ton of BOD was levied except in those cases where the Director-General was satisfied that the discharge of effluents with BOD in excess of 5000 ppm would not caUSe any adverse environmental effect. A total of '3.5 million was collect by way of fees during the first year of implementation of the Regulations. During the second year of implementation which commenced on 1 July 1979, it was mandatory for mills to bring their BOD to 2000 ppm. Only the licence fee was levied at the rate of $10 per ton of BOD discharged. The charging of the high pollution fees as well as the granting of incentive by way of waiver of pollution fees for research on effluent treatment technology had in actual fact expedited the pace of research and some breakthrough has been achieved in the treatment technology for palm oil mill effluent. Oil mill industry is unique to this country and we do not have experience or guidelines from other countries either for technology or standards. Malaysia could claim some credit for having been able to develop its own technology to treat these wastes and formulate its own standards. The rubber factory effluent Regulations came into force on 1 April 1979. The procedure for implementing these Regulations is very similar to those for palm oil mills. As technology is currently available to meet the standards stipulated in the Regulations, only licence fee is charged and it has been made mandatory that the factories should conform to the standards applicable at the respective dates. The licence fee is charged at the rate of $10 per 1000 metric tons of effluent for disposal on land and $10 per metric ton of BOD load for discharge into watercourse. The rationale for more stringent standards The effluent of these point of Standards hitherto developed for rubber factory and palm oil mill have been based purely on available technology for the treatment effluents and are far from satisfactory from the water quality V1ew.

...

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...

With the contribution of pollution increasingly predominant in recent times, water is the one natural environmental element most subject to stress. Heightened concern over this phenomenon is understandable, given that surface waters form the principal source of domestic water supply in Malaysia. The various water resource studies to-date point to a scenario where the availability of sufficient water of appropriate quality could become a critical factor constraining future growth. Given the inexorable pressures for increasing urbanization and accelerated industrial development, adequate measures to protect and manage our water resources become a compelling need of the times to avert a situation of water becoming a precious natural resource in limited supply • Quite apart from being the source of domestic water supplies there are other beneficial uses of the surface waters in Malaysia which include fishery, irrigation, industrial water supply and recreational pursuits.

...

Ideally, the ambient quality of water throughout the country should be maintained at the highest level of purity. For this to be achieved, it would be necessary to enforce extremely stringent discharge regulations applicable to all discharges into rivers and other watercourses. Not only would such a course of action be difficult to implement across the board, as it were, but also it could not be justified in terms of resource allocation on any rational cost/benefit calculation. A more practical strategy would be to aim at ensuring that the quality of inland waters of Malaysia is protected and enhanced, having due regard to their various beneficial uses as mentioned above and for broadly aesthetic reasons. It has therefore become necessary that the future standards for palm oil mill and rubber factory effluent, the major sources of industrial pollution in the country, be based on water quality criteria required to support the various beneficial uses of the surface waters following the precedent set in the case of rubber factory effluents. The relevant standards have perforce to move in the direction of increasing stringency as compared to those applied hitherto when the primary focus was dictated by economically viable technology for the treatment of palm oil mill effluent. On grounds of expediency, water quality criteria were compromised and this situation cannot be allowed to endure given the strides made in the development of economically viable treatment technology. Research and development in the field of palm oil mill and rubber factory effluent treatment technology, minimization of effluent quantity through in-plant modifications, and effluent utilization have progressed to such an extent that it is now within the realms of practicality to achieve desirable standards consistent with sound water quality objectives and criteria. The cost involved is undeniably well within the economic means of the industry. The effluent standards for watercourse discharge proposed for implementation with effect from 1 April 1981 for Standard Malaysian Rubber and Conventional Grade factory effluent from 1 April 1983 for Latex Concentrate factory effluent and from 1 July 1982 for palm oil mill effluent are given in Tables IV, V and VI respectively •

...

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Standards for sewage and industrial effluents In the case of sewage and other industrial effluents (excluding oil mill and rubber factory effluents), powers derived under section the Environmental Quality Act, specifying acceptable conditions were to be the most suitable regulatory approach. These are contained in Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, which came into force on 1 January 1979. palm 21 of deemed the 1979

Malaysia as a developing country must give priority to economic programmes to meet the basic material needs of the population. Equally obvious is the fact that it cannot afford to let pollution spoil the gains made through development, or allow its resource regenerative capacity to be sapped and destroyed by environmental mismanagement. A sensible balance is clearly needed. It has therefore become necessary to formulate standards which are effective in achieving the overall objective of restoring, protecting and enhancing the quality of the environment. Indeed, the formula tion of discharge standards for industrial effluents requires the determination of the sources of water pollution within river basin control regions, the total pollution load discharged to the respective watercourses, the assimilative capacity of the receiving waters to absorb wastes without detriment to the beneficial uses, and the degree of treatment that should be imposed on the sum total of pollution sources within the control region. This approach requires enormous manpower, a prolonged gestation period, and considerable immediate expenditure and does not permit immediate enforcement action which is urgently needed to contain the present load of pollution as well as to overcome the cumulative pollution problems due to rapid industrialization and urbanization. It was therefore decided that the most pragmatic approach for the present is the formulation of fixed standards, with exceptions for special cases. One of the major problems in the formulation of the Regulations was the consideration that had to be given to the factories that had already been in existence for more than 10 or 15 years at the time of formulating the Regulations. Dialogue sessions held between the DOE and several different industrial groups revealed the various difficulties that the existing industries would have to face in complying with the Regulations. These served as useful inputs for the formulation of the Regulations and included the following as the major factors: a. The industries had not yet oriented themselves to the existing pollution problems and any effort to tackle the problems was still 'external' to the normal functioning of the industry. The industries had not in most cases quantified their pollution problems even to the extent of determining the nature and characteristics of their emission or discharge. Having not incorporated anti-pollution measures at the time of planning a factory, the industries expressed grave concern regarding technical and cost aspects.

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Most of the existing factories faced shortage of land space for installing wastewater treatment facilities. Because of this physical limitation, these industries might have to resort to most compact highly sophisticated and energy-intensive treatment units of high capital and operational cost. Industries situated in areas which were to be sewered short ly preferred their wastewaters to be admitted into the sewers and a charge to be levied for treatment of the wastewaters at the central municipal treatment plant. Industries situated in industrial estates which are in areas not likely to be sewered in the near future did not have a central waste-collection and treatment system as part of the infrastructure.

Therefore, in the formulation of the standards, an attempt has been made to achieve a compromise between t~e use of the ideal approach which provides for the optimum use of the environment and the administratively neater approach of applying a single uniform set of standards. In this attempt, the DOE has used the principle of relating the effluent discharge standards to beneficial uses of the receiving water, limiting itself, however, to the important beneficial uses only and the availability of necessary data. Two sets of standards have been formulated as given in Table VII. Standard A, a more stringent standard is applicable to discharges of effluents into inland waters within the water supply catchment areas and standard B, a less stringent standard applicable to discharges into any other segments of inland waters. In the formulation of these standards the following factors were taken into consideration. 1. Conclusions and extensions from the data gathered from the pollution survey of Klang River Basin (Balfour & Sons, 1973) and the Juru River Basin (Maheswaran and Godwin Singam, 1976). The local availability of technology and expertise to treat waters from existing industries in Malaysia. The relative cost burdens of the entire range of practical technology available locally.

With a view to accommodating the genuine difficulties expressed by industries during the dialogue sessions, the provisions of section 21 of the Act have been given full effect in the Sewage and Industrial Effluent Regulations. Accordingly, if for any reason any person is unable to comply with the acceptable conditions of discharge, in particular the existing industries, they will be allowed to contravene these conditions by issuing a licence, provided the Director-General is satisfied that the reasons are genuine and justified. A fee will be charged for the licence at the rate of $100 per metric ton of BOD discharged into inland waters within the catchment areas and $100 or $500 (depending on the toxicity of substance) per kilogram of toxic chemical discharged and for any other inland waters the corresponding fee will be $10 per ton of BOD and $10 or $50 for toxic chemicals.

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New Factories In the case of new factories whether it be palm oil, rubber or other industries, written permission should be obtained from the Director-General of the Environment prior to construction of the factories. This is necessary in view of tQe anticipatory planning that is being adopted as a form of control. Anticipatory planning involves advanced planning, where in the evaluation of relevant projects, the assessment of the overall impact of these projects on the aquatic environment will be undertaken and these assessments given full consideration in the final design and implementation of the projects so that steps are taken to overcome them at the beginning itself. Proper siting of the industry will also be considered in this assessment in order to avoid indiscriminate land use. Anticipatory planning would reduce and may even eliminate the pressure of public outcry against the damage of environmental pollution. It would make the direct control measures mentioned above more meaningful and less costly and also facilitate the smooth enforcement of the Regulations. In addition, it would save industry large sums of money through foresight and careful planning and help preserve the quality and productivity of our aquatic environment. Non-Statutory Control Non-statutory control would be in the form of guidelines intended to help the Government Agencies, State Govenments and Local Authorities to incorporate environmental considerations into their development plans. The DOE has already developed the following guidelines: (a) (b) (c) (d) the control and prevention of erosion and siltation; the siting and zoning of industries; environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedure and methodology; and the selection of sites for the disposal of solid and hazardous wastes and their management.

Basically, the problem of soil erosion and siltation result from the use of land. Therefore, this problem can only be overcome by employing suitable control in line with the provisions of the National Land Code and to practise preventive measures specially at the planning stage of a project whether for agriculture, mining, housing, road construction or logging. These guidelines supplement the existing legislation for soil conservation. As matters pertaining to land use are the responsibility of State Authorities, it is appropriate that control measures to prevent soil erosion be carried out by appropriate agencies within the legal framework of existing institutions. The usefulness of zoning is self-evident. Without it pollution problems can grow to unmanageable proportions. However, zoning for various activities to be effective must be comprehensive and adhered to strictly, and requires coordination between Federal and State Authorities. As control over land use and siting of industries and housing rests with the State Governments and Local Authorities, these guidelines would help these agencies to integrate environmental considerations into development planning.

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Under the proposed EIA procedure, a number of scheduled projects with high impact would be required to have an assessment submitted to DOE. Inititators of the project will be required to submit the various environmental and pollution impacts which can be foreseen and quantified so that steps may be taken in advance to plan and control their environmental consequences. The objective of the guidelines for the selection of sites for the disposal of solid and hazardous wastes and their management is to meet the need for the selection of environmentally acceptable landfill sites and for their proper development and management on sound engineering principles so as to bring about improvements in disposal practices at relatively low cost as well as to reclaim land for useful future use. Conclusion From the foregoing it is evident that measures have been taken, within the constraints of competing policy priorities and claims on resources to protect the aquatic environment within manageable proportions. Priority is given to arresting the existing pollution through the enforcement of the Regulations which apply in full to all new facilities. The Regulations have been carefully structured to give adequate time for existing industries to bring down their pollution load progressively by installation of pollution abatement devices and/or process modification. As a long-term measure, DOE is taking steps towards proper environmental planning involving EIA, land use planning and zoning, and interfacing environmental considerations with economic planning. The job of building a better environment is not one for the Government alone. It must engage the enthusiasm and commitment of our entire society. The active participation of the business community is most essential. The Government regulations and enforcement activitives will continue to be strengthened. But regulations alone cannot do the whole job. Forwardlooking initiatives by business itself are also vital - in research, in the development of new products and processes, in continuing and increased investment in pollution abatement equipment.

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ANNEX 1

Environmental-related Legislations

National Land Code 1965. Local Government Act 1976. Town and Country Planning Act 1976. Municipal and Town Boards (Amendment) Act 1975. City of Kuala Lumpur (Planning) Act 1973. Housing Developers (Central and Licensing) Act 1966. Streets, Drainage and Building Act 1974. Forest Enactments 1934. Mining Enactments 1929. The Waters Enactment 1920. Drinage Works Ordinance 1954. Fisheries Act 1963. Petroleum Development Act 1974. Land Conservation Act 1960. The National Parks Act 1980. Protection of Wild Life Act 1972. Malaria Eradication Act 1971. Destruction of Disease Bearing Insects Act 1975. Factories and Machinery Act 1967. The Road Traffic Ordinance 1958. Pestiocides Act 1974. Radioactive Substances Act 1968. Poisons Ordinance 1952. Explosives Ordinance 1957. Dangerous Drugs Ordinance 1952. Sale of Food and Drug Ordinance 1952. Medicine (Advertisement & Sale) Ordinance 1956. Trade Description Act 1972. Antiquities Act 1976. Environmental Quality Act 1974. Continental Shelf Act 1966. The Merchant Shipping Ordinance 1952. Federation Port Rules 1953. The Aborgina1 Peoples Act 1954.

2. 3.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

.. -73-

... Table I Four generation sets of effluent standard for palm oil Parameter Standard A Standard B Standard B Standard D 1. 7.78 1.7.79 1. 7.80 1. 7.81

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 3-day, 300C; mgtl Chemical oxygen demand (COD); mgtl Total solids; mgtl Suspended solids; mgtl oil & grease; mgtl Ammoniacal-nitrogen; mgtl Organic-nitrogen; mgtl pH Temperature, oC

5,000 10,000 4,000 1,200 150 25 200 5.0 - 9.0 45

2,000 4,000 2,500 800 100 15 100 5.0 - 9.0 45

1,000 2,000 2,000 600 75 15 75 5.0 - 9.0 45

500 1,000 1,500 400 50 10

50 5.0 - 9.0 45

...

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Table II Three generation sets of effluent standards for SMR & conventional grade factory effluent 2nd generation standards effective 1.4.79 6.0 - B.O 300 750 1,000 250 100 70 3rd generation standards effective 1.4.80

Parameter

1st generation standards effective 1.4.78 6.0 - B.O 500 1,000 1,000 250 100 BOO

pH BOD, ppm (3-day at 300 e) COD, ppm

6.0 - 8.0 200 500 1,000 250 100 70

Total solids, ppm Suspended solids, ppm Total nitrogen, ppm Ammoniacal nitrogen, ppm

Table III Standards for latex concentrate factory effluent 1st generation standards effective 1.4.BO 6 - 9 450 1,500 2,500 1,000 450 350 2nd generation standards effective 1.4.81 3rd generation standards effective 1.4.B2 6 - 9

Parameter

pH BOD, ppm (3-day at 300 e) COD, ppm

6 - 9

300 1,000 2,000 BOO 350 300

200 500 1,000 250 350 300

Total solids, ppm Suspended solids, ppm Total nitrogen, ppm Ammoniacal nitrogen, ppm

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Table IV Standard for SMR & Conventional Grade Factory Effluent Effective from 1.4.81

BOD, 3-day, 300 C; mg/l OJD; mg/l

100 (50*) 250 150 (100*) 40** 60** 6-9

Suspended solids, mg/l Ammoniacal-nitrogen; mg/l Total nitrogen; mg/l

....

* .....

This additional limit is the arithmetic mean value determined on the basis of a minimum of four samples taken at least once a week for four weeks consecutively • Value on filtered sample.

Table V Standard for latex concentrate factory effluent effective from 1.4.83

BOD, 3-day. 300 C; mg/l COD; mg/l

100 (50* ) 400 150 (100*) 300 300

Suspended solids, mg/l

Ammoniacal-nitrogen; mg/l Total nitrogen; mg/l pH

6-9

This additional limit is the arithmetic mean value determined on the basis of a minimum of four samples taken at least once a week for four weeks consecutively.

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Table VI Standard for palm oil effluent effective from 1.7.82 1. 7.82 31.12.83

1.1.84 and thereafter

BOD, 3-day, 30o C; mg/l COD; mg/l Suspended solids, mg/l Total solids; mg/l Oil and grease; mg/l Ammoniacal-nitrogen; mg/l Total nitrogen; mg/l pH

250

100

400

150* 300* 5.0 - 9.0 45

100* 200*

5.0 - 9.0 45

Tempera ture

Value of filtered sample •

. t(" 'i, " "

-..'

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Table VII Standards for sewage and industrial effluents

roo

Parameter

Unit

Standards A 40 B 40 5.5 - 9.0 50 100 100 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 0.50 10.0

Temperature pH value BODS at 20 C Suspended solids Mercury Cadmium Chromium, Hexavalent Arsenic Cyanide Lead Chromi.um, Trivalent Copper Manganese Nickel Ti.n Zinc Boron Iron (Fe) Phenol Free Chlorine Sulphide 0

°c

mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/1 mg/l mg/l mg/l

6.0 - 9.0 20 50 50 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.001 1.0 0.50 not detectable

oi 1 and grease

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RISK ASSESSMENT AND INDUSTRIAL AND HAZARDOUS WASTE CONTROL

M. Nakamura PEPAS Environmental Systems Engineer

..... I I

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INTRODUCTION

In the control of industrial and hazardous wastes, the assessment risk becomes an important issue. Many of us are aware of the danger to which we

•

expose ourselves in the chemical environment we live in today but we know very little about the specific degress of risk involved in using specific chemical products or industrial goods, the production process for which generates hazardous wastes. This paper attempts to outline the basic concept of risk assessment as applied to the assessment of general risk-bearing activities but with specific reference to industri al and hazardous waste control. The paper is also intended to provide the ground for closer examination of the issue than to provide any guideline or answer to the question of risk assessment for industrial waste control.

•

WHAT IS RISK? Risk is an expression of the likelihood that adverse effects will occur and is a function of exposure and degree of hazard (Ref. 1, P9l9). Few people are not aware today of the health risk of toxic and hazardous waste materials discharged as a result of industrial production processes or application of chemicals into our living environment. Few people are aware, on the other hand, exactly how great is risk to which we are exposing ourselves and what degree of risk the society we live in actually is allowing to be balanced off with the benefit accrued as a result of the use of the particular industrial goods contributing to such a risk.

Let us take a look at some illustrative figures. ground for discussion.

Tables 1 and 2,

originally presented by Keen (Ref. 2) and Kletz (Ref. 3), may provide some Cook (Ref. 4) who cited these two tables states, "Comparison of Table 2 with Table 1 shows that personnel working with toxic waste are exposed to a similar risk of death as those who play football. The hazard to the public at large is much lower." So, where does it put us?

-80Table 1 Risk estimates of the danger from waste sites taken from data published by Keen (1977)

Risk of death/person/year Personnel working on site (estimated 8,000) General public

0.0004 x 10- 6

75 x 10- 6

Table 2 Comparison of risks after K1etz (1976)

occupation Voluntary Motor cycling Smoking (20 cigs/day) Car racing Car driving Football Contraceptive pills Influenza Being run over (UK) Struck by lightning (UK) Struck by falling aircraft (UK) Harmed by petrol and chemical transport (UK) Struck by a meteorite

Risk of death/person/year 20,000 5,000 1,200 170 75 20 200 60 0.1 0.02 x x x x x x x x x x 10- 6 10- 6 10- 6 10- 6 10- 6 10- 6 1--6 10-6 10- 6 10- 6

Involuntary

0.02 x 10- 6 0.00006 x 10- 6

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CHENICAL HAZARDS OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS AND WASTES

Many of us have heard of tragic chemical poisoning incidents which

took place in the 1960's and in early 1970's in Japan (Ref. 5) including that of Minamata Di sease (Ref. 6). We are now becoming more and more

aware of incidents of industrial chemicals being discharged into the environment without any treatment or control. Some of the recent

incidents of toxic chemical threats are:

Toxics

n the New Je rsey Envi ronmen t

In a recent issue of Civil Engineering magazine issued by the American Society of Civil Engineers (Ref.

a series of articles

was presented under the heading "Toxics in the NJ environment: microcos in 0

f US i lIs", in wh i ch some deta i led accounts of ground

water contamination (by toxic chemicals) in the drinking water wells (5% of 400 randomly sampled wells had concentration of synthetic organics high enough that the States thought the water unfit for drinking), surface water contamination (among the NJ water treatment plants some are drawing water from Jersey's most polluted rivers, the Passaic, the Hackensack, the Relaware), aIr pollution (for any single chemical of some 200 chemicals detected in the New Jersey air, concentrations are in the 1 to 5 ppb range - no matter where measured in the States, even in the rural regions. phenomenon) . Quite an alarming

Ohio River chemical spills

"Unusual levels of carbon tetrachloride, a chemical considered extremely hazardous to the kidneys and the liver and which has caused cancer In laboratory rats, were first discovered In the Ohio River at

Huntington in February 1975. per billion.

At the time the level was only 3 parts

But this was enough to cause concern since it was the

highest in the nation and well above the five-tenths to I part per bi llion norm.

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Levels more than 30 times higher - in the range of 100 parts per billion - were found almost by accident in Cincinnati in January 1977. These levels were dramatically higher than anything ever seen In drinking water. Hut the research team that found them, apparently

since it had no duties for day-to-day enforcement of federal water pollution l.aw, did not inform anyone else in the EPA about them Ilntil several weeks after they were first discovered.

Even after the Cincinnati findings were reported to the enforcement arm of the EPA - apparently late in the first week of Fehruary 1977, the EPA's top officials did not move immediately to establish a standard for judging what levels of the chemical should be considered safe. The "emergency" standard of 50 parts per bi Ilion was based on less than one day's work by Robeck's research team in Cincinnati. on the basis of this hurriedly assembled standard that people throughout the Upper Ohio River Valley began receiving warnings to boi 1 their water (Ref. 8)." [t

wa s

Toxic chemicals dumped into sewer and caused a plant shut-down

"Two chemicals known to be extremely toxic to human, hexachlor·)cyclopentadiene and octachlorocyclopentene were alleged to have been intentionally dumped into sewer by a local chemical disposal cnmpany in Louisville, Kentucky, USA, and the 100 million-gallons-per-day wastewater treatment plant had to he closed down, causing raw sewage to be discharged directly to the Ohio River for several montlls. It

took lllmost two years before tht' s"wers were manually cleared, the volllnteer workers beinE protected by sppcially designed protectivp suits and continuous monitoring of the degree of their exposlIr, to the chern i c a Is (Re f. 9 and 10)." II II

The valley of the drums

"Thousands, possibly hundreds of tt,ollsands, at barrels containing an evil variety of waste chemicals have been stort'd in waste-disposal sites in Jefferson, l>llllitt And Ilardin counties in Kent\lcky.

.. .. of the iceberg" •

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Department for Natural Resources and Environmental Protection report said that illegal disposal sites for toxic chemicals (there are no certified sites) discovered so far in Kentucky "may only be the tip

. Each year, 1 000 new chemical compounds are added to the 70 000 that already exi.st in America, .and the wastes from their production -

nearly 92 billion pounds a year - are often placed in makeshift underground storage sites. Federal officials now suspect that more than 600 such sites have the potential of becoming as dangerous as those at the Love Canal and some are probably already severely hazardous to unsuspecting neighbours (Ref. 11).· How are these and other similar incidents related to risk assessment? How are hazards identified? How are the risks estimated? And how are these risks reflected to the value in our society? RISK ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY According to Kates (Ref. 6) risk assessment takes place in the three broad and overlapping steps of hazard identificatIon, risk estimation, and social evaluation. Hazard identification is the recognition of a hazard Its by the methods of research, of screening, of monitoring and diagnosis. Risk estimation is the measurement of threat potential of the hazard. methods are methods or knowing revelation, intuition and extrapolation from experience. Social evaluation is the meaning attributed to the Its methods are methods of comparison, Hutzler and Boyle (Ref. 1) measurement of threat potential.

aversion, balance and cost/benefit analysis. risk assessment as follows: 1.

identified the data collection and analysis necessary to make a detailed

Hazard identification (show cause and effect): a) b) define acute effects; define chronic effects; define positive effects; identify confounding factors; identify susceptible populations.

d) e)

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Risk estimation (determine probability of adverse effects): a) b) c) d) define dose/response for hazardous substance and population; identify sources and amount of hazardous substance; define conditions of exposure; and calculate risk.

Social evaluation (judge the acceptability of risk): a) b) identify and define benefits; criteria for acceptability; i)

severity and reversibility of consequences; existence of alternatives; equity of risk; and uncertainty of risk.

ii) iv) v)

iii) necessity of risk;

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION Many chemicals are known to be hazardous to man. Some inorganic

chemicals (heavy metals) such as lead, arsenic and zinc have been known for their poisonous property and, for example, arsenic has been used as an ingredient for pesticides for a long time. In more recent history, we have witnessed an explosive increase in the manufacturing of synthetic organic chemicals. Many of these synthetic organic chemicals are now known to exhibit toxic or hazardous properties. After realizing the magnitude of the environmental and public-health threats posed by these chemicals, the US EPA prepared recently a list of hazardous chemicals and a list of industrial processes producing hazardous wastes (see, for example, Yao, Ref. 13). These wastes are defined as hazardous because they have one or more of the following charac terist ic s, Le. ignitability, reactivity (or explosiveness), carrosivity, toxicity, radioactivity, bioaccumulation, unnatural genetic activity (mutagenesis) and infectious uses, which pertain to the cause of, present or potential, substantial injury, serious illness or harm to human, domestic livestock or wildli fe.

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Identification of hazardous property of chemicals in the form of industrial products or wastes does not seem to take place in an orderly fashion. For example, it is believed that of the thousands of new chemicals Even if

introduced yearly into the world market, relatively little could be known immediately of their long-term toxicity such as carcinogenicity. the toxicity of a chemical is known, however, sometimes it is only after a number of years that the particular chemical is determined to be a cause of a disease or environmental destruction. For example, it took several years to identify that the cause of Minamata Disease was methylmercury (Ref. 6). Kates (Ref. 12) states that:

"the identification of new hazards by basic research is itself haphazard" and emphasizes the need for critical and practical science. further: "But neither scientific research nor critical science is sufficient for hazard identification. The institutional task falls on practical or applied science for the identification of hazard by screening, monitoring or by diagnosis". Kates defined screening, monitoring and diagnosis as follows: "Screening is a process of hazard identification whereby a standardized procedure is applied to classify products, processes, He states

... ...

phenomena or persons for their hazard potential.

Monitoring is a A

recurrent process of observation, recording and analysis of products, process, phenomena or persons for hazardous events or consequences. diagnosis is an assessment of their symptoms or consequences in relation to possible causes." Example of Screening (Ref. 12): In 1975 a committee of the Environmental Mutagen Society prepared a screening programme for the routine screening of chemicals entering the environment for mutagenic i ty. In that progr'amme the arguments for screening are based on the seriousness of genetic defects and deleteriousness of most mutations. C1'lee table 3.)

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Table 3:

Operational Characteristics of Mutagen Screening Systems Relative ease of detec.:tiont

Time to

Operating d)~I1i·

Test system Microorlaniuns with metaboJic Ictlvation:

run test -.-~~~

Initial in . . eslmen I costs

Chromosome

Gene mutations

aberrations

Salmond/II typhimurium E.ch"ichltJ coli Yeasts NeUTOfpOf'Q crossa Cultured mammalian cells with metabolic activation 1I0.t-mediated usay with:

2to3d,y< 2 ttl 3 days 3 to 5 'tayo; I to 3 week",

Ven' low Vcry \ow VeT}' low

Low Low Low

Excellent Ex~..,lIent

\1oderate ;\foderate tn high Low to moderate Moderate to hi~h

Moderate Modeute Low to moderate Moderate Low to moderate Low Moderate.

Good Very good

Unknown Good

2 lu 5 wee-ks 2to7d3Y~

Excellent to fair Good Unknown Variable

Unknown Good

Micfnorganisms Mammalian cells Body nuid analysi, Plants; Vido robo Tradesazntitz P/l;udOUl

210 S ,,'cf'k\ Variable } 10 8 day~ 2 to 5 weeb

Variable

low I tlW

Rele";ance uncieaf PotentiallY excellent

to modelatc

Insects: DroJOplril4 meItJnOllQSI": Gene mutations

Chromosome aberrations

2 to 7 \H'.eks 2 to 7 weeks 2 to 4 month, 5 to 7 months

Moderate Moderate Moderate to ht~h Moderate to high Moderate High to very high

Moderate Moderate Moderate

Good to excellent Good to excellent Unknown Potentially very good Potentially good Unknown

Mammals: Dominant lethal mutations Translocation, Blood or bone marrow cy tOJenetlc; Specif1c locus mutllions

Moderate Moderate High to very high

I to 5 ",eeks 2 to 3 month.

·Operatin. coots ,"ry widely depending upon the protocol specified and upon the number Of substance. te.tecllimuUaneou.ly. Very a"proximately, .ery low is $1,000; low is S 1,000 to $5,000; moderate is $3,000 to $ I 0,000; high i. $I 0,000 to $20,000; Ind very t:igh i. $25,000 upward. tSince mo!t of these test systems do not detect all clar;~es of gene mutations or chromosome-aberrations. these columns refer only to the detectable mulltionl. Source: Environmental Mutlllen Society, Committe. 17, Sci"''''. Volum. 187 11975), p. 507.

Example of Monitoring (Ref. 14); The need for risk estimation related to the total environment has been recognized by WHO and UNEP in their Health Criteria Programme and in the creation of the joint WHO/UNEP/ILO International Prograrnrne on Chemical Safety. Essential components in these programmes are information on exposure and accumulation of pollutants. The ongoing efforts of WHO in This collaboration with UNEP aim at integrated health-related monitoring.

....

is done partly through the implementation of biological monitoring of man (focusing on the integrated exposure from the total environment), partly through environmental monitoring of pollutants in different environmental media. Monitoring pollutants in biological media, e.g. lead in blood, is common practice for risk estimations and there are examples of nationwide studies. Until recently only a limited interest has been shown in bioloThe WHO/UNEP monitoring gical monitoring on an international scale.

programmes of the general population for cadmium, lead and organochlorine

-87-

substances and a similar programme for lead in blood within the European Community (CEC) are examples of the growing interest 1n this field. WHO/UNEP programme is global while the CEC programme countries. assurance component. been established. 1S

The

limited to European

Both programmes emphasize the importance of a strict quality A close collaboration between the two programmes has

Example of Diagnosis (Ref. 12):

Diagnosis begins with observation of the abnormal, in the case of medicine, observation of an illness or disease. Standard medical practice calls for collection of a patient's history, an illness history and record of symptoms and complaint, an examination by observation and instruments, both simple and preC1se, and tests and laboratory analyses of varying complexity. The general practitioner is the preliminary diagnostician and The

passes the patient on for further specialized analysis (multiphasic screening wi thou t symptoms for "heal th" persons is also ava i lable). etiology and treatment. task is to match symptoms, history and observations with a disease, locus, Computer analysis is increasingly available, and the use of statistical decision theory has been advocated. The principle applicable to a single patient is also applicable to populations in the work of the epidemiologist. Working with aggregate statistical data, evidence of mortality and morbidity supplemented by field investigation, aggregate "symptoms can be linked to locus, etiology and treatment or prevention. There is less of a presumption of disease, however, and greater overlap with screening, monitoring and what the health profession calls." diagnostic. Indeed, all monitored data need assessment, much of it Wherever recognizable symptoms of environmental consequences

occur - human or biotic ills, changes in environmental media, or increases in economic or social costs - a diagnosis akin to that of the physician is a frequently used form of hazard identification. Risk Estimation Risk estimation is essentially a process of establishing the proba~ility

of adverse effects.

One of the most elaborate, publicized

and rather clear-cut applications of risk estimation, although not of

-87a-

efff'ct~

that enhancE' th., slIsc.'pli"ilitv (d oth~r I~r,vi rl)!lrfl(~!Ir.:Ij

tIle individu,lI iTlfluC':tcPs;

dpletA'riouB effects of

effects

th3t

('RUS,-:'

relf!vant mf'.1~~\1'rPIHI·llts tn be outside Lh(~ .15 tin t'arly indic,1tic,fl ·'l

"normal" raiTge,

j f th~y .,r~ C0Jlsid(~rf'd

decreasprl fllnctinnAI cApacity; nl,d

effects that indicate import"!nt ,,1<·t"[,'.,li<: [lnn biochf'mic:d chan):e 1;."

The example given by Hutzler and llnvl" ([.,,, paLhogenic organisms in wastewater is <jlli tt' f;

I) on d ~k f~va lllat ion 01

in,i lar to wh'lt is gell<'ra Ill' In the cas,' 01

carried out for industrial chemical risk ,'valuat.ion. estimating the overall risk of contractim~

an in[t"ctiolls diesease "e; the

result of sewage on effluent discharges, 01" has to obtain the produ('t of

probabilities that;

(1) pathogens are being discharged into sewag~; (2) 3

they are tl'ansported to

water resourc,,; (3) the water resource i ,; (in)~f:st"d)

''''''0\

in such a way that part of it is taken in

by a slIsceptibl. A s·jlJli ld~

person; and (4) the individual subsequently be~omes dibeaseJ.

set of probabilities must be obt1ined for ri"k <'stirnat.ion of the hazard,; of industrial chemicals.

In any event, risk estimation generally is a process which req1Jilt's vast amount data from carefully conducted lat>oratol'Y studies. associated with the difficulty of collect:ing sufficient daLJ probl~mg

Further, ther,~

;Ire

of uncertainty.

For example, there is a widl' range of t:oif'rancp

between individuals within a population towanl infi'ctious diReasf>s or toxic

chemical s.

SOCIAL EVALUATION The social eval\lation of risk is ttl1' t:v'I]lIation of the meill1lnr: e,1 ·risk. Some chemicals ·banned in the Uni tpd St:Jtes or .Japan, for i n';t:qlC", 10111>'1"

may not necessarily face the same fate ill a less developed country benefits accrued to the society by the

tl,,,,

of s\lel! chpmic.11s may \./1:11 (H

exce d the potential damllge to human health

(·nvironfrent.

DDT. b"n",>'!

in most of the developed countries, for .'x:l1l1pl .. , IS still us,·d quit:, f'xtensivelv In rnany developing cO\lntri("'. ~ontrolling ""CIlIS<'

of it.!l ef(",:tiv.

fl' .....

1:1

pests.

-88-

"In considering the effects of toxic substances in the atmosphere, the concepts of "exposure-effect" and "exposure-response" are useful. An exposure-effect relationship is the relationship between quantified exposure and the quantitative severity of a health effect in an individual or group. An exposure-response relationship is the

relationship between quantified exposure and the percentage of exposed individuals with an effect of specified severity. important to distinguish between the two concepts. It is

The exposure-

effect relationship expresses an average effect in all individuals at the same exposure levels, thereby suggesting that all individuals can be cons i dered to be more or les s equa lly suscept i b Ie. An exposure-

response relationship, however, takes into account the variation In susceptibility within a group of individuals; it indicates the proportion of persons affected.

With increasing exposure, the severity and the number of adverse effects increases; and with decreasing exposure, a limit is reached below which no adverse effects or responses are observed. the no-adverse-effect or no-adverse-response levels. These are

However, Slnce

these levels are based on observations of a limited number of subjects, one can never be sure that other subjects under similar conditions would not be affected. For this reason, the concept of

no-detected-adverse-effect/response levels has been used by WHO study groups.

The limits recommended In this report are expected to prevent not only overt disease, but also adverse health effects In workers' exposure to harmful agents throughout their working life and in their offspring. There was a general consensus within the Group regarding

the intensi ties and effects to be considered as "adverse", even though the clinical significance of many "adverse" effects has not been unequivocally established. types of effects as adverse; The Group considered the following

effects that indicate early stages of clinical disease; .-,

effects that are not readily reversible and indicate a decrease in the body's ability to maintain homoeostasis;

-89-

.. ..

effects that enhance the susceptibility of the individual to deleterious effects of other environmental influences; effects that cause relevant measurements to be outside the "normal" range, if they are considered as an early indication of decreased functional capacity; and effects that indicate important metabolic and biochemical change s." The example given by Hutzler and Boyle (Ref. 1) on risk evaluation of pathogenic organisms in wastewater is quite similar to what is generally carried out for industrial chemical risk evaluation. In the case of estimating the overall risk of contracting an infectious diesease as the result of sewage on effluent discharges, one has to obtain the product of probabilities that: (1)

pathogens are being discharged into sewage; (2)

they are transported to a water resource; (3) the water resource is used in such a way that part of it is taken in (ingested) by a susceptible person; and (4) the individual subsequently becomes diseased. of industrial chemicals. In any event, risk estimation generally is a process which requires vast amount data from carefully conducted laboratory studies. problems of uncertainty. Further, associated with the difficulty of collecting sufficient data there are For example, there is a wide range of tolerance between individuals within a population toward infectious diseases or toxic A similar set of probabilities must be obtained for risk estimation of the hazards

chemical s. SOCIAL EVALUATION The social evaluation of risk is the evaluation of the meaning of risk. Some chemicals banned in the United States or Japan, for instance, may not necessarily face the same fate in a less developed country where benefits accrued to the society by the use of such chemicals may well exceed the potential damage to human health or environment. DDT, banned in most of the developed countries, for example, is still used quite extensively 1n many developing countries because of its effectiveness in controlling pests.

-90-

Kates (Ref. 12) discusses social evaillation in terms of aversion, balancing risks, cost-effectiveness of risk reduction and benefit-risk analysis. Following is a brief discussion on risk aversion and

benefit-risk analysis, two of the more pertinent subjects for this paper.

Risk averS10n The risk averSlon 1S the tendency to avoid risk. Much regulatory

activity for safety or public health is intended to encourage maximum averS1on. Aside from the examples of DDT cited above a number of food

additives, pharmaceutical goods and some industrial chemical products have been subjected to this risk aversive action of the government in many nations. The ban on the use of PCB as insulating material is another

example of a risk aversive regulatory move.

There are two distinct problems of risk aversive approach to social evaluation of risk, the first of which is the general tendency of a risk aversive individual or society to avoid risk at all cost without due regard to its risk or probability of occurance of hazard. The second of these is

that some risk aversive actions are likely to occur by the mood of the individual society and result in internal logical or the inconsistencies. For example, in the United States, carcinogens are banned in foods but not in water; are excluded from intestines, but not from lungs (Ref. 12).

Benefit-risk analysis

The benefit-risk compares rates of risk to the benefits arising from the activity. In this variant of benefit-cost analysis, risk is a

surrogate for social cost.; Feliciano (Ref. 16) refers to some interesting arguments on the carcinogenicity of chemical substances and cancer risks as follows:

"As for suspect carcinogens, very few tested substances have been found to be carcinogenic, and available evidence indicates that most substances do not cause cancer, regardless of dose. To cite a few

examples, the Department of Heal th and Human Services in the United States (formerly HEW) found that only 17% of 7 000 substances

-91-

reportedly showing tumorigenic effects actually did so; the International Agency for Research on Cancer tested 368 suspect carcinogens and obtained positive evidence with only 247; and the National Cancer Institute observed possible carcinogenic effects in only 10% of 140 tested pesticides. statistics very carefully. Thus, one must look at cancer There is no doubt that one-fourth of the Yet, viewed

...

American population may be expected to succumb to cancer of one form or another - this is clearly a matter for concern. statistically, cancer is not a great threat to the human life span. According to Dr Philip Handler, president of the National Academy of Sciences, who spoke at the dedication of the Northwestern University Cancer Center in 1979, cancer is primarily a disease of the later years; if cancer was to be wiped out instantly, the mean age at death of the American population would increase by only 1.5 to 2 years." Whether statistics such as the above are enough consolation to the threats of industrial chemical products and wastes as described earlier by examples depends on an individual. However, the society rather than individual has to come to grips with the assessment of risk and benefit. The Committee on Safe Drinking Water of the National Research Council states in its report (Ref. 16); "It is not possible to guarantee a risk-free society; nor is a riskfree society necessarily the best society. the benefits warrant their use. It is often necessary to accept the risks of chemicals - such as drugs and pesticides - when Risks imposed on persons who gain no Personal choice and personal For major benefits An important

benefits are generally not acceptable.

values enter into the risk-benefit comparison.

for example, in the treatment of otherwise incurable or incapacitating diseases - much higher risks are allowable than otherwise. principle in risk-benefit assessment is that each person must be allowed the widest possible choice - supported by full information on risks, as well as benefi ts - so that intel! igent choices can be made. II Similarly, the importance of benefit-risk concept is voiced by the industry itself. A chemical industry representative made the following statement, noting that private sector has every reason to cooperate with regulatory agencies, to subscribe to their goals, and to support their authority.

-92-

"Improving the quality of the source science 1n health and enVlronmental regulation is an urgent priority, and one that I think will be served by the adoption of three essential principles.

The first is that scientific issues in regulation be determined through a cooperative peer system rather than the adversarial system we have know thus far.

The second is that all scientific data be subject to independent review and evaluation at every stage of the regulatory process.

The third is that the process of scientific research and evaluation be an open system to which any interested party may have access at any reasonable point.

By separat ing the sc ient i fie determinat ion of hazard or ri sk from the process of deciding how to deal with such problems, the role and effectiveness of the regulatory agencies themselves will be strengthened. Enhanced confidence in scientific objectivity will

enable regulators to do their proper job, which is the critically important responsibility of making societal decisions.

Scientific determination and evaluation of any risk to human health or environment should not be influenced by societal values. The role of

sicence in risk assessment is to make objective and quantitative judgements about the existence of any hazard and the degree of potential risk it may present. The role of science stops there, and

the role of the regulator begins.

......

Only the government in a democratic society 1.S authorized to make qualitative judgements about whether a risk to human health or the environmental needs to be controlled; about the degree of control needed; or about the amount that must be allocated to deal with these problems. These are in essence societal decisions that can only be

......

made by the representatives of the public.

......

""'

-93-

Societal decisions about health or environmental risks are certainly not business decisions, and businessmen have no more right to make these decisions than scientists. Attempting to reach decisions by putting a dollar value on human health or irreparable insult to the environment - even to the aesthetics of the environment - is a specious exerC1se. These maters involve judgements, and only the government has the moral authority to make them (Ref. 17)." SUMMARY

The concept of risk assessment applied to industrial waste and

...

hazardous material control was briefly outlined based on some of the recent publications on the subject. Because the threats to society of these industrial chemical products and waste materials have only recently been realized to be quite serious, there are a number of philosophical and technical issues still to be resolved to make the risk assessment a viable tool for application in the government, particularly in countries where sufficient scientific information on the subject is seriously lacking. REFERENCES 1.

Hutzler, N.J., and Boyle, W.C., Wastewater Risk Assessment, Journal of the Envi ronmen tal Engineering Di vi sion, Proceeding of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 106, No. EE5, 919-933, October 1980. Keen, R. C., Safe Di sposal of Toxic Waste, Eurochem Conf., "Chemical Engineering ]n a Hostile World", NEC Burmingham, June 20 - 24, 1977. Kletz, LA., The application of Hazard Analysis to the Public at Large, Proc, First World Congress on Chemical Engineering, Amsterdam, June 28 - July I, 1976. In Chemical Engineering in a Changing World, Ed., W.T. Koetzier, Elserier Sci. Pub. Comp., Amsterdam, 1976. Cook, J.D., Dealing with Toxic Safety Hazards Relating to Disposal, Hazardous Materials Service, Harwell, No date.

5. 6. 7. 8.

vi,

J., The Singularities of Japanese Pollution, Japan Quarterly, Vol. 19, No.3, July - September 1972.

Thurston, D., Aftermath in Minamata, The Japan Interpreters. Vol. 9, No.1, Spring, 1974. Dallaire, G., Toxics 1n the N.J. Environment: Civil Engineering - ASCE, September 1979. Microcosm of VS Ills,

Fineman, H., Story of "Carbon Tet" Goes Back 2 Years, Louisville Courier - Journal, 21 February 1977.

-94-

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Shackelford, L., Distler Testifies He Didn't Dump Toxic Chemicals into sewer, The Louisville Times, 21 December 1977. Deitel, R., Toughest Phase for Sewer Clean Up Crenes Coming Up, The Louisville Times, 11 December 1978. Brown, M., Toxic-Chemical Wastes: A Growing Nightmare, The Louisville Courier - Journal, 21 January 1979. Kates, R.W., Risk Assessment of Environmental Hazards, SCOPE 8, John Wiley and Sons, 1978. Yao, K.M., Legislative Measures and Management Strategies for Hazardous Waste Control, paper presented at Seminar on Industrial and Hazardous Waste Control, October 1982. Friberg, L., Integrated Exposure Monitoring for Health Risk Assessment, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Exposure Monitoring, University of Nevada - Las Vegas, 1981. WHO, Recommended Health-based Limits in Occupational Exposure to Pesticides, Report of a WHO Study Group, Technical Report Series 677, WHO 1982. Feliciano, D.V., Toxics - Truth and Consequences, Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 52, No.7, 1857 - 1864, July 1980. Browning, J.B., Accept Risk Management, Browning Urges Regulators, Chemicology, February 1982.

14.

15.

16. 17.

...

.....

,..., I

'""

-95-

STRATEGIES AND ENFORCE,l-IENT OF INDUSTRIAL

WASTEWATER CONTROL IN MALAYSIA (A CASE STUDY)

Godwin Singam Principal Assistant Director, Water Pollution Control Division of Environment Mlnistry of Science, Technology and Environment, Malaysia

-96-

CONTENT3 Page

Ir~TRCDUCTION

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

BhCKGROUND 2.1. The Land

............•..........•.. •...........•..•

101 102 102

2.2. 2.3. 3.

Population •••••••••••••••••••••••• Economic Structure

EXISTING CONDITIONS

3.1. 3.2.

General Perspective •••••••••••••••• Water Quality •••••••••••••••••••••

103 104 106 107

3.3.

Public Complp.ints as

Indic~tprs

••

'·:',TER POLLUTION LOAD BY SOURCES ••••••••• 4.1. Palm 011 Industry •••••••••••••••••

108 109 110 112

The Rubber Industry ••••••••••••••• The Manufacturing Industries •••••• Domestic Waste •••••••••••••••••••• 4.5.

Comparison of Domestic and Industrial Pollution Loads ••••••••••••••

•

112 113 116 117 118

5. 6.

/,PPROACH AND STRATEGIES

••.............•

PROGRAMME PERFORt-1ANCE •••••••••••••••••••

6.1. 6.2.

The Crude Palm Oil Industry ••••••• Raw Natur.al Rubber Industry ••••••• The Manufacturing Industries •••••• Status of Compliance with the Regulations •••••• Water Quality Trends •••••••••••••• Proj~cted

6.3. 6.4. 6.5.

119 119

120 122 122

6.6. 7.

Water Quality •••••••••••

CONCLUSION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

,...

"" I

..... I

-97-

TABLES Page Malaysia: Gross Domestic Product by Sector of Origin 1970-1980 Peninsular Malaysia: Value-Added Growth in Manufacturing, 1970-1980 Biochemical Oxygen Dema~d (B.O.D) Load Pollution in the Crude Palm Oil Industries (1978-1982) Typical Analysis of Palm Oil Mill Wastewater Estim~ted Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Load Reduction in the Raw Natural Rubber Industry

•••••

123

.....

,124

III

129

IV V VI VI-A VII VIII

..... .....

130

131 132 132

Typical Analysis of Latex Concentrate Wastewater Typical Analysis of SJolR Block Rubber Wastewater Estimated Pollution Loads Generated by the Manufacturing Sector (1979~ Industrial Wastewater Profile by Type of Manufacturing Industry (1979) Comparison of Estimated Domestic and Industrial Pollution Loads Generated (1981) Response of the Palm Oil Indu~try To the 'Polluter-Pays-Principle' Classification of State of Water Quality <1979-1981> Trends in Water Quality (1979-1981)

..... .. ..... .....

133

..... .....

134

IX X

135

..... ..... .....

136

140 140

XII

-98-

Page

FIGURES

1. 2.

DISTRIBUTION OF PALM OIL MILLS IN PENINSUl..AR IJlA!.AYSIA •••••••• e·6 • • • • • • • • • •

1'25

DISTRIBUTION OF RUBBER MILLS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA ••••••••••••••••••••

126

DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL ESTATES IN PENINSULAR HALI\YSIA ••••••••••••••••••

127

4 •. WATER POLLUTION COMPLAINTS BY SOURCES (1974-1979) ••••••••••••••••••• 5.

128

--,

BENEFICIAL WATER USES AFFECTED BY POLLUTION IN 1979 <55 COMPLI\INTS) ••••••••••••••••• B.O.D. LOAD REDUCTION IN '!lIE CRUDE PAI.lJI OIL INDUSTRY •••• e o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

123 131

FLOW DIAGRAM OF PALM OIL WASTE TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES'FOR COST ANALYSIS

......•...

138

B.O.D. LOAD REDUCTION IN THE RA\-I NATURAL RUBBER INDUSTRy ••••••••••••••••• B.O.D. CONCENTRATION IN RIVERS FOR 2000 WITHOUT TREATt"ENT •••••••••••••••••• B.O.D. CONCEWI'RATION IN RIVERS FOR 2000 RECOMMENDED PLAN ••••••••••••••••••

,,39

141

10.

14Z

....

ANNEX

A B C

STANDARDS FOR SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS PALM OIL MILL WASTEWATER STANDARDS LATEX CONCENTRATE WASTEWATER STANDARDS SMR BLOCK RUBBER WASTEWATER STANDARDS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFEREI'!CES RIBLIOGRAPHY

....

.....

-99-

STRATEGIES ANO ENFORCE:MENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEv:ATc:R CONTROL IN (t.

MALAYSIA

Case study)

By: GODWIN SINGAM

INTRODUCTION ~;a1aysia

the need for concerted action towards a more COl'lpre-

hensive and rational approach to water resources and water quality manaQement became particularly apparent durJng the decade of the

••

seventies.

This decade spanning the country's Second (1971-1975)

and Third <1976-1980) Five Year Developments Plans experienced a rapid industrial growth, particularly in the manufacturing sector. The share of manufacturing in Gross Domestic Product (GOP) increased from 13.4% in 1970 to 20.5% in 1980 (GOP: $26,188 million), Table I. As shown in Table II value added in the sector grew by 12.5% per annum during the decade, making it the leading growth sector in the

....

country's economy.

This rapid expansion and diversification of the manufacturing sector

....

served to bring on a new dimension to environmrnta1 problems.

~!a1ay-

sia was already no exception to the observed fact that in developing economies, the major industries causing widespread water pollution

....

were those which process primary products (often for export), such as the agro-based or mineral extraction industries •

•

-J -102-

even in the states of Sabah and Sarawak.

2.2 Population The population in 1980 was estimated at 13.98 million with an annual growth rate of 2.7%. At this rate of increase the popula-

tion is expected to reach about 20 million by the year 2000, with the population/land ratio reaching approximately 78 per square kilometre. Settlements in Malaysia first began in the coastal zones Today, areas.of high

in and around the deltaic and f'stuarine areas.

population densities are found along the whole of the west coast and in the f'stuarine areas of the Kelantan and Trengganu rivers on the ~

east coast of Peninsular Malaysia as well as in the coastal zones of Sabdh and Sarawak. Most of the major towns and state capitals are

located in the coastal zones, where 70% of the total popUlation reside.

2.3 Economic Structure ~alaysia's

Gross Domestic Product by sector of origin for the period In 1980, the GDP of Malaysia was

1970-1980 is shown in Table II. $26,188 million.

The manUfacturing sector contributed 20.5% to

this and about 22% in export earnings, while the agricultural sector's contributions were 22.2% and 35.8% respectively. ~alaysia

The labour force in

in 1980 was 5.4 million with an unemployment rate of 5.3%.

Total employed labour was estimated at 5.1 million of which 15.8% "'as in the manufacturing sector and 40.8% in agriculture, forestry and fishery_

....

•

-103-

3. EXISTING CONDITIONS 3.1 General Perspective ~:ater

use patterns differ markedly between industrial and developing The 1980 water demand in Peninsular Malaysia was approxi-

countries.

mately 7.5 billion cubic metres of which about 4% was industrial, 10% domestic and 86% agricultural. Thus, industrial demand was relatively

low compared to developed countries where indus'trial water generally accounts for at least 40% of total water use. ~alaysia's

While Peninsular t~

1980 pattern of water use is considered similar

that

of most developing countries, where water is mainly used for irrigation, and industry seldom accounts for as much as 10% of total use, the •• projected water demand pntterns for the next two decades are expected to change dramatically. The projected 1990 water demand will be 10.6

billion with a distribution of:8% industrial, 12% d~estic and 80% agricultural; while the year 2000 water demand will be 13.2 billion with a distribution of: 16% industrial, 16% domestic and 68% agricultural.

Despite the relatively small 1980 industrial water use, pollution from

industry had a serious effect on public water supplie_, as well as other beneficial uses due to the following reasons peculiar to Malaysia I s own situation:

(i) the geographical distribution of Malaysia's two major primary (plantation-based) industries,

namel.y palm oil and rubber, the factories of which are characteristically located on their respective

•

-104-

plantations or estates, which may stretch far into the interior of the country and thus pollute rivers all the way to the coast, as illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2, showing the distribution of palm oil mills and rubber factories in Peninsular Malaysia, respectively, (ii) palm oil and rubber are typical primary product industries, utilising large amounts of water and discharging extremely polluting (high wastewaters; (iii) the high concentration of manufacturing industries, both in the unplanned 'industrial pockets' and more recently, in the planned 'industrial e~tates'

oxygen-d~mand)

••

(numbering close to a 100) that are located near major urban and sub-urban centers throughout the country, as shown in Figure 3 (Peninsular Malaysia). II

3.2 Water Quality ~

" ,

3.2.1 Monitoring Network For the purpose of the conduct of water quality ~seline

studies and

the systematic routine monitoring and surveillance of Malaysia's inland waters, the river systems throughout the country were incorporated into 6S water quality control regions; 49 in Peninsular Malaysia, 7 in Sarawak and 9 in Sabah. Regular monitoring of water quality was

commenced by the Division of Environment in 1978, following the

•

-105-

initial selection of more than 400 water quality sampling stations throughout Peninsular Malaysia.

3.2.2 Polluted Rivers In view of the observation that large sections of Malaysian rivers were being polluted by organic wastes from major agro-based industries,

as well as the discharge of high silt-loads from extensive tin mining and land-clearing activities related to agriculture, urban and highway development; data for the two key parameters, the Biochemical qxygen Demand (B.O.D., 5-day, 20 C)and Suspended Solids (5.5.), were selected for an initial assessment of water quality. The data for the 1978/ o

1979 period showed that 12 rivers (the Kedah, Merbok, Juru, Jejawi, Kinta, Buloh, Kelang, Langat, Linggi, Johor, Endau and Pahang) had B.O.D • concentration levels exceeding Smg/l in certain river-stretches. unsatisfactory considering that self-purification processes 'a,re impeded and aquatic eco-systems affected at B.O.D. concentrations exceeding 5mg/lj while odorous river conditions begin to set-in at levels exceeding 10 mg/l.

••

This is

The average concentrations of suspended solids, occuring naturally in Malaysian rivers are kno~iIl

to range between 50-500 mg/l.

However,

the 1978/1979 data indicated that at least 10 ri'Ters (Perai, Perak, Bernam, Selangor, Buloh, Kelang, Lcmgat, Melaka, Kuantan and Endau) had exceeded, the upper limit of 500 mg/l. In addition, at a suspen-

ded solids concentration of 100 mg/l, it was determined that rivers

•

-106-

in 3? river-basins had exceeded this limit in 1979, whereas only 20 exceeded the same in 1978.

3.3 Public Complaints as Indicators An analysis of the complaints relating to water pollution channelled to or received by the Division of Environment for the 6-year period from 1974 to 1979, clearly reflects the relative significance of the various sources of pollution, as illustrated in Figure 4.

-, -,

The major sources of water pollution complaints were the agro-industries, palm-oil mills accounting 20% of the total. f~D

33% and rubber factories approximately

Manufacturing industries were together responsible

for 19% of complaints, while the remainder related to soil erosion

(6%), mining (5%), pig-farming (4%), sugar mills (4%) and sewage disposal (3%).

In 1979, a total of 55 water pollution complaints were investigated in Peninsular ,""alaysia. More than 50% were caused by the agro-based

industries, namely palm oil (30%) and rubber factories (24%); the rest were due to mining activities and siltation (10%), pig-farming (8%), manufacturing industries (8%), sewage disposal (6%) and paper,

,..,

sugar, timber, feedmeal and other sources together (14%).

An analysis

....

of the 1979 complaints according to the type of beneficial water use affected, revealed that 42% related to domestic water supplies, 20% to water affecting fisheries, and 14% to irrigation water for padi

....

•

-107-

crops.

This is illustrated in Figure 5.

WATER POLLUTION LOAD BY SOURCES

In formulating Malaysia's industrial wastewater control programme initial efforts had to be directed towards the task of obtaining adequate baseline information relating to industrial pollution

sources, so as to enable the quantification of wastewater discharges and pollutant loads on a country-wide basis. In addition, information

was also needed on the type, nature and location ~f the important pollution sources, their wastewater characteristics, existing conditions of water quality in rivecs~

and the present and possible future beneThe analysis of such information r~tional

ficial water uses and water demands.

was considered not only essential to providing a

basis for

the industrial wastewater control plan and its objectives, but also for establishing priorities and appropriate control strategies.

Information gaps obviously existed in the initial pollution source inventories. These could only be rectified by detailed surveys which

have since been initiated inorder to permit the progressive upgrading of the inventories. The most difficult area of information collection

was the manufacturing sector of industry where wastewater and other pollution-related data were still limited.

Since the latter half of the seventies and more recently, the situation with regard to industrial wastewater information has generally improved with the coming into force of wastewater regulations. More detailed

-108-

area-based data has also been obtained in conjunction with the increasing number of "sewerage master plan and feasibility' studies for the major urban centers and various 'water resource' studies. Information from these sources, as well as the Division of Environment's own inventory surveys are being used to upgrade the existing pollution inventories.

However, pollution source

inventories on a national basis have b<>en more

readily established for the crude palm oil and raw natural rubber primary industries. In the case of the manufacturing sector, initial

approximations based on the use of rapid assessment methodology for determining pollution loads has been inevitable, and will require cons iderable upgrading progressively.

4.1 Palm Oil Industry Between 1970 and 1980, the planted area of oil palm increased from 308,800 to 890,000 hectares, with a corresponding increase of palm oil production from 431,000 tonnes to 2.59 million tonnes, averaging % 19.6,< per annum.

By the end of 1981, a total of 163 mills were in operation, ranging in capacities between 10 tonne/hour and 60 tonni/hour in terms of the fresh fruit-bunches (F.F.Bl processed. The total BOD load generated

amounted to nearly 1,460 tonne/day having a population equivalent of 29.2 million, while the total wastewater discharge amounted to approximately 70,500 cubic metres/day. The total,BOD loads and their respective ,,",

•

-109-

population equivalents for the period 1978-1982 are shown in Table III.

The production of crude palm oil involves a purely mechanical extraction process in which the fresh fruit-bunch(FFB) undergo sterilisation. digestion. oil extration and clarification. resulting

in the generation of about 1.5 cubic metres of wastewater per tonne FFB processed. with an average BOD concentration of 25.000 mg/l. typical analysis of palm oil mill wastewater is shown in Table ~v.

The highly polluting effect of palm oil mill wastewater is clearly reflected when considering that a 20-30 tonne/hour mill generates a

••

BCD load equivalent to a population of about 200,000 persons, which constitutes a sizeable urban population.

4.2 The Rubber Industry Planted acreage of rubber in the estate sector declined ,over the decade. from 647,200 hectares in 1970 to 507.100 hectares in 1980. However, total planted area in 1980 remained at 2,100.000 hectares due to increases in smallholder schemes, During the decade rubber produc-

tlon grew by only 2.3% per annum and increased from a total of 1.27 million tonnes to 1.6 million tonnes.

By the end of 1981 a total of about 375 rubber factories (45 latex concentrate; 150 SMR; and 180 conventional grade) were estimated to generate about 90,000 cubic metre/day of wastewater with a BOD load

...

•

-110-

L approximat",ly 4.16 million).

208 t.onne/day (population equivalent of nearly Ttwse are shown in Table V.

L of

Typical analysis of L,tex concentrate and SMR block rubber wastewaters are shown in Table VI and VI-A respectively.

4.3 The Manufacturing Industries The Principal Statistics of ~1anufacturing

Industries - By State,

prepared by the Department of Statistics showed a total of 4,499 establishments in Fialaysia in 1978, of which 37% were located in Klang Valley (State of Selanqor/Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur>, 14% in Johore, 13% in P~nang

and 16% in Perak.

In conjunction with a "toxic and hazardous" waste study1 carried out in 1981 on behalf of thE' j"lalaysian Government, a survey of various sources of information on manufacturing industries in Malaysia resulted in a listing of a total of 2,013 industries in Peninsular ~lalaysia

wi thin the following indus trial categories: food and and other chemical products,

beverage; manufacture of chemicals

textiles; paper and paper- products; basic metal industries; electronics and battery manufacture.

....

For the purpose of establishing a

fi~st appr~ximation

of the total

.- ,

pollution 10ilds dischnrgf'd by the m'1nufacturing sector, methodology IScott and Fu~phy E~nqineer.s, Draft Final Renort on 'Policy Guidelines for Collection, Treatment and Disposal of Hazardous ''iastes· - (Unpublished), January, 1982

-111-

for rapid assessment of water pollution sources, which is currently

...

being promoted by the W.H.O. for use in de.velQP.'" adopted.

countries was

A summary of the total wastewater volume, BOD and Suspended

Solids loads derived on the basis of 1979 production data for the manu-

....

facturing sector, is shown in Table VII •

The estimated total wastewater volume was 123,600,000 cubic metres per year or 412,000 cubic metre/day. 37,250 tonne/year or 124 tanne/day. The estimated BOD load was The populntion-equivalent of ~pproximately

this BOD load from the manufacturing industrial sector was 2.48 million persons (1980 estimated popUlation of 13.98 million).

~alaysia

was

Table VIII shows the industrial wastewater profile by type of industry. It appears that nearly 97% of the wastewater discharge is from 3 manufacturing categories, name1y food manufacturing (40.4~),

Industrial

Chemicals and other Chemical"Products (35.2%) and Textiles (21.2%) The same 3 categories of industries together were estimated to discharge 96% of the total BOD load, with their respective individual

loads not varying Significantly between

them.

Using the rapid assessment method it was difficult to obtain a meaningful estimate of the pollutant loads for toxic substances. However, a pollution study of the Juru River Basin, Which receives waste discharge from the Prai Industrial Complex in Penang showed dishcarges of toxic heavy metals such as mercury, !E.'ad, zinc, chromium and cadmium amounting to about 23 kilogram/day - (Maheswaran and

-112-

Godwin Singam 1976).

Similar toxic heavy m('tuls discharged into

the Kelang River Basin from industrial estates in Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya and Shah Alam amounted to approximatelY 3,600 kiloqram/ day (Balfour and Sons, 1973). l'hese represent two of the most

industrialised areas of the country.

4.4 Domestic 1;.'astes The 1981 population of Malaysia was estimated at 14.3 million persons. Approximately eleven percent of the urban population were estimated to be using facilities connected to community water-borne sewepage systems. Based on the above information and appropriate factors used in rapid assessment, pollutant loads were calculated for domestic sources. estimated total liquid waste amounted to 76,830,000 cubic metre per year or 210,500 cubic metre per day. The BOD, COD and S5 loads

•

The

amounted to the equivalent of 220 tonnes/day, 536 tonnes/day, and 616 tonnes/day respectively.

4.5 Comparison of Domestic and Industrial Pollution Loads Table IX shows relative BOD loads from domestic sources, the crude palm oil industry, the raw natural rubber turing sector. indQ~try

and the manufac-

Both

the wostewater volume and the

I~D

load contributed by the sum

.... ' I

total of industrial sources are more than 2.5 times that of the domestic sources. In addition, an examination of the relative BOO

contributions of the Palm Oil Industry (62.7%), the Rubber Industry

-113-

... (7.4%) and the Manufacturing sector (4.4%), clearly shows the

justification as regards the chronological order of priority that has been given to the control of these industrial sources.

The BOD load generated by the sum total of industrial sources amounted to a total popUlation equivalent of nearly 35.8 million persons, ie. 2.5 times Malaysia's actual 1981 estimated population.

---

5. APPROACH AND STRATEGIES

In the earlier Malaysian paper, the initial strategies and long-term approach for pollution control and water quality management proposed for adoption in Malaysi•• were clearly described. It was pointed out

that Malaysia being a developing economy, could ill-afford to pursue the ideal situation of maintaining or restoring wa.t.er to the highest level of purity, beyond even the quality requirements demanded by beheficial use consideration. Thus, in deciding on a suitable appro~ch

industrial wastewater control the two popular modes, namely that based on the "effluent-standards" approach and the other based on 'streamstandards' were both carefully explored.

In view of the obvious constraints posed by the otherwise environmentally more sound 'stream-standards' approach, such as the enormous trained man-power requirements, the comprehensive water quality data demands, and the considerable immediate expenditure needed, the possibility of its full adoption in the short-term had to be ruled out. Instead, it was decided to adopt initially an approach somewhat intermediate between the two, incorporating useful elements of both

-114-

systems and taking into consideration not only wat~r

quality pro-

tection needs, but also the techno-economic constraints of industry in Malaysia. For example, in the Sewage and Industrial Effluents

Regulations, applicable to industry at large (excluding the palm oil and rubber primary industries), due to purely environmental grounds i t was inevitable to set fixed discharge· standards or limits (ANNEX A)

for those pollutants that display bio-accumulative properties in the aquatic food-chain, and acute or chronic forms of toxicity such as in the case of some 'Black List' and 'Grey List' heavy metals. '.

The need

to curb the discharge of these substances and limit them to low ambient levels at the earliest and with a sense of urgency are perhaps obvious.

However, for parameters relating to 'non-conservative' substances like simple biodegradable organics which do not eXhibi~ any of the above properties variable limits have been permitted. .',

.....

Limits for such pollu-

. tant parameters listed under a separate schedule in the Regulntions are determined, taking into consid~ration

prevailing conditions of

the waste-receiving watercourse and beneficial uses to be protected. On the other hand, as deemed necessary due to the lack of appropriate wastewater trpatment technology which was initially faced by the economically significant palm oil and rubber industries, the approach of imposing a pre-scheduled set of progressively more stringent wastewater standards, commensurate with research and development trends in the technology had to be adopt~d.

I I

ANNEX n,

and

show thpse

standards as applied to the palm oil and rubber industries (latex

-115-

.. concentrate and SKR block rubber), which have been incorporated into their respective regulations; i.e. Crude Palm Oil and Raw Natural Rubber Regulations.

It should also be noted that where fixed wastewater discharge standards have been inco~porated

into Regulations, flexible provi-

sions of the principal Act permit for consideration of temporary or if need be, indefiniteLin genuine and justified cases of technoeconomic or other difficulties. However, this involves the imposition

of wastewater - related licence fees, with rate charges based on industry and pollutant-type category, devised so as to dis~ourage applications by the undeserving.

, In the particular case of the Palm Oil Industry, higher 'prohibitive'

rate charges based on BOD load discharge were year of control (1978).

appl~ed

in the first

This was in view of the fact that the

applicable BOD standard of 5000 mg/l was not made 'mandatory' to allow the industry the choice of implementation or otherwise of the then 'limited available wastewater treatment technology'. The industry

response to the 'polluter-pays-principle' is worth noting and is

briefly described later in the paper.

. \\'hile efforts have been directed at arresting pollution from existing industries, even greater care has been exercised to ensure that our

industrial sources comply with the acceptable conditions of discharge stipul~ted

in the various regulations.

This has been done through

-116-

.... regulating requirements that new industrial applications must seek prior approval of the Director General of Environment in relation to new sources of discharge. In the case of major industrial projects

....

efforts are in hand to formalise the requirement for environmental impact assessment (EIA); for this purpose draft guidelines on the procedures proposed for adoption in Malaysia have already been finalised.

PROGRAMME PERFORMANCE

The response of Malaysian industry to wastewater control to date can be considered as moderately favourable and thus progres& in pollution control and water quality improvement has been no less satisfactory. This can ~ainly

be attributed to the successful

technological 'break-through', in the late seventies in palm oil mill and rubber factory wastewat.er treatment involving relatively

low-cost biological treatment systems of the lagoon type.

The improvements appear particularly significant in view of the relatively large earlier contributions to the total organic pollution load by the above industries. In the case of industries in the

manufacturing category, a definite assessment of status of compliance with respect to wastewater standards is yet to be determined, owing to ~he

.....

large number of industries involved and the recent date of

effective enforcement, 1st. January 1981.

-117-

6.1

The Crude Palm Oil Industry

As earlier indicated, in the case of the palm oil industry, the 1st. year 'guideline' standard for BOD of 5,000 mg/l, was not 'mandatory'. The wastewater being basically organic, BOD load-related

fees were charged and the rate was M$10.00 per tonne for BOD concentrations below the above limit. However, a surcharge of

MS100.00 per tonne was payable for BOD loads in excess of that corresponding to the 5,000 mg/l concentration • ...

These rates were derived such that fees payable for raw wastewater discharge (per annum) would significantly exceed, atlea~t

"the

capital cost of implementing newly developed 'anaerobic lagoon' treatment technology.

•

Farly inhibition on the part of some sectors

of the palm oil industry towards timely implementation of the above proposed treatment scheme could be attributed to either initial scepticism of its success or the view that it would only satisfy initial standards and did not constitute the total and system. fln~l

Indifference in some cases and guinine constraints of lan<\

space in others were also observed.

Table X, represents the response of the industry and shows the range ...

of fees paid by various mills.At least 54% of the initial 130 palm oil mills responded positively by paying fees ranging less than MS10,000.00. Response by a la~ge ~umber

, up to

of others appeared

gradual until the first 'mandatory' BOO standard of 2000 mg/l came into force. A total of MS3.5 million were paid in wastewater-related

fees for the first year •

...

,-.

-118-

... The overall progressive reduction in the total BOD load discharged by the industry over the period 1978 - 1982. is shown in Fiaure 6. Although palm oil production had steadily increased with the number of mills increasing from 130 in 1978 to 163 by 1981, the rate of BOD reduction increased from 76% in the first year (BOD Standard - 5,000 mg/l) to approxi~ately 97% in 1981.

The total BOD load

generated in 1981 was 1,460 tonne/day population equivalent 29.2 million) while the discharge amounted to approximately 35 tonne/

day (popUlation equivalent of 700,000).

This is expected to be ,

reduced to less than 5 tonne/day by 1.1.1984 (population equivalent of less than 100,000), when the BOD standard of 100 mg/l becomes effective.

•• The various treatment alternatives for palm oil mill wastewater with cost estimates are shown in Figure 7.

6.2

Raw Natural Rubber Industry

The total estimated 800 load reduction in the rubber industry over the period 1979 - 1982, is shown in Figure 8. The total BOD load of 208 tonne/day generated by the industry in 1979 (population equivalent 4.16 million), did not change significantly over the period and was reduced by 53% in the first year of enforcement. The

total load was reduced to ap!)roximately 10 tonne/day by the end of 19B1 and-'. is expected to be further reduced to l~ss

than 5 tonne/day

.- 'I

(population equivalent less than 100,000), when the 50 mg/l 800 standard becomes fully effective for the industry as of 1.4.1983. I,

.....

-119-

6.3

'!'he Manufacturing Indus tries

As previously indicated the Sewage and Industrial Effluents Regul~tions came with force on 1.1.1981 and a greater gestation

period is needed before a meaningful assessment of pollution load-reductions can be made.

6.4

Status of Compliance with the Regulations

As at 1st July 1981, 163 palm oil mills throughout Malaysia were required to meet the 4th generation-set of effluent discharge standards with a BOD parameter limit of 500 mg/litre. 116 of the

mills (71%) complied and of the total number of mills not complying,

i.e. 47 mills, 20 cases were found to warrant prosecution in court for not having any reasonable or satisfactory grounds for noncompliance.

••

As at 1st April 1982, 180 SMR and Conventional Grade rubber factories were required to meet a BOD limit of 50 mg/litre and 45 latex concentrate factories factories, 8'

800 of 200 mg/litreoor the total of 225

180 of the factories (80%) complied, while 10 of the

remaining 45 factories were found to warrant prosecution in court

for not having any satisfactory or reasonable grounds for non-compliance.

The status of compliance with respect to the manufacturing industries which are subject to the Sewage and Industrial Effluents Regulations has not been clearly determined yet. To date 39 factories under

this category have been prosecuted in court for non-compliance with

-120-

discharge standards. A total of S140,950 have been imposed in fin~s for the total of the 69 cases above.

6.5 Water Quality Trends. In 1981 a total of 2,355 river samples from 570 sampling stations were taken and analysed for their physical, chemical and biological characteristics. Data for the two key parameters, the BOD and

Suspended Solids for 1981 were analysed and compared with those of 1980 and 1979, to determine any water quality trends since the enforcement of regulations •

•• The basis used for the analysis of trends was as follows:(a) cumulative frequency distribution of HOP. and Suspended Solids was plotted. Comparison was made between per-

centage frequency at 3mg/1 BOD (for measure of organic pollution) and at 100 '"9/1 ;:\:: (for measure of suspended silt) and (b) the quality of water was determined based on the percentage of samples within the cut-off concentration of 3mq/l for BOD and 100 mg/1 for S.S. Water quality was considered qood if more than 75% of the samples are within the cut-off concentration; fair if between 66%75% and poor if less than 66%

The results of the comparative analyses are summarised in Table XI and Table XII. Organic pollutants continued to affect the quality

-121-

.... of major rivers of Peninsular Malaysia as measured by the B.O.D. -.

concentration.

Of the 38 main rivers considered (in 37 river basins)

7 rivers deteriorated in water quality (Juru, Perak, Linggi, Muar, 5kudai, Johor and Endau) while improvements were recorded in 10

other rivers (Merbok, Perai, Jejawi, Krian, Kelang, Langat, Kesang, Rompin, Kemaman and Trengganu). There was no significant change in

the quality of 18 rivers while 3 other showed no definite trends.

In terms of suspended solids (5.S.) 10 of the rivers imprOVed in quality (Perlis, Merbok, Bernam, Linggi, Kesang, Rompin, Ku~ntan,

Kemaman, Dungun and Trengganu), whil e 6 deteriora ted (Kedah, Muda, Krian, Buloh, Langat an~Muar).

Of the 10 rivers which showed

improvement 1 river (Bernam River) had water quality which was fair while the rest was good. 16 rivers showed no significant changes in

water quality. However, one of these (Klang River), had water of poor quality, while the rest were good. The Langat River which deteriorated

in quality was also of poor water quality together with the 5elangor River which showed fluctuation in quality over the years 1979-1981.

....

A broad comparison of the situation in 1981 with that in 1978 shows considerable improvement. Only 4 rivers (the Buloh, Juru, Endau

and Linggi) were considered seriously polluted in terms of organic

....

. pollution in 1981.

In terms of suspended solids, 3 rivers (the

Kelang, Langat and 5e1angor) were considered as being just as polluted as before the'.enforcement of any of the wastewater control regulations •

.... -122-

6.6 Projected Water Quality Figure 9 representes the projected water quality in Malaysia's inland waters in terms of the BOD concentration assuming no control. Figure 10 represents the state of water quality in Malaysian rivers projected to the year 2000 in terms of BOD concentration if the wastewater standards are fully complied with.

7. CONa.USION From the foregoing it is evident that measures have been , taken, within the constraints of competing policy priorities and claims on resources to protect the aquatic environment within m,mageable proportions. Priority 'is••given to arresting the existing pollution through

the enforcement of the Regulations which apply in full to all new

facilities.

The Regulations have been carefully'structured to give

just adequate time for existing industries to bring down their pollution lOdd progressively by installation of pollution abatement devices and or process modification.

As a long-term meusure, the Division of Environment is taking steps towards proper environmental planning involving environmental impact assessment, land use planning and zoning, and interfacing environmpntal considerations in socio-economic planning. ••••••••••••••••••••••

.... I I ,

I I

PRESENTATION DURING DISCUSSION: ANNEX E, showing comparision of domestic and industrial BOD loads after enforcement of industrial wastewater standards. Comment was made that with the rough estimation of a 60% reduction of 800 load for the manufacturing sector since 1.1.81, domestic waste now contributes the largest 800 load and is more than double indus'~rial sources.

... ($

-123-

TABLE I

MALAYSIA: GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT BY SECTOR OF ORIGIN

1970--1980 million in 1970 prices)

Average annual growth rate (%)

Share of GOP (%)

....

Sec t o r Agriculture, forestry and fishing

1970 ($)

1990 ( $)

.1971-1980 4.3 4.6 .. 12.5

1970

1980 22.2 4.6 20.5 4.5

3,797 779 1,650 .475

5,809 1,214 5,3 74 1,186 592 1,696 3,295 2,155 3,398 657 308 1,120 26,188

....

Mining & quarrying ~janufacturing

30.8 6.3 13.4 3.9 1.9

Construction Electricity, gas and water Transport, storage and communications ~~olesale

9.6 10.0 11.3 7.3 7.6 9.5 7.9 -,

• 229 581 1,633 1,036 1,367 306 117 573 12,308 2.3 6.5 12.6 8.2 13.0 2.5 4.7 13.3 8.4 11.1 2.5

& retail trade hotels & restaurants

Finance, insurance, real estate & business sl!!rvices Government servicl!!s Other services Less: imputed bank service charges Plus: import duties Equals: Gross domestic product at purchaser's value

....

7.8

-124-

TABLE

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA: VALUE-ADDED GROWTH IN t'.ANUFACTtJRI NG! 1970-1980

Average annual growth rate (%l 1971-1980 4.0 22.6 8.0 .-

Share (%l 1970 Food products Oils and fats Beverages & tobacco Textiles Wood & Wood products Paper and printing Industrial chemicals Chemical products Rubber products Cement Non-metallic Basic metal Fabricated metal Electrical machinery Transport equipment Other manufactures 15.3 6.3 12.1 2.1 12.4 1.0 3.3 6.0

1980 9.3 14.1 9.9 3.0 12.0 1.0 2.0 5.1 3.5 4.5 5.2 1.7 3.6 4.5 3.4 4.9 12.4 100.0

.15.7 . 10.3

11.1 3.8 8.3 8.3 5.6 10.0 8.3 10.8 10.5 13.3 9.7 28.5 12.5 II II

••

Petroleum products

4.2 6.7 5.4 2.0 3.1 4.6 2.9 5.3 7.3

,...11

100.0

..... I , I

...

_._-- •._------,--------------125:-

-- -+

l s.

FIGURE 1

DISTRiBUTIoN OF PALM au; MILLS IN PENINSULAR ~ALI'\YSIA

...

~101k~r ., '1(e.H/116 p,NU

~IA

~AI<-

~O\J1H

•

• .. ... -

.' SCAL~

MM_M_'

lOOKm

.-F'IGU R.2 D!!;TR I:BUTI ON 01:' RUBBER MIllS

IN PENINSULAR ~~YSIA

,..

"1('\

'J 1

) .....

,-.

KEy.

• C>

o M •

1M -

100"'" I

Ii.,..,., ....

• - .. _-.-

C.Nv..rl'/rI6"'A~ t;~IP", ....;'}C;r t:'A!'y .(M_I : ISO/l ftJ CITY Tow,..", II.

(ItO ))

Rlv~

--~-------------------------

-127-

,. I"

FIGURE 3 DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL ESTATES IN PENINStJLl\R I-'ALAYSIA

, .

-128FIGUHE I.J.

v!II.TEt( POUillION COKPJAUn'S BY SOUl(CFS (1974 - 1979)

...--------..-......,

( PAJ1-i OIL HlLLS \ nufacturine)

(33%) \

\ ",--

-',

''''',

Suear i,:ills

•• FIGU1(E

J Wb.TEIt USES AFFECTED BY POLLU'TION lK 1979 (55 CDi_Fl.LL.'i'S) '. ,

B~;EECIAL

.,----

------..., Fishery

j/ I Drinking Elnd Domestl c

(20%)

' '"'

Water Supply

(lt2f,) (

_ (14%)

.." ..... -~,

Hater for livestoc'~ & Foultry (30

~ Industrial ~j~ter (2,n J\.sthetics (J.:~)

)

) ..;;J.;.

)

, )

TABLE III BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (B.O.D.) LOAD REDUCTlOO IN '!liE CRUDE PALM OIL INDUSTRY (1978 - 1982) Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977 - P.U.(A)342/77 and Environmental Quality Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) (Amendment) Regulations 1982 - P.U.(A) 183/82 YEAR Applicable BOD Standard, mg/1: (as at 1st. July) Number of Mills: 800 Load Genera ted/Day (Tonne): Population Equivalent of BOD Load Generated: BOD Load Disch~rged into Watercourses/Day (Tonne): Effluent Discharged/Day (Cubic Metres) : Population Equivalent of BOD Load Discharged: Percentage Reduction in BOD Load Discharged (%): 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

5,000 130 920 18,400,000 222

•

2,000 135 1,130 22,600,000 130 54,500 2,600,000 88

1,000 149 1,330 26,600,000 58 64,500 1,160,000 96

500 163 1,460 29,200,000 35 70,500 700,000 97

250 176 1,600 32,000,000 19 77,500 380,000 99 • I .... ~

<D I

• 44,500 4,400,000 76

• Estimated Note The B.O.D. Standard as of 1.1.1984 will be 100 mg/l. The enforcement of this limit is expected to reduce the B.O.D. load discharge to less than 5 tonne per day; i.e. population equivalent of less than 100,000.

?!.fLS IV

TYPICAL ."J!hLYSI!: CF PiJ..:: OIL t:ILL :IAS':'i)';ATER

FAR A

E T E R

Range

l~e3n

::i aerelT' lea 1 CXY9E'_'1 Der.1and

(3(D), 3-eay, 300 : mg/l Chemical Oxygen Demand (CCD) : rr.g/l Total Solids; mg/l Sus!,ended Solids; mg/l Oil &

10,250 l5,50~ 11,~50

47,500

25,000 53,630 43,635 19,020 8,370 35 770 I ....

- 106,360 - 164,950 60,360 110 1,820 4.5

4.10 0180 3.8 -

Grease; mo/l ~itrogen;

130- 86,430

krrr.'.oniacal-Nitrogen; mg/l Total mg/l

o I

t.)

rP.

•

)

, )

)

, )

)

TABLE V

C;STTI-:A TED BIOOiEMICAL OXym~N DEMAND (BOD) LOAD REDUCTION IN THE RAI'i NAnJRAL RUBBER INDUSTRY Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations 1978 - P.U.(A) 338/78, and Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) (Amendment) Regulations 1980 - P.U.CA) 74/80 Estimated B.O.D. Pollution Load Reductions (1979 - 1982) . (1) No. of Factories Under Consi-deration: 375~ (ii) Total Estimated B.O.D. Load Generated/Day (Tonne): 208 (iii) Estimated Population Equivalent of B.O.D. Load Generated: 4,160,000

•

(iv) Estimated Quantity of Effluent Discharge Per Day,Cubic Metres: 90,000 YEAR Applicable B.O.D. Standard, mg/l (as at 1st. April) B.O.D. Load Discharged to Watercourses/ Day (Tonne) Equivalent of B.O.D. Load Discharged Populatio~

1979 + - 300 /( - ) 98

1980 200+/(450) 39

1981 50+ I( 300)

1982 50+/(200)

1983

P I I-'

50+/(50) less than 5 less than 100,000

.....

W I

10 200,000 95

8 160,000 96

• 1,960,000 5'3 780,000 81

Percentage Reduction in B.O.D. Loed Discharged C%):

• No significant change in rubber production and/or number of factories +

B.O.D. standard for S.M.R. and Conventional Grade Factories n.O.D. standard for Latex Concentrate Factories

P: Projected

-132-

TABLE VI

TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF lATEX CONCENTRATE WASTEWATER

P a ram e t e r pH BOD, mg/l COD, mg/l

Range 5.0 - 7.5 202 596 579 253 50 42 - 7205 - 10 212 - 10 889 - 3860 - 1015

Mean 6.2 2704 4626 2821 1177 369 205

Total solids, mg/l Sus pended Solids, mg/l Total Nitrogen, mg/l Ammoniacal Nitrogen -

570

•• TABLE VI;.- A

TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SMR BLOCK RUBBER WASTEWATER

a ram e t e r

Range 5.2 - 6.5 370 - 3 575 633 - 5 803 738 - 3 540 136 - 330 37 - 301 24 - 118"

Mean 5.7 1 747 2 740 1 915 237 147 66

pH BOD, mg/l COD, mg/l

Total. solids, ng/l Suspended solids, mg/l Total Nitrogen, mg/l Ammoniacal Nitrogen

-133-

TABLE VII

, ESTIMATED POLLUTION LOADS GENERATED BY MANUFACTURING SECTOR (1979) '!liE

Total Effluent

Oischarge~

Parameter B.O.O. C.O.D. Suspended Solids • I,

Cubic Metres/Year: 123,600,000 412,000 Cubic Metres/Day :

Quantity Tonne/Year . 37,250 • 110,050 43,250 Tonne/Day 124, 366 144

• Population equivalent of B.O.O. load is 2.48 million ~:

Estimated based on rapid assessment methodology and industrial manufacturing data for 1979

.....

TABLE V.III

INOOSTRY (1979 ) INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER PROFIIE BY nPE OF HANUFAC'lURING

. TYPE OF INDUS TRY ..

Waste water volum e 3 3 10 m /y 49,96 0 43,46 0 26,23 0 2,390 920 740 123,6 00 Caltr ibutio n 40.4~

BOD tty Caltr ibutio n 32.S~

tty

. lS,OSO 16,90 0 8;300 1,380 390 1,230 43,25 0

Cont ributio n 34.~

Food Manu factur ing Manu factur e of Indus trial Chem icals and Other Chem ical Produ cts Manu factur e of Texti les Bever age Indus try Manu factur e of Paper & Paper Produ cts Basic Metal Indus tries TOT AL:

12,12 0 10,43 0 13,27 0 1,170 :140 120 37,250

35.2~

28.~

39.~

to> I

I ....

21.~

35.6~ 3.1~

19.~

•

1.9'.(. 0.7% 0.6%

3.~

0.4% 0.3% 100%

0.9'.(. , 2.~ 10~ -

)

TABLE IX

CCJolPARISON OF ESTIMATED Da1ESTIC AND INOOSTRIAL POLLUTION LOADS GENERATED (1981)

Water Pollution Source

Total Effluent Discharge (Cubic I-1etres/ Day)

B.O.D. Load Generated (Tonne/Day)

• Domestic Sewage

. 27 715 =__ =a====_._s_= __ ==_= 1,460 208 124 1,792 25.5 62.7 7.4 4.4 74.5 I .=_:C=====:IC=~ ,

___ = ••

_____ = ====c=_=_._==_=c== 70,500 90,000 412,000 572,500. ===_.~ .(

210,500

____ =_cz::aaz:=:Ii

Crude Palm Oil Mills Raw Natural Rubber Factories Manufacturing Industries Sub-Total ==:c====._:_========_=:_=_.=== Grand Total

9 11

I I I-'

53 73~0

W 01 I

__ ==.=:IC===== I=========IE=_S: _=======a_=========_c :z=======._=-= 100.0 2,507 100.0

783,000

-136-

TABU:: X RE:SPON5E: OF THE PAlM OIL INDUSTRY TO THE • POLllJTER - PAYS - PRI:JCIPU;'

PERCENT OF MILLSRJ..~E

OF FEES $

'---._--_._-- ----(5,000) (2,000) (1,000)

1978

1979

1980

1981 (500)

1982

--.-o1,000 1,001 - 10,00e 10,001 - 50,000 50,001 -100,000 100,001 -

(250) 75 25

-"--

----. 19 35 24 63 37

73 24 3

68 31,

15 7

100

.......

100

••

100

•

Based on original 130 mills BOD standard applicable,mg/l

Note:

Estimated Fees Payable [300

Hill Capacity 1) 10 - 20 t/hr 2) 30 - 40 t/hr

L 5,000 $2,500 $5,000 $10,000

mg/l

Raw Effluent $100,000 $300,000 $600,000

3) 50 - 60 t/hr

)

1600 1600 32.0~10

1 1330 6 22.6xlO

1460 6 29.2x10

1200.,.

Ial

>C§

.. 800

I 1 I

rI 920 6 18.4xlO

1130 6 22.6xlO

Ial

•

§ ~

J 4001

I I 130 6 2.6xlO (88%)

I I I..

I I

I .... I

(..)

"" y 'EI c/

•

II 35 6 0.7xlO (9']%)

II 19 6 0.38xlO (99%)

denotes BOO load denotes population equivalent denotes ~

a. 222 6 b. 4.4xlO· c. . (76%)

58 6 1.l6x10 (96%)

reduction

I 0

-- -1978 1979

.f 1980 1981 1982 PAU·!

less than 5 tonne/day less than 100,000 p.e .

J 1984

FIGURE 6: £l.O.D. LOAD REDUCTION IN niE CRUDE

OIL INDUSTRY

Filtrate

Hydrocyclone • Primary Sedimentation ~ Tank . Wastewater

-. Combined Wastewater of

Cooling and Equalization Pond

Sterilizer Condensates. Press Station Washino and Oil Room Discharoe

Filtrate PRETREATMENT ANAEROBIC TREATMENT AEROBIC TREATMENT

c.c. (Al ( l3 l

$4eO,000 $ 594, (lOO

2SJ!, 000 ,\c:'J.~

FIGURE 7

83,000

(Cl )

.$1,812,000 ~ )

$ 92,600 )

Flow Diagram of Palm """;~: )

Oil Waste Treatment Alternatives for Cdsf Analysis ) )

20 Tonn~/hour (::'E}; 20 ",our/day; ICCe cu.r::/d flQl.'. ) ) ) ) )

,. 208 6 4.16x10 200 t.:I

0 E-t ~

Z Z

160

i3 0

>< O! t.:I Co

S 0 0 C!l

120.

98 6 1 1.96xl0 I

..... <.0 I

'30

.:.0

LS 6 L O.1xl0 o 1979 1980 1981 1982

sf denotes EOD load QI denotes population equivalent ~

1983

denotes % reduction

FIGURe 8: :3.0.D. LOAD :~::;:JUCTION VI THe: ~A·,! ~J,\TU;(,\L !~U.1.~::::~ 1~;;)tJS':'RY

-140-

':':.".LE XI:

Cu\sSIFro.TION OF STlvrC 0;;' '..'I\':'r::J\ Qt'I,LITY (1979 - 1981)

EJ>SED ON E.O.D.

I'':''::>:::D ON

~.S.

COKliITION

(5-day; 20 0 C) 1979 1980 31 1981 34 1 3 1979 19 1980 31 3 1981 33

Good

20 1

Fair Poor ':'0 tp. 1 11o. of Rivt'rs

4 3

J1 1\

2 3

'!'"DLE: XII s

TR!:lIDS 11\ ·:ATI::F. C;U!.LITY (1979 - 1ge1)

.. cm:CITICN TREr-:D IN TSRJ-:S I Gocx:l O~

i1.0.i).

--_. IV ~

T:\END I!: T!:F:I,:S (IF S.5. I II

III 4

III 5

9 1 0

15 0 1 "

4 1 1 G

:"air f'oor Total

0 0 10

0 0

1 <. ')

0 1 6

--- .', ~

---

'10

"!G

ceDE· I: I;:lr-roved; II: ~~o

ch<lnr;e;

III:

:)c,,~C'r. innli:,"r!

;

IV: FI uctua tinc]

!:!!.!E.:

Good: more than 65

75~'.

-, 75'% of sar"ples 65~

of samplp::; hr:lou :' m~l/l EOD or 100 mg/I

s.s. .:1.s.

below 3 r<:/l ~

~OD

or 100 mg/l 5.5. 30!..!

.!2.2!.:

less th;m

o!: £t'Mplcz he 1 0'''''

:ng/1

or 1CO

r~c:;/J.

-141-

LEGEND ,·····1 _._.5 ppm 5 - 10 ppm 10 - 50 ppm 50 ppm over State Boundary Basin Boundary INDONESIA

FIGURE 9

u--.. . , ...... ....

•

lie • • _

JIO

5_ _

BOO Concentration in Rivers for 2000 Without Improvement

-142M

( -,

FIGURE '10

.. ...

---...:;:::::=cc:_:;IIIIL. _::as4: ... 0 ~

. .. . tc: .\J .. ., ""

---=:3 .... "'II

--__

BOD Co\,centration in Rivers for 2000 Recornended Plan

-143-

"CK NO':) u;rx; l':t'lENTS

The author wishes to thank Mr. S.T. Sundram,

JS~l,

Director-General of Environment, Nalaysia for permission to present this paper. The assistance of Peter Ho Yueh Chuen, '~ater

~agunathan,

and other staff of the

Pollution Control ThRnks are

and Gnforcement. Unit is gratefully acknowledged.

also extended to Rubiah Hamid for typing this manuscript, ~alimah

Hassan and Neo Ting Gee for preparation of dia0rams

and overhead projections.

-144Rr:FERSNCES

Malaysia (1981) Fourth Halaysia Plan (1981 - 1985 )

Fano and M. Grewster

Industrial \,rater Pollution Control in Developing Countries, presented at the International Symposium on I'later Resources i1anagement in Industrial Areas.

Canada, International Development Research Centre (1980), PaLl1 Oil Haste Treatment Study in Malaysia and Thailand, prepared by Asian Institute of Technology in co-operation ,lith Ministry of Science, Technology and i::nvironment and Federal Land Development Authority (F'E::WA), August, 1989.

Godwin Singal1 (1980) Industrial ':Jastewater Management Programme in Malaysia, -

presented at the Symposium on Industrial \'iastewater Control, Kuala Lumpur, ~lalaysia,

July 7 - 11, 1980, jointly organised

by University of Agriculture Malaysla, Division of Environment, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Malaysia and '::.H.O./Programme for Environmental Planning and Applied Stu::iies (P8PAS).

S. Sethu, et. al (1977) ~ffluent

Discharge from Latex Concentrate Factories, Proceedinss

of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia Planters' Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 17 - 13 October, 1977.

L.F. Netta, N.T. Muk and D. Selvdraj (1977) Treatment of Effluent from !lubber Processing Plant, Proceeci:1]s of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia Planters' Confere:1ce, Kuala Lumpur, 17 - 19 October 19"17.

-145-

A. Maheswaran, Abu Baknr J80far and Godwin (1980>

Singn~

Water Quality Management in Malaysia, presented at the Symposium on the Interdependence of-Economic Development and Environmental Quality in South-East Asia: Malnysia as a case study, Miami University, Ohio, U.S.A., 5 - 7 August 1980. Scott & Furphy Engine~rs

(1982)

Policy Guidelines For Collection, Treatment and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes (Draft Final Report - Unpublished),

Report prepared for the Malaysian Government through assistance from the Department of Trade and Resources, Government of Australia.

.. Ma Ah Ngan, Chow Chee Sing, C.K. John, Ahmad Ibrahim and Zaid Isa(1981} Disposal of Palm Oil ~ll

Effluent in Malaysia -

A Survey,

Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM)/Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia (RRIM), presented at the symposium on The Oil Palm in Agriculture in the Eighties, ~aheswaran Ku~la

Lumpur 1981.

and Godwin Singam (1976) Juru River Basin, Division of

Water Pollution Control: 1976 (Unpublished). ...

Environment, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment,

D. Balfour and Sons (1973) Master Plan for Sewerage and Sewage Disposal for Kuala Lumpur and Environs, 1973 •

•••••••••••••

-146-

BIaLI<:X;RAPlIY

Malaysi.:! (1974), t::nvlronmental Qualit.y Act 1974 Malaysia (1977), Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil Regulations 1977). Malaysia (1978), Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (~a"'l

Natural Rubber> Regulations 1978.

Malaysia (1979), Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 • Malaysia (1980)

•

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber> (Amendment) Regulations: 1980. Malaysia (1982) Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) (Amendment) RegUlations 1982.

• • • • •

-147-

.... ill A!WAIlDS FOR S~\1AGS fJm DiWSTHIAL E."' FLUENl' S

....

------_.-.-

.Standard

PAR A M ~ T S

UNIT r·--(2)

---------------------(1) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Tenq>erature pH Value BODS at 20°C COD Suspended Solids

A* (3) 40 6.0 - 9.0 20 50 50 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10

(4) 40

(vii (viii (ix

(Vi! (x)

(xi)

1.0 0.29 I (xiH 0.20 1.0 mell (xiv mg/l 0.20 1.0 1.(\ (xv my1 0.20 I , i (xvi 0.20 myI 1.0 t--_ .. --._-- - .. --_.........._-- .. . - - ._ ........ -.f-----......-.-.. _ .. -.-. - - _ ... --1.0 1.0 (xvii) Zinc myi \' (xviii) Joron mg/I 1.0 I •• (l , (xix) Iron (Fe) mg/l ' 1.0 5.0 ----.J, __________ Chromium, Tr ivalen Copper Hanganese t:ickel Tin

(xiil

------_.-...... -- ·------t·-··· -.----.t mg/l

Herrury Cadmium Chromium Hexavalent Arsenic • Cyanide Lead

mg/l mg/l mg/l ---.-mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l I , mg/1 mg/l !

°c

505 - 9.

.-------

50 100 100 f----.-- -.-1 i 0.05 0.02

1 I . I , !

0.05 0.10 0.10 0.5 r--- ----

'. I I ,

--_.._-_._._0.001

(XXi~i)

(>:xii

Sulphide Oil and

~rease _ _ .L_:~~._~ A*:

mg/l

1.0 0.50 Not detectable

1.(\ 2.0

---_.__ ._'--------'Iater supply

10.0

0.50

Discharge upstream sources

ANNEX B

PAlJ'l OIL MILL Io'ASTEWATER STANDARDS

PAR A MET £ R

Standard 1.7.78

Standard B 1.7.79

Standard C 1.7.80

Standard 0 1.7.81

Standard E 1.7.82

Standard P 1.1.84

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), 3-day, 30°: mg/l Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): I'I1g/l Total Solids; mg/l Suspended Solids; mg/1 rr.::/l

5,000 10t900 4,000 1,200 150

2,000

1,000

500 1,000 1,500 400

250 .

• 4,000 2,500 800 100 15 180.

100

2,000 2,000 600

400

, 400 50 :00· ,.:.

SO 10

SO IS·:) •

, .1 -:

15 7S

.. vrg

9 Nitr~en; ~~!l

2CO

SO 5.0 - 9.0 45

Total

rr. '" .empec3tL<re, o~ '-

S.O - 9.0 4S

5.0

~ 9.0 4S

5.0 - 9.0 45

I I

'1 ......'" ~ _,-"

I , I

~ I

! •

:CO .. 5.0 - 9.0

5.0 - 9.0 ~5

----

Val~e O~

filtered

sc~ple.

)

ANNEX

LATEX CONCENTRATE \\ASTEWATER STANDARDS

Par a met e r s

1st. gener ation stand ards effec tive on 1.4.19 80 6 - 9 450 1,500 2,500 1,000 450 350

2nd. gener ation stand ards effec tive on 1.4.19 81 6 - 9 300 1,000 2,000

3rd. gener ation stand ards effec live on 1.4.19 82 6 - 9 200 500 1,000 250 350 300

Stand ards effec tive from 1.4.19 83 and there after 6 - 9 100(5 0 • } 300 150(1 00 • } 300 300 I I-'

pH BOD ppm (3-day at 30OC} COD ppm Total solid s; ppm Suspe nded solid s; ppm Total Nitro gen; ppm Ammoniacal Nitro gen; ppm

co I

II>-

apO 350 .300

• This addit ional limit is the arithm etic mean value

dete~ined on the basis of a minimum of four sampl es taken at least once a week for four weeks conse cutiv ely.

ANNEX D SMR BLOCK RUBBER \'iASTEWA TER STANDARDS

1st. generation standards effective on 1.4.1978

2nd. generation standards effective on 1.4.1979 6.0 - 8.0

3rd. generation standards effective on 1.4.1980 6.0 - 8.0

Standards effective from 1.4.1981 and thereafter 6 - 9 100(50 250 I ~

pH BOD ppm (3-day at 30OC) COD ppm Total solids; ppm Suspended solids; ppm Total nitrogen; ppm pp~

6.0 - 8.0 500 1,000 1,000 250 100 800

• 300 750 1,000 250 ·100 70 200

•

500 1,000 250 100 70

150(100' ) 60+

Ammoniacal Nitrogen, ppm

40+

This additional limit is the arithmetic mean value determined on the bdsis of a minimum of four samples taken at least once a week far four weeks consecutively. Value on f~ltered

sample

)

CCfoIPARISON OF ESTIMATED OOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL POLLUTIOO LOADS GENERATED AND DISCHARGED (1981 /1982 )

Water Pollu tion Sourc e

Total Efflu ent Disch arge (Cubi c Metre s/ Day) 210,5 00

B.O.D . Load Generated ( Tonne/Day)

B.O.D. Load D1scharg ed (Tonne/Day)

Dome stic Sewage

==~==-=.=--.----=--.----.---~ ---=-----~---=--~ Crude Palm Oil Mills 70,50 0 Raw Natur al Rubbe r 90,00 0 Facto ries Manu factur ing Indus tries Sub-T otal =_=_====_====== __ Grand Total 412,0 00 .

------=.:---9 11

__ ==_= __ 715

=_=~=

____ z_=

25.5 :z:am_z ==a==:. :;

220 35 10 50· 95 315

=z==_====_======= F-======-a~

1,460 208 124 1,792 ____ =_===_c= ___• 2,507 -_ .. _-- L _ --

62.7 7.4 4.4 ____ S= ____:I

3 16 30 100

I ,.... ,.... I

530 73.0

00 ==_=._.•.==_1 _====572,5 _:_. __=__ =aa_ 783,0 00

::_aa._.===== 100.0 -----

~._=

74.5

-=-==- ===== -==== = ~==:=_e====

100.0

---- - - - - - - -

• Estim

ated 60% B.O.D . reduc tion achie ved by 1.1.19 81

"I -152-

'"'

llAZA1WOUS WAS

UI::;P{)SAL

fl. E. U.

l<lylclr L

n;p/Is t:onsulL<lllt

lResearch Director, National Water and Soil Conservation Org<llllz:lLiun, Ministry of Works alld Uevelupnlent, Welllngtoll, New ZealanJ

\ -153-

HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL

10 20

INTRODUCTION LAND DISPOSAL 201 202 203

3. 40

Site Selection Site Classifications Site Criteria Hydrogeological evaluation Design considerations Operation of the Land Disposal site Leachute Management Sampling and analysis of leachute

204 2 5 0

2.6

2.7 2" 8

INCINERATION PYROLYSIS DEEP WELL DISPOSAL CONCLUSION

5, 6,

ANNEX I

'"'

-154-

--I.' INTRODUCTION

The bulk of man's solid wastes are disposed of onto or into land. will probably always be so.

This

The only other alternative, the ocean, requires

much higher transport costs and appears to present greater environmental problems.

Disposal of hazardous wastes onto land can cause long term ill effects. These may be minimized by rendering the wastes innocuous before disposal. Techniques now exist for doing this. The extent to which this is carried

out is largely governed by economic constraints.

l.AND DISPOSAL

2.1

Site Selection The selection of a site for land disposal of hazardous wastes or

for a hazardous waste treatment plant requires careful investigation of a wide range of factors. After use for such disposal the character of

the site will be changed in a way which is long lasting and may require custody and maintenance of the site by the waste disposal authority long after waste disposal has ceased.

The basic objective of hazardous waste disposal site selection is to identify potential sites that are environmentally secure, economically and technically feasible to develop, and acceptable to the regulatory authorities and the public. are summarized in Table 1. Factors which need to be taken into account

-155-

TABLE 1

FACTORS TO BE EVALUATED FOR LAND DISPOSAL SITES

Size of the site Possibility of expansion Ability of obtaining the site (ownership, state of development of land) Annual quantities, physical and chemical characteristics of the wastes Types of treatment (eog. combustion, chemical stabilisation etc) Proximity to subsurface structures Proximity to similar facilities Changes in surface and subsurface structures as a result ,of the landfill Influences occuring during the life of the landfill Influences of the landfill after shutdown Site characteristics with respect to water management Possibilities of percolation water and process water drainage Dispersion climatology Background level of air pollution Natural capacity of the site to abate emissions from landfill operations Availability of earthen materials Degree of difficulty of earthenwork engineering Site conditions that could cause hazards Possibilities of landfill site regarding long-term maintenance Closure plans

...

o o o o o o o o o o

o o o

o ...

o o o

...

o o

*************************

...

-156-

2.2

HYDROG[OLOGICAl GUIDELINES FOR THE SHECTIOf0 Of- LANI)r-:ILL SITES i-1.I'IJeful.l( {.V Or.,' r\,1 d,'il,(;/j /i'{·",/, '

i~ 1,JI 1 'I"{

'lIiil-'1l S:,~

of (Ii" In.' 'IrUk' of r,"'j('o/\-I'lICdl SClVnces. ;'

:\: first SI,]ilt it rlil',llIl be tiloll',11 t t! "Jt til<' WJ'/ Idi1,\f11l ~~11ns V",h

t', dnal with the <:clr)C(ir", ,,[

their pf)lIutlon pC)tt~rltlfll ,HId site;-' {In thn h;1~,is (A thf;ir ;,I')iI,t'l til (:(1tlti.llfl \'va~tes. PmticldM cat(~g(:ri'-';, d VVilstr> ,;oulrl lil"l1 h8Iinl<r),1 witil Jldl (,::llIar I'CltCqOrlll3 of ,,,teo, to produce a

t,J

C;JtpC1urj~e V";;j :t!~~; on tll n hilSIS of

~(-rlt'S \.If,

if-:fiflftf'.'P (1"Umlfllt'! It-.tlti( In~; llllf( 11 tffflc1t(]ly ncithBr 1J"(]stes nor ~rtcs

!r.~IH.l t!H~lllS():\'I':': to (Inl ,,'rill 1.'1 ,t!

:;t:dl

r:i\t;'~J" 'rl::ltl('i I (Jlil!:t IS r1cc.-;:..;sary to 11;1" I; f I: ".1 ~lld

sl'i I' "lit' w/J wi I ': ill' bl' (II L rk'! I r;(~s ! 1;~1\'("\ l . I! 1d C')( [)f'1 \:) (.

produce a more adilpt(!d 101 local usc

!.'h lvi SI(H; ;-11

,I 1,,)1 1',1\' l)t ~r: I: ! Juh ' !~Jwd hy st;)ff of t~le I tl\)t, tllt(· 11; I if I (: I J Ii

,,[ (jr>llc"pc',,! '::",'1"": ('~I,I''', \bll".:r:1I1,111:"",,(jrt,1914), Illthc1lqht',1 \"." n k pI J! ~ 11:-,1 I P: jI \ II: I'

Ir I' 'f' ; 110 r \ a r4)\/ i :',cd

(J p

pro:) r: II !'-';

tl O-N

.'<!I'pll'd it1 t/!I(' ,\r'I"'r),jJ;\ c'lllflj~ r ;:-11. 11'1 !)(

i','

I ';11'" .J~I':.":;:)',.';.fIf:~dr,lt/-,0rth:)l)\\':.l'~!'~:s lhf' t·,', .It:

Ildl,l,I,

,!"ill:ll!;.t'I'"

'·ld!.ttl(",rl;Hld(!tllE:'rf;ll;tl!f~-,d~·I.!il~·d

-1.- "",\' , 1,I: (,Iff ,-,!

1I'lli;JI; II' I

1:;]1,1';; 'I~q{

'ntc'f(;<:)t;; 1'lf~t"/\Ie(:11 VV;jf(:r

f I .- t,

I :. I:

1 : \ . 1'~!'"

11 :~ 1"': . -,j :

t,·, '):, r {' l

I ,: "

~ t

1 !"Y',I!!ir: I ' ~p.j

.:I; ,t"

, ! c' r;

\.\'

hi, Ii r r t \ ,I idi ~ (I r I (. L:~111 c' lit

')f

( . " , i _I ~ rlI1li!ll t 'hiill a hn rJ·.)rr T1 i t J( ,11 ;-'1 qf'1

tile ~,ki'U

fl1~1,-1: ~lf_l{li \ Df I(';lt.ll~-lt('-(~_ t 1(1'.I\'(-~\-1 r. r~1 ! J' d n Z~ rp!.

;'~r;J!17c:d r~l(}s~itiC,ltion is rt 11~,pftll t H., Ii

,f Cr ,r! n('tly r)"I.'1 L )', r ,If '~ll \I(~ ,. " pI Y

ilp;Jl jr';_~t inn.

'!I:".::;')"lr,'I'Y'lf,-~'!,!n ''1II ,'rt'I'!;l',I! L

r'"

'ii', .t./~ 'Irl~I'-~~'·',1'·I(~:,fr,Jt:1v¥hll;i

(''-''·ILli~l\A',I'-:,t',., ,1 l(llro:ldi'ltp--:

1/'

r!"'l

tIl,' I!'

1~lli ',rite; inlr!lo(iicl!(~vi(":l tv

rhp

2.2 -157-

{HY \!uq I( ,il i str at ,j I r)vul\Je·,J \vllil rlC~ U( j(~ fir Ie Ur .:11' H!, j, l-;Ufl' Pdct roc ks uf lo\{\/ p(!rnlt,'aiJillty sw;h ;IS slat"s. shal.!" and ll1ud"t,),W'; il O 'lV,'11 as soft clays and marls, 1 he que;.tl"" tl) b(~ all;;wered IS what t!ri"krl<):;s of relatively impermeable strata is rcquirod ttl provide adequate corltaif1nv~~nt dnd tr) protect sensiflve

qrouncil,\,i.ltt~r rcsefvoir~,

C I"l,,,drr a cl ay Pit. used as a IMldf Ii I "I to. wil iell I "IS all :lrf.'3 of 2.500rn' (say hOm by (il)m). Thn clay is assullled to be Ilurllu'J8C1'''JlIS illld illthough

url(lerlalll iJy Silrlct dons nut cl1llfllW [11l)'.lIlctWiltc:' \'" tlli!: tile sanrl. No liquids ;Ire bl)IIH) dr';char\Jcd and thor') i'; a COI1Stdllt ileari ,,1 If'ilchate of 2m at the base of t lit, wash ",sui til II] Ir ulll IIll illi ;lti "9 rail d al L If thp day has a nernwabllity of 10 'middY It IS possible to colc'liate; tl18 quantity of leachate seeping (velticiJlly) downwards tiHOtHlh the cI.,y t,",1I1(] Darcy's law, whicll can bcl cxuresscd a~,

alA

Ky i

where 0 IS the flow rate i" rn' / d,3 Y, K is the COr:!f'CltJIl t of :lorrneabi Iity in IIl/day, i is the hydraulic qractllmt and A is the or 'lSS' spctional a, 2a pe:pend,c:ular to the flow in rn' (Todd, 19 j9) I ~ th<' clay :ayer at the base of the landfill is 10m in thickness then Q

= 10" x 2/1 0 x 2500 00018 m'/yr

= !) x 1(l"Ill'/day

or 7' 3 x 10 ,S m'/year per square metrC' of the base of the landfill. By substitutlllg different thick110sses of clay in the abovo equation, it is possible to obtain an Idea of the influence of thi;; p;w:rneter on the flow rate of leachate through the clay and into the underlyinq sand. Curve A in Figure 1 shows a plot of clay thickness III m against flow rat') in m'/yr across the base of the landfdl whose dimensions are given above. The diagram indicates that at thicknesses of clay less Hlan 6 to 7m the flow rate decreases markedly with increasing clay th Ickness, However, at thicknesses greater than I) to 7rn there is a diminisilillq return with an increase III clay thickness resulting in only a small reduc!i(l11 in the flow rate, Tile effect (If increasing the head of leachate at the ba:;o of the landfill is Sll'lWn in curVAS Band C in Fiqllrel, In cIJrVCJ B the ilcwJ has been doubleo to 4m and ill curve C halved to 1Ill. A sirnil~r effect reslilts Ifllm variations in permeabrlitv and curves f) ilno E sh()w the effect of ro~;pectively increasing and df'creasing the permeab,:ity by a factor of 10 From I.he curves in Fioure 1 the benefit to bn gained from maintJining a low he;:d of 1',;Jcllil\() at the base of the

l\) l\)

1al 1 7J

H1 ,51 1. 1 J

\ ,

\ i

\ ., \

FIGURE 1. RelationshIp between the thickn••• of underlying clay and the flow of leacnate aero •• that clay beneath a

landfill site with. surface area of 2500m'

\ \ \ \ \ \

121 ~ ~

\ \, \

11 ] 10

\.\

• ... ~

'.!

91I I \ i \ .~

\ \ \\

\\ '",-".

Hydra,,/ic c:onduc:ti".I,.

J' CI.,

"'."If at le.cI'I .. I. I ,... I

on miG.,.

Cu, .. A Curve B Curve C Cu,ve 0 '0

10'· 10'" 4 I I

en CD

10" 10" 10. 7

--i

2 2

·j 3 ' o

'; :

-"----.~'~~'>__0 X-X \. '----X-'-X-'--X--X-X-~-7_r ~~-i --"-,~.",,,. ~ . . . . " , , " " I . ~--:)---o:..~.~. ~ \ '\

' " ~ C" "';..1'

Curve E

'''-. 'v, C" •••

'-""

I 3

I i i

i '-" 8

10 i

Tl:ickness of clay

''''''---_ .... ---

)

2.2 I

-159Idmitl!1 dlHi flOm cil()()SIf"(] ::,\1''; \'vil'~'I(' pCrlfl(',ilJIiIII')S (I[e luw is immediately appar"111 II si)()uld b-= nOlnd tl:'ll such caiculatrc>r!s 00 nut take into account atte\l' ,,'lti!1n ef!clC1,; wlth,fl till' "I co' wi, leI! illr> 11K,' Iy to impr()ve the quality of ti If' le;,'I,,1\" Then' ,: iJlsull,,'ly to he sornE' S'P'P(](J(' laterull.( throuqh the walls of the pit. '1 his Ivili h,) pmtl('llLHly eVld')IIt If clay I" u;;vd 10 ",Ivcr ;:lIccvs!:ivu layers of rdllsl' ilS rilfiltratlllq raildall wlil tllell t0nd II' I !O\l" laterally within the lanofilL 1118 VJi.lt(~r table in Any Und(>IIVIllO aqulIl'r WAS inln II', \'i,t!~lv t,enp';Jtil '1lP, base of tile impermeable Id')/Or. 11 ovvcver It llH (! !llil\, hu ':1 i i l H I~;r; t.1 If nt(ld l' HIP l.Iv'h ic h I:-.:ill f I H ther ;lttenu(Jte 11 1~~ 1C'~!C'h;l~l~ fr CH It 11nfnrc It: i::ld I/?'.: !tlt.J ·.'\,·at~~r 1 iH'_' Alternatively thr <II Ii

III thn p'<~lInplp

,tnd

:lbt.l'/f l I t \.va~; ;lS~;IHllCd :tltlt

I rT1fH'1 rl';~-';Ible :::.t) , llil Inn\, t!lf'~

CI."II tll['"

qrl 'lIllc1v\/d il!t" 'PP upvvard'~ f

I <I tl U ndr'llytn(J aqu I fer in

v'vhidl L":lSf~ arnllr\(jl/\:'(lt~~r In;·l'/

lJ ,; j~lh th~

clay int() t!m base of

lill'llifilllilitil

illl t-,qulld~'fil~r'l ie\~.;1

i:, rU;ic!lcd

From ;11:(1I1~~idl=~r;ltlnn ('If d(l::I, qwh ;j'~ thosr:! dl )'ll~ ::f'ri dill)ve, it i,~ r'o~:-lblfl to id(1t 11 itv si'tn~ vI.,11 id 1in 1! l(~n 1.':111 1 '(-"~ I Hllviclo tf](' '- t" ](;11 '-IIIICH 1t roC] t Ji fOr! f(lr Vdl lUI !:', p()tPntldlly p(1l!ljtil~\.l . . '.. (I"t("'. !.It:PI~il' 11' till III PH: (J~.J;.lI)tltV. to.\icity al1d sl.Ii ub II i1'of 1) f (l p~H1ll ul ;if \i\';-\',!' \ ('I fj if II.J P t,. t \,\'1 1{",', .-1 ~', ~, I . C~I! 1 tH' ~,e!{;r teri vvh ieh IS Ilr;dl'ilJln by stlillil of slIlt,Jill" 1'''lInl~ahil,t'i :11' I rl""I."l'os, 3(' that sl~ep"qe (}\/vay fHHn tile sitl~ rH!lI(lln:'; \A

Itllill ac(".',pt;ll.df"l !IITti!";

At -;LJch Slto~; c.]r0 should

til 1(~dtJc" "d,lirat'()I' ,til'] PlI?\' 'Ilt lI,e b'illd~up (A anv S !!lni fl' ::Jllt heari of I:'dell,,: '! a; I'", ha ,~ nt t 11,.! 11'1' If! II, 'j 11 ir, r:~ 11 he ar'ilieveri bv rnakinq sure Ih;'t the 'N;-btt~ I"; \,\'1'111, ~)rnpi)f~t ~ci (Hlri Cfl\/(~r ing illdivicJUAI I~Yf'ls "",tll !,,)orIV pl'rrneablc Ilntf'rial as tll(,"{' ,Ie krnKeI, III theory only a small thickr '.\~.::i (If co n t;l It Ii, I(] stl at \ Ie (luld I J(j I (~r\uir' 'd il no I p}ad of 10nr.hatf: vvere allowf', I t'l buildup, In rr3ctru, ,) minlnJum liJ"kI'I:ss will be rcqulrcli in order to alii)',," fur i1 smilll head of li'IIII,.1, tile pror,ollc,' of (! weathered or fis,ured slirfac n ;'OIlC and tllp. possibility 1'1 fracturinq b! till, pil,',age of Ilea v)' ;Jlallt. This m'I)lrllUrn thlcknoss wrll depond 011 the ,}f'r;cl,volll",:: uf the cover and C')Illt),]·:t!l ill ill reduei",! IIlflltrat,e'" and Oil til(' ""t'lIl' "f Ill" surf:.rce of the

alwiI\": Ill'

t~kell

pxpo~)pd ~tr3ta_

AllY g' '-~LJ I Itho/va tel nhstr t'll:1 Jf."!' f r !)nl dqllif(,I'~' 111 1' !I.': ; y" nq 1he l[] ndL II should be sufficII'lltly relT1ot" tll 1111(11',' ci";r'l'rsiull alld dill!t!C'I,,,t tl", !,mali I,olurnes uf ledr h('ltt: v.... h i( II !~('t'f'" 011·- l( lq h tIll: st/;H:j I.llldcr!' WI!, thn ;,1 t(l A.lthnlJI III ~;r Jltil! df' fnr sulld \1\:',1': k'l, C h(;'~ 1 ;;Il\~ . jl!\' I H','t q,'.:' Inr:l!!v rl~r'()rlHnet \d0d for tll~l r k~11(1~~)' (1f I:n ~JO \' cd ( '1' Il':" c,f I j( [II id '.,h', I:) i ! )f'!:~111';ll ~,f t ~ II,,! r ,f e;1 t in n (If t\ \ j) ';. {~,! r ,\, ~~ b I ! t I ('I, lted p r (' ~ ,I r 1111l;. It \flli! I !)' 1 in I . ~I l' :", I h If" t, , I II evn r 1t n ~ 10;lrl nf

]I(luid!' ;!din[lli') ill tlleli 1 !):!III! ilnd

UI(~r0L\I('.,

\1'

~~::d It~"";~".)r ':nilt:litlillq

2.2 -160slliJla \'.111 hJv(! 10 b'~ Hlueascd OJ ,Is p,-:lnIPal;II,lv IcrjIJ;J'd 'II '.Jrder In rlll!lill1ize Ihe qu,wtily of I iquld scapin\) away from the slle. Ihe second related problem wlllcl1 will then follow is th,lt witli ('('ntinued di5c;13rgo of :iquids the site will gradu,lllV fi Ilunt ill t Inay spill nver ,"HI cOlllarn i nntp 51 Irf ace vvater resources. Thus clay Pits relying principally (111 COl1taillrnt,,1t Illily bE! unsatisfactory for the dtspll:;al 0 rial gu quantities of II'luid wastes a~; the HId product is often an extensive lagoon ef contarnlilatacll,quid. Sm3!1 Vc.lunlos of liqlJiu call be dls(:hal\l"d and Cilll be absfllbed bv solid imlustll;1 alld (hrn~stic waSles. Howevel. there IS stili likely III be a lartle heild of 11'IUid at the hilse of the ';111 <1fiII :'Ild Iho site I'wy liav.; (111), i1llrnitecillfu 101 Ilqult] wil,;le dicposal. I lie ahove comrnent.'; Inust he r:ullsitlercd in the 1IIIhl of otiler factors such as Ily likely iltlentl<ll iOIl of ICJchatf' cunccntrat lon, i\!ld the quality and volume 01 water", which may receive Inacltate or uver spi II. ;J

Clas.>;'>

Sites allowlll(7 slow /('[le/Jaw flllqratlOll

I Ii ('so alll Sites ''Vh,ch du nDt provldo (Ofl\ainrnE'llt bUI which allev'l ICil<::hates tu I11lgrd\'" Jway from them al slow I ate,; so that rio Illi al PJllr;c';sp~; CiJfI altenualu ,mel dilute ti1"se leachate'; hofore th,~y II' Icll potential or developed qroundwatm reservoirs. Such site:; are suitable for "~ildilV doqradable materials ~.uch as domestic waste and 111any ilidustrial wasle; fJdrticularly those wh'Jse leachaw ch;u3cteristics ar c corn Pill dble with 1110,,1 II(lill dOm~)3Iic waste.

An ideol site mioht be a dry pit excavated in sand 0' ,,<it tlirou(jh which flow is illtergrallular and which is ullderlaill hy a siqnificll·t ufisMlJratr;d zone. This ted zo 11f' is i Illporta nl ill ill tl'rq r.1 n LJ Iar fo IIll.]t I'. III S bee;] lI~e tile rnuvemcnl 01 leachate throuq!] ,I Will be rnuch sinV'. I'r than thlouOh the saturated 7(1l1e. The unsaturated l'1118 alse contalil'. oxyqen in entrappAd air iJl1d untillhis oxygen is used lip (111'; zone will act a a biolo'lir;al filter resulting in the active iliologlCClI riegrad;lti"11 "f OI'lill1ic cnln,)(.lInch illllli~]fatillq leachate:;. I hus till' llliS<lturilWd ,:OIlC cOllstitut,," a :dlvablp buffer between tile base IIf a landfill ilild tliew'ltertilhlr;. lJ nsatur 8

1 he site Ilt:!:cis to he ;occ"it.=!d far ntHll ~',lh .l'Nav

fr()ll) III ('urHkvrllnr Clbstr,)ct.ion p. '!:115 ttl;-" dllutiun elf th(~ Sll!\lh!~~ c~'l'i pr' )(il1e1.:-; [\t (l :qrilildhnn r('actions I cd lIces UH 'n I tl) I' 'I~; i':1 t I If 1(' ,1 n t I :l\'£) I:; ; II! 'I{) i~ ill,' JIll I II d n ~r;I\ Jr"-' h 't\'flrk If. h ir:h

...

s t li 1\.1\.';; t!;, 1 t 1(' Wh,lt~) I

'I:; ( ! i lu' II

III 1,.~ ',' xl:

~ n 1,-1 ". I' f f (' r. :t i \!(1 I, I rI .( I If !: 1f1

(! ( II n I ~'-, I i r;

\'V,'"H to

1, i'

('1)1/ ,1 t j( ~I!S

r' :-111 11 ,! j 1:'11 ",' ,II

'; I~''\'; It', ',)1, '(! ,.) '; tl :11 din v 'h jl ~h fI' )'N is

11l\.·I(llilfll;I,lr

(.7il III II " , I !In.

t,1')1111<::·.';,

I!J l! )

...

2.2 -161-

'.! '" 11:11.1 t"

I: I' ~ t.

),', -, • 1 I':

I -,'

'.! i I I ; I \ I':'" I

,c'

"Il_'llh;;fhl1!

'~\ld'II' ';!.jr 'r,

!')::I)f'l.I\'.'<I. 11 '; Ir I (,

JI'~;' ~'-'!

.k'\:II'

I \

~\' l 'P' )',>'d

1;-"

l;j i nl;!

Ihn\Jcp()~'I1f'rl ~;h;-dll)v\f qliJl",:l

-1'1'111'_, IL'lt' 1..,,11 '~.!i', \1,,'t'll dl"I;i,j :,,;1 :11' I:,;,'d, pl(~.;id!flq thpl" tlll:~;l'i.'1I !lt~1 t '-IQH! ~)I :-,1: !llll t[ :1' II I i II!:~-; ll'>~, ,'111 t (If' ,: Jill ,..fl.'dtPf ahstri)l:tlr"l pill:1t ;.llc'lfll:J()tc I l1jf~1 \"(Istr' 'l~ ql;' h.-'etJlIII!( (l<' I 11Ldd('DdrtH:ul~.\II·l '1.."1.0[1(:0' :·h'l,lll "il:~)\_lIVt:'llt:l; 'I!'~I t;wt';l'~.Jli·'I: ,,- ~ill:!tjrl';ohd)illl\.',(H

I:; 0111

",nrptl III

',th'11111(' r-·Illk:,,f 111·'l.~I;'l!ll!.

di~;p{ ,;::\1

:" ~ are,) t tl~r I kh' (I L" : (, ~ I II r:p( 'r t: l;~.d, i(' l'l ','( )ur IV I i(:UTh '(it J I~~ ;;tl <ltd (C'I;I~.·, 1 ,It',):',) liJl!\('r t/l(lll ~lrdt;,1 ';,'ill(!l ZJI/(HA 1",li;11,iP Illf~Jl~I1.I{)rl I '~':Iclli.lte. I f':;~Jtt II It! t I II n 'nfl itr lItl/H] i rli rJ, If I, C;II P lut rn{)VI ~ aVV;1\,.' f r I I! l) tilt: ~ltH ~(.l It r er:1 (11 t~~;, I 1\ 'lIP!" a tIt' q :~; I t I H ,Hed ( ~ It I[ 11 t I () n :'; 111 11 i ~ ~ ! ),}' !: u f tt 1() I ~,l nd f :II, r- ve rlll;;.11 Iv t h I ~~ \p,]ch ato may r1'(1(_:11 d I· el ,,;1 'f,'I\: It v,/d I C)\i(:lll()'iV tilP i rnpcrrnf:.l;)llie bw;.n lit tl'0 kl! ldf III f( )rnlir'; I d h iSlh IV pr ,!II: 11 f1q SIJf f riC e rllf.,r.'1 Ji I' q\ '. If ciorTwst i(.."; \IVclst{~ IS tll he put ll') ~':\Idl »llu~; it 11li.1:;t 1)(:01' "'~Pkll HH!t. Ijt"(~~;l) an irnp(!lfrll'dhlp cO\,0r IS ernpi [11:: '; I Ifi nnpd latl ·1\', Ir',:l(: II; I ~ I ~ \ \ ' III to/III :r Hj ;J I 't_ dI ec:t 1(11 i and d i~-~D()snl t.;ystcr n n 11.]'-; t hi] i r 'le')I pi 11 i'lt\~cI in the PrtG i rJi11 si1{) \-,"'(1 [ h:., If 1llllllq;; (C~:sv/e Jr!, 1 () 75) aJn prnvirkcl fOI lal".!frll ,,'k,~ a simililr Si1lliltil q I will arise i]r,d It is rm on 1'T]." ld"d that I innrs ilrf) ;1'; •Ided UII 1(',;:> till" r~ I cae Icarly ddll1cd need, 'r tllS P"H1Y ,')<"'Cllf \\llnrc tl;""{l I'; d '~I'~ !"1I:": SI]{Ht;1'.I~-' (If f)()tnntla! sit!?s ill a Pillt!!'I!!;!' illr;l [H',J :;itc~; )"lp\;'J!n tH' u~~(~d 'NIlle!1 nre :',{) dust: t;) V\'dtf:r supply p'.

b'.lIpll(d(,,; 1h:lt P( lillJtiot1 \'\Ip~dd (limu.'"":.! cefl~linly C'LU" IJnler)~, linln~J3 w~re

if I t;1llcd. A~ a CO! ft·ctiv 1(> ,1t'·:.1 '~r tt' n1(1 ill'i tal!;1 t I' ~n ('of ;1 I innr is Ii k ell to credt'~

;IS many ;lI(·I"el'~s .IS it ,,(.\'1(':<

'\'; IrltfrCl~ed f'31/if l l 111l1li·, l\P!"JfH'!:Y, CI~J~'s 1 ~"t(') ,H'\ riot qf-lrwr;tlJv ~'Jitable fr)r tt!P (!L~,r, 1.~;d :J r 1 ilr Iy" q \ Jilnt It IC; ( f I ill tlid V,;,lSt, .~., Tt If";(: y'\'i,l-; 105

rnoy hotter bn

dlsf~llarq\'d at C/':lS:; 2 c;itc'; njt~F'r \',hf~rn

'lie 11,~1.Jld··:

(.~I!l be dOr1rr1dr:cj. djsper~pd

,Hid, illui"i'! r"~f,,, i' I pach inq ,1r't 1\ ,,~ "I "!)lenti,lliy ,w1 i'J() 'lIOllfldwater .d,:~tr;)(J' ','II ;"onr~;_ (II' ill Siy~~ci'lIlv ~;r·I,").'·t('d site: v"'lth'~l Clds:) 7 ~itu(Jted 'Nithin ~;tr(jt;1 C( Iltillllinrliinlitpd qrOlJl!:i'.'vat,'r rpC;U\lr·~;', ','\-IIPft" ~~~.'fn~: rJolluttCHl v\I(juld nut C:aU;:i' f,iI !Jblc:l"l~: 1 hn ~elc:--'ii(lt) (If SUI 11 SI1\':' !]I 'C'(!:; t( I! I() rnad(! 'r . 'lt!l carp If) efl51J[ ~I t/;il t pol" J!ed CIt ound',.-,\',Jtf:t ': \'\'( 11 lid (I 1\ ~'I' I: I! f.,: d '1 t !\' C(): I t;~ in: rliltn s.~ n~,lttV.' ;.l,Id (len \/V:110 rs ()r be If 1 11'," ~ Iii' 1I!1, cor: t I f)lli 1Y \Nlth rHijilC(lf ,t dcvelopc!J <1"UI f.:rs

)\n ,rlICill ';dc llliqh1 cen,,,t of a n't ill ,;rit 0r filII' ,"llld, Wltli iJ peml(>uhil,ty (If ill' lU Il( 110' mlrhy. UI Id'1r1~ in ;r t ,Ipplli by r(>i;]ti "f' I',' irnpoll1lflablr cla,/ to prolect doorwr aquifels. rlie qro: rr1rhv:ill'r dlsri ,(II' I"~ [Iliint frol', tl'0 s(lnds

-162W~l;td t:u sufficiently leillotf' to allrwv ampl!.' OJH)()I turll'Y for Iile wastes to be , .... f ,~ , , C \. , " , - , ' , ! It. ,,('.1 ( r ;)ll';~~ttJdrv. so that any IlilC('.,(,> polll,i,<llltlf'fI)<WlIrHIWO'J'db"r")OISIlI"I',IJi'/rJII'II' 1,1 III I k t t t \ ," ,,' ,,( , ~~. ~HC are l·fJ V o )(. ,llllllllbf_'t of Stj{.. ~1 ~lle~; ,HUUfld tile COIHltry '1 (' • -,

2.2

dr q ddt ,1 ilnd (Ji;rf'lscd or t!l() [JI' ",JlI,jw,H()1 wltl!I'1 till: ";1110], vv(lIJJeJ d,"'c'I ' ' lilt .v , u "111'1"111 I f " ,J ' Idrrll) ,~_, .J)'(I t'r t)O( yo vvVpr "UC:h 1. . tl '.'

2.3

Site Criteria The establishment of formal criteria for evaluating sites may

be required as a step in environmental impact assessment. which has been proposed is given in Annex 1 (Ref 2). Federal Regulations ~ef3)define

One scheme

In the USA the

criteria for determining what solid

waste facilities pose a reasonable probability of adverse effects on health or the environment. - The facility must not restrict the flow of a 100 year return period flood, nor reduce the temporary water storage capacity and hence increase flood risk. Endangered and threatened species shall not be jeopardised. - The quality of surface water shall not be adversely affected. - Ground water shall be protected to an extent commensurate with its use. Technical investigations must cover four main factors: - groundwater quality - surface water quality - air quality _ potential for subsurface migration of 1eachates and gas

The aims are to establish the potential for: - human health risks _ damage to wildlife, crops, vegetation etc _ persistence and permanence of the potential adverse effects. Meteorological investigations {lim at establishing the rainfall and wind direction distribution pattern, to assess potential for surface runoff contamination and for hazards arising from aerial contamination, Demographic studies aim to show present and expected future population distribution in relation to the sit .. and expected air and water flow patterns etc. Soil investigations are carried out to establish the soil structure, its inftl tration capacity and its field capacity.

-163-

n O f the main hazards, t Because ground water contamination presen s 0 e extensive hydrogeological investigations are carried outo 204

Hydrogeological evaluation

CldSS J

SIID.\ . .'il:!Vvlf7g rap:, I!eael/dle>

flU :,' .'

i/On

1 hose are Slto'; which allow Illlgratiun of Ipildliltes at slIch a rat" that there is insiqllificant attenuation and hence a grea\l]' risk 01 polll tion of yroundwaters. ThLy will be h·,:ated on a varietv of geolo>]iGli strata, oxai1lples 01 whi(;h might he Il~rrl calcmr:olls rocks in which uroundwatcr flow i, II aillly Ihrollgh d,sco"\1!)"itie:; wIdened llV solution, and rive. terrace dln-nSlts with h.gh water tables in which OfllundwM('. flow is Illterq'anulM. Sildl sit"s are "",mally slMal do only for thn (k:posill of ,pl;ltive!y Inort I";IWI ials hut aq.'ll, it 111\1"1 b(' \?l1lpll'l·;ilPd that cad I ;:il" c lr" ild brc considered illdividtl;~~\V. hit it1,;tarHJ~ it nl.l'y' bi: quite ;);:!:c:pt8blp tC) de'))1 l',if domestic or Ii" I iI:' I'" I wil',k, .1t a coa;Ii11 <:Ilalk PI t wlH're YlOundw:n' Ii;; al ready e,"'t;lInll,;)ted I-V i/ltrusion cf :;ali[)c watel, or 01 OtiH'1 Sit':: which for some r!'il~;f)tl tile !flSPI 1~ltive to 1(~·ldl\lt(~ contlHiHflati{11) or \/\·h"I(' I:-!rqr.\ dilution (;1"\\11'; :,pplv.

Site ovaluatiol1 Ollel' .1 tit' tl\nt I

d 1-,11 ldfd I SI tv bd:, b~~{': \ \if;1 il: 'd I )\/ri! (,i I,

i(Jl!'.,', '1('1 (l'..

)!{l':f i{~C11 fI nd

hydh "qP )!dQ1CHI :~ I Jr vev:;

its SI" tdllll: tv \(l IUlred will depend Vf'IV flHI':h on lyre and 'lLUlltity of Wil':I,.' ....'il,,:h it 15 n/l PI ,~,()d to derosi!. It I') !lr1f11'L(~S~[lI y' t( I undert:d;.:1 ~;lI(:h ~~\Jrvn,/s dt ~~;tf1S \'\fh~\r\" 1 is prr)poserl to del ", ':' II·" IIV i", '11 WOS tes, ~ ur sites to leeel vI! de,mes t Ie UI I; .ulI:;tllnl wastes. will' II ( "II'. :dl)rl"\l their quanti tv, c<"Il. :Cl1tr;, IHII1 <;\(;, me Je;';11 "It,d a' posing a pulential II;lzart! to waterStlp['Jlies, IlIfiHlllntion " I ) tlIP folk, Villll parameters miqlll be r'~qui.erl:

tI,.·

n Ii:ly 11(!f~d 1 t)P lit I:' L J!;"1 kpI I u--· I cr:eIV" I'alloc,:' (YP'J "f V\ ,l~;le. rile d.-ltd Ir;

dUilh~ I he site

and

[)pptll to wawr t.1ble ; :' 3 4 5 \N"t8, tabln """tour m;1ps for dilfe'enl :;,,:].:,)115 of tho y( in , Maonlt\!do of al)llual water table fli :'";tllntiOrl~;; Lucal'\Jrl and d.s'ance to ['Joints of waIPlI.,so; RI,tio of <;vap"I.a'lsriration tu rreciritallon minus runoff, : rhis will

-164-

provide all estimate 01 tho voilime of particulili site.) :

I"ach~te

I ikely to be nenerated at a

Stratigraphic and structural datil to bas(' nl shalluwest CClnfined aquifer. inclujing uatil 011 old InlllHal workirr\Js; Base-flow data on nr'drhy perennial streams: and composition.

B Chemistry of water in 3'luifers. confinin\1 beds and probable leachate

This information may be available from rel;orris and a simple site inspection. in which case there IS no need to IJIlrlertake;l detailed pograrnme of borehole drilling. That position will change if tI,P ol'olony and/or the hydrogeology are either complex or completely unknowrl. Sources of information include the maps and records held by the MrJteol ulogical Office. the I nstitute of Geological Sciences and the Individuill Wilte r /'\utllOllties as well as publicatluns in scientific aflt1 tAchnical )L'UlOl;113. The following additional informaticHl nla'y be reljuirnd at sites to receive large quantities of hazilrdolls VYdstE'~.:

Laboratory meilSurnlT1Cnl of perrlleabrlltlc:,. dkctive porosities arld iOll exchange cnpil'.'ltlfls (if UJlc!llitl,ullJ(lV in tiro ullr,~turcrtcd ~l1d saturated zones; the unsatur ated zone;

10 Measurements of ll10lslure (,Ollt~nt arFfllJ Situ sorl moistlH8 tellS Ion in 11 Three-dimensional distllbut 'on of he~ I to bnse of shalluvycst confining a,<uifer,

12 Firld tests to determine stolage coeffi<:icnts and transmissivitics; 13 Definition of fecharge and discharge al ea~; for unconfined ilfld shallowest confined aquifer; and 14 Freid mea5urements of dlspersivlty

The collection of this type) c.f II1fUlll1atioll wrlll rqulre a detailed gcoloq;cal and hydro,leoloQlcal survey ill [(I Will usually II ,elude il borcllole drlllrng programme. However. it will clearly not ho possible llr 'lecessarv tu IT1AaSlirO all tile suggested [lararnetNs at every site and th,· detailed d~ta rerl'Jllements fur indiVidual ",te evaluation neod tl' he detol1nil)cd after dlScU5,lons between all tli" illtflrest"J [l<Htiw. ,Hid ilf Icr crrllSider ah)1) (If the many other r elel/ilnt factors detailed in the DOE/liVelsh CffiC[! ':ircularTllc Balancing of Interests betweon Water Protection and WJstc Dlsi\o~;al'.

-165-

2.5

Q~~~~nsiderations

Once the site evaluation is complete the nature of the types of hazardous waste disposal operation which can be carried out there and the environmental protection measures which must be carried out can be established ..

Protection measures to be considered include:

Establishment of tree shelter belts for visual or wind screening where required. For wind protection shelter belts are most effective when they

have 50%

permeabi I i ty to wirrl. Protection extends hori zontally

to 10-15 times the height of the trees. 2. Peripheral drainage ditches where required to ensure that surface water from outside the disposal site does not enter it and become contaminated. 3. Collection and storage drains for surface water runoff generated inside the disposal site.

Impermeable

sealing of the bottom of the waste disposal area

to minimise leachate contamination of groundwater. 5. Sampling systems to enable checks on water quality of nearby surface and ground water.

Access routes must be constructed to facilitate decontamination in the event of accidental spillage and well maintained thereafter. Road engineering should aim to minimise the chance of such events. Sealed surfaces are advisable to facilitate cleaning and minimise airborne dust hazard from spilt material in dry windy conditions.

Tactics vary on the construction of the disposal area itself.

some cases former excavations such as old quarries or borrow pits are

filled.

In others the disposal area is specially excavated, often in In yet others, the waste is ;mounded above

the form of a shallow dish. the original land surface.

-166-

If the groundwater table rises too close to the base of the deposition area it may be necessary to construct special peripheral drains to lower the water table.

The base of the system is lined with an impervious layer. usually the cheapest. permeability.

Clay is

The necessary thickness can be calculated from its Artificial

Bentonite is also suitable where available.

membranes are used extensively in some countries.

Care has to be taken The membrane

to avoid rupture by mechanical activities on the site.

should be laid on a surface of fine particle size and covered with a protective layer of similar material.

If liquids are to be disposed of the permeability of the sealant layer and the resistance to solvent attack of the membrane should be tested using the range of liquids to be disposed of. Permeability

depends upon the characteristics of the permeating liquid as well as the solid matrix, and some membrane materials dissolve in some solvents. (This holds for concrete and asphalt too:).

Facilities must be provided for handling liquid as well as solid wastes if these are likely to be generated. Careful attention will

need to be given to the design of these to minimise groundwater contamination. The design should guard against overflow and surface

water contamination during sudden high intensity rainfall events. All pipework should be located above ground level so that leaks can be easily detected and critical areas bunded.

The number of storage treatment, evaporation and settling tanks and ponds will of course be dictated by the types and volumes of wastes to be handled,

2.6

Operation of the land disposal site Operational practices for landfill of hazardous wastes varies in

different countries.

Tipping practices range from allowing only solid

wastes to be disposed of directly to land, to the direct disposal of liquid wastes in shallow trenches, deep or shallow ponds, etc.

-167-

One school of operation

buries

the more intransigent wastes such

as heavy metals in the deeper hyers and reserves the near surface layer for the more innocuous or biodegradable wastes, to facilitate rehabilitation of the site.

For the disposal of persistent hazardous wastes with little or no pretreatment it seems to be generally accepted (following Lve canal

and similar situations) that it is undesirable to carry out haphazard tipping of drums of such wastes.

There are two main schools of thought about the land disposal of such wastes, which are likely to leave the site sterile and unsuitable for future use,

One disperses (and hence dilutes) the wastes as much as possible

throughout

the volume of the landfill on the principle that:

(a) the wastes are less hazardous if diluted and dispersed (b) after such disposal procedures, if there is any possibility that biodegradation will occur, it will happen faster in the diluted and dispersed situation than if like wastes had been concentrated in particular areas.

The hazards of mixing imcompatible wastes have to be guarded against in this type of operation.

The other school of thought advocates the concentration of like wastes into cells, each of which is sealed off from each other and by impermeable layers. Since no biodegradation In this system careful

from the ground water

can occur this is really a storage procedure.

records of the location of each type of waste are kept against the eventuality that it may be necessary or desirable to relocate tham. (Figs land 2) 2.7 Leachate Management Leachates from the deposited wastes ~ay

contaminate groundwater Most untreated wastes This can be

or surface water if they percolate into them.

have a fairly high potential for producing leachates. determined using the standard leachate test. (Ref 3)

The amount of leachate generated depends almost entirely upon the amount of water which enters the waste deposit from outside.

:"::"EGUA1'E S£PANATiCN ;rJ HESI::JE""IIAl AND COVMEPCiAL OEVELOPWNTS - - _

~E"JcrNS ANO SITF ISOLATION

" 'I STOR4GE AND P.,ETllEATMENT OF HA.ZARDOUS WASTE , - - EINlU','EE rAC:LITIE"S ;RST AID \ \

VISUAL SCREENING (~r,~JNICA":"IONS ~IRE

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-170-

Good land,!ill management practice therefore seeks to exclude water from the deposited wastes both by design of the original facility and by subsequent operating practices. Entry of water from the bottom and sides of the deposition area should be guarded against by: (1) Diversion of groundwater flow by peripheral and lowering the groundwater table where necessary. (2) Construction of impermeable layer. drainage systems

Exclusion of direct rainfall is accomplished by: (1) Provision of drainage systems to collect rainfall and conduct

it from the site. (2) Depositing waste in such a way that the exposed face always

slopes down towards the collection drains. (3) Covering the work surface with an impermeable layer after

each days' operations. 2.8 Sampling and analysis of Leachate (1) Leachate generated within the landfill site is usually collected by in situ drains designed for the purpose. Samples of this leachate can be collected from the outfall system. Analysis will indicate the components which should

be tested for external to the site. (2) It is good practice to install a sampling system (e.g. a lysiJleter) in the unsaturated zone lying between the bottom of the disposal pit and the groundwater table, (3) Interception wells can he installed in the groundwater 'downstream' of the site. with care Their position needs siting

it is quite easy to miss a 'preferred pathway'

An additional well should be sited 'upstream' of the site. This provides a reference against which the quality of the 'downstream' groundwater can be checked.

....,

-171-

Analysis should include pH, conductivity, chloride, nitrate,

ammohiumand

any specific components which have been detected in leachate samples collected within the waste deposit

Treatment of leachate - has already been dealt with in session 6.

INCINERATION

Incineration, the complete oxidation of organic compounds to give

carbon dioxide, water, and other breakdown products is the obvious way of destroying the toxicity of combustible hazardous wastes. It

is the most effective method for disposing of halogenated hydrocarbons, oils, solvents which cannot be recovered, oil contaminated with cyanide, acid tars,

& pesticide residues.

Incinerator technology is

well known and detailed descriptions are given in a number of standard texts Refs 6.7.

Types suitable for hazardous waste disposal are the multiple chamber incinerator Fig 3 (Ref 6 7 ), the rotary kiln incinerator Fig I<t (Refs 6, 7 ) m:ret' the liquid waste incinerator Ref 6), Of these

the rotary kiln incinerator is perhaps the most versatile incinerator design for intractable wastes, Liquid wastes can be incinerated in

conjunction with solid wastes in this.

Points to be borne in mind are: 1. Operating conditions must be sufficiently fierce to ensure that combustion of the toxic components is complete. The essential

factors are adequate temperature, residence time, excess air and turbulence chlorinated hydrocarbons will require temperatures of about 1,200 o C for at least 2 seconds at 100% excess air to ensure complete

combustion,

-172-

INCINERA1ION

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-173-

INCINE RATION

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" -174-

Effective operation may require the waste to be diluted with a "carrier fuel""

Flue gas scrubbing systems may be required to remove acid gases if halogenated organics are burnt, or heavy metals.

Incineration does not appear to be an appropriate treatment for heavy metals. Little if anything is accomplished in the way of

detoxification; and the downstream problems which are incurred with cleaning up the flu gases and scrubti:lng1"'aters seem a high price to pay for any concentration which is achieved.

The use of

cement kilns for incinerating halogenated organics

has been shown to be feasible in Sweden, the USA and New Zealand. Temperatures and residence time are high enough to ensure complete combustion, and the fumes are usually sufficiently alkaline to neutralise the acids produced.

Some materials may damage the incinerator structure unless special refractories, are used. Examples are explosives, acids

and alkaliS, low melting point inorganic halides, fluorides, titanium and vanadium compounds (Ref 11) Problems have developed from clogging of grat-as " with a light metal slag (principally zinc-thought to originate from storage batteries) (Ref 7)

PYROLYSIS In this process wastes are heated in the absence (or an

insufficiency) of air, so that the combust.

~olatile

gases produced do not

They are condensed and used as fuels.

In the early 1970s claims were made that this process had considerable advantages for treating hazardous waste. N containing

compounds from domestic refuse and cycanides are reduced to ammonia which ::ombines with acid(J.e S &

cn gases.

The salts produced

dissolve in the water used to cool the solid products so that no objectionable gaseous products are formed vitreous slags which effectively ,/Ieavy metals etc form them. The products

encapsulate

of pyrolysis can be used as fuels, resulting in economics over incineration.

-175-

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-176-

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-177-

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A number of firms are perseveringwith pilot plants but the process has not yet gained general acceptance adequate heat transfer. 0

A major design problem is obtaining

A number of devices have been tried to

overcome this including using combustion in the presence of insufficient air within the pyrolysis chamber to improve heat transfero Several commercial plants were built. be summarised: (a)

(Fig 5)0

The troubles encountered may

Higher slag flow rates than expected exceeded the designed quenching and transport systems.

(b) (c)

Air leaks Gross channelling of refuse in the gasifier prevented adequate heat transfer. Excessively hot pyrolysis gas was vented

without heating the refuse adequatelyo The Luxemburg plant has had to be rebuilt to try to overcome

(d)

Excessive noise from ancillary equipment caused the Frankfurt plant to be closed in 1979 0

(e)

...

Conversion has occurred in several places. The combustion o air can only be preheated to 600 C instead of the designed 1000oC. The Grasse ~antwas

closed in 1979 as it had failed to meet

performance specificationso

...

(f)

The fuel properties of pyrolysis gases have not come up to expectations" (Ref 6)

Thus for it appears that pyrolysis processes have not yet been developed to a stage where they can be confidently recommended.

DEEP WELL DISPOSAL

4.1 ...

Introduction Deepwell disposal is a system of disposing of raw or treated

filtered hazardous wastes by pumping the wastes into deep wells where they are contained in the pores of the permeable subsurface rock separated from other groundwater supplies by impermeable layer of rock or clay •

...

-178-

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-179-

It is basically a storage system. The injection stratum must have: (a) Adequate capacity, high permeability, high porosity. Porous sedimentary rocks (sandstones, limestone dolomite) often best.

(b)

Adequate protection d developed and undeveloped mineral or water resources (e.g. separated from fresh water aquifers or other usable natural resources by impervious confining state such as rock or shale).

4.2

Design Considerations Design considerations are based on the well depth, anticipated

injection pressures and anticipated future maintenance requirements .

...

Construction details: Usually two or more well casings are used in the injection well. A large diameter hole is drilled through all fresh water aquifers.

Casing is inserted in the well.

Drilling proceeds

through the A

impermeable structure to the proposed permeable inject1un layer. smaller diameter casing is cemented inconcentrically from top to bottom.

A smaller hole usually about 200 mm (8") is drilled through

the injection layer, injection tube is placed through the casing. The annular spacing between the injection tubing and the casing may be filled with an inert fluid, e.g. diesel oil, often at pressure. A pressure gauge detects pressure changes in the annular space which may indicate a leak. The well system may need developing

before use either by pressure or acidulation .

...

-180Pretreatment of the effluent may also be required. Suspended solids, ,-.

microorganisms or any other materials which would plug the pores of the injection strata may need to be removed.

If chemical reactions occur which cause such plugging an intermediate neutral fluid (e.g. distilled water) may need to be interposed between the injection tube and the groundwater. sufficient. A 100 ft radius is usually

The injection rate needs to be controlled.

Experienee dictates Flow

what range of flow rates will not cause operational problems. rates of less than 50 gall/minute are usually best,

4.3

Uses The method has been used by 011 companies for returning strong

brines underground for many years,

In New Zealand it ls being

investigated as a means of returning underground spent geothermal waterswhich would otherwise be hard to dispose of. These are

supersaturated solutions of silica containing mercury, arsenic, boron and ammonia. It is claimed (Ref 2) that a wide range of

liquid wastes are suitable for deepwell disposal including: - dilute or concentrated waste acids - weak or strong alkalis - solutions of heavy metals - hydrocarbons, including chlorinated hydrocarbons - toxic and other hazardous solutions - organic solvents A number of states in the USA will not however allow several of these constituents to be disposed of in this way.

Deepwell disposal systems have caused problems when located in unsuitable geological settings or poorly engineered and installed. Earthquakes were predicted, and experienced, as a result of one such installation in Denver.

.....,

-1814.4 Site investigations Careful geophysical investigation is therefore required. should be gathered on: - thickness and depth of the disposal formation and of the confining aquicludes above and below it. lithology of the disposal formation Information

...

- permeability and porosity of the disposal zone and the confining beds. - water analysis formation temperature and pressure

- compatability of the waste liquids with the native water of redisposal formation and with the materials of the disposal and confining formations. - expected disposal rate and pressure

Costs of deep well disposal systems are claimed to be often half the cost of alternative systems.

OCEAN DISPOSAL

The weight of current opinion is against ocean disposal. agreements control the use of the oceans for waste disposal.

International

In principle, the ocean should provide a safe disposal site for heavy metal wastes. At the high pH of seawater (8.3) heavy metals are insoluble and

would slowly settle through the water mass to be deposited on the bottom where they would be diluted and covered by the other sedimentary materials which deposits there.

The drawbacks are: 1. That the above considerations do not apply to inland and coastal water where such deposits have a much higher potential for incorporation in the food chain. should occur on the continental shelf. 2. Ocean dumping may not be suitable for persistent chemicals such as PCBs etc, or generally for hydopho~ic

Ideally no such disposal

organic chemicals

which tend to concentrate in films on the surfaces or on the seabed.

In practice it may prove difficult to manage a waste disposal programme without contravening these considerations. The high costs of

-182seatransport encourage 'economies' in the distances sailed before disposal, and it is hard to ensure that industrial wastes have not been admixed with unde§~xable

.....

organics.

CONCLUSION Treatment and disposal procedures exist which enable hazardous wastes

to be disposed of with minimal health and environmental risk"

The extent to which these are adopted in any region will depend upon the amount and nature of the hazardous wastes produced in that region, public opinion and the economics of the situation"

If only small amounts of hazardous waste are produced it may be appropriate to dispose of these by the 'dilute and disperse' procedures favoured by the UK DOE. The cost of waste treatment facilities might Provided that certain precautions are

.....

not be justifiable in this caseo

taken this can be carried out with minimal environmental or health risko

In the USA the cellular safe landfill system in which like hazardous wastes are concentrated into individual cells and 'stored' in drums buried in the surrounding soil is favoured. It is likely that this approach will

.....

render the site unsuitable for further use for a longer period than well managed 'dilute and disperse' system although of course it is used for much higher concentrations of wasteso

Presumably it is considered that the trade-off between the costs of pretreating the wastes and the amenity foregone in the use of the site favours the latter. The possibility of reclaiming the wastes at some

remote future date also exists"

However where large quantities of hazardous wastes require to be disposed of there would seem to be a case for endeavouring to render the waste harmless before disposal.

A combination of processes which would appear to meet most of the treatment needs iSlincineration to destroy organic compoundsr cyanide oxidation~

encapsulation of heavy metals o

Industry could be provided with inducements to neutralise roactive chemicals and reclaim or find alternative uses for those materials which <t is economically ,justifiable to reeover.

-. -183REFERENCES

-. 1" 20 UK DOE Waste Management Paper No o 4 HMSO

Poj ase k Ro B" (Ed) "Toxic and Hazardous Waste Disposal: Volume 4" Ann Arbor 1980 USA Federal Register 44 (179) 53438-43464 May 19 1980

30 40 5. 6. 7. 8.

Reference to leachate test - Fed Reg

1978 ASTM Standards Part 19 Test Method 0698-700 Wilson, D.C. "Waste Management, planning, evaluation, Technologies" Clarendon"Press Pavoni et al " Handbook of Solid Waste disposal" Van Nostrand 1975 Dallaire, G. "Hazardous Waste Management in California Lessons for the U"S." ASCE Civil Engineering 53 - 56 April 1981 Oppelt, E.T., "Thermal Destruction Options For Controlling Hazardous Wastes" ASCE Civil Engineering 72-75 September 1981

****************************

~I -184-

ANNEX I

CAPTION 1. Site selection criteria for environmental Impact Assessment.

Site selection criteria used by various countries.

****************************************

,...

-185','

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-186-

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Site ChaM I ... Iie l.n~SoIil""'y·

F • ... , •• Cfl...... ljo·....

,meat'

LimiHoI or

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elftUic ~ n~inftr~

" ....... .."lric: ....... is ,.Ir f .11

-a 'hHe.....~

sewer \\oatn

Su.taWt ty-

"'_" 1'_ 1 piaAS ~

SiIe_iI tterwp Iot __r or

of CCUDOJr .ia

Not required. but could be used to Iii,po,", ui" c1arifoed ,rn...,nl. This Item becoPles a matter

Surface W_ _ _ bodies and waterc:o utwS

P1a""mertt 0( bcilit, Oft or _ r Plal%menl of f~cililY on or neat P1a""mc nl of facility on we.lands

Surf."" Warn-fl oodplains. floocJ_Y 1

LimiWcI l.imiIed Areu wMre surfa"" dnuna~ exists and can be controlle d Sile location near. drainage liivide ""'*surface a_ is .-.II.

Surf.ce Wattr"- Wftlaads j)r~u.ajC-na.ucal

or near Site dlamage may be 3.

Drainaj! e-kx:aI "'3.tcnhe d

-\re3!11 of poor draina~ or ",hert! p,. .m"hng OCl'UlS; draina~ areas requu· ine; eXi.-es,sl,-"e engineer ed controls

major

... entin~ the unplanne d spread 01

laclllr;..--: ;:':'t:ch~;-r;!I:Jl

..,,1lJa1It

wastes at the taC1l.i(}'; 'ilte, With SUItable

-\u Ambient Air Quality (odor, dusl) ( limatuiu~~

Site location "'here upstream swf."" area IS !<feat and ~ p _ lions to handle runoff become coolly [)jspenio n i. nol expected to be an imporwn t consider ation for land liisposal facililies

ral."r:aJ drainage conditio ns will be more f.1vOlable tJ-...u1 those re4uirUl~ !.J.;-~t: amour,, ; of enttir.eering and • """tated costs .

GoocI dispeni w chancteristic:a ate imporw u if 1M facility genera&el • disdlarge 10 the atmosphere

These site characte nst1cs .art!' [.H:i1ity-<;peClfil.. (II)

..... -.! I

Site- and

fac.ility-s~cifjc

proper container labelmg is the fust step in identifying ilIld managin& incompatible wastes. Incompatible wastes should not be mixed in the same uanspo naticn or storage container. A waslemoulcJ not be added to an Wlwashed transpo rtation or storage container that previously contain ed ilIl incomp auble waste. Incompatible wastes should not be combin ed in the same pond. landtill, soil-mixing area. well or buriaJ"conlainer. An excepti on is the controll ed neutralization of acids and alkali" in disposal areu. Contain eH which hold incompatlble wastesshoul.! be buried well. Ideally, separate disposal areuor ~rids should be maintained for in~umpallble wa5!(;. IncomP3ti~l~ wastes shuuld flot he m..:merate,! tu~ethe:.

Cmring ency ptan and Fin! Cont",1 Every hazardo us waste treatme nt, sto'age and disposal facility shoulJ prepare a conting en..;y plan for th~ prolc,ti on of human health anu prevenrron of environmental damap in the event oi aCCidental dischar ge oi haZArdous materials. Basically. the conting ency plan is an "action plan" that provides guidelines and a method ior specific steps to be taken in the event 0: accidental or uncontrolled !:lease of IuzarcJous materia l'. The !,roced lJe5 nc\.'essary to contain and recover the spilled waste anJ t,) Jell with lire and expillsion shoulJ be mcluJe d in the c()nur.gen.:y plan. In !i1l' t'\ent of In J. ... ...:llkIl!Ji rell'J\t:'. ttl!! \'per:.:t'H SlhlulJ J ... t :~~1n:.c,!IJ.tt.'1:. .

-188-

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,, , C

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£ffE'ct

Wa,t"'tlatffs

~ fll~t .. '(

colatlng Watf'r !lr'aini'{l" [ffr(t on St!rf,>(,,! II,He r fin !r,.

aql'

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r X :( I'

Area

X ~ )

Surfacp Nate,' nra1nage

X .' v

• " hp('rtt'1 in:) \·JJ·..~r O'IRII~.'':Y

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f~I·."<!',

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to.. ntl:'·'r :. ,: i"" .

-189-

O,q!lP 11 SIT r <;H £CTION CnFr,<!f. ]['1 in 1: IE.:) !p c.),': TI1: IJU i ! ~r;

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Con1·~n t

) FII'H (.11)" .

Transmi <;~ hi t.l' ~t;Jr(H;I' C1(!~r. i' ff'n~_s

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landfil, liner

OTtiER CRITERIA FOr.

SELECTION

SITE )(

Cost of Disposal Cost of Transl'Qrtation Cost of Sfte Mod1fiCIlt1~n to Meet Selection Crlteri a

1X X

-, -190-

SlJ(;AA MILL WASTl PROBLEMS 1 NFl J I

'I'.

'v"'rJl'.IlUV

\·JHU S.Jlli.t, ry r,nf:,lll\:(~r

-191-

Introduction

Sugar became the principle export from Fiji as early as 1883, and has remained so since then. Researchers and historians generally agree that sugar cane had its beginning in the Pacific Islands where it grew some 8,000 years ago. So sugar cane is thought to be indigenous to the islands of the South Pacific. It was found growing in Fiji by the early European discoverers and settlers. Fijians grew sugar cane for chewing and they are known to have used the juice for sweetening food. From this region it spread through New Guinea into Asia. The principal sugar cane areas of Fiji are shown on Fig. 1. The first sugar produced in Fiji was made on the island of Wakaya in 1862. In 1872 Brewer and Joske erected a small experimental sugar mi 11 in Suva, followed by a larger mill a year later. About 640 acres of cane was planted on the site now largely occupied by the city of Suva. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR) of Australia started in Fiji in 1880, and it brought more resources and experience than any previous entrepreneurs. Their first mill commenced operating in 1882 at Nausori and closed in 1959. In the following years two more mi lIs were establ ished - Rarawai Mi 11 on the bank of the Ba River in 1886 and Labasa Millon Vanua Levu in 1894. The largest mi 11 in Fij i was constructed in Lautoka and commenced crushing in 1903. Now only four mills ( Lautoka, Rarawai, Labasa and Penang) are remaining, out of a total of 34 that operated in Fiji at one time or another since 1862, represent the manufacturing side of the Fiji Sugar Industry. All are on the drier side of the two larger islands where conditions are more suited to sugar production. In 1973 the Fiji Government bought all shares of CSR and Fiji Sugar Corporation (FSC) Ltd came into being, \~hich operates as a public company. 2. Manufacturing Process

A simplified flow scheme of the Sugar Mills of Fiji is shown in Fig. 2 and there are seven main stages involved. The Sugar manufacturing processes are shown in Fig. 3. After the cane has been weighed it is tipped into the cane carrier which then conveys it to a shredder which chops and shreds the cane into fibrous material. Pairs of rollers feed the shredded cane into a series of mills. Each mill consists of three large rollers, each weighing as much as 15 tonnes, arranged in triangular formation so that the cane is crushed twice at each mill. Juice extracted from the cane is pumped into the manufacturing process stage. Some juice is returned to the inlet of the grinding operation to improve the effectiveness by maceration. The fibrous residue (bagasse) from the grinding and screening of particles from the sugar juice amounts to about 30 per cent by weight of the cane processed is used as fuel in the boilers . .. . /2

-192-

Juice from the crushing mills contains impurities which are removed by adding lime to a pH above 8.0 and boiling under pressure at about 102 o C. The lime prevents inversion, neutralises acids, and precipitates impurities which are settled in tanks called clarifiers. The soluble compounds settle as an underflow sludge and is pumped to vacUUm filters from which juice is returned to the process. Filter cake is disposed of by distributing to cane farmers and used as ferti I izers in the fields. The clear juice is run off from the top of each clarifier and pumped for concentration in mUltiple - effect evaporators for reduction of the water content under vacuum. The syrup, now containing about 70% solids, is again boiled in large single - effect vacuum pans where more water is evaporated. When the syrup is sufficiently concentrated the crystals of the raw sugar are formed. The crystallization is accomplished when the crystals reach a pre-determined size. The crystals and syrup mixture called massecuite is released through the bottom of the pans. The massecuite is then spun in centrifuges to separate the crystals. The dark syrup surrounding the crystals is thrown off through the perforations of the centrifuges baskets. The separated syrup is boiled again and more raw sugar crystals are recovered. This procedure is repeated two or three times until further extraction is not worthwhile. The syrup from the final centrifuges is called molasses which is sold overseas for use as animal feed or for manufacturing alcohol. A small amount is used in Lautoka, Fiji by the South Pacific Distilleries Ltd (about 1,000 tonnes per year) for production of industrial spirits and alcohol. The raw sugar from the centrifuges is dried by tumbling through a stream of hot air in a rotating drum. It is then cooled with cold air before being stored for shipment. Most of the injection water entering the plant is used for cooling and condensing vapours in the barometric condensers and crystalization vacuum pans. The boiler plant operates on condensate and water from the drinking water supply of the mill. The sources of pollution from the process come from: a) cooling water, b) floor washings, c) boiler blowdown, d) concentrated soda, acid and scaling wastes, e) excess condenser waters and f) excess bagasse. 3. Quantity and Characteristics of the Wastes

Three of the mills were visited and the available information for the wastes was collected. Labasa Sugar Mill is located about 10 miles upstream of the Labasa River on the northern side of Vanua Levu Island. During the last five years the plant has been renovated and according to the management the pollution problem has been considerably reduced. In 1981 new more efficient boilers have been installed, but as a result now there is problem with the disposal of the excess bagasse. The required injection water for cooling is pumped directly from the river a"jacent to the sugar" mill.

. .. /3

-193-

Lautoka Sugar Mill is the largest in Fiji and is located on the sea shore of the northern part of Viti Levu Island. After the completion of this year's crushing season, renovation of the mill is envisaged. The injection water for cooling is pumped from a sea water intake channel. The mill has an independent drinking water supply of 1,000,000 gallons/day capacity which also suppl ies water for the boiler and cooling of the plant turbines. The water is not treated and very often is polluted during intense rainfall. Rarawai Sugar Mill is located in the northern part of Viti Levu Island some 25 km from Lautoka upstream the Ba River. Renovation of the plant is now being completed and also more efficient boilers are being installed. The injection water for cooling is pumped directly from the river. An independent water supply provides drinking and cooling water, which also has a connection to the community water supply. The various water and wastewater flows for the three mills are shown schematically on Figs. 4,5 and 6. Data on mill capacities, characteristics of the wastewaters quality of the wastes and a summary of sugar balances as per cent of cane weight are shown in Tables 1,2,3. and 4 of Annex 1.

3.1.

Wastewater from Cooling Operations:

The injection water is used mainly for cooling of the filters and for condensation in the evaporators and crystal izer pans. The wastewater flO\oJ from these processes also receives a portion of the floor washing wastes. In the Lautoka Mil I all wastes including floor washing wastes, boiler blowdown and concentrate wastes from the scaling and cleaning of the crystalizer pans and evaporators are discharged into the cooling wastewater system. No data is available on suspended solids but BODS tests have been carried out regularly and concentrations vary from 70mg/1 up to 250mg/l. It was reported that prior to the renovation of the Labasa Mill the BODS was as high as 780mg/l. The 3 per quantity of wastes varies for the different mills from about 100 to 115 m tonne of sugar produced as shown in Table 3 and is the main source of pollution The BODS waste loadings of the three mills are tabulated in Table 5. 3.2. Boiler Blowdown:

Boi ler blowdown of the Labasa Sugar Mi II is transported by trucks to a site for reclaimation but a portion is spilled and deposited on the river bank and is periodically flushed into the river when high water occurs. Rarawai Mill boiler blowdown wastewater is stored in a close depot to the ponds for concentrated wastewaters and later periodically transported for reclaimation at several different sites. All of the boiler blowdown of Lautoka Sugar Mill is discharged into the cooling wastewater system and flows directly into the sea. 3.3. Floor Washings:

Floor washing wastewaters include spills, leaks from the piping as well as oi I leakage from the lubrication systems. At the Labasa and Rarawai Hi lis this wastewater is discharged partially to the cooling wastewater system and partially to the system for concentratEd wastewaters. At the Lautoka Hi 11 all floor washing wastes are connected to the cooling waste water system .

. . . /4

-194-

3.4.

Concentrated Wastes:

The concentrate wastes originate frrnn the cleaning of the accumulated scale in the evaporators and the crystal izer pans which is carried out once a week. This is accompl ished by rinsing the equipment with water, boi ling for 2-3 hours with caustic soda, rinsing again followed by boiling with dilute hydrochloric acid and final rinsing. The scale is brushed out using electric brushes and the equipment again is rinsed with water. The caustic soda and the hydrochloric. acid are regenerated for further use. At the Labasa and Rarawai Mills .the scale, together with the rinse water is discharged to the pond system for treatment. At Lautoka the wastes are discharged to the sea through the cooling waste water system. Precise data were not available on the concentrated wastewater quantities. However, at the Labasa Mill the flow is estimated to be about 0.1% of the injection fiow. BOD5 is estimated to be between 1,500 and 2,500mg/1 with pH varying between 5.3 and 7.6. The Labasa pond system consists of three ponds with a total capacity of 6,000 m3 . Four months ago a microorganism culture was introduced and indications are that treatment efficiency has been improved. 3.5. Condenser Wastes:

The condenser wastes at all sugar mills in Fiji are recirculated to the boilers. Continuous sampling is carried out for sugar content and when the concentration exceeds 15mg/l the condensate is immediately redirected and returned to the manufacturing process. 3.6. Bagasse Disposal:

Of the total bagasse produced, only 50 to 70 per cent is utilized as fuel in the boilers and for power production. At the Labasa Mill the excess bagasse is stored in silos for use in the boilers during wet weather or at the beginning of the crushing season. A portion of the bagasse is dumped near by the mill for reclaimation of swamp land but creates some environmental pollution problems. In as much as Lautoka Mill has no silos the excess bagasse cannot be utilized and is dumped at a reclaimation site. 4. Conclusions:

At the present time there is no effective legislation by which pollution'control can be accomplished in Fiji. However, the pollution problems which exist, such as the serious septic condition in the Labasa River during the low water season have created public demands for pollution control. As a result, the Government is now giving consideration to improvements in plant processes and to wastewater treatment systems at the several mi 11 s.

...

Idule

Mill (;apacltleS

-195-

Labasa tons/day

Latok! tons/day 8,000 980

Rarawai tons/day 6,600

Sugar Sti4ar

cane

5,200 600

Aod

Tabi. 2.

characteristica of the Waste Waters

Labasa Mill

Latoka Mill a.3S 80 30

R4dwa1 Mitl

7.05

7.t 100

Bob~ (fooc) Tem~e.rature

129 °c

tabl~

du~~lty of th~ Wastes

labasa sa42isse fibre

Latoka

ft!ra",at

122kg/t.cane 12Skg/t.cane 23kg/t.cane lOa .joo

121kqlt • can@ Hk<J/t:. can6

,lUre

cak'

20k9/t.ccine

...

wU~~ wcH:~r

1/t.sugar

i U,jd&. .

l/t.au4U ...

ia!;'~B"U lit. u9

table

Atirtttrili:2 of Sugar Baiances as per c~nt of can~ w~19h~ . t.abas! 12.4 Latokci 12.5

soU~cl Tobit sucrose §dctos& t-e cove red idI4il,,~. , t

Ana",!!

io.j

10.7

H.oo 8J~

B.1

SiqasSe A~iU§'~

d.1 1.2

d.6 1.i (L02

Ll 8.tH 6.o~ 1.70t i·

tHUr' ci!lke khceHanAous

a.o! 0.16

o.od i.A04

'till!

i63s~9

Liol ...

-196-

ANNEX

~able

Volume of the wastes

Mill

Cane Pro cess tons/day

waste water Injecf!ow M /day tion mg/1 (2) ( 3)

BODS Injection kg/day (4)==(2) x(3)

\';aste water irng/1 (5)

\'Iaste water kg/day

l'7aste Kg/day

Kg/ton of cane

(1)

, (6)== (2) x (5) (])= (6).- (4) (8)=(])·t{1)

L:ibas a Latoka

5,200 8,000

65,000

2,600

128

8,3:20

5,720 8,960* 6,889

1.1 1.12* 1. 04

112,000 Isea water sea water 83,000 17 1,411

80 100

8,960* 8,300

Rarawai 6,600

No data available for BODS of the Injection sea water

_ -_~l98-

• CAME

, I

I t--

~-- --

t I u

I CUTTERS

..... -.- _ I J t

r---~"'INDING

I I

~ ICttE£HS

" ......... ---

I I

e.i'.r.

J f

II ul 1

..... "WII

_1.1 ••

eeu. _____

.... MlATlltS

~I:.L

1..-

-- t--I-'

'I t

.-Iyrup

Juice • 1.....

I ClARI'111tS

tn_ .c....

"f ' i Iter C41kt ...

t--

---., -F---1 -

Juic. ~----t--

l SOl.. and ____c:lJL

r '

IVA I"OItATOIl S

...

. -t-- - - . -

L-

C1tYSTALll Z titS

1 CENTR I 'UGES

111010 . . . .

•

Wift SUGAR

•

}

SUGAR MILL FLOW DIAGRAM

FROM CANE TO BUL"

RAW SUGAR

_~J L..._ _ _ _~I /'flU. TIHCA 7I9/¥A

I L

1J r I~ III _-1

~ ,---.~

I J f"RJ' r L I~ I t 1.-_••.,.. L _S:r-.J r-r+-, --~ I ~ r-' I -7\11 r:b trl Q Y Itr~ L-:-l\t) )) I

I I

_ -r-.- ._c.,. .-"YWOs

I!-~ Ir-.J

,......,.....--.,

lit

-----... we • . .~)IDIIl

:...,.

~c._-r" ",y.sTeM

til

IlL

II) IcOjJ ((/f II I {I I

I II CLAA/"EJIIt

to to I

-'"""u

.,..

~~.," ~

\Ilk..,

/#14"'1 (((

V~CIWr'" rt~ ~

-"~OJ~~ ~

i .< I

H j

.....,

..... -..A-,. ...A- ___ 4... ---

I ,..,

u~~! ~ ·~J1. L~~~

II I

t j

f »

JOItKM..,

-=--F. _5.

-200-

, LABASA SUGAR MIL L.

.. i _

'fl'

;:;... E

c: n

.. -201-

...

LAUTOKA SUGAR MILL.

Fg- s.

-202-

RARAWAI SU GAR MILL.

Intake.

RIVER BA

~~--~~~-------------

-203-

LEGISLATIVE MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE CONTROL

...

K. M. Yao PEPAS Water Quality Management Adviser

...

-204LEGISLATIVE MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE CONTROL

INTRODUCTION Legislative measures represent an essential element for hazardous waste control. Examples are the 1976 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of the U. S., the 1970 Waste Management Act of Japan, the 1972 Waste Disposal Act of West Germany and the 1974 Environmental Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act of Aus tralia (Ref. 1). The health significance of hazardous waste could be either short-term hazards, such as acute toxicity by ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption, corrosivity or other skin or eye contact hazards or the risk of fire or explosion or long-term hazards "including chronic toxicity upon repeated exposure, carcinogenic~ty

(which may

in some cases result from acute exposure but with a long latent period), resistance to detoxification processes such as biodegradation, the potential to pollute underground or surface waters or esthetically objectionable properties such as offensive smells" (Ref. 2). The general trend in legislation for hazardous waste control tends to emphasize the protection of human health and well-being as the prime consideration. The following is a brief account of the significant features in legislative messures and management strategies for hazardous waste control. INSTITUTIONAL SETUP

Any legislation for hazardous waste control should include provisions for institutional setup. For instance, the RGRA of the US directs the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish an Office of Solid Waste to carry out the duties

-205and responsibilities specified in the Act (Ref. 12). Conceivably,

health agencies and public works departments may be designated as the lead agency depending on the administrative system of the

...

country.

There is also the possibility of separation of For example, in the US, the control of

responsibility.

transportation of hazardous wastes is under the jurisdiction of the Department of Transportation (Ref. 13) • DEFINITION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE Hazardous waste has been defined as any waste material or

mixture of wastes with certain general characteristics, if such a waste or mixture of wastes may cause present or potential, substantial injury, serLOUS illness or harm to human, domestic livestock or wildlife. The general characteristics may include ignitability, reactivity (or explosiveness), corrosivity, toxicity, radioactivity, bioaccumu1ation, unnatural genetic activity (mutagenesis) and infectiousness (Refs. 1 and 3). The corrosivity of a substance mentioned above refers to any substance which, in contact with living tissue, will cause destruction of the tissue by chemical action (Ref. 4). In some cases, irritants (any substance which on immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with normal living tissue will induce a local inflammatory reaction), strong sensitizers (any substance which will cause on normal living tissue, through an allergic or photodynamic process, a hypersensitivity which becomes evident on reapplication of the same substance) and waste which generates pressure in a confined environment through decomposition, heat or other means, are also considered as hazardous (Ref. 4). It is generally not practical to include all these characteristics in defining hazardous waste in control legislation, at least in the initial stage of a control programme, to limit wastes under control within a manageable level. For instance, USEPA selected only ignitability, reactivity, corrosivity and toxicity

...

(based on potential impact on drinking water) in defining hazardous waste in its present legislation (Ref. 1).

-206Explanatory statements are usually provided to specify the meaning of some of the general characteristics. substance being ignitable means (Ref. 4); (1) a liquid which has a flash point at or below 37.S o e (lOOOF);

As an example, a

(2)

a gas for which a mixture of 13% or less, by volume, with air forms a flammable mixture at atmospheric pressure or the flammable range with air at atmospheric pressure is wider than 12% regardless of the lower limit;

(3)

a solid which is likely to cause fire due to friction, retain heat from processing or which can be ignited under normal temperature conditions and when ignited burns so as to create a serious threat to public health and safety. "Normal temperature conditions" means temperatures normally encountered in the handling, treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous wastes;

(4)

a gas, liquid, sludge or solid which ignites spontaneously in dry or moist air at or below 54.3 (130 F) or upon exposure to water; o 0

(5)

a strong oxidizer.

Corrosive wastes are sometimes defined as those with pH of 4 or less or 12 or greater. USEPA specifies the ep (extraction procedure) toxicity test to determine whether a solid waste is hazardous because of its toxicity. The test involves agitating a sample of the waste in an If acidic solution (pH=5) for 24 hours and then measuring the concentrations of toxic constituents in the leachate (Ref. 5). the c.oncentration of any of the toxic constituents exceeds the safe

-207limit, the waste is considered to be toxic and hence hazardous. as 100 times the drinking water standard for the same pollutant. HAZARDOUS WASTE LISTING It would be extremely expensive and time-consuming, if not impossible, if each waste has to be tested to see whether it is hazardous in view of the large number of chemicals which could make the waste hazardous. To remove this heavy burden from the enforcement agency, a practical approach is to provide suitable listing to serve as a guide to determine whether a given waste is hazardous without the need for actual testing. USEPA provides two lists : one gives the manufacturing processes producing hazardous wastes (Ref. 3) and the other, toxic chemicals, the so-called priority toxic pollutants (Ref. 6). lists are reproduced in Tables land 2. list. The State of California, USA, pioneered many of the hazardous waste control legislation and measures. Its hazardous waste regulations contain two useful lists : one for waste streams containing hazardous wastes and the other comprehensive listing of hazardous chemicals (Rf. 4). Tables 3 and 4. These two lists are reproduced in Both lists indicate the hazardous characteristics These Table I also indicates the In

the U.S., the safe limit ot a given toxic pollutant has been defined

respective hazardous characteristics for individual processes on the

involved in individual waste streams/chemicals. Similar lists are often available in other countries. toxic wastes. For

instance, Japan has a list of manufacturing processes producing The list also indicates the toxic substances involved in each case (Ref. 1).

-208CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES Conceivably, the more stringent the hazardous waste disposal requirements are, the higher will be the cost. It would be 1S

prohibitively expensive if the disposal of all hazardous wastes ones. In nuclear power industry, it is a common practice to

required to meet the same standards set up for the most dangerous classify radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants into high-level and low-level wastes requiring entirely different approaches for their disposal. For other hazardous wastes, two different classes have been used to facilitate control and disposal ; hazardous waste and extremely hazardous waste (Ref. 4). The latter is defined as any hazardous waste or mixture of hazardous wastes which, if human exposure should occur, may likely result in death, disabling, personal injury or illness because of the quantity, concentration or chemical characteristics of the hazardous waste or mixture of hazardous wastes. Chemicals marked by an asterisk in Table 4 are Extra precautions are necessary in extremely hzardous wastes.

handling and disposing extremely hazardous wastes. FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE Unlike water and air pollution control, hazardous waste control has to be from cradle to grave. first identified. disposal is closely monitored. The hazardous waste generators are Treatment/storage/disposal sites When a site is filled up or to Shipping of the waste for treatment/storage/

must meet the minimum standards and their operation is subject to constant and competent surveillance. procedure and provisions. be phased out, it is to be closed in accordance with the required After the site's closure, there is the continuing need for routine monitoring and maintenance to ensure safety against property damages and personal injury for a period of at least 20 to 30 years.

-209-

THE MANIFEST SYSTEM There were cases where hazardous wastes were dumped illegally in unauthorized sites during transportation, referred to as midnight

dumping. the US.

To avoid such occurrences and to exercise positive control The manifest is an approved form of record, which may m~n~mum

of hazardous waste handling, the manifest system is now in use in include the amount of the waste, the general chemical and mineral composition of such waste indicated as maximum and percentages, and the origin and destination of the shipment. The manifest, when appropriate, may also include information on

antidotes, first aid and safety measures to be taken in case of accidental human contact with the waste (Ref. 4). The generator of the hazardous waste initiates the manifest and specifies clearly the shipment of the waste to a designated licensed treatment/storage/disposal facility. The transporter must deliver the waste and the accompanying manifest to the specified facility. The receiving facility must return a copy of the manifest to the generator for confirmation (Ref. 1). In some cases, a copy of the manifest is also required for submission to the regulatory agency.

OPERATIONAL AND PDSTOPERATIONAL FINANCIAL OBLIGATIONS ...

There are four items of financial requirements during and after the operation of a treatment/storage/disposal facility, not normally encountered in air and water pollution control. These are the financial responsibility for proper closure of the facility when the operation of the facility terminates, the financial needs for postc10sure monitoring and maintenance, and the financial liability for environmental and property damages and personal injury that occur during operation of the facility and the same financial liability after the closure of the facility. usua~ly

The former three are

part of the conditions for the issuance of the licence for

...

-210the operation of the facility. The last one is considered in the

U.S. as a public responsibility and is to be met by a public fund, created and maintained by fees assessed for the disposal of hazardous wastes (Ref. 1).

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Many countries require licences for transporters of hazardous wastes and operators of hazardous waste treatment/storage/disposal facilities, even if these facilities are located at the site of waste generation. generators. In some cases, a hazardous waste management system is completely run by the government. such a system. the collection centres. Fig. I shows the general setup of Hazardous wastes are either collected or received by Some of these centres may have treatment Permits are usually required for hazardous waste

facilities to reduce the amount/volume of hazardous wastes. Ultimately, the wastes are transported to the treatment/ storage/disposal sites for final handling. It has been estimated that a collection centre with treatment facilities (decontamination, neutralization and dewatering) may serve about 20,000 tonnes/year while collection centres with no treatment facilities can serve around 6,000 tonnes/year (Ref. 1). For instance, in Denmark, there is at least one collection station in each municipality, twenty three central collection stations are located throughout the country receiving hazardous wastes from local stations as well as from industry and agriculture, and the wastes travel then by rail or road to the treatment plant to be incinerated, chemically treated or, if not treatable, disposed in abandoned salt mines 700 m underground (Ref. 14).

On the other end is the approach such as the one in the U.S. where the government role is limited to promulgation of rules and regulations, setting of standards, issuance of licences and permits and routine inspection. firms. Actual operations are left to the private

-211-

•

An intermediate arrangement is to have government operated disposal facilities to receive hazardous wastes from generators located in the area. In some cases, there are restrictions on the types of wastes acceptable for disposal at a given site. For instance, the Castlereagh Regional Liquid Waste Disposal Site 1n New South Wales, Australia, accepts only the following (Ref. 1); (1)

•

Combustible wastes (e.g. solvents and oil sludges); Inorganic wastes (e.g. acids and alkalis); Aqueous wastes (e.g. soluble oils); Biological wastes (e.g. starch and yeast); Brine sludges containing mercury and encapsulated in concrete.

(2) (3) (4) (5)

One reason for the restrictions 1S that facilities for other types of wastes are either available or being developed elsewhere. CODISPOSAL AND SEPARATE DISPOSAL In some countries, hazardous wastes are disposed of together with non-hazardous residential. wastes. properly operated. (1)

This is often cheaper if

The main objections are (Ref. 1);

the hazardous wastes may retain their hazardous characteristics for a long time, making the disposal site unusable for certain purposes;

(2)

incineration of the mixed wastes may lead to violation of emission standards, damages to furnaces, grates and boilers and unforeseen disruptions and explosions;

-212-

Separate disposal is expensive but has the advantage of being able to prevent undesirable occurrences to the maximum extent. Some wastes~'as radioactive wastes must be disposed of separately.

COMPATIB IL ITY One important consideration in hazardous waste management is tbe compatipility of different types of wastes. To m~x

two

incompatible hazardous wastes may result in (Ref. 7): (1) (2) (3) heat generation; fire; 00 , etc. 2 which may cause pressure in confined environment; generation of toxic gases such as HCN, H S, etc_; 2 generation of flammable gases such as HZ' etc.; explosion; solution of toxic substances such as heavy metals. production of innocuous gases such as N

(4) (5) (6) (7)

The best way to avoid problems due to inadvertently mixing incompatible hazardous wastes is to make available technical information such as a hazardous waste compatibility chart for operational personnel (Ref. 7). incompatible wastes (Ref. 8). COSTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT/DISPOSAL A comprehensive study was undertaken by USEPA to estimate the costs of various methods of hazardous waste treatment/disposal for three industries. organic chemical, inorganic chemical and metal Table 5 shows potentially

...

-213finishing. Table 6 shows the types of hazardous substances ~n the Table 7 presents the

wastes from the three industries considered. Table 8 the estimated costs.

unit processes considered in each system of treatment/disposal and Table 8 shows considerable differences Economy of in cost using different treatment/disposal systems. scale is also evident in some cases.

MANPOWER NEEDS The following types of personnel are considered to be necessary for a hazardous waste management programme (Ref. 1): (1) (2) (3) administrator and administrative assistant; toxicologist; chemist or chemical engineer; industrial engineer; inspector; lawyer; information system specialists; general support staff. PERMITS FOR GENERATORS Generators of hazardous waste are usually required to obtain a permit. The conditions in granting a permit may require them to Retailers, keep records, make annual reports, and arrange proper waste shipments including the initiation of the manifest. farmers and generators of hazardous waste with a total amount of less than 100 kg/month are usually exempted from the permit requirements, provided that they dispose of their hazardous wastes in an approved facility.

(4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

-214LICENCES/PERMITS FOR TRANSPORTERS Hazardous waste transporters are required to obtain licences/pennits requiring them to meet certain facility standards and to observe proper operational procedures. LICENCES/PERMITS FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT/STORAGE/DISPOSAL FACILITIES Licences/permits are required for hazardous waste treatment/storage/dispoal facilities. There facilities must meet prescribed standards and follow prescribed operational procedures. The standards may include general standards setting out requirements on location, security, contingency plans, training, financial responsibility and monitoring; standards for storage facilities where waste is stored for more than 90 days; standards for treatment and disposal including requirements for incineration, landfill, surface impoundment, and chemical/physical/biological treatment and standards for special wastes requiring special handling such as wastes of extremely large quantities with a relatively low level of risk.

"'"

Storage facilities usually require zero discharge to the environment. o

Incineration normally requires a temperature of Landfill

1000 C, 2-sec dwell time and 2% excess oxygen supply.

should have a series of liners and leachate collection combinations together with a minimum of 10 ft (3 m) from the bottom of the trench to the groundwater table and a minimum lateral distance of 500 ft (152 m) from a water supply source and with the soil permeability in -7 -8 the range of 10 to 10 em/sec. USEPA has also an interim status standards for hazardous waste facilities which have pending licence/permit applications.

-, ,..

-215-

ENFORCEMENT PRIORITY If the work load under a hazardous waste control management

programme is far too large to be undertaken at the same time, it is then necessary to establish a priority list in carrying out the programme. (Ref. 6);

The following list has been suggested in the

u.s.

(1)

generators with onsite hazardous waste treatment/storage/disposal facilities;

(2)

generators transporting hazardous waste to offsite treatment/storage/disposal facilities; treatment/storage/disposal facilities; transporters of hazardous waste;

(5)

inactive facilities.

The reason for giving the top priority to generators with onsite facilities is that the facilities concerned are large in number and have seldom been under proper control before.

PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTATION The following have been identified as problems encountered implementing a hazardous waste management programme (Ref. 9); (1) (2) (3) (4) education of the industrial community; location. of new treatment/storage/disposal facilities; financing the programme; inadequate staff; ~n

-216(5) locating and cleaning up abandoned hazardous waste dumping sites.

-.. I

Locating new facility sites 1S becoming an impossible task in many countries. Citizen's groups have been very successful in these Lack of sites

"" I

countries to prevent such sites being established.

with suitable geological conditions is another main obstacle.

'"' The need for cleaning up old dumping sites drew world attention when toxic chemicals and vapors forced the evacuation of 240 families having their houses built on the abandoned Love Canal 1n the u.s. in 1978 (Ref. 10). A subsequent survey by USEPA indicated

'"'

that there were at least 29 toxic waste dumps in the U.S. in a condition even more dangerous than Love Canal. To clean up the

critical abandoned sites and chemical spills and to pay for temporary and permanent relocation of individuals and businesses, the u.S. government has created a superfund of $1.6 billion for these purposes.

An amount of $1.3 billion is expected to corne from One

taxes on industry and the rest from public funds (Ref. 11).

example illustrating the operation of the superfund is the cleanup of the old Sylvester dumpsite on Gibson Road in Nashua, New Hampshire. The illegal site was used to dump all kinds of liquid The hazards include health

and solid hazardous wastes in the 70' s.

risks to a nearby trailer park housing several hundred families, potential pollution to a creek which flows into the Nashua River, a source for public water supplies and the possibility of explosion (Ref. 15).

WASTE REDUCTION, RECLAMATION AND EXCHANGE

Waste reduction and reclamation are desirable 1n all waste management prograrmnes. Waste reduction could mean the removal of

certain waste material from the effluent by, say, process changes or recycling as well as by processing of wastes to reduce tlleir volume/concentration such as by incineration.

-217-

Waste reclamation, if feasible, offers an extremely attractive option for waste management. In some cases, the reclaimed material is worth more than the cost of the reclamation operation. Waste exchange as a means for solving waste disposal problems ~s

gaining increasing attention in many industrialized countries. This

The main concept is that, in some cases, wastes produced in one

industry can be used in another industry as raw material. would provide zero pollution discharge without the need for treatment/disposal. two different forms. generators and users.

Waste exchange operations as practised now have One is to provide waste information for Waste transfer takes place between the Another form is to have the exchange One

matched generator and user.

operator actually receiving, handling and delivering wastes. Exchange in St. Louis, USA. The Exchange issues quarterly

successful example of the former is the Midwest Industrial Waste publications with a circulation of nearly 5,000 (Ref. 16).

REFERENCES 1.

Robert B. Po jasek (ed), "Toxic and Hazardous Was te Disposal," Ann Arbor Science, USA, 1980.

"Great Britain Relying on Luck to Avert Disaster." Ambio, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Pergamon Press, N.Y., USA, Vol. 11, No. I, 1982, pp. 53-56.

Marshall Sittig, "Landfill Disposal of Hazardous Wastes and Sludges" Noyes Data Corp, N.Y., USA, 1979.

"Hazardous Waste Regulations", Department of Health Services, State of California, USA, 1977.

"Is This Waste Hazardous?

Not Always an Easy Answer," Civil

Engineering, USA, September 1981, p. 81.

-2186. "EPA Moving to Control Industrial Toxic Pollutants With New NPDES Permits", Civil Engineering, USA, Sept. 1981, pp. 76-77.

"A Method for Determining the Compat ib il ity of Hazardous Wastes," USEPA, Washington, D.C., USA, April 1980.

"Final Report Policy Guideline for Collection Treatment and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes" prepared by Scott

& Furphy

Engineers, Australia, for the Governments of Australia and Malaysia, March 1982.

"Hazardous Waste Management in California: Lessons for the U.S.", Civil Engineering, USA, April 1981, pp. 53-56.

10.

"EPA's Hazardous Waste Programme: Will It Save our Groundwater?", Civil Engineering, USA, December 1978, pp. 39-45.

11.

"United State Lessons of Love canal Prompt Clean Up", AMBIO, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Pergamon Press, N.Y., USA, Vol. 11, No.1, 1982, pp. 47-50.

12.

"Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976", US public Law 94-580, Oct. 21, 1976, US Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

13.

Code of Federal Regulations, "Title 49 - Transportation, Parts 100 to 199," revised as of October I, 1977, US Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

14.

"European Waste Management", EPA Journal. 4, July/August 1982, p. 17.

USEPA, Vol. 6, No.

15.

"Superfund Helps New Hampshire", EPA Journal, USEPA, Vol. 6, No.4, July/August 1982, pp. 10-11.

16.

"Recycling and Waste Exchange" EPA Journal, Vol. 6, No.4, July / August 1982, pp. 18-19.

)

. )

, )

)

. )

)

CENTRE

TREATMENT/STORAGE/DISPOSAL FACILITY I-' (l)

t>:I I

CENTRE

FIG. 1.

A STATE-RUN HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

"" -220-

TABLE 1. HAZARDOUS WASTE SOURCES BY PROCESS

I - igni table C - corrosi ve A - reactive T - toxic N - infectious

A - radioactive M - mutagenic, carcinogenic or teratogenic B - bioaccumulate o - toxic organics

SIC 1094 1099

Procen Description

Waste rock and overburden from uranium mining (A) Chlorinator residues and clarifier sludge from zirconium ex· traction (A) Overburden and slimes from phosphate surface mining (AI 1475 2874 Waste gypsum from phosphoric acid production (AI 2819- Slag and fluid bed prills from elemental phosphorus production (AI 2874 2231 Wool fabric dyeing and finishing wastewater treatment sludges (T.O) 2261-2 Woven fabric dyeing and finishing wastewater treatment sludges (Y,O) 2250 Knit fabric dyeing and finishing wastewater treatment sludges (O.T) 2269 Yarn and stock dyeing and finishing wastewater treatment sludges (O,T) 2279 Carpet dyeing and finishing wastewater treatment sludges (O,T) 2299 Wool scouring wastewater treatment sludges IT) Mercury - bearing sludges from brine treatment from mer2812 cury cell process in chlorine production (T) 2812 Sodium· calcium sludge from production of chlorine by Down Cell process (R) Mercurv-bearing brine purification muds from mercury cell 2812 process in chlorine production (T)

2812 2812 2818 2818 2816 2816 2816 2816 2816 2816

Wastewater treatment sludge from diaphragm cell process in production ot chlorine IT) Chlorinated hydrocarbon bearing wastes from diaphragm cell process in chlorine production (O,M) Chromium bearing wastewater treatment sludge from production of chrome green pigment (T) Chromium bearing wastewater treatment sludge and other chromium bearing wastes from production of chrome oxide green pigment lanhydrous and hydrated) Ferric ferrocyanide bearing wastewater treatment sludges from the production of iron blue pigments (T) Mercury bearing wastewater treatment sludges from the pro· duction of mercuric sulfide pigment (T) Chromium bearing wastewater treatment sludges from the production of Ti0 2 pigment by the chloride process (T) Chromium bearing wastewater treatment sludges from the production of Ti0 2 pigment by the sulfate process IT) Arsenic bearing sludges from purification process in the production of antimony oxide IT) Antimonv bearing wastewater treatment sludge from production of antimony oxide IT)

STC - Standard Industry Code

-221-

2892

2892 2911 2911 2911 2911 2911 2911 2911 3111 3111

3111 3111 3312

3312

3331 3332 3332 3333 3333 3333 3339 3339 3339 3339 3339

Wastewater treatment sludges from production of initiating compounds (T) Red water and pink water from TNT production (0) Petroleum refining, high octane production neutralization HF alkylation sludge (T,O,M) Petroleum refining OAF sludge (T,I,O) Petroleum refining kerosene filter cakes (T,O,M) Petroleum refining lube oil filtration clays (T,O,M) Petroleum refining-slop oil emulsion solids (T,I,O) Petroleum refining exchange bundle cleaning solvent (T,O) API separator sludge (T,O) Leather tanning and finishing: wastewater treatment sludge from chrome tannery, beamhouse/tanhouse (T) Leather tanning and finishing: wastewater treatment screenings from sheepskin tannery, split tannery and retan/finishers (T) Trimmings and shavings from leather tanning and finishing chrome, split, beam/tanhouse and retan/finishers (T) Wastewater treatment sludge from dehairing (~,T) Coking: Decanter tank tar (T,O) Decanter tank pitch sludge (T,O) Oleum wash waste (C) Caustic neutralization waste (C) Ammonia still lime sludge (T) Iron Making: Ferromanganese blast furnace dust (T,R) Ferromanganese blast furnace sludge (T) Electric furnace dust and sludge (T) Steel Finishing: Alkaline cleaning waste (C) Waste pickle liquor (C) Cyanide-bearing wastes from electrolytic coating IT) Chromate and dichromate wastes from chemical treatment IT) Oescaling acid (T,C) Primary copper smelting and refining electric furnace. slag, converter dust, acid plant sludge, and reverberatory dust IT) Primary lead blast furnace dust IT) Primary lead lagoon dredging from smelter IT) Zinc acid plant blowdown lime treatment: gypsum cake (acid cooling tower and neutral cooling tower) (T) Zinc production: oxide furnace residue and acid plant sludge

(T) Zinc anode sludge (T) Primary antimony~lectrolytic sludge (T) Primary tungsten-digestion residues (T) Primary lead sinter dust scrubbing sludge IT) Ferromanganese emissions control: baghouse dusts and scrubwater solids (T) Ferrochrome silicon furnace emission control dust or sludge (T)

3339 3339 3341 3341 '3341

Ferrochrome emissions control: furnace baghouse dust, and ESP dust (T) Primary antimony-pyrometallurgical blast furnace slag (T) Secondary lead, scrubber sludge from S'02 emission control, soft lead production IT) Secondary lead-white metal production furnace dust IT) Secondary copper-pyrometallurgical, bl~st furnace slag IT)

-222-

2816 2818 2816 2816 2819 2834 2851 2851 2865 2865 2865 2865 2865 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869

Chromium or lead bearing wastewater treatment sludge from proriuction of chrome vellow5 and oranges (lead chromate) (T) Chromium or lead bearing wastewater treatment sludge from production of mnl yhdilte orange (lead molybdate, lead chromate I (TI Zinc and chromium bearing wastewater treatment sludge from production of zinc yellow pigment (hydrated zinc potassium chromate) (T) Ash from incinerated still bottom'l (paint and pigment production) (T) Arsenic bearing wastewatet tr~atm~nt sludges from production of boric acid (T) Arsenic- or organo-arsenic -- containing wastewater treatment sludges from production of veterinary pharmaceuticals (T,M,O) Wastewater treatment sludges from paint production

.-"

(C,T) Air pollution control sludges from paint production IT) Vacuum still bottoms from the production of maleic anhydride (0) Still bottoms from distillation of benzyl chloride (0) Distillation residues from fractionating tower for recovery of benzene and chlorobenz~n~~ 10,8) Vacuum distillation residues from purification of l-chloro4-nitrobenzene (O,M) Still bottoms or heavy ends from methanol recovery in methyl methacrylate production (0) Heavy ends (still bottoms) from fractionator in production of epichlorohydrin (M,O) Heavy ends from fractionation in ethyl chloride production (M,O) Column bottoms or heav'f ends from production of trichloroethylene (O,B) Residues from the production of hex~chlorophenol, trichlorophenol and 2.4,5-T 10) Heavy ends from distillation of vinyl chloride in production of vinyl chloride from ethylenp dichloride (0) Heavy ends from distillation of ethylene dichloride in vinyl chloride production (0) Heavy ends or distillation residues from carbon tetrachloride fractionation tower IB,O) Heavy ends from distillation of ethylene dichloride in ethylene dichloride production 10) Purification column wastes from production of nitrobenzene (0) Still bottoms from production of furfural (0) _ Spent catalyst from fluorocarbon production (T,O) Centrifuge residue from toluene diispcyanate production (0) lead slag from lead alkyl produclion (T) Stripping still tails from production of methyl ethvl pvridines (1,0) Still bottoms from aniline production (0) Aqueous effluent from scrubbing of spent acid in nitrobenzene production (0) Bottom stream from quench column in acrylonitrile production (0)

.-,

2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2890 2869

-223Bottom stream from wastewater stripper in production of acrylonitrile (0) Still bottoms from final purification of acrylonitrile (O,M) Solid waste discharge from ion exchange column in production of acrylonitrile (O,M) Waste stream from purification of HCN in production of acrylonitrile (O,M) Waste stream (column bottoms) from acetonitrile purification in production of acrvlonitrile (0) Sludges, wastes from tub washer (Ink Formulation) (T,C,

0) Wastewater treatment, sludges from the production of dieldrin, chlordane, toxaphene, disulfoton, malathion, phorate, carbaryl, pentadiene, trifluralin, alachlor, methyl parathion, vernolate, methomyl, carbofuran, captan, creosote, dithiocarbamates, pentachlorophenol, bromacil, diuron, p-chlorobenzene and chloroxuron (O,M,B) Wastewater from oxidation of ardrin solution in production of dieldrin (O,M,B) Wastewater from extraction of dieldrin solution in production of dieldrin (O,M,B) Wastewater and scrub water from chlorination of cyclopentadiene in production of chlordane (O,M,B) Filter solids from filtration of hexachlorocyclopentadiene in production of chlordane (O,M,B) Filter cake from filtration of toxaphene solution in production of toxaphene (O,M,B) Unrecovered triester from production of disulfoton (O,M) Still bottoms from toluene reclamation distillation in productiCln of disulfoton (O,M) Filter cakes from filtration of dimethylphosphorothion and OMTA in production of malathion (O,M) liquid wastes from washing and stripping in production of malathion (O,M) liquid and solid wastes from the washing, stripping and filtering of phorate in phorate production (O,M) Filter cake from the filtration of diethylphosphorodithioic acid in the production of phorate (O,M) Heavy ends and distillation residues from production of carbarvllO,M) 2,6-0 waste by-product from production of 2,4-0 (O,M,B) Heavy ends or distillation residues from distillation of tetrachlorobenzene in production of 2,4,5-T (O,M,B) Scrubber and filter wastes from production of atrazine 10,M) Filter cake from production of pyrethrins (01 Filter cake from production of diazinon (O,M) 8y-product salts in production of MSMA 10) 8y-product salts in production of cacodylic acid IT) Tars from manufacture of bicycloheptadiene and cyclopentadiene (O,M,B) Wastewater treatment sludges from explosives, propellants and initiating compounds manufacture (C,T,R,I) Wastes recovered from acid vapor scrubber stream in the production of ROX/HMX (O,R,I) Catch basin materials in RDX/HMX production (e) ~

2869 2869 2869 2869 2869

2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2889 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2869 2892 2892

-. ~-'

2892 ,.~

.. .,28112 _ • •j

Spent carbon columns used in treatment of wastewaterLAP operations (R)

-224-

3341 334 1 3341

Secondary copper-electrolytic ·refining wastewater treatment sludge (T) Secondary aluminum dross smelting-high salt slag plant residue (T) Zinc-cadmium metal reclamation, cadmium plant residue (T)

3691 3691 3691 3691 3691 3692

Lead acid storage battery production wastewater treatment sludges (T) Lead acid storage battery production clean-up wastes from cathode and anode paste production (T) Nickel cadmium battery production wastewater treatment sludges (T) Cadmium silver oxide battery production wastewater treatment sludge tT) Mercury cadmium battery production wastewater treatment sludges (T) Magnesium carbon battery production chromic acid wastewater treatment sludges (T) Waste chlorinated hydrocarbons from degreasing operations (I,T,O) Waste nonhalogenated solvent (such as methanol, acetone, isopropyl alcohol, polyvinyl alcohol, Stoddard solvent and methyl ethyl ketone) and solvent sludges from cleaning, compounding milling and other processes (1,0) Waste lubricating oil (T ,0) Waste hydraulic or cutting oil (T,O) Paint wastes (such as used rags, slops, latex sludge, spent solvent) (T,I,OI Water-based paint wastes tT) Tank bottoms, leaded (T) Spent or waste cyanide solutions or sludges (R, T) Etching acid solution or sludges (T,C) Waste paint and varnish remover or stripper (1,0) Solvents and solvent recovery still bottoms (nonhalogenBted) (1,0)

Solvents and solvent recovery still bottoms (halogenated) (0)

Waste or waste off-spec toluene diisocyanate (I,R,O) Leachate from hazardous waste landfills (T,O,M,B)

TARLE

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,n 4I

"benZlcine

'r:arhon tetrachloride (Iolrachl('rorrwrll,me)

·chlorinll'i"d benz","_. IOlobE'nzi~nef.)

(('IH'H~I

than rileh-

7 8

cllk"·f(lb~qlene

1.?,o1-llIchk'foboinIP'1f! hu)(;tchlorobeoz"ne ·r:hlorl'lllt-.d .th..... (including 1,2-dich loroeillanp., I,!, l-1fi('hlf)wpltl~n9 and h!~)la('flrnroe'hAne)

10 II

1.2-dldllorO&thane 1.1.1 IrlfhloroelhBlflA

bis (2-chlorcell,o:<y) nlathnn!) ·halom.than •• (olh~r then tt"l(l~f! li<;l(>d elsewhero) 44 rne'hyl~nfl chlorine (dichloromeI11i11lf') 45 meThyl ch",,~dl) (chloromplh'Jnp., _6 mpthyl b[rl~\ide (hromomolhafl~\ 47 rJrnrnol01,,1 (tribromo'nt"!lhAllf') or0brorT1f'tmethfine rtieh 1 '8. 49. trlc hlor II fllJ (' r (JrfIAt hn fl8 ooi Ihll rornflll,Rn,. dk::hlo, SO 51 ct,IOtodIOt(')rlIOrTlethone

'''''''erF') " ch' r1 ll1pt'e'lyl ph"!nvl ertler -1.t"{lr!lClpllP'wl pll('ny! cth~r bis (2 ct'-!n[ulsr;p'opyl) tll~ler

f'yrPIH.!

· letrat:.hl(Horolh·, !""If) ~f('luenQ

" tr'chtorO€'lhyl~nf' 'vlllyl (;hl(}rldt't (chlnroethyh?N')

'3.

JMaUcide. and met.boIit9. "Aldrin '(il(!\{lrhl "chlorI1fUH'f' (1prtl'W";AI 11"-.1',.· ..... 1"'11'111hC'IH\~sl

• D( IT and

nlPt.')hol·IF'~

•• DDT ,.,'Dpe (p pOfJX) 4,,··[100 (p p .. TOEI ·endoaulfan .nd metabolite. A ·endosutltln· Alp!"l b-er1dn,.ulf81'·~I:\

12 13 14 l!i 16

he)(ac;hlofoelhane 1,1 ·("!Jt-hloro8,hane 1.12 Inct)!orol3than8 1.1.2.?·I&I:RCrlICHlf'tha"9 chlor(lpltlAlle ·chloro.IIt, ••t.... (chlorof1')l!Ihyl, chit)

S2 ~3

'tlC'(~r:hlorlJ""tllaolen"

"h.-))tBchlmocydoppntadIPne ~isophorollp.

5-4

"ndOSIJIIFlIl !,;lJllnle

S5 ~f)

"naphtht1!on8

10 .9 ;'0

roCfhyl 'tnd mixed ether~1 tJis (chl(Jrflrnethyl) ethnr bis (2 rhlofCIf"lhyt) e,her 2 I'hlorn.,th-yl vinyl ether (",,,ted) • chlorinated nepht""n. 2-chlOlonAphthalone

*nitrobenlf'ne ·nlhophenofe (itlclurllng 2.4dinilrophpnol ana diJlilr('(H\~O') ?-nilrophenol 4-nl!ro~'h~nnl

98 B9

•.ndti" • .,d '.'ndnn hl~pf

",.IAbc"'.'

57 58.

Ion 1()1

cndrin flldf'hvdn *heptachlor and metabolites

ac. riot

11PplAChiof cpO)llti('

59 ~O

2.4-dlml'''1)''"nol 4.6-dinllo·o ·cl('501

·h"•• chlofOCydch....n. t .." i.omfl'.)

102 103 104

a-BHC-Atph'l

·nllro ••min•• 61 62. 63 64 65

21 22 23 ?4 25 26 ')7

._......-

·chlorinated phenole (other lhan thO!':9 li<;led els"!wherl!t; includes trlchlof0p#lf'

N ·nilrosodimethylamine N·niftosodlphenylamlmt N-nitro'lodi-ll-propy1amlne "penlachlornphen()1 "phenol

h-OHC Befa r· SHe (lindane)

Oa'nm~

105. 106

nol'3 nnd chlorInated en,sol,) 2.4.6--trichlQrophenal parachlorometa cresol ·chlOfotorm (trtchlommethane) -2-chlo'l")phenol

3,3·-<llchlo,_1M ·d~1IIrIeMe (1,1·d1ehloro.'hy lene ond 1.2diCh....oethylene)

_ pen.1

107

1.2·dlchlurobenzeoe

1.3-dlr;hlorol)entene

1,4-dictllorobenzene

............

66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71 .

·phl....... -

72. 73.

·.....-.._Ittdt_ ~)

biS (2-elhylhe.yl) phthft"'te butyl btnlyl phlhalate dl·n·bulyl phlhatale <ll-n-<><:Iyl phlhalale dl8thyl phlh.lete dimethyl phlhlllil.

101.' 109.

ttO ttl. 112.

tt3. 114.

benzo (a) anthracene (f.2-benleolhra·

II&. 1111.

...

29 30 11 32 .)3

I.I·dichlo,oethylene I.2'I,a ... ·dlchloroelhylene ·2,4-dtct,Io,opMnol ·dlchloropu.,.............. ' ... a.... 1.2~dichIOfopropane

74. 7S.

brlnlO (0) PY'_ (3,4-beni0pY'".... 1 3,4-bonzo''''''lntltene benlo (k) tuorllflthsno (11, 12·oonlofluo· ,.nlheno) oh~o

1,2-dic"loloprcpy1e04t ·2,4·dlm~lhylph.nol

f t.~·dtchloropro

18. 71.

lcenlphlhytEln.

onthrecwll, l14nzo (phI) Pl!lfv' .. n. f 1, 12-crn10pery-

14 35 36 ~A

• .. nllro......... 2.4-dinllrfllolu":'rle 2.6-din'1ro~oIU41ne "1,~-,1iJ'f1,.f"'~lt.\·.1~"'ln~ 'l'I""/i!)~!I:ow)(l!

::u

. 80. ~.

79.

1008)

ltuorene rl"lenanlhr.",e (!:bfonzo (fII.'" ontl1""r.ene (1.2 .5.A-dlbtrnlsn,t,rfllrl!'ml)

111. °beryPIUIn (tol.', (lolal, (1011/1 120. .~ (t1ll8l) IH 'cyanlde (101." 122. • ... d (lola') 123, ·"",cury (lot"" 124 ·nlollel (TOtal) 12& ·_nlum (10111, (Iolal, 128. 121. (10'. 121, ·zlnc (lOla') " 12!1. .. "2.3,1,8-- trtr'H:r,toro:1lWI'I10-f'- dl.,)(ln

It" ·""cImivm 001)'''''''''''' 0.',.,,,. ·'haIIum

·.IOeS'.,. (lbrClUt)

g·BHC·Oella ·poI,chlo<'n.'ed blph"'''' (PCS'., PCB·1242 (.,ochlo, 1242) PCB· 1254 (A,ochlor 1254) PCB·lnl (A,ochl", 1221) PCB·1232 (A,.ehlor 123~) PCB· 1248 (A'ochlor 12<11) PCB· 1260 (A,~chJo' 1260) PCB- 1018 (Alor-hlm 1016) ·IOxl!J'hene •en"mony (I01al • .,..nle (I01ftl,

neoo)

SPffClfic cnmpounds and c"""~1 c"5,.'teSlIsfttd in fl1(1 dlf(~'t¥I "Il(, ,,,'prtMcPd 'Il fhfl C""n W8te,- Act.

NROC COn$fffl'

TItJI r.ompcund ..... opecillclll/ll ",,/ltd 1(/ "'" c _ 1 drIe,., hO ... VfK, dtJa '0 If. u'rsmB ,,,xlclty EPA recom_ 'l1li1 "'I"".'orl.. no' .c· t1uir~ It" IMlIlytlr.lll sf~ttcfH,d

for tnf!C cc'mpr"lU'ld.

-226

TABLE 3. HAZARDOUS WASTE SOURCES F - flammable 5 - strong sensitizer P - pressure generating

T - toxic C - corrosive I - irritant

Acetylene sludge (C,I) Acid and water (C.II Acid sludge (C,1l AFU Floc (T) Alkaline caustic liquids (C.II Alkaline cleaner (C. I) Alkaline corrosive battery fluid IC,I) Alkaline corrosive liquids (C.I) Asbestos waste (T) Ashes IT,C,I) Baghouse wastes" Battery acid (C,I) Beryllium waste (T) Dyes" Etching acid liquid or solvent (C,I,F) Fly ash IT,C,Il Fuel Waste (T,F) Insecticides (T) Laboratory waste" Lime and sulfur sludge (C,II Lime and water (C,1l lime sludge IC,Il Lime wastewater (C,1l liquid cement" Liquid cleaning compounds" Mine tailings' Obsolete explosives (P) Oil and water IT) Oil ash (T,C,1l Oil of bergamot (S) Paint (or varnish) remo·ver or stripper II,F) Paint thinner (T,I.n Paint waste lor slops) (T,F) Pickling liquor (C,II Pigments' Plating waste (T,C.II Powdered orris root and products containing it (5)

Bilge water (T) Boiler cleaning waste (T,C,1l Bunker Oil (T,n Catalyst' Caustic sludge (C,1l Caustic wastewater (C. II Chemical cleaners" Chemical toilet waste' Cleaning solvents (F) Corrosion inhibitor (T,C,1l Data processing flu id (F ,Il Drilling fluids' Drilling mud' Printing ink" Retrograde IIliplosives (P) Sludge acid (C,II Soda ash (C,II Solvents II,F) Spent acid (C,1l Spent caustic (C,I) Spent (or waste) cyanide solutions (T,C,II Spent mixed acid (C,1l Spent plating solution (T,C,II Spent sulfuric acid (C,I) Stripping solution (T,I,F) Sulfonation oil (I,F) Tank bottom sediment' Tank cleaning sludges' Tanning sludges IT,I,5) Toxic chemical toilet wastes (T) Unrinsed pesticide containers (T) Unwanted or waste pesticides-In unusable portion of active ingredient or undiluted formulation (T) Waste chemicals" Waste epoxy' Waste (or slop) oil (F) Weed killer (T)

__ In this table, an asterisk (") denotes the common name of an item which comes under the hazardous waste category if It tontains • hazardous material as defined subsequently in Table 4.

-227-

TABLE 4.

HAZARDOUS

CHEMICALS F - flammable S - strong sensitizer P - pressure generating

T _. toxic C - corrosive I - irritant

An asterisk (0) denotes an extremely haTardous waste.

1. Acetaldehyde (T.F) 2. Acetic acid (T,C) 3. Acetone, Propanone (T,F) 4. 0 Acetone cyanohydrin (T) 5. Acetonitrile (T,F) 6. °2·Acetylaminofluorene. 2·AAF (T) 7. Acetyl henzoyl peroxide (T,F,P) 8. Acetyl chloride (T,C,F) 9. Acetyl peroxide IT,F,P) 10. Acridine (T,C) 11. 0 Acrolein, Aqualin (T,I,F) 12. * Acrylonitrile (T,F) 13 .• Adiponitrile (T) 14. * Aldrin; 1,2,3,4, 10,10·Hexachloro·l,4,4a,5,8,8a·hexahydro·l,4,5,8·endo· exodimethanonaphthalene (T) 15. Alkyl alumin~m chloride IC,F,P) 16. Alkyl aluminum compounds (e,F,p) 17. Allyl alcohol, 2·Propen·l·ol (T,F) 18. Allyl bromide, 3·Bromopropene (T,I,F) 19. Allyl chloride, 3·Chloropropene (T,I,F) 20. Allyl chlorocarbonate, Allyl chloroformate (T,I,F) 21. Allyltrichlorosilane (T,C.F) 22. Aluminum (powder) (F) 23. Aluminum chloride (T.C) 24. Aluminum fluoride (T,C) 25. Aluminum nitrate IF) 26 .• Aluminum phosphide, Phostoxin (T,F) 27. *4·Aminodiphenyl, 4·ADP (T) 28. *Aminopyridine (T) 29. * Ammonium arsenate (T) 30 .• Ammonium bifluoride (T,C) 31. Ammonium chromate (T,S,F) 32. Ammonium dichromate, Ammonium bichromate (T,C,S,F) 33. Ammonium fluoride (T,C) 34. Ammonium hydroxide (T,C) 35. Ammonium molybdate (T) 36. Ammonium nitrate (F ,P) 37. Ammonium perchlorate (I.F,P) 38. Ammonium permanganate (T,F,P) 39. Ammonium persulfate IF ,P) 40. Ammonium picrate (T,S,P) 41. Ammonium sulfide (T,C) 42. n·Amyl acetate, I·Acetoxypentane (and isomers) (T,F) 43. n·Amylamine, l·Aminopentane (and isomers) (T,I,F) 44. n·Amyl chloride, I·Chloropentane (and isomers) IT,n 45. n·Amyl mercaptan, l·Pentanethiol (and isomers) (T,F) 46. n·Amylene, I'Pentene (and isomers) (T,F) 47. n·Amyl nitrate, n·Penlyl nitrate (and isomers) (T,F) 48. Amyl trichlorosilane (and isomers) (T,C) 49. Aniline, Aminohenlcnc (T,S)

-228-

50. Anisoyl chloride (T ,CI 51. Anthracene (T,I) 52. Antimony (T) 53. Antimony compounds (T) 54. Antimony pentachloride (T,C) 55. Antimony pentafilloride (T,C) 56. Antimony pentasvlfidc (T,F) 57. Antimony potassiulTl Wrt,atc (T) 58. Antimony sullate, AntImony trisulfate(T,FI 59. Antimony trichloride. Antimony chlonde (T,C) 60. Antimony tl ifiuoride. Antimony fluoride (T,C) 61. Antimony trioxirJe, Antimony oxide (T) 62. Antimony trisulfirJe, Antimony sulfide (T,F,P) 63 .• Arsenic 64 .• Arsenic 65 .• Arsenic 66 .• Arsenic (T)

acid and salts (T) compou nds (T) pentasclc n idc (T)

67 .• Arsenic pentoxide, Arsenic oxide (T) 68. * Arsenic sulfide, Arsenic disulfide (T) 69. * Arsenic tribromide, Arsenic bromide (T ,II 70 .• Arsenic trichloride, Arsenic chloride (T,I) 71. 'Arsenic triiodide, Arsenic iodide (T) 72 .• Arsenic trioxide, Arsenious oxide (T) 73 .• Arsenious acid and salts (T) 74. 'Arsines (T) 75. Asbestos (including chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anlhophyllite, and actinolite) (T); 76 .• Azodrin, 3·Hydroxy·N·cis·crotonamide (T) 77. Barium (T,F) 78. Barium azide (T,PI 79. Barium bromide (T) 80. Bariurn carbonate (T) 81. Barium chlorate (T,C,F,P) 82. Barium chloride (T) 83. Barium chromate(T) 84. Barium citrate (T) 85. Barium compounds (soluble) (T) 86. 'Barium cyanide (T) 87. Barium fluoride (T) 88. 8arium fluosilicate (T) 89. Barium hydroxide (T) 90. Barium iodide (T) 91. Barium manganate (T) 92. Barium nitrate (T.F) 93. Barium oxide, Barium monoxide (T,1l 94. Barium perchlorate (T ,F ,P) 95. Barium permanganate (T,F ,P) 96. Barium peroxide (T,F ,P) 97. Barium phosphate (T) 98. Bariurn stearate (T) 99. Barium sulfide (TI 100. Barium sulfite (T) 101. Benzene (T ,F) 102. BCn2ene hexachloride, BHC; l,2,3,4,5,6·Hexachlorocyclohexane (T,I) 103. Benlenephosphorus diChloride (T,I) 104. Benzenesulfonic acid (T.C) 105. *Benlidin" and salts (T) 106. 'BenlOtrifluoride. Trrfluoromethylbenlene (T,F)

.... -229Benzoyl chloride (T,C) Benzoyl peroxide, Dibenzoyl ~eroxide (T,F,P) Benzyl bromide, alpha·Bromotoluene (T,C) Benzyl chloride, alpha-Chlorotoluene (T,I) Benzyl chlorocarbonate, Benzyl chloroformate (T,C) 'Beryllium (T,F) 'Beryllium chloride (T) 'Beryllium compounds (T) ·Beryllium copper (T) ·Beryllium fluoride IT) 'Beryllium hydride IT ,C,F) 'Beryllium hydroxide IT) 'Beryllium oxide IT) 'Bidrin, Dicrotophos, 3·(Dimethylamino)-1·methyl-3·oxo-lpropenyl dimethyl phosphate (T) 121. 'Bis(chloromethyll ether, Dichloromethyl ether, BCME (T) 122. Bismuft (T,F) 123. 'Bis(t1!ethylmercuric) sulfate, Cerewet, Cere\an liquid (T) 124. Bismuth chromate (T,S) 125. ·Bomyl, Dimethyl 3-hydroxyglutaconate dimethyl phosphate IT) 126. ·Boranes (T,Ft 127. "Bordeaux arsenites (T) 128. Boron trichloride (T,C) 129. Boron trifluoride (T,C) 130. Bromic acid (T,C) 131. 'Bromine (T,C,F) 132. ·Bromine pentafluoride (T,C,F) 133. ·Bromine trifluoride (T,C,F) 134. 'Brucine, Dimethoxystrychnine (T) 135. 1,2,4-Butanetriol trinitrate (P) 136. n-Butyl acetate, l-Acetoxybutane (and isomers) (T,I,F) 137. n-Butyl alcohol, I-Butanol (and isomers) (T,I,F) 138. n-Butylamine, l-Aminobutane (and isomers) (T ,I,F) 139. n-Butyl formate (and isomers) (T,I,F) 140. tert-Butyl hydroperoxide, (and isomers) (T,F) 141. n-Butyllithium (and isomers) (T,C,F) 142. n-Butyl mercaptan, l-Butanethiol (and isomers) (T,F) 143. tert-Butyl peroxyacetate, tert-ButYI peracetate (F) 144. tert-Butyl peroxybenzoate, tert-Butyl perbenzoate (F) 145. tert-Butyl peroxypivalate (F ,PI 146. n-Butyltrichlorosilane (C.F) 147. para-tert-Butyl toluene (T) 148. n-Butyraldehyde, n-Butanal (and isomers) (T,F) 149_ 'Cacodylic acid, Dimethylarsinic acid (T) 150. Cadmium (powder) (T,F) 151. Cadmium chloride (T) 152. Cadmium compounds (T) 153. 'Cadmium cyanide (T) 154. Cadmium fluoride (T) 155. Cadmium nitrate (T,F,P) 156. Cadmium oKide (T) 157. Cadmium phosphate (T) 158. Cadmium sulfate (T) 159. Calcium (F) 160. 'Calcium arsenate, Pencal (T) 161. "~alcium arsenite (T) 162. Calcium carbide (C,F) 1~3. Calcium chlorate (F) 164. Calcium chlorite (F) 107. 108. 109. 110. 11 L 112. 113_ 114. 115. 116_ 117. 118. 119. 120.

....

-230-

165. Calcium fluoride IT,I) 166. Calcium hydride IC,F) 167. Calcium hydroxide, Hydrated lime (C) 168. Calcium hypochlorite, Calcium oxychloride (T,C,F) 169. Calcium molybdate IT) 170. Calcium nitrate, Lime nitrate, Nitrocalcite (F,P) 171. Calcium oxide, Lime, Slaked Lime (C) 172. Calcium permanganate (T,I.F) 173. Calcium peroxide, Calcium dioxide (C,F) 174. Calcium phosphide (T,F) 175. Calcium resinate IF) 176. Caprylyl peroxide, Octyl peroxide (F) 177, 'Carbanolate, 8anol, 2·Chloro·4,5-dimethylphenyl methyl· carbamate IT) 178. Carbon disulfide, Carbon bisulfide (T,F) 179. Carbon tetrachloride, Tetrachloromethane IT) 180. 'Carbophenothion, Trithion, 5·([ 14·Chlorophenyl) thio] methyl) o ,O·diethyl phosphorodithioate IT) 181. Choral hydrate, Trichloroacetaldehyde (hydrated) (T) 182. Chlordan; l,2,4,5,6,7,8,8-0ctachloro-4,7-methano·3a.4,7,7a·tetra· hydroindane IT) 183_ 'Chlorfenvinphos, Compound 4072, 2·Chloro·H2,4-dichlorophenyl) vinyl diethyl phosphate (T) 184. 'Chlorine (T,C,F) 185. 'Chlorine dioxide IT,C,F ,P) 186. 'Chlorine pentafluoride (T,C,F,P) 187. 'Chlorine trifluoride (T,C,F,P) 188.• Chloroacetaldehyde (T, F) 189. ·alpha·Chloroacetophenone, Phenyl chloromethyl ketone (T,1l 190. 'Chloroacetyl chloride IT,C) 191. Chlorobenzene IT,F) 192. Para-Chlorobemoyl peroxide (F,P) 193. ·ortho·Chlorobenzylidene malonitrile, OCMB IT) 194. Chloroform, Trichloromethane IT) 195. 'Chloropicrin, Chlorpicrin, Trichloronitromethane (T ,I) 196. Chlorosulfonic acid IT,C,F) 197. Chloro-ortho·toluidine, 2·Amino-4-chlorotoluene IT,ll 198. Chromic acid, Chromium trioxide, Chromic anhydride IT,C,F,S) 199. Chromic chloride, Chromium trichloride, (T,I,S) 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. Chromic fluoride, Chromium trifluoride IT,I,S) Chromic hydroxide, Chromium hydroxide IT,I,S) Chromic o)(ide, Chromium oxide IT,I,S) Chromic sulfate, Chromium sulfate (T,I,S) Chromium IIV) compounds, Hexavalent chromium compounds IT,C,F ,5) 205. Chromyl chloride, Chlorochromic anhydride IT,C,F ,5) 206. Cobalt (powder) (T,F) 207. Cobalt compounds IT) 208. Cobaltous bromide, Cobalt bromide IT) 209. Cobaltous chloride, Cobalt chloride IT) 210. Cobaltous nitrate, Cobalt nitrate (T,F) 211. Cobaltous resin ate, Cobalt resinate IT,F) 212. Cobaltous sulfate, Cobalt sulfate IT) 213. Cocculus, Fishberry IT) 214. Collodion, Pyroxylin (nitrocellulose) in ether and alcohol IF) 215. 'Copper acetoarsenite, Paris green IT) 216. Copper acetylide IT,P) 217. 'Copper arsenate, Cupric arsenate IT) 218. 'Copper arsenite, Cupric arsenite IT) 219: Copper chloride. Cupric chloride (T)

-231Copper chiorotetralOie IT ,PI Copper compounds (T! "Copper cyanide, Cupric cyanide (T) Copper nitrate, Cupric nitrate (T,F ,PI Copper sulfate, Cupric sulfate, Blue vitriol (T) 'Coroxon; ortho.ortho·Diethyl·ortho·(3-chloro·4·methyl· coumarin·7·yl) phosphate (T) 226. "Coumafuryl, Furnarin, 3· [1-(2-Furyl)·3·oxobutyl]·4·hydroxy·2H· '·benzopyran·2·one (T) 227. 'Coumatetralyl, Bayer 25634, Racumin 57, 4·Hydroxy·3·(I,2,3,4· tetrahydro,'·naphthalenyl)·2H-l·benzopyran·2·one (T) 228. 'Crimidine, Castrix, 2·Chloro·4·dimethylamino·6·methyl· pyrimidine (T) 229. "Crotonaldehyde, 2·Butenal (T,I,F) 230. Cumene, Isopropylbenzene (T) 231. Cumene hydroperoxide; alpha,alpha·Dimethylbenzyl hydro' peroxide IT,F) 232. Cupriethylene diamine (T,I) 233. "Cyanide salts (T) 234. Cyanoacetic acid, Malonic nitrile (T,C) 235. "Cyanogen (T,F) 236. Cyanogen bromide, Bromine cyanide (T,II 237. Cyanuric triazide (T,P) 238. Cycloheptane (T,F) 239. Cyclohexane (T,F) 240. Cyclohexanone peroxide (T,F) 241. Cyclohexenyltrichlorosilane (T ,C) 242. "Cycloheximide, Actidione IT,I) 243. Cyclohexyltrichlorosilane (T,C) 244. Cyclopentane IT,F) 245. Cyclopentanol (F) 246. Cyclopentene (T,F) 247. DDT; 1,I,I·Trichloro·2,2·bis(chlorophenyl) ethane (T) 248.*DDVP, Dichlorvos, Vapona, Dimethyl dichlorovinyl phosphate (T) 249. 'Decaborane (T,F,P) 250. Decalin, Decahydronaphthalene IT,ll 251. "Demeton, Systox IT) 252. ·Demeton·S·rnethyl sulfone, Metaisosystox·sulfon, S·(2·(ethylsulfonyll ethyl] O,O·dimethyl phosphorothioate (T) 253. Diazodinitrophenol, DDNP, 2·Diazo·4,6-dinitrobenzene·l·oxide (T,P) 254. "Diborane, Diboron hexahydride (T,I,F) 255. 2,3·Dibromo·l·chloropropane, DBCP, Fumazone, Nemagon IT,ll 256. n·Dibutyl ether, Butyl ether (and isomers) (T,F) 257. Dichlorobenzene (ortho, meta, para) IT,ll 258. "3,3·Dichlorobenzidine and salts, DCB IT) 259. 1,2·Dichloroethylene; I ,2·Dichloroethane (T,I,F) 260. Dichloroethyl ether, Dichloroether (T,I) 261. Dichloroisocyanuric acid, Dichloro·S·triazine·2.4,6-trione (T,F) 262. Dichloromethane, Methylene chloride (T,11 263. 2,4·0ichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 2,4-0 IT,ll 264. 1,2·0ichloropropane, Propylene dichloride (T,F) 265. l,3·0ichloropropylcne; 1,3·Dichloropropene (T,I,FI 266. Dicumyl peroxide (F) 267. Dieldrin; 1,2,3,4,10, 10·Hexachloro-6,7-epoxy·l .4,48,5,6,7 ,8,8a· octahydro·l ,4·endo, exo·5,8-dimethanonaphthalene (T) 268. Diethylaluminum chloride, Aluminum diethyl monochloride, DEAC (F)

220. 221, 222. 223, 224. 225.

269. Diethylamine IT,I,F)

_232270. "Diethyl chlorovinyl phosphate, Compound 1836 (T) 271. Diethyldichlorosilane (T ,C,F) 272. Diethylene glycol dinitrate (T,P) 273. Diethylene triamine (T,I,S) 274. "0 ,0·Diethyl·S·(isopropylthiomethyl) phosphorodithioate (T) 275. Diethylzinc, Zinc ethyl (C,F) 276. Difluorophosphoric acid (T ,C) 277. 'Diglycidyl ether, bis(2,3·Epoxypropyl) ether (T ,S) 278. Diisopropylbenzene hydroperoxide (T,F) 279. Diisopropyl peroxydicarbonate (T ,C,F ,PI 280. 'Dimefox, Hanane, Pest ox 14, Tetramethylphosphorodiamidic fluoride (T) 281. Dimethylamine, DMA (T,I,F) 'Dimethylaminoazobenzene, Methyl yellow (T) Dimethyldichlorosilane, Dichlorodimethylsilane (T,C,F) 2,5·Dimethylhexane; 2,5·Dihydroperoxide (I,F) '1, 1·Dimethylhydrazine, UDMH (T,F) 'Dimethyl sulfate, Methyl sulfate (T) "Dimethyl sulfide, Methyl sulfide (T,F) 2,4-Dinitroaniline (T, I) 'Dinitrobenzene (ortho, meta, para) (T,I,P) Dinitrochlorobenzene, 1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene IT,I,P) *2,6-Dinitro-ortho-cresol, DNPC, Sinox, Egetol 30 (T) 'Dinitrophenol (2,3,·;2,4-;2,6-isomers) (T,P) 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine (T ,F ,PI Dinitrotoluene (2,3·;3,4·;3,5-isomers) (T,F,P) *Dinoseb; 2,4·Dinitro·6-sec-butylphenol (T) 1,4-Dioxane; l,4-Diethylene dioxide (T,F) * Dioxathion, Delnav; 5,5·1 ,4-dioxane-2,3-diyl bis(O,O-diethyl phosphorodithioate) (T) 298. Dipentaerythritol hexanitrate (P) 299. *Diphenyl, Biphenyl, Phenylbenzene (T) 300. Diphenylamine, DPA, N-Phenylaniline IT) 301. 'Diphenylamine chloroarsine, Phenarsazine chloride (T,I) 302. Diphenyldichlorosilane (T,C) 303. Dipicrylamine, Hexanitrodiphenylamine (T,P) 304. Dipropyl ether (T,F) 305. "Disulfoton, Di·syston; O,O·Diethyl 5-[2-(ethylthio) ethyl] phosphorodithioate (T) 306. Dodecyltrichlorosilane (T,C) 307. "Dowco-139, Zectran, Mexacarbate, 4·Dimethylamino-3,5-dimethylphenyl methylcarbamate IT) 308. "Dowicide 7, Pentachlorophenol, PCP (T) 309. *Dyfonate, Fonofos, O-Ethyl·S-phenylethyl phosphonodithioate (T) 310. "Endosulfan, Thiodan; 6,7,8,9,10, 10-Hexachloro-l,5,5a,6,9,9ahexahydro·6,9-methano-2,4, 3-benzo-dioxathiepin 3-oxide (T) 311 .• Endothal,·7-0xabicyclo [2.2.1] heptane-2,3-dicarboxylic acid (T) 312 .• Endothion, Exothion, 5· [(5·Methoxy·4·oxo-4H-pyran-2 ·yl )-methylj O,O-dimethyl phosphorothioate (T) 313. 'Endrin; 1,2,3,4,10, 10·Hexachloro-6, 7·epoxy·1,4,4a,5,6,7 ,8,8aoctahydro-l,4-endo·endo·5,8-dimethanonaphthalene (T) 314. Epichlorohydrin, Chloropropylene oxide (T,I,F) 315. 'EPN; O-Ethyl O·para·nitrophenyl phenylphosphonothioate IT) 316. "Ethion, Nialate; 0,0,0' ,0 '. Tetraethyl-5,S-methylenediphosphorodithioate (T) 317. Ethyl acetate (T,I.F) 318. Ethyl alcohol, Ethanol (T,F) 319. Ethylamine, Aminoethane IT,I,F) 320. Ethylbenzene, Phenylethane (T,I,F) 282. 283. 284. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. 292. 293. 294. 295. 296. 297.

....

-233321. 322. 323. 324. 325. 326. 327. 328. 329. 330. 331. 332. 333. 334. 335. 336. 337. 338. 339. 340. Ethyl butyrate. Ethyl butanoate (I,F) Ethyl chloride, Chloroethane IT,I,F) Ethyl chloroformate, Ethyl chlorocarbonate IT,C,F) "Ethyldichloroarsine, Dichloroethylarsine (T,I) Ethyldichlorosilane IT,C,F) Ethylene cyanohydrin, beta·Hydroxypropionitrile IT) Ethylene diamine (T,I,S) Ethylene dibromide, l,2·Dibromoethane (T,1l Ethylene dichloride, l,2·Dichloroethane (T,I,F) "Ethyleneimine, Aziridine, EI IT,F) Ethylene oxide, Epoxyethane (T,I,F,P) Ethyl ether, Diethyl ether (F,P) Ethyl formate IT,I,F) Ethyl mercaptan, Ethanethiol (T,F) Ethyl nitrate (F ,P) Ethyl nitrite (F ,P) Ethylphenyldichlorosilane (T,C) Ethyl propionate (I, F) Ethyltrichlorosilane (T,I,F) "Fenosulfothion, Bayer 25141, Dasanit, O,O-Diethyl·O· [4-(methylsulfinyl)phenyl] phosphorothioate (T) 341. "Ferric arsenate (T,I) 342. Ferric chloride, Iron (III) chloride (T,C) 343. ° Ferrous arsenate, Iron arsenate IT) 344. ° F luoboric acid, Fluoroboric acid (T ,CI 345. Fluoride salts IT) 346. "Fluorine IT ,C,FI 347. °Fluoroacetanilide, AFL 1082 (T) 34B. °Fluoroacetic acid and salts, Compound 1080 (T) 349. °Fluorosulfonic acid, Fluosulfonic acid (T,C) 350. Formaldehyde, Methanal (T,F,S) 351. Formic acid, Methanoic acid (T,C) 352. Fulminate of mercury, Mercuric cyanate (T,P) 353. °Furadan, NIA 10,242, Carbofuran; 2,3-0ihydro-2,2-<1imethyl- 7 ·benzofuranylmethylcarbamate (T) 354. Furan, Furfuran (T,F,PI 355. Gasoline (F) 356. "GB, O·lsopropyl methyl phosphoryl fluoride (T) 357. Glutaraldehyde (T,I,S) 358. Glycerolmonolactate trinitrate (P) 359. Glycol dinitrate, Ethylene glycol dinitrate (P) 360. Gold fulminate, Gold cyanate (P) 361. Guanidine nitrate (F,P) 362. Guanyl nitrosaminoguanylidene hydrazine (PI 363. Guthion; O,O·Dimethyl·S-4-oxo-l,2,3-benzotriazin·3(4H)yl-methyl phosphorodithioate (T) 364. Hafnium (F) 365. Heptachlor; 1.4,5,6,7 ,8,8-Heptachloro-3a.4,7 ,7a-tetrahydro-4,7methanoindene IT) 366. n-Heptane (and isomers) (T,F) 367. l-Heptene (and isomers) (T,F) 368. Hexadecyltrichlorosilane (T ,C) 369. Hexaethyl tetraphosphate, HETP (T) 370. Hexafluorophosphoric acid (T ,C) 371. Hexamethylenediamine; l,6-Diaminohexane (T,I) 372. n-Hexane (and isomers) (T,F) 373. l-Hexene (and isomers) (T,I,F) 374. n-Hexylamine, l-Aminohexane (and isomers) (T,I,F) 375. Hexyltrichlorosilane (T,C) 376. °Hydrazine, Doamine IT,I,F)

-234377. Hydrazine azide (T.P) 378. HydralOic acid, Hydrogen azide (T,I,P) 379. Hydriodic aCid, Hydrogen iodide (T,C) 380. Hydrobromic acid, Hydrogen bromide (T,C) 381. Hydrochloric acid, Hydrogen chloride, Muriatic acid (T,C) 382. 'Hydrocyanic acid, Hydrogen cyanide (T,F) 383. 'Hydrofluoric acid, Hydrogen fluoride (T,C) 384. Hydrofluosilicic acid, Fluosilicic acid (T,C) 385. Hydrogen peroxirk (T,C,F,P) 386. 'Hydrogen s"lel1ld" (T,I,F) 387. 'Hydrogen sulfide (T,I,F) 38B. Hypochlorite compounds (T,C,F) 389. Indium (T) 390. Indium compounds (T) 391. Iodine monochloride (T,C) 392. Isooctane; 2,2,4·Trimethylpentane (T,F) 393. Isooctene (mixture of isomers) (T,F) 394. Isopentane, 2 Methylbutane (T,F) 395. Isoprene, 2·Methyl1 ,3 butadiene (T,I,F ,PI 396. Isopropanol, Isopropyl alcohol, 2·Propanol (T,F) 397. Isopropyl acetate (T,F) 398. Isopropyl acetylene, 3·Methylbutyne (T,F) 399. Isopropylamine, 2·Aminopropane (T,I,F) 400. Isopropyl chloride, 2·Chloropropane (F) 401. Isopropyl ether, Diisopropyl ether (T,I,F) 402. Isopropyl mercaptan, 2·Propanethiol (T,I,F) 403. Isopropyl percarbon~te, Diisopropyl peroxydicarbonate (C,F) 404 .• m-lsopropylphenyl·N·methylcarbamate, Ac 5,727 IT) 405. Lauroyl peroxide, Di-n-dodecyl peroxide (T,C,F ,PI 406. Lead compounds (T) 407. Lead acetate (T) 408. 'Lead arsenate, Lead or tho arsenate (T) 409. 'Lead arsenite (T) 410. Lead azide (T,P) 411. Lead carbonate (T) 412. Lead chlorite (T,P) 413. 'Lead cyanide (T) 414. Lead 2,4-dinitroresorcinate (T,P) 415. Lead mononitroresorcinate (T,P) 416. Lead nitrate (T,F) 417. Lead oxide (T) 418. ;ead ~typhnate, Lead trinitroresorcinate (T,P) 419. LeWISite, beta-Chlorovinyldichloroarsine (T) 420. Lithium (C,F) 421. Lithium aluminum hydride, LAH (C,F,P) 422_ Llthrum amide (C,F,P) 423. Lithium ferrosilicon (F) 424. Lithium hydride (C,F ,PI 425. Lithium hypochlorite (T,C,F) 426. Lithium peroxide (C,F,P) 427. Lithium silicon (F,P) 428. 'London purple, Mixture of arsenic trioxide, aniline lime and ferrous oxrde (T) , , 429. Magnesium (F) 430. 'Magnesium arsenate (T) 431. 'Magnesium arsenite (T) 432. Magnesium chlorate (T,F) 433. Magnesium nitrate (F ,PI 434. Magnesium perchlorate (T,F,P) 435. Magnesium peroxide, Magnesium dioxide (F)

-235436. 437. 438. 439. 440. 441. 442. 443. 444. 445. "Maleic anhydride (T,il Manganese (powder) (F) Manganese acetate (T) "Manganese arsenate, Manganous arsenate (T) Manganese bromide, Manganous bromide (T,I) Manganese chloride, Manganous chloride (T,I) Manganese methylcyclopentadienyl tricarbonyl IT) Manganese nitrate, Manganous nitrate (T,F) Mannitol hexanitrate, Nitromannite (P) "Mecarbam; O,O·Diethyl S·IN·ethoxycarbonyl N·methyl· carbamoyl·methyl) phosphorodithioate (T) 446. 'Medinoterb acetate, 2·tert·Butyl·5·methyl-4,6·dinitrophenyl acetate (T) 447. Memtetrahydrophthalic anhydride (T,C) 448. Mercuric acetate, Mercury acetate (T,I) 449. Mercuric ammonium chloride, Mercury ammonium chloride (T,I) 450. Mercuric benzoate, Mercury benzoate (T,II 451. Mercuric bromide, Mercury bromide (T,I) "Mercuric chloride, Mercury chloride (T,II "Mercuric cyanide, Mercury cyanide (T,I) Mercuric iodide. Mercury iodide (T,I) Mercuric nitrate, Mercury nitrate (T,F) Mercuric oleate, Mercury oleate (T) Mercuric oxide (red and yellow) (T,F) Mercuric oxycyanide IT,P) Mercuric·potassium iodide, Mayer's reagent (T) Mercuric salicylate, Salicylated mercury (T) Mercuric subsulfate, Mercuric dioxysulfate IT) Mercuric sulfate, Mercury sulfate (T) Mercuric thiocyanide, Mercury thiocyanate IT) Mercurol, Mercury nucleate (T) Mercurous bromide (T) Mercurous gluconate (T) Mercurous iodide ,(T) Mercurous nitrate (T,P) Mercurous oxide (T) Mercurous sulfate, Mercury bisulfate IT) para·Menthane hydroperoxide, Paramenthane hydroperoxide (I,F) "Mercury (T) Mercury compounds (T) Metal carbonyls (T) Metal hydrides (F,P) Metal powders IT,F) "Methomyl, Lannate, S·Methyl·N-[(methylcarbamoyl)oxy] thioacetamidate (T) Methoxyethylmercuric chloride, Agallol, Aretan IT) Methyl acetate (T,F) Methyl acetone (Mixture of acetone, methyl acetate, and methyl alco· hoi) (T,F) Methyl alcohol, Methanol (T,F) Methylaluminum sesquibromide (F) Methylaluminum sesquichloride (F) Methylamine, Aminomethane (T,I,F) N-Methylaniline (T) "Methyl bromide, Bromomethane (T,II 2-Methyl·l·butene (F) 3·Methyl· l·butene (F) Methyl butyl ether (and isomers) (T,F) Methyl butyrate (and isomers) (T,F) Methyl chloride, Chloromethane (T,F) Methyl chloroformate, MethYl chlorocarbonate (T,I,F)

452. 453. 454. 455. 456. 457. 458. 459. 460. 461. 462. 463. 464. 465. 466. 467. 468. 469. 470. 471. 472. 473. 474. 475. 476. 477. 478. 479. 480.

481. 482. 483. 484. 485. 486. 487. 488. 489. 490. 491. 492.

-236493. 'Methyl chloromelhyl ether, CMME IT) 494. Methylcyclohexane IT,F) 495. 'Methvldichlor()ar~ine (T,I) 496. 497. 498. 499. 500. 501. 502. 503. 504. 505. 506. 507. 50S. 509. 510. 511. 512. 513. 514. 515. 516. 517. 518. 519. 520_ 521. 522. 523. 524. 525. 526. 527. 528. 529. 530. 531. 532. 533. 534, 535. 536. 537. 53S. 539. Methyldichlorosilane (T,I) '4,4·Methyl"nc bis(2·chloro8nilinel, MOCA IT) Methyl ethyl ether (T,F) Methyl ethyl ketrlne, 2·Butanone (T,F) Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (T,I,F) Methyl formate (T.I,F) "Methyl hydraline, Monomethyl hydrazine, MMH (T,F) "Methyl isocyanate (T,F) Methyl isopropenyl ketone, 2·Methyl·4-butene-3-one (T,F) MethylmagnesiufTl bromide (C,F,P) Methylmagnesium chloride (C,F,P) MethylmagnesilJfTl iodide (C,F,P) Methyl mercaptan, Methanethiol IT,I,F) Methyl methacrylate (monomer) (T,F) "Methyl parathion; O,O-Dimethyl-O-para-nitrophenylphosphorothioate (T)

Methyl propionate (F) Methyltrichlorosilane (T,C,F) Methyl valerate, Methyl pentanoate (and isomers) (F) Methyl vinyl ketone, 3-Buten-2-one (T,I,F) "Mevinphos, Phosdrin, 2-Carbomethoxy-1-methylvinyl dimethyl phosphate IT) "Mocap, O-Ethyl·S,S·dipropyl phosphorodithioate (T) Molybdenum (powder) (F) Molybdenum trioxide, Molybdenum anhydride IT,I) Molybdic acid and salts (T) Monochloroacetic acid, Chloracetic acid, MeA (T,C) Monochloroacetone, Chloroacetone, l-Chloro-2-propanone (T,I) Monotluorophosphoric acid (T,C) Naphtha (of petroleum or coal tar origin) (T,F) Naphthalene IT ,I,S} "alpha·Naphthylamine, 1-NA (T) "beta-Naphthylamine, 2-NA (T) Neohexane, 2,2-Dirnethylbutane IT,F) Nickel (powder) (T,F) Nickel acetale IT) Nickel antimonide (T) 'Nick·el arse"at", Nickelous arsenate (TI "Nickel carbonyl, Nickel tetracarbonyl (T) Nickel chloride, Nickelous chloride (T) 'Nickel cyanicJe (T) Nickel nitrate, Nickelous nitrate IT,F ,PI Nickel sclenide (T) Nickel sulfate (T) Nicotine, beta-Pyridyl-alpha-N·methyl pyrrolidine (T) Nicotine salts IT)

540. Nitric acid (T,C,F) 541. Nitroanilrne, Nitraniline (ortho, meta, para) (T,P) 542. 'Nilrobenzol, Nitrohcnren" IT) 543 .• 4-Nitrobiphenyl, 4·NBP (T) 544. Nitro carbo nitrate (F.PI 545. Nitrocellulose, Cellulose nitrate, Guncotton, Pyro>(ylin (F ,PI 546. Nitrochlorobenlene, Chloronitrobenzene (ortho, meta, paral (T) 547. Nitrogen mustard (T,C,I) 548. Nitrogen tetroxide, Nitrogen dioxide (T,F) 549. Nitroglycerin, Trinitroglycerin (T,F,P) 550. Nitrohydrochloric acid, Aqua regia (T,C,F)

-237551 .• Nitrophenol (ortho, meta. para) (T) 552. *N·Nitrosodimethylamine, Dimethyl nitrosoamine (T) 553. Nitrosoguanidine W) 554. Nitrostarch, Starch nitrate (F ,PI 555. Nitroxylol, Nitroxylene, Dimethylnitrobenzene (2,4·; 3,4-; 2,5- isomers) (T) 556. l-Nonene, l-Nonylene (and isomers) (T,F) 557. Nonyltrichlorosilane IT .1) 558. Octadecyltrichlorosilane (T,I) 559. n·Octane (and isomers) (T,F) 560. 1·0ctene, l-Gaprylene (T.F) 561. Octyltrichlorosilane (T,I) 562. Oil of bergamot (S) 563. Oleum, Fuming sulfuric aciu (T,G) 564. Orris root (S) 565. Osmium compounds (T) 56S. Oxalic acid (T, I) 5S7. ·Oxygen difluoride (T,G,P) 568. 'Pa;a'oxon, Mintacol; O,O-Diethyl·O-p·nitrophenyl phosphate (TI 569. 'Parathion; O,O·Diethyl-O-p·nitrophenyl phosphorothioate (TI 570. Pentaborane (T,I,F) 571. Pentaerythrite tetranitrate, Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PI 572. n-Pentane (and isomers) (T,F) 573. 2·Pentanone, Methyl propyl ketone (and isomers) (T,F) 574. Peracetic acid, Peroxyacetic acid (T,C,F ,PI 575. Perchloric acid (T,G,F,P) 57S. Perchloroethylene. Tetrachloroethylene (T,I) 577 .• Perch loromethyl mercaptan, T richloromethy Isulleny I chlor ide (T, I) 578. Perchloryl fluoride (T,G,F) 579. Petroleum ether, Petroleum naphtha (T,F) 580. Phenol, Carbolic acid (T,C) 581. 'Phenyldichloroarsine (T, I) 582. Phenylenediamine, Diaminobenzene (ortho, meta, para) (T,I,S) 583. Phenylhydrazine hydrochloride (T) 584_ ·f>henylphenol, Orthoxenol, Dowicide 1 (T) 585. Phenyltrichlorosilane (T,C) 586. *Phorate, Thimet; O,O-Diethyl·S·[ethylthio)methyll phosphorodithioate (T) 587 .• Phosfolan, Cyolan, 2·(Diethoxyphosphinylimino) -l,3-dithiolane (T) 588. 'Phosgene, Carbonyl chloride (T,I) 589_ 'Phosphamidon, Dimecron, 2.Chloro-2-diethylcarbamoyl-l.methylvinyl dimethyl phosphate (T) 590. 'Phosphine, Hydrogen phosphide (T,I) 591. Phosphoric acid (C) 592. Phosphoric anhydride, Phosphorus pentoxide (C,F) 593. Phosphorus (amorphous, red) (T,F ,PI 594. 'Phosphorus (white or yellow) (T ,F ,PI 595. Phosphorus oxybromide, Phosphoryl bromide (T,C) 596. 'Phosphorus oxychloride, Phosphoryl chloride (T,C) 597. ·Phosphorus pentachloride, Phosphoric chloride (T ,C,F ,PI 598. Phosphorus pentasulfide, Phosphoric sulfide (T,C,F ,PI 599. Phosphorus sesquisulfide, Tetraphosphorus trisulfide (T,C,F) SOO. Phosphorus tribromide (T,C,P) SOl. 'PhosPhorus trichloride (T,C,P) S02. Picramide, Trinitroaniline (T,P) S03. Picric acid, Trinitrophenol (T,P) S04. Picryl chloride, 2-Chloro-l ,3,5-trinitrobenzene (T,P) 605_ 'Platinum compounds (T)

.,.238-

606. 'Polychlorinated biphenyls. PCB, Askarel, Aroclor, Chlorextol, Inertecn, Pyranol (T,I) 607. Polyvinyl nitrat" (F,P) 608. Potasan. 0,0 0 icthyI0·(4-methylumbelliferone) phosphorothioate (T)

609. Potassium (e.F.p) 610. 'Potassium ars"lIdl" (T,I) 611. "PotasSium arserll'!! (T,I) 612. 'Potassium 111;11I",,<le, Potassium acid fluoride (T,C) 613. Potassium binoxalate, Potassium acid oxalate (T,I) 614. Potassium bromate (T,I,[') 615. 'Potassium cyarllde (T) 616. Potassium dichloroisocyanurate (T,I,F) 617. Potassiun) dichromate, Potassium bichromate (T,C,S,F) 618. Potassium dinitlobenzluroxan (TY) 619. Potassium fluori"" (T,I) 620. Potassium hydrid" (C, F,P) 621. Potassium hydroxide, Caustic potash (T,C) 622. Potassium nitrate. Saltpeter (F ,PI 623. Potassium nitrite (F ,PI 624. Potassium oxalate (T,I) 625. Potassium perchlorate (T,IY,P) 626. Potassium permanganate (T,C,F) 627. Potassium peroxide (C,F ,PI 628. Potassium sulf,de (T,F) 629. "Propargyl bromide, 3-Bromo-1-propyne (T,I.F) 630. *beta·Propiolactone. BPL (T,I) 631. Propionaldehyde, Propanal (T,I,F) 632. Propionic ac,d, Propanoic acid (T,C) 633. n-Propyl acetate (T,F) 634. n-Propyl alcohol, 1-Propanol (T,F) 635. n-Propylamine (and ,somers) (T,I,F) 636. Propyleneimine, 2-Methylaziridine (T,F) 637. Propylene oxide (T,I,F) 638. n·Propyl formate (T,F) 639. n-Propyl mercaptan. l-Propanethiol (T,F) 640. n-Propyltrichloros!lane (T,C,F) 641. "Prothoate, Fostion, FAC; O,O-Diethyl-S-carboethoxyethyl phosphorod,thioate (T) 642. Pyridine (T,F) 643. Pyrosulfuryl chloride, Dis\Jlfuryl chloride (T,C,P) 644. "Quinone; 1,4-Benzoquinone (T,I) 645_ Raney nickel (F) 646. 'Schradan, Octamethyl pyrophosphoramide, OMPA (T) 647. Selenium (T) 648. "Selenium fluoride (T) 649. "Selenous acid, Selenious acid and salts (T) 650. Silicon tetrachloride, Silicon chloride (T.C) 651. Silver acetylide (T,P) 652. Silver azide (T,P) 653. Silver compounds (T) 654_ Silver nitrate (T,I) 655. Silver styphnate, Silver trrnitroresorcinate (T,P) 656. Silver tetrazene (T,P) 657. Sodium (C,F ,PI 658. Sodium aluminate (C) 659. Sodium aluminum hyd, ide (C,F ,PI 660_ Sodium amide, Sodamide (C,F)

-239661. 'Sodium arsenate (T) 662. 'Sodium arsenite (T) 663. Sodium azide (T,P) 664. 'Sodium bifluoride, Sodium acid fluoride (T,C) 665. Sodium bromate (T,I,F) 666. 'Sodium cacodylate, Sodium dimethylarsenate (T) 667. Sodium carbonate peroxide II,F) 668. Sodium chlorate (T,I,F) 669. Sodium chlorite (T,I,F) 670. Sodium chromate (T,C,S) 671. 'Sodium cyanide (T) 672. Sodium dichloroisocyanurate II,F) 673. Sodium dichromate, Sodium bichromate (T,C,S,F) 674. Sodium fluoride (T,I) 675. Sodium hydride (T,C,F,P) 676. Sodium hydrosulfite, Sodium hyposulfite (F) 677. Sodium hydroxide, Caustic soda, Lye (T,C) 678. Sodium hypochlorite (T,I,F) 679. Sodium methylate, Sodium methoxide (C,F) 680. Sodium molybdate (T,I) 681. Sodium nitrate, Soda niter (T,F,P) 682. Sodium nitrite (T,F ,P) 683. Sodium oxide, Sodium monoxide (T,C) 684. Sodium perchlorate (T,I,F ,P) 685. Sodium permanganate (T,I,F) 686, Sodium peroxide (T,I,F,P) 687. Sodium picramate (T,I,F,P) 688. Sodium potassium alloy, NaK, Nack IC,F ,P) 689. "Sodium selenate (T) 690, Sodium sulfide (and Sodium hydrosulfide) (T,I,F) 691. Sodium thiocyanate, Sodium sulfocyanate (T) 692. Stannic chloride, Tin tetrachloride (T,C) 693. "Strontium arsenate (T) 694. Strontium nitrate (T,F ,P) 695. Strontium peroxide, Strontium dioxide (I,F,P) 696. 'Strychnine and salts (T) 697. Styrene, Vinylbenzene (T,F) 698. Succinic acid peroxide (T,I,F) 699. Sulfide salts (soluble )(T) 700. "Sulfotepp, Dithione, Baldafum, Tetraethyl dithiopyrophos· phate (T) 701. Sulfur chloride, Sulfur monochloride (T,C,P) 702. Sulfur mustard (T,C) 703. "Sulfur pentafluoride (T,C) 704. Sulfur trioxide, Sulfuric anhydride (T,C,F) 705. Sulfuric acid, Oil of vitriol, Battery acid (T,C) 706. Sulfurous acid (T,C) 707. Sulfuryl chloride, Sulfonyl chloride (T,C) 708. Sulfuryl fluoride, Sulfonyl fluoride (T,C) 709. "Supracide, Ultracide, S- [(5-Methoxy-2-oxo-1,3A·thiadiazol3(2H)·vll methyll-O,O-dimethyl phosphorodithioate (T) 710. "Surecide, Cyanofenphos, O-p-Cyanophenyl-O-ethyl phenyl phosphonothioate (T) 711. "Tellurium hexafluoride (T,C) 712. "Telodrin, Isobenzan; 1,3.4,5,6,7 ,8,8-0ctachloro-1,3,3aA,7 ,7ahexahydro-4,7 -methanoisobenzofuran (T) 713. "Temik, Aid icarb, 2-Methyl-2(methylthio)propionaldehyde-(). (methylcarbamoyl) oxime (T)

-240714. *2,3,7,8 Tetrachlorodlbenzo-p-dioxin, TCDD, Dioxin (T) 715. syrn· Tetrachl()roethane (T) 716. "Tetraethyl rlithionopyrophosphate, TEDP (T) 717. 'Tetraethyl lead, TEL (and other organic lead) (T,F) 718 .• Tetraethyl pyl ophosphate, TEPP (T) 719. Tetrahydrofuran, THF (T,I,F) 720. Tetralin, Tetrahydronaphthalene (T,I) 721. Tetrarnethyl lead, TML (T,F) 722. *Tetramethyl $uccinonitrile (T) 723. *Tetranitrornethane (T,F,P) 724. *Tetrasul, Animert V-101, S·p·Chlorophenyl·2,4,5-trichlorophenyl sulfide (T) 725. Tetrazene, 4·Amidino·1-(nitrosamino·amidino),'-tetrazene (T,P) 726. Thallium (TJ 727. *Thallium compounds (T) 728. *Thallous sulfate, Thallium sulfate, Ratox (1) 729. Thiocarbonyl chloride, Thiophosgene (T,C) 730. "Thionazin, Zinophos; O,O-diethyl 0 (2·pyrazinyl) phosphorothioate IT) 731. Thionyl chloride, Sulfur oxychloride iT ,C) 732. Thiophosphoryl chloride (T,C) 733. Thorium (powder) (F) 734. Tin compounds (organic) (T) 735. Titanium (powder) (F) 736. Titanium sulfate (T, I) 737. Titanium tetrachloride, Titanic chloride (T,C) 738. Toluene, Methylbenzene (T,F) 739. *Toluene·2,4·diisocyanate, TDI (T,I,S,P) 740. Toluidine, Aminotoluene (ortho, meta, para) (T) 741. *Tranid, exo·3-Chloro·endo-6·cyano-2-norbornanone-O(methylcarhamoyl) oxime (T) 742. Trichloroborane (T,F) 743. ',1,2· Trichloroethane (T, I) 744. Trichloroethylene; 1,1 ,2-Trichloroethene (T,F) 745. Trichloroisocyanuric acid (T,I,F) 746. 2.4,5·Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 2,4,5·T (T) 747. Trichlorosilane, Silicochloroform (T,C,F) 748. Trimethylamine, TMA (T,I,F) 749. Trinitroanisole; 2,4,6·Trinitrophenyl methyl ether (T,PI 750. 1,3,5·Trinitrohenzene, TNB (T,P) 751, 2,4,6·Trinitrobenzuic acid (T,P) 752. Trinitronaphthalene, Naphtite (T,P) 753. 2,4,6-Trinitroresorcinol, Styphnic acid (T,P) 754. 2,4,6·Trinitrotoluene, TNT (T,F,P) 755 .• tris( "AziT id inyl )phosphine oxide, T rlethylenephosphoramide, TEPA (T,I) 756. Tungstic acid ijnd salts In 757. Turpentine (T,F) 758, Uranyl nitrate, Uranium nitrate (T F P) 759. Urea "'trale (T,F,P) , , 760. n·Valeraldehyde, n-Penlanal (and isomers) (T F) 761. Vanadic acid salts (T) , 762. Vanadium oxytrichloride (T,C) 763. Vanadium pentoxide, Vanadic acid anhydride (T,I) 764. Vanad,um tetrachloride (T,C) 765. Vanadium letraoxide (T I) 76 '" ' . 6, Vanadium t"oxlde, Vanadium sesQuioxide (T,I) 767. Vanadyl sulfate, Vanadium sulfate (T I) 768. Vinyl acetate (F) , 769. 'Vinyl chloride IT,I,F) 770. Vinyl ethyl ether (F)

.-241771. Vinyl isopropyl ether (F) 772. Vinylidene chloride, VC (T,F) 773. Vinyltrichlorosilane n,C,F) 774. VX, a·Ethyl methyl phosphoryl N,N-<liisopropyl thiocholine IT) 775. 'Wepsyn 155, WP 155, Triamiphos, P·(5·Amino·3·phenyl·1 H· 1,2,4·triazol·1yl).N,N,N' ,N'·tetramethyl phosphonic diamide (T) 776. Xylene, Dimethylbenzene (ortho, meta, para) (T,F) 777. Zinc (powder) (F) 778. Zinc ammonium nitrate IT,F) 779. 'Zinc arsenate (T) 780 .• Zinc arsenite IT) 781. Zinc chloride (T,C) 782. Zinc compounds (T) 783. 'Zinc cyanide IT) 784. Z inc nitrate IT, F ,P) 785. Zinc permanganate (T,I,F) 786. Zinc peroxide, Zinc dioxide IT,F,P) 787. 'Zinc phosphide (T,F) 788. Zinc sulfate IT,I) 789. Zirconium (powder) (F) 790. Zirconium chloride, Zirconium tetrachloride (T,C) 791. Zirconium picramate (F)

-242-

TABLE 5.

POTENTIALLY INCOMPATIBLE WASTES

The

~ixinq

r~tential

of a Group A waste with a Group B consequence as noted.

wa~te ~ay

have the

____

Group 1-13 Acetl'lene sludge Alkaline caustic liquids Alkaline cleaner Alkaline corrosive liquids Alkaline corrosive battery fluid Caustic wastewater Lime sludge , other corrosive alkalies Lime wastewater Lime and water Spent caustic Acid sludge Acid and water Battery acid Chemical cleaners Electrrlyte, acid Etching acid liquid or solvent Liquid cleaning compounds Pickling liquor an,l other corrosive acids Sludge acid Spent acid Spent mixed acid Spent sulfuric acid

Potential consequences: Gr' up 2-1'1

Heat generation, violent reaction. Group 2-8 Cleaning solvents Data processing liquid Obsolete expLosives Petroleum waste Refinery waste Retrograde explosives Solvents Waste oil and other flammable Bnd explosive wastes

waste and other toxi.c w'Istes Berill tum wastes Un rinsed pesticide containers \,ast" pesticides

A~bestos

pot('ntial consequences:

Release of toxic suhstances in case of fire or explosion. Group 3-13 Any wa,te in Group I-A or 1-8

r;roup 3-A: Aluminit.,n Beryllium Calcium Lithium Magnesium Potassium s-:>dium Zinc powder and other reactive metals and metal hydrides Potential consequences:

Fire or explosion; generation of flammable hydrogen gas.

-243-

Alcohols Water

Potential consequences: Group 5-A Alcohols 1\ldehydes Halogenated hydrocarbons Nitrated hydrocarbons and other reactive organic compounds and solvents Unsaturated hydrocurbons Potential consequences: Group 6-A Spent cyanide and sulfide solutions

Any concentrated waste in Groups l-A or 1-8 Ca.1ciurn Lithium Metal hydrides Potassium Sodiurn S02 -C1 2 , SOC1 , PCl , CII SiCl, 2 3 3

and other water-reactive Fire, explosion or heat generation, generation of flammable or toxic gases. Group 5-8 Concentrated Group I-A wastes Group 3-A wastes OT

waste

l-A

Fire, explosion or violent reaction. Group 6-~

Group 1-8 wastes

Potential consequences: Group 7-A

Generation of toxic hydrogen cyanide or h?drogen sulfide gas. Group 7-8 Acetic aci~ and other organic acids Concentrated mineral acids Group 2-8 wastes Grour 3-A wastes Group 5-A wastes and other flammable and combustible wastes

Chlorates and othe·r strong ')xidizers Chlorine Chlorites Chromic acid Hypochlorites Nitrates Nitric acid, fuming Perchlorates Permanganates Peroxides Potential consequences:

Fire, explosion or violent reaction.

-244-

T.ble

Chemlcels Conlaln"d

Wnsle S/reflfTlS of Thwe fnduslfle,

-----------.------------Hllterdou~ ---=-=.:.::..:!-~---"---'---

Induslry

Waste Calegory

Organic Ch",mcBls

--- ---.--.creso/~.

Elee/rol,/IJIiOY' InorqanlC Melal Chemicals _____.!.!'2/'!!.''!.'!!.._ C"'of/nMed hydl fJca: bons Deyrea.\fn,t,'

Organic Chemicals

Pherrols {Jnd etJ1er S,

halogenated

solvpnts. ch'oflnaled hydroctllhnns

tlitphallL s. polycycill: lJrnfnallC hydroCBi

hons, rnanorycltr.

/:J{(JlniJ(ICS, nirfOSR

mlflf's. PCBs. phltilidle "sIers Metals. M"I til S8lrs. Corr·plnes ~1iSC (d.~t'd If!

ellll/lysIS.!

II!} HyC1. 119-'>_ I'h. Ph_ (,_ C" N, Cr, Cu, NI, Sh, All. ('ff. P,'I ChfOfTW(t1S. ~odll '1n-

etc

ealc/uol, Cah'oIl!(J {"Jor/de. ft'rrfl' fp.flvcYl1'lIde. ftl, ric dr 5t:nate, ar senfC .:hlnf·des, nlc/f.el

h)'(jroxlde. lead ,ili/s. arsenIc tflslIllldt!

Non-Metal Inorganlcs

Vaflous

Acids Caustics

Mise IIclds

M,se caustics (used If) production relfctlOfJs)

Pesllcide_s

Ce,18/n h810qenered al1phatlcs

Asbestos Phosphorus suI/Ide Phosphorus /rIchlof/de Hydrof/1I0f/C aCid Sulfuric aCid HydrochlOflc aCid CilustlCS Inorganic pesticide (Manufacture

CYRII/d,,, Flu(lflr/es

Sul/unc aCid Hydrochloflc Bud Causlu:s Chlo, innt etl hydrocorb f.J'1.r;

I mOl!lly metals_ Cu Pb.1n)

)

T.ble

Umt Process Modules Comprising thll Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal Technologies

II) 1:) ~ :.;;: 0 <tI.~ 0 Cl. \.:) .... II)c:~

., ... " " " ~~ " .. E~ ()

~c: ~ Q

~ ...

<II

~ "~

~-5

Treatmant atld Disposal

~ ()

.!:! E c: II) .!!! c: ... ... ... .:: <tI :'!? tJ .. l:l «b o 00 Ci .... !! .... "i S ..!!!~ ,,~~ ~ <:IIc:1I) .~ ~ ~ ... 0 ~ iii E .: : e <tI .. _".,v. u.c:~- ..... ~..::::" E~t~~ .:. .:::: 0 "'" 1.J",...w:GltlS'tj.tct; E !! 'il'::::ft!ll"..,,~ ~ ~ ~ ;: .!:! ~ .... ~

...

~ Q.. 100. ~ Oa ~ Ill.t:: . " " - <tI <tI <:II" .<) It)

.c:o

·S c;;

Qto..

'g ~ Q

It)

:: ... ., g

iii

~ to..

2 _

E ::.

~ ~

~ 0

. ~ ~

;:;;

o c: .. E o 0 ~

a c:

....

.::~ ~ <t

............. '{'{II).::~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .:t ~ .c:

" ..s :::

<.>

1I)~Il:<ta~ Cl<J1l: ::>l..l

OJ~O~~

:::, !:! :).

;;: 0 <tI oQ <u ." <tI

. .

... ... C) 0 0 II) V) II) _ _

:Uca~CQl.4..lca

. .. .... g - - - ::. " ~ ", c:

.:: &~g, ., <II <II <tI

00 <tI

co Q

. 0 QJ

" C&..

t:J-

c: ~ ~ ...

0 ~ ~

..!!! ...

Il.J .0:: ...:::: Cu~ull):t

~EEE.g> <.J q, q,) (b ....

~ ~ .... <I)

.c: .c:

., <.>

::. ... Cl.

c: 0 ....

~ " .. c to '" " .. '" .., ~ '" .... tIlV) Q. ~ " "

gl:JCl

PreCIpitation Coagulatlonl Flocculationl Sed,mentalion Filtr8tlon Evaporation D,sllllat,on Flotation O,IIWatfIT Stlpafator Reversa Osmosis Ultraftltrallon Chem,calOxidationlRtlduction HydrolySIS A fir attld Lagoon Tflckhng fih,Jr Wastll SIIIb. Pond A nallrob,c Dlgll>ition Carbon Adsorpt'on Activatlld Siudgll Evaporlftion Pond Incmtua/.'on L .nd O,spo~ II Chelmelfl Fixation E nc.psulatlon

x )(

X X X X

x X X

X X X

x X I

X X

x X

x X X X X

X X X X X X X X X

c.n I

t-:) ~

X X X

X X X X

X X X

X X

X X X

X X

T.bl. 8. Technology

Cost Comparisons Among Trealment and DIsposal Technologtes. Stand8rd UnlCs Simpia Average Cost (S per 1.000 gal

Llfa

Life Cycle Average CoSt (S per 1,000 gal!' at ~m

at gpm 1.000 2.000 3,000 4.000 5.000 PrtlClpJlalJOnl Flocculation/ S edlmtlnl allan F,I".,lOn EVilporation D,stlllllt,on FlolatlOn O.//Watar Saparlltor Raversa OsmosIs Ultral,hral1on ChtlmlCll1 OXldatlonl Reduction HydrolySIS Aaralad Lagoon Tock/mg filtar WilSIe Stab Pond An8arobIC DlgaSlion Carbon AdsorptIOn ACtlV8tltd SIudg8 EvapofallOn Pond

1.000 2,000 3.000 4.000 5,000 I 16 1 54 730 1343 081 030 725 2.81 510 063 2.15 163 295 4.13 731 3.10 354 1.(X)() Ihst

10 10 5 5 10 10 7 7 5 5 15 15

5 10 , I

/0 20

I 79 1 72 140 126 120 2.43 2.31 197 1.74 1 61 8.48 774 889 7.49 737 1640 13.02 1339 1341 1340 1.27 126 104 0.92 085 048 048 032 028 028 9.79 6.71 697 712 7 13 3,02 3.76 2.51 2.70 270 4.36 3.74 622 J 71 429 099 0.76 082 069 0.62 062 5.30 435 262 189 1 64 193 470 3.19 2.37 184 193 1 68 4.45 3.54 3 GJ 3.70 328 J 09 3 U2 788 641 628 514 4.53 429 421 2743 10 96 989 20.26 12 14 938 8 10 484 4.02 484 308 2.28 2.00 257 899 775 7.75 4.01 371 3.60 354 Simple Aver8g8 CustiS per 1.000 Ibs Lde Cycle Average Cost (5 per 265 3.66 1033 1586 1.98 076 9.05 4.04 5.31 t.BS

2.16 1.94 312 2.75 943 912 16.36 16.37 162 1.43 051 0.44 940 9.61 336 3.61 456 452 083 0.75 381 J 31 382 363 394 3.71 691 653 1643 1269 3.54 3.11 8.20 790

2 54 8.98 1636 133 044 962 361 5.23 0.74 3.89 330

I t--'

O'l I

at Ibslhr

al Ibslhr

1.000 2.000 3.000 4,000 5,(X)() InC/nflr allon Land Disposal Chamlcat f,Ullon With Solids Chtlmlcal Fi~.'ion Without Solids Encapsulation ·511. (X)() gill. : $Im' "$/I,(X)() Ibs. ; $It" 0..453

1.(X)() 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000

5 20

NA NA 7

309.90 298.23 295.10 29334 293.64 266,55 246,91244.3424288243.15 389.94235./41780814940132.3615434 91.26 68.37 5686 5001 90.00 90.00 90.00 90.00 90.00 90,00 90.00 90.00 90.00 90..00 24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 2400 2400 2400 24.00 2400 24.00 6199 56.90 4662 42.87

)

Informations clés

Organisation Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS)

Type de document Publications

Date d'adoption 31 décembre 1982

Source Organisation mondiale de la santé