Environmental health services: a survey of administrative and legal provisions

World Health Organization -L ~ Regional Office for Europe ~ ~ Copenhagen 'SI rJ1 ~ Public Health in Europe 19 Environmental I I I health services A survey of administrative and legal provisions Edited by Robert B. Dean Consultant, Promotion of Environmental Health WHO Regional Office for Europe ISBN 92 890 11 55 6 © World Health Organi zation 1983 Publicati ons of the World Health Orga nization enjoy copyright protection in ac- co rdance with the provi sions of Pro tocol 2 of th e Universal Copyright Convention. For ri ghts of reprod uct ion o r tra nslat io n, in pa rt o r in 10 10, of publications issued by th e WHO Regional Office fo r Europe application should be made to the Regional Office fo r Europe, Scherfigsvej 8, DK-2 100 Copenhage n 0 , Denmark . The Regional Office welcomes such a pplicati ons. The designations employed and the prese nt ation of the material in this publi- ca tion do not impl y the ex press ion of any opinion wha tsoever on the part of the Sec reta ria t of the World Hea lth Orga ni za ti on co nce rning the legal status of any country, territo ry, cit y or a rea o r of it s auth oriti es, or co ncerning the delimitation of its frontiers or bounda ries. The mention of specifi c co mpanies or of ce rtain manufacturers' products does no t impl y th at they a re endorsed o r reco mmended by the World Health Organiz- ation in preference to oth ers of a simil ,! r nature tha t a re not menti oned . Errors and omiss ions exce pted , th e names of proprietary products a re distin guished by initial capital letters. PRINTED IN BELGI UM ISSN 0300-4880 CONTENTS Page Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vu General review .... . .. . .. . . ..... . . .. .. ... . . . Albania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Algeria Austria Belgium Bulgaria .. ......... . ....... . . .. .. . ....... . .. ...... . .......... .. . . .. . ..... . . . .... . . .. . ...... .. . .... .... . .. . ....... .. ... ... .. .. . .. .. ... . . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . Czechoslovakia .......... . .. . ... . .. ........ . Denmark ...... .. .. ...... . ... .. ...... . .. . . . Finland . . ...... .. ........... . ............. . France . ... . ...... . .... . .... . .. . .. . . . ...... German Democratic Republ ic Germany, Federal Republic of Greece .. .. . . ...... . ....... .. . . .. . . . ...... . Hungary ..... . .. .. .. . . .... . . . ........ . .... . Iceland . .. .. ................... . .. . .. ...... Ireland ........... . .. . .................... . Italy ........ .. .... . ..... . .. . . ..... . ...... . Luxembourg .. ................ . .......... . . Ma lta . .. .. . .. . ... . .... .. ... . .. . .. .. ... .. . . Monaco Morocco .. .... .. ..................... . .... . .. . .. . .. ......... .. ..... ... .. . .. . . . Netherlands ......... . . . .. . .... . . ... . . ..... . . 11 17 21 27 33 39 45 53 61 67 75 79 87 93 IOI 107 113 117 121 125 V Norway . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Portugal 143 Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 San Mari no . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Yugoslavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 European Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 International organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 5 vi Foreword Environmental health has been defined by WHO as being the control of all those factors in the physical environment that exercise or may exercise a deleterious effect on physical development, health or survival. This far-reaching definition encompasses a very wide range of activities and involves the work of many different disciplines. The method of organization of such a service will depend in part on the system of government of the country concerned. This publication is the outcome of a survey of the environmental health services in the WHO European Region. The survey demonstrates that no two countries within the European Region have identical structures, and it is apparent that no one central organization in any of the countries surveyed is totally responsible for the overall implementation of all the elements of their environmental health programmes. This division of responsibility among ministries, agencies, secretariats and provincial and local governments, etc. necessitates some system of linkage, yet all too often the system in use shows insufficient cohesion and coordination. The resultant duplication of activities by the various organizations, and the fact that duties tend to be overlooked whenever no clear analysis of tasks and division of responsibilities exists, causes a loss of overall efficiency and a correspondingly low level of cost-effectiveness. While countries are striving to attain their goals in the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, the survey has highlighted.for example, that although responsibilities are often clearly defined in the urban sector, this is not so in the rural areas. While the installation of rural water supply systems is often the responsibility of a central authority, that same authority is not responsible for village wastewater or excreta disposal. These problems, vital if the chain of infection is to be broken, are often left to local authorities to resolve. In many of the countries in the south of the Region local resources are all too slight to meet the needs. A clearly defined national policy is required, preferably multisectoral with a precise division of responsibilities, if progress is to be made. Environmental monitoring is a basic component of an environmental health programme. Water, food and air can all be vehicles for the transmission of infection or toxic contaminants to man. Regular monitoring with efficient field sampling techniques and accurate laboratory analysis using harmonized methods, followed by a systematic evaluation of the results, are essential. A comprehensive legal structure is needed, with regulations that define per- missible levels of contaminants, if the important follow-up action on unsatis- factory samples is to be effective. This survey shows, however, that monitoring VII is often divided among various agencies, none of which has overall responsi- bility for coordinating the results or setting standards to cover all the routes of intake ( air, water, food, tobacco, occupational exposure, etc.) of toxic sub- stances into the body. Only rarely are standards based on local conditions of exposure backed up by the biological monitoring of tissue and epidemiological surveillance. Indeed, the trend is to rely on multinational standards or guide- lines, employing a safety factor to cover local variations. Standards for lead in water, air, petrol, paint and food.for example, are the responsibility of up to five different agencies, each of which may monitor its own medium, while the monitoring of soil around the home - a major source of intake by smaller children - may be no one's responsibility. Many other examples of divided responsibility can be found. The reasons for dispersed authority lie in the legislative history of the countries surveyed. Agencies and ministries have been set up over the years on an ad hoc basis to deal with water, food, industrial resources, occupational exposure, etc., as each one came to be seen as a problem. The responsibility for monitoring was frequently assigned to an existing body that was already dealing with supply or distribution, sometimes with the requirement that the health aspects be coordinated with the ministry responsible for public health. Even when several agencies have been combined under one ministry responsible for the environment, certain strongly entrenched departments have success- fully resisted efforts to transfer their activities to that authority. In fact, a division of responsibility may exist even within a ministry if it is organized with separate departments for air, water supply, waste disposal, etc. The survey shows that there is no universal way of coordinating environ- mental health services. Each country must use a system that conforms to its basic legal and legislative principles if it is to be effective. Some systems may be better than others, but all seem capable of improvement. This publication is the second of a projected series of surveys on services in the European Region. The first, Food safety se rvices (Public Health in Europe, No. 14), was published in 198 1. Further surveys in progress cover water services, training facilities for sanitary engineering, and occupational health services. Surveys on chemical safety in Europe appear in the Health Aspects of Chemical Safety series: Emergency response to chemical accidents (Interim document No. I) and Legislation and administration (Interim document No. 5). Another survey due to appear in this series is on programmes and courses in toxicology in Europe. The Regional Office would appreciate receiving criticism and comments on this publication from readers, with a view to the preparation of an updated second edition. Correspondence should be addressed to: Director, Environ- mental Hea lth Service, WHO Regiona l Office for Europe, Scherfigsvej 8, DK-2100 Copenhagen 0, Denmark . viii General review The measures that the countries in the European Region of WHO take to protect environmental health and the services they maintain for this purpose vary considerably, and it is difficu lt to discern a feature common to them all. Th is is not surprising, because the systems they now operate have not been created in their present form but have evolved, in some cases over a long time, in response to national needs . The system of government of a country, its geographic characteristics and size, its po litical phi losophy, its economic situation and its stage of development affect the way that environmental health services have devel- oped and how they function. In contrast to public health and food safety services, which have a history stretching back more than a century, the problems of the environ- ment as a whole have been recognized for only about two decades. Certain aspects of the environment, notably water pollution and emissions from chemica l works, have been the subject of legislation that dates back to the nineteenth century but only recent ly has an attempt been made in a few countries to cons ider the environment as an integrated whole . Many countries are trying to consolidate responsibility for environ- menta l services with varying degrees of success . It should be remembered that while protection of the environment in theory works to the general benefit, the measures taken to this end are inevitably considered detrimental to certain interests and will therefore be resisted. The result, in many cases, has been a high ly fragmented set of laws and regulations with exceptions and special conditions introduced to secure overall approval. Legislation and Administration The complexity of environment legislation and the differences of opinion as to what should be included under environmental health services have been handled in this work by the use of a categorical division into sections , i.e . water, air, noise, solid and hazardous waste, and radiation . Other aspects of environmental health have been omitted either because only a few countries recognize them in their laws and regulations or because their hea lth aspects are tenuous, e.g. oi l pollution at sea. In the majority of countries in the European Region the administration of laws and issuance of regulations is highly centralized . Local governments at distr ict, county, city and commune levels are expected to implement the regulat ions of the central government. About a third of the countries, Environmental health services however, have some form of federal government consisting of from 2 to 26 independent political units which may be called states, cantons, Lander, autonomous republics, districts, municipalities, etc. The central govern- ment has supreme authority in certain limited areas, which may or may not include health and the environment, and all other legislative authority is the responsibility of the local government. The central government may, how- ever, retain the power to coordinate regulations between the various states. In addition, both systems may delegate local matters to municipalities or communes. In this work the term "commune" is used in the French sense as the government of an area that typically contains one major community and the adjacent countryside. Municipalities refer to towns and cities which may or may not have independent commune status but do not include significant non-urban areas. Counties may or may not have jurisdiction over cities within their borders. All of the governments in the Region have some form oflegislature and a collection of ministers with responsibility for various aspects of the environ- ment . Less than half have ministries that include "environment" in their titles . Nearly as many assign environmental regulation to the ministry responsible for health, while others assign environmental questions to the ministries for forestry, agriculture or the interior, or to a council represent- ing several ministries that coordinates environmental services. In some cases the ministry dealing with the environment has very little power and serves only to collect data. In others it may have more power than the ministry responsible for commerce. With few exceptions the ministry responsible for the environment does not have authority over all aspects of environmental health. Instead, some aspects that were regulated before the environment was recognized as an entity that is subject to legislative control, remain in the ministry or other authority in which they were originally placed. The earliest regulations concerning environmental health were those dealing with public health, or controlling water pollution or factories producing nuisances, and in many countries some aspects remain in ministries to which they have historically belonged. In Sweden, for example, a country that has a highly developed environmental conscience, the responsibility for environmental questions is vested in the Ministry of Agriculture, where it is consolidated under the National Environmental Protection Board, a powerful agency. In the USSR, four ministries and three state commissions have responsi- bility for various aspects of water while many other aspects of the environ- ment are assigned to the ministry responsible for health. There are few coun- tries that assign all environmental services to a single ministry. The common situation is that separate ministries have responsibility for water, air and other aspects of environmental health services. Frequently the responsibility is broken down still further, separate ministries being responsible for one or more facets of, for example, water, i.e. water supply, water purity, waste- water disposal, inland navigation, and coastal and marine pollution. 2 General review The survey that was conducted to obtain information for this volume has therefore revealed a very complex picture. The information obtained is necessarily rather general; to have looked for detailed data would have been impracticable. Nevertheless , it should lead to a better understanding of the ways in which the countries of Europe seek to protect their people from the adverse effects of environmental pollution . In this work, emphasis is placed on health effects that are related to the environment while the improvement of amenities and protection of nature have not been dealt with explicitly. Water In the majority of countries in the Region, the responsibility for assuring the safety of water supplies was assigned, in the nineteenth century, to the department of health , where it still remains. In a few countries, the responsi- bility appears to lie with the ministry responsible for public works, which also has responsibility for the management of water supplies . In several countries, the ministry responsible for health shares responsibility with the ministry responsible for water supplies. In a few countries, strong regional authorities are responsible for all aspects of water supply, sewage treatment and disposal , inland navigation , drainage, land reclamation, irrigation and even the recreational use of water. Sewage treatment and disposal is nor- mally a municipal responsibility under the guidance or direction of one or more ministries, including those responsible for health, the interior, public works, the environment, agriculture or forestry, or of a water agency. The responsible ministry is likely to be that which also has responsibility for lakes and rivers. Coastal pollution in so far as it involves bathing beaches is usually a responsibility of the health ministry , but in some countries the minist ry responsible for navigation or fisheries, or the coastguard, may have the greatest role. Air Early air pollution legislation arose in the industrialized countries as a response to excessive fumes from chemical works. In the United Kingdom the Alkali and Clear Air Inspectorate, which was set up to deal with chemical fumes from the newly developed alkali plants, still has a strong role to play in the suppression of industrial emissions.a Air pollution services are often fragmented, with pollution from factories governed by a different a Emissions a nd immissions. In this work , the o ld English word "immissions" (which come from heave n) is not used to translate the German word lmmissionen, which is more close ly related to the American term "ambient air quality" but includes noise and radiation as well. The term "emissions" refers to gases liberated by factories, motor vehicles or chimneys, and does not include noise or radiation, whereas these factors are included in the German term Emissionen. 3 Environmental health services ministry than that responsible for pollution from motor vehicles . Countries with a strong environmental department or ministry, however, usually ass ign most aspects of air pollution to that department. Although admin- istration of air pollution legislation and regulation is frequently assigned to municipalities or other local government, the standards to be met are usually set by the central government. Emissions from motor vehicles are usually the responsibility of the minister in charge of transportation. The European Communities, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) have issued sta ndards designed to provide uniformity of specifications for motor vehicles that a pply both to noise and to emissions. A special aspect of air pollution , i.e. the pollution of indoor air by tobacco smoking, is regulated in some countries by the authority respon- sible for health. In Sweden, this is the responsibility of the National En- vironmental Protection Board. Regulations range from labels pointing out the hea lth hazards for the smoker to prohibitions against smoking in public places in order to protect the health of non-smokers. Noise The control of noise is more likely to be assigned to municipalities than is the control of air or water pollution. Standards for noise may be set by the ministry responsible for health , or for the environment, but many countries depend on local nuisa nce laws to control objectionable noise in the streets. The control of noise from motor vehicles is usually assigned to the ministry responsible for traffic and usually takes the form of type specifications for vehicles so ld in the country. Solid and Hazardous Waste The collect ion and disposal of urban solid waste is almost always a muni- cipal responsibility. Guidance may come from the ministry responsible for the environment or for health . Responsibility for the disposa l of hazardous waste may often fall to two or more ministries. The earlier national legis- lation in thi s area referred to agricultural pesticides, which were regulated by the ministry responsible for agriculture or food. The recent awareness of the risks from haza rdous chemicals in the environment has led to a spate of literature including the results ofa survey on administration and legislation in Europe, which are incorporated into Interim Document 5 of the Chemi- ca l Safety Series iss ued by the WHO Regional Office for Europe in I 982 . Legislation to coordinate control of hazardous chemicals is highly frag- mented in most countries. The principal authority may li e with the ministry responsible for health , the environment, agriculture, the interior, labour, traffic or industry, or with an ad hoc commission representing several 4 General review ministries. Even a definition of hazardous waste could not be agreed upon by a WHO working group in 1981.a Radiation The ministry responsible for health is most likely to issue safety standards for ionizing radiation in the environment. This assignment can frequently be traced back to the early concern for medical uses of X-rays. A few countries assign responsibility for radiation to the ministry of the interior. Standards vary little among countries in the Region, thanks to the efforts of the Internationa l Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) of the United Nations. The risks to the public from nonionizing radiation are recognized by regulations in only a few countries in the Region. Several countries have regu- lations to protect workers, and a few extend these to cover ultraviolet radiation received by patients in hospitals and clinics. There are a few regulations aimed at the use of lasers, and a few concerned with microwave radiation, but in general there has been little concrete action to protect the public from the improper use of nonionizing radiation. Bibliography The major ource of information used in preparing this survey was the International digest of health legislation published by WHO in Geneva. This is abbreviated in the text to IDHL, with a volume number and the first page number of the reference. Other reference works for specific countries are mentioned in footnotes. The work European environmental law by Dr S. Ere- man (Berne, Buben berg-Verlag AG, 1977) has been useful, as has a series of monographs on the law and practice relating to pollution control in dif- ferent countries, prepared for the Commission of the European Commun- ities and published by Graham & Trotman Ltd, London, 1976. Staff and consultants of the WHO Regional Office for Europe have also contributed essential details for several of the countries. An attempt has been made to include pertinent legislation and regulations up to the end of 1980. For some countries it has been possible to include significant material from 198 I as we ll. a S uess, M.J. & Huismans, J.W., ed. Managemen1 of hazardous was1e. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe, 1983 (WHO Regional Publications, European Series, No. 14). 5 r • Area: 28 748 km' ••• •' ... . ~· Albania Albania is situated in the west of the Balkans, along the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. It has boundaries in the north and east with Yugoslavia and in the south-east with Greece. It is a mountainous country, a third of it lying at an altitude of over 1000 metres. The climate is mediterranean throughout most of the country. The average temperature is 14 °C in the north and east and 18 °C in the south and west. 7 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation The highest body of state power and the sole legislative body is Kuvend Popul/ore (People's Assembly), which is elected every four years. The country is divided into 26 local government provinces (rreth - plural rrethet). The highest body of state power in every rreth is the People's Council. The People's Councils govern at the village, united villages and rreth levels. In the Constitution of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, dated 28 December 1976, Article 20 (IDHL, 29: 717) prescribes: "The protection of land, of natural sources of water, and of the atmosphere against pollution is an obligation of the State, of economic and social organizations, and of all citizens". On 30 October 1973, the Presidium of the People's Assembly issued Decree No. 5 I 05 on the protection of the environment against pollution. Article 2 of that Decree prescribes: "State enterprises, institutions and organizations are prohibited from polluting the water, atmosphere, and land to a level that could endanger the health of the people or damage the country's flora and fauna . The tolerable limits of the liquid, fluid, and solid pollutants and radioactive substances to be discharged into the water, atmosphere, and land are determined by the ministries and by other central institutions". Based on that Article, the Ministry of Public Health has determined the rates of permissible concentrations of hazardous and toxic materials dis- charged into surface water used for drinking and other municipal services, as well as the maximum permissible concentrations of toxic substances in the atmosphere of inhabited areas. Article 7 prescribes: "Ministries and other central institutions are com- pelled to exert continuous control over the enterprises, institutions and organizations of their systems, and the Executive Committees of People's Councils of rrethet over the enterprises, institutions, and organizations of their area , to ensure strict observation of the provisions for the protection of the environment against pollution". Article IO prescribes: "The Council of Ministers is charged to determine organizational measures for the protection of the environment against pollution". The ministries and other central institutions, in collaboration with the Ministry of Public Health, are authorized to issue compulsory regulations for the execution of this Decree. Environmental health and the prevention of pollution are the respon- sibilities of the Ministry of Public Health . Based on Article 8 of the Decree on the protection of the environment against pollution, an inspectorate for the prevention of pollution has been set up in the Ministry of Public Health. An equivalent inspectorate has been set up in each province by the direc- torates of public health and epidemiology, which are specialized institutions of a preventive character. 8 Albania The Ministry of Public Health, through the central and provincial in- spectorates for the prevention of pollution, controls the work done by the ministries, central institutions, executive committees of provinces, and enterprises for the protection of the environment against pollution. The inspectorate for the prevention of pollution authorizes the com- mencement of construction or reconstruction of every unit that discharges liquid, fluid or solid pollutants. It also approves the putting into operation of the units that discharge fluid , liquid and solid pollutants. To carry out these tasks the inspectorate has laboratories for the examination of the quality of water, air and soil. It has all the necessary competence to take every measure required by the Decree on the protection of the environment against pollution whenever necessary. The health services, which are strongly oriented towards prevention, are provided by a network of institutions: directorates of public health and epidemiology, and the hospital and polyclinic service that manage the hospitals and outpatient clinics in towns and villages. They extend into the remotest areas of the country, are organized on a territorial basis and cover both preventive and curative care. All these agencies form part of a single management and treatment system. Water Albania has swift rivers, which are used for the production of electric power. The safety of drinking-water and of industrial discharges is monitored and controlled by those laboratories of institutions and enterprises that are responsible for protection against pollution. The local public health lab- oratories help the inspectorate for the prevention of pollution to carry out control, according to the Decree on the protection of the environment against pollution. Air Enterprises and the ministries to which they report are responsible for the prevention of pollution in industrial parts of the country. The Ministry of Public Health, through its specialized bodies and institutions, examines the quality of the air in towns , as well as the measures taken by the enterprises and ministries for the protection of the environment. Noise The prevention of noise is the responsibility of local authorities. Solid and Hazardous Waste Industrial and municipal solid wastes are stored in certain places determined by the executive committees of the province, with the assent of the inspec- torate for the prevention of pollution. 9 Environmental health services Radiation The health service is responsible for the public health aspects of ionizing radiation, mainly those of X-ray sources. Addresses Ministry of Public Health Tirana Tel. 7941 10 Algeria Three main areas may be distinguished in Algeria: the north, in which the great majority of the population is concentrated; the high plateaux; and the Sahara, which covers an area of more than 2 million km 2. Rivers are small and frequently intermittent. Many discharge inland to desert sinks. The major part oft he country suffers from extreme water shortage. A small area of highly fertile plains and valleys near the coast produces quantities of grapes , cerea ls, sugar beet and other agricultural and market-garden crops. There is an important fishing industry. 11 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation The Republic of Algeria is governed by a Revolutionary Council under the Pres ident. The country is divided into 31 administrat ive areas or wila- yate (formerly departments). There are about 691 communes which are the basic units of local government. After independence in 1962, Algeria continued for a time to use French laws, with the add ition of a limited number of decrees found necessary from time to time. In 1975, with the object of adapting all existing legislation to the country's circumstances, French law was repealed and some of its provisions incorporated into the Algerian Penal Code (Ordinance of I 7 June 1975). Penalties for offences were increased. Under the Penal Code, the present legal provisions may be broadened , and strong efforts are being made to develop national environmenta l legislation. In respect of health and environmental hygiene, the Ministry of Public Health applies the Public Health Code and various supplementary legal provisions, which are also derived from the French system. General rules on environmental health are included in the Public Health Code (IDHL, 29: 261 ). This provides, inter a/ia, for the protection of water, air and soi l from pollution, including disposal and treatment of wastewater and solid waste. According to the Code, Industrial, commercial, or other establishments classified as dangerous, inconvenient, or unhealth y shall be sited , organized, or operated in such a way as to prevent harm to the health of workers, publi c health , ecological conditions, and the environment in general. ... Industrial installations shall be equipped to provide proper treatment of their effluents, and sha ll be subject to regulati ons and regular inspection to ensure protection of health and the environment. . . . Protection against io nizing radiation shall be envisaged in the context of development; preventive measure shall be taken at a ll stages of exploitation, production, and consumption to prevent pollution of the air, the so il, water, and foodstuffs , and to protect exposed workers and populatio n groups. The Department of Environmental Protection was origina ll y under the Ministry of Hydrology and was then transferred to the Secretary of State for Forests and Reforestation. Plans have been submitted to Parliament to convert the Department to a National Agency for the Environment, in association with the Ministry of Planning. Implementation of the Public Health Code is by means of appropriate orders issued by the Ministry of Public Health acting jointly with a ll other ministries concerned (i.e. the Ministry of Hydrology in the case of health standards for drinking-water) . Only a limited number of orders and direc- tives have so far been issued on matters of environmental importance. The Ministry of Public Works has prepared a law on security and hygiene, which applies particularly to urban problems and fixes standards for the construction of buildings and for housing hygiene. The National 12 Algeria Institute of Public Health of the Ministry of Public Health draws up stan- dards, and intends to develop services for information, advice, control and education on health matters. Almost every wilaya has a public health laboratory and every city has a municipal office of hygiene. The public health laboratories employ phys- icians who are specialists in public health, as well as microbiologists and sanitation technicians. Their control activities include routine analysis and the microbiological examination of water and other samples. Environmen- tal matters, however, are not of first priority in the public health labora- tories, where the emphasis is rightly put on matters immediately affecting human health. Water Water supply and water pollution are dealt with in Book II, Title I of the Public Health Code, paragraphs 68-75 and 79-82 (IDHL, 29: 272). The Minister of Hydrology prepares plans and constructs water and sewage works, which are then operated by the cities and communes under the guidance of the Ministry of the Interior. Standards for drinking-water are based on the International standards for drinking-water published by WHO in 1971 (which are in fact only recommendations). Standards for water and sewage more appropriate to local conditions have not yet been distributed. Industrial establishments are governed by standards set jointly ·by the appropriate industrial ministry and the Ministry of Public Health. Factories analyse their own effluents and are required to provide appropriate treat- ment. The deadline for enforcement may, however, be deferred for a period of two years, subject to renewal if there are unavoidable difficulties in the procurement and construction of the necessary facilities . All cities on the coast discharge essentially untreated sewage into the sea or, in some cases, into a harbour or estuary. In the interior most sewage is used for agricultural irrigation, either directly or after a short sojourn in a receiving stream. A national development plan calls for sewage treatment plants in cities of more than 50 000 inhabitants and the reuse of the water in agriculture and indus- try. Agricultural reuse predominates but the mining complex of El Hadjar in the south recovers 600 m3 of treated water daily . The Secretary of State for Forests and Reforestation has stated that the cost of wastewater treatment, even for urban centres discharging into the sea, is justified by health con- siderations and the shortage of water resources . Air The Public Health Code contains indirect references to the need to control air pollution from "industrial , commercial or other establishments classi- fied as dangerous, inconvenient or unhealthy" (IDHL, 29: 274). Responsi- bility for detailed codes of enforcement lies with the Department of Environ- mental Protection. 13 Environmental health services Noise No legislation. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Public Health Code includes reference to the need to collect and dispose of household refuse and solid and industrial waste. The responsibility for collection and disposal of domestic waste lies with the local authorities, who operate under directives from the Ministry of the Interior. There are four different ministries responsible for variou aspects of industry and its wastes: the Ministry of the Interior for small urban industries, the Ministry of Light Industry, the Ministry of Heavy Industry and the Ministry of Energy and Petrochemical Industries. The Ministry of Public Health must be consulted in the drawing up of standards based on health considerations. The Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform and the Ministry of Trade, as well as the ministries listed above, all have a hand in regulations on pesticides and other poisonous and dangerous substances. Decree No. 76- 140 of23 October 1976, issued under the Public Health Code, deals with the control of poisons, narcotics and hazardous substances. The Ministry of Agriculture has issued several orders restricting the use of specific pesticides. Radiation The Public Health Code covers the need for control of exposure to ionizing radiation and the Minister of Public Health must collaborate on any direc- tives regarding human exposure. The Minister of Energy and Petrochemical Industries is responsible for atomic energy. Algeria has a small nuclear reactor for the preparation of radioisotopes. Addresses Ministry of Public Health (Ministere de la Sante publique) Chemin Mohamed Gacem El Madania - Algiers Tel. 66 33 76/ 79 Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (Ministere de I' Agriculture et de la Re- volution agraire) 12 Boulevard Colonel Amirouche Algiers Tel. 63 89 50/ 55 14 Ministry of the Interior (Ministere de l'Interieur) Palais du Gouvernement Algiers Tel. 63 23 40/ 49; 64 93 82/87 Ministry of Planning and National Development (Ministere de la Planification et de l'Amenagement du Territoire) Chemin Poirson Algiers Tel. 78 03 23/27 Secretary of State for Forest and Reforestation (Secretariat d'Etat aux Forets et au Reboisement) Bois de Boulogne Hydra Tel. 60 43 00 Ministry of Hydrology (Ministere de l'Hydraulique) Kouba - Algiers Tel. 58 95 00 Ministry of Light Industry (Ministere des Industries legeres) lmmeuble le Colisee Rue Ahmed Bey Algiers Tel. 60 11 44 Algeria Ministry of Heavy Industry (Ministere de l'lndustrie lourde) lmmeuble le Colisee Rue Ahmed Bey Algiers Tel. 60 82 88 Ministry of Energy and Petrochemical Industries (Ministere de l'Energie et des lndus- trie petrochimiques) 80 Avenue A. Ghermoul Algiers Tel. 66 33 00 Ministry of Education and Scientific Research (Ministere de l'En eignement et de la Recherche scientifique) I rue Attar B Algiers Tel. 663361; 650555; 552442 15 r f • Area 83 849 km' Austria The Republic of Austria, which is bounded by Czechoslovakia, the Federal Republic of Germany, Hungary, Italy, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, is a mountainous country with a sharply varying climate; the mean temperature is 7-9 °C. The Danube river flows through Austria and forms, with its tributary the March, part of the boundary with Czechoslovakia. Government and Basic Legislation Austria is a federal republic divided into nine provinces (Liinder) , each with its own provincial assembly (Landtag). The Federal Parliament has two 17 Environmenral health services chambers: the National Council (Nationalrat) and the Federal Council (Bundesrat). The Federal Constitution (Bundesverfassungsgesetz, BVG) does not specifically give the central government competence for environ- mental matters , but there is explicit or implied comprehensive competence in several environmental matters closely related to health , where the Federal Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection is the leading ministry. It cooperates with the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the Federal Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry, and the Federal Min- istry of Transport , where appropriate. A comprehensive federal law on environmental protection has been under consideration for several years. Many aspects of environmental pro- tection are dealt with in federal and provincial ac ts regulating various matters . The Lander have responsibility for nature conservation, physical planning and domestic waste disposal, and they implement the federal directives in other a reas. Austria is a member of the Danube Commission and has bilateral agreements with neighbo uring countries regarding pollution . Water The Water Law is embodied in the Con titution (Article 10(1), No. 10) along with the Forestry Law. The Federal Minister of Agriculture and Forestry has prime authority , with advice from the Federal Minister of Health and Environmental Protection. The Water Law has had many a mendments, of which the Act of 22 May 1966 (Bundesgesetzblatt 1969, p. 1283 et seq.) deals with pollution caused by discharges from hydrological constructions. Federal support for plants to purify discharges , and for other anti-pollution investments, is provided by long-term loans and preferential income taxes. Prior permiss io n is req uired for activities that could lead to the polluti on of water or o therwise injure the interests of other parties who have special rights o r interest in its use. Permits and enforcement of the Water Law are in the hands of the local water authorities, with expert advice from the loca l public health offices. The responsibility for the collection and treatment of domestic sewage lies with the communes or municipalities . In some cases communes have joined together to provide sewage treatmen t in a regional plant. Air Although there is no general legislation regarding the control of a ir pol- lution by the Federal Government, a number of aspects are regulated by means of other laws. The Federal Trade Act ( Gewerbeordnung 1973) re- quires licences for activities that result in harmful emissions, odours and/or noise. A series o f court decisions has hel d that emissions significantly in excess of background may be unacceptable. The Lander may enact ordi- nances that et thresho ld limits, a nd some have very strict regulations 18 Austria regarding air pollution by domestic heating. Local or neighbourhood pollu- tion is handled at the commune level. The Federal Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry has published ordinances regarding, for example, emissions from bitumen factories and from chemical cleaning facilities . Noise As in the case of air pollution, there is no comprehensive legislation regard- ing noise control at the federal level. Noise is considered in conjunction with the relevant act governing the main sources of this kind of pollution. There are , however, federal regulations covering noise from motor vehicles under the traffic code and the preferential selection by the post office of equipment that has a low noise level. Noise from air traffic is also regulated at the federal level. Solid and Hazardous Waste The collection , treatment and disposal of solid waste from households is a local responsibility with no federal intervention. Some of the Lander have set up waste disposal districts and provide for expropriation of land for waste disposal plants. The control of poisonous and hazardous substances is a federal responsibility under the Federal Poison Act (No. 235, I 951). The Federal Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection, in collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, establishes regu- lations under the Food Act (No. 86, 1975) for the proper use of pesticides and herbicides that may make their way into foods. This Act also covers household products, such as detergents . Permits for the possession, trans- port and use of poisons are obtained from district authorities following federal legislation. Radiation The control of radiation and radioactive isotopes is vested in the Federal Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection . Austria collaborates with the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has its head offices in Vienna. There are currently no nuclear power stations in Austria . Addresses Federal Ministry of Health and En- vironmental Protection (Bundesministerium fiir Gesundheit und Umweltschutz) Stubenring 1 1010 Vienna Tel. (0222)75 00 Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Bundesministerium fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft) Stubenring 1 1010 Vienna Tel. (0222) 75 00 19 Environmental health services Federa l Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry (Bundesministerium fur Handel, Gewerbe und Industrie) Stubenring I 1010 Vienna Tel. (0222) 75 00 20 Federal Ministry of Transport (Bundesministerium fur Verkehr) Elisabethstral3e 9 1011 Vienna Tel. (0222) 56 50 r • Area: 30 5 1 3 km' Belgium Belgium is bounded by the Federal Republic of Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the North Sea. It has a temperate climate and a high density of population. Government and Basic Legislation Belgium is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy and is divided into nine provinces . There is a two-chamber Parliament consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. Within the country there are two major language groups, Flemish (speaking Dutch) and Walloon (speaking 21 Environmental health services French), and a small German-speaking area in the south east. Plans for regiona l governments for the French and Flemish regions and a special region for the capital area of Brussels are in various stages of implement- ation. The regions are being given legislative authority in land-use planning, water and waste disposal. The Constitution, in Article 108, states that the province or commune "settles everything that is a provincial or communal interest". National and regional laws are administered by the governor of a province . The College of the Burgomaster and Elders has administrative and police power in the communes. Intercommunal bodies are frequently formed for town planning purposes. The principal ministry involved in environmental affairs is the Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs, but some of its environmental functions are being taken over by regional authorities. The General Regulations for the Protection of Labour (RGPT) are the original laws by which pollution of neighbourhoods may be controlled. Regulations based on them are still in use wherever they have not been pre-empted by specific legislation. Water The basic water laws covering freshwater are the surface water and ground- water laws of 26 March I 971 (/DHL, 23: 456, 457). The Crown Order of 3 August 1976 (IDHL, 29: 518) repealed earlier orders and laid down detai led regulations for discharges into sewers and surface water. In addi- tion to the usual restrictions on physical and chemical parameters, it included a special prohibition on the use of garbage grinders. Wastewater containing infectious organisms must be disinfected before discharge. The basic responsibility for water supply and wastewater was transferred to the regions in 1981. Special companies have been established to organize, plan , construct and operate water and waste disposal facilities. The Minister of Public Health and Family Affairs sets standards, while enforcement is at the commune level. Permits to discharge treated sewage must be obtained from the purification company in the area. Protected catchment areas for the protection of groundwater may be set up by Crown order. Licences for abstracting groundwater are reviewed by the Administration of Mines for expert advice but are issued by the· Water Department of the Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs. Marine pollution laws follow various international and area-wide con- ventions. The London Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil ( of 12 May 1954), and its amendments, is implemented in the laws of 4 July 1962 and 29 November 1967, and the 1958 Geneva Convention on the High Seas is implemented in the Law of29 July 1971. The Belgian Navy and the Civil Defence share responsibility for implementing the marine pollution laws. 22 Belgium Air The Air Pollution Control Law of 28 December 1964 (/DHL, 16: 677) contains general provisions to be implemented by Crown orders. The Min- ister of Public Health and Family Affairs has administrative authority but must collaborate with the ministers responsible for mines, labour, public works or communications in cases involving matters under their juris- diction. The Minister for National Defence, however , has autonomy for the control of all air pollution originating in military operations. Enforcement is at the communal level but some attempts by communes to enact local legislation on air pollution, where national regulations appea r to be inadequate, have been reversed at the national level. A number of o ld orders setting up regional requirements for fuels have been repealed by Crown Order of 6 January 1978 (/DHL, 30: 724) on the control of air pollution and standards for heating installations in buildings. However, the Crown Order of 8 August 1975 (/DHL, 28: 443), which sets detailed dis- charge regulations, also limits fuels that may be burned in special protection areas and regulates the sulfur content of fuels in all parts of the country. Regulations for pollution from vehicles follow European Community regu- lations. They are administered by the Ministry of Communications. Noise The basic law for environmental protection in this section is the Law of 18 July 1973 concerning noise control (/DHL, 25: 496). Crown orders of 24 March 1974 (/DHL, 26: 457) and IO June 1976 (/DHL, 29: 517) concern noise from motor vehicles, including racing events. The Crown Order of 24 February 1977 (/DHL, 29: 517) concerns maximum sound levels for music in public and private establishments. Administration of these orders is by the Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs. European Com- munity directives on noise produced by motor vehicles and severa l Crown orders regulate maximum noise levels that may be produced by various types of motor vehicle. Administration is by the Ministry of Communi- cations. The RGPT (see above) covers many aspects of noise from industrial and construction activities as it affects the neighbourhoods. Noise from aircraft is subject to control by the Air Ministry . There are also local ordinances restricting noise in special areas. Solid and Hazardous Waste Public waste companies have been authorized in the French and Flemish regions. The Public Waste Company of Flanders, OV AM ( Openbare Afval- stoffenmaatschappij voor het Vlaamse Gewest) was established by Law of 2 July 1981 of the Flemish Parliament. A corresponding company operates in the French-speaking region . OV AM is responsible for organizing and 23 Environmental health services planning the management and treatment of waste other than wastewater, radioactive waste and cadavers. Industrial waste and dangerous waste, as well as agricultural waste, are included. The recycling and recovery of materials and energy are encouraged. However, the Law on toxic waste of 22 July 1974 (/DHL, 27: 521), implemented by Crown Order of 9 Febru- ary 1976 (IDHL, 28: 449), defines specific categories of waste as "toxic" and gives administrative authority to the Ministry of Employment and Labour, with collaboration from the Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs. Pesticides are regulated by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs, under the Pesticide Law of 11 July 1969 (/DHL, 21 : 260) and Crown Order of 5 June 1975 (IDHL, 28: 442). Radiation Radioactive waste is included in the basic law on protection against ionizing radiation: Crown Order of 28 February 1963 (IDHL, 15: 18), amended by Crown Order of 23 December 1970 (IDHL, 23: 445) which brings the defi- nition in line with Eura tom Basic Standards. The Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs has prime responsibility for administration, with collab- oration from the Ministry of Employment and Labour. Military operations are exempt from this law. In case of major accidents, the Ministry of the Interior has prime responsibility. Addresses Ministry of Public Health and Family Affairs (Ministere de la Sante publique et de la Famille) Cite administrative de l'Etat Quartier Esplanade 6 1010 Brussels Tel. (02) 564 80 11 (02) 564 16 25 (telephone operator) (international relations) Administration of Mines (Administration des Mines) Rue J .A. De Mot 26 1040 Brussels Tel. (02) 233 61 11 24 Ministry of Employment and Labour (Ministere de l'Emploi et du Travail) Rue Belliard 51-53 1040 Brussels Tel. (02) 230 90 10 Ministry of Public Works (Ministere des Travaux publics) Residence Palace Rue de la Loi 155 1040 Brussels Tel. (02) 734 91 07 Ministry of Communications (Ministere des Communications) Rue d'Arlon 104 1040 Brussels Tel. (02)2194267 Ministry of Agriculture (Ministere de !'Agriculture) Rue Marie-Therese I 1040 Brusse ls Tel. (02)2194320 Ministry of the Interio r (Ministere de l'Interieur) Rue de Louvain I 1000 Brusse ls Tel. (02) 511 65 30 Belgium Other organizations OVAM (Openbare Afvalstoffenmaatschappij voor het Vlaamse G ewest) Kan . de Deckerstraat 26 2800 Mechelen Tel. (015)208320 25 r f • Area: 1 1 0 91 2 km' '•, -. ... , ·-- ··.;·-:· Bulgaria Bulgaria is bounded by Greece , Romania , Turkey and Yugoslavia . The Black Sea forms its eastern frontier and the lower Danube river forms most of the northern boundary with Romania . There are fairly sharp climatic contrasts between winter and summer. Government and Basic Legislation Under the 1971 Constitution, the supreme organ of state power of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, and the only legislative organ, is the single- chamber National Assembly. The National Assembly elects the Council of 27 E11viro11me11tal health services State as its permanent institution and also elects the Council of Ministers, which is the highest administrative body of the State but is responsible to the National Assembly. Within the Council of State there is a Council for Protectio n and Restoration of the Natural Environment. This Council coordinates and directs the activities of a ll governmental and other organs working in the field of environmental protection. For purposes oflocal administration, the country is divided into 27 prov- inces (okruzi) . The local authorities are responsible for all economic, social and cu ltural affairs of local importance in accordance with the laws of the country. The provinces are divided into 292 communes. The capita l, Sofia, has a specia l status corresponding to that of a province. The Law for the protection of a ir , water and so il from pollution was enacted by Decree No. 728 of 24 October 1963 (/DHL. 16: 33). This Law obliges ministries, departments, people's councils and public organizations to undertake the systematic prevention of the pollution of water, ai r and soil. In building new enterprises and reconstructing old ones, it is obligatory to use equipment that will eliminate contamination of the environment. Concentration of polluting substances should not surpass the levels approved by the Ministry of Public Health for harmful substances in the air of settlements and in water receivers. The location of new enterprises should be in conformity with health protection areas that have been established by health legislation . The Minister of Public Health, the Minister of Agricul- ture and the Food Industry, the Chairman of the State Plann ing Committee, the Chairman of the Committee for Environmental Protection and the Minister of Finance are responsible for carrying out the provisions of the Law. The hygiene and epidemiological inspectorate of a district (GEi) is the basic specialized health institution responsible for the protection of the human environment, the prevention of disease, and the improvement of the health and working capacity oft he population. It works in cooperation with therapeutic and prophylactic establishments for an objective appraisal of the environment and its influence on the health of the population . It formu- lates and proposes appropriate prophylactic measures and programmes. The GEis are administered by the public health departments attached to district people's councils. The Minister of Public Health has the duty of exercising state control through the intermediary of the specialized agencies designated in the regulations to execute the Law on pollution . However , he may assign responsibility for exercising state control to other health agencies and officials. The Law gives the responsible agenc ies power to inspect, at any time , establ ishments and facilities subject to control. Regulations No. 0-7 of I 973 (/DHL, 24: 728) specify the basic functions of district hygiene and epidemiological inspectorate , their structure and staffing, and their relationship with the Ministry of Public Health , with scientific research centres, institutes and university departments in the field 28 Bulgaria of public health and epidemiology, people's councils, district sanitary ser- vices, other health institutions, and the country at large. The inspectorates are administered by the public health authorities attached to people's coun- cils. They have wide-ranging sanitary control functions . The Public Health Law was codified and revised by Decree No. 2431 of 2 November 1973 (/DHL, 25: 502). The regulations made under the 1973 Law on public health gave the responsibility for the direct exercise of state sanitary control to state sanitary inspectors , designated by the Minister of Public Health. In per- forming their duties , inspectors must not reveal confidential information or trade secrets that come to their notice . The regulations specify the procedures for sanitary control , for the approval of food establishments, and for banning the storage and use of foodstuffs on health grounds. The Ministry of Forestry and Environmental Protection (now the Min- istry of Forestry) was established in 1971 , and the Committee for Environ- mental Protection was set up in 1976 under the Council of Ministers. The Committee and its bodies carry out technical control of the design, con- struction, and operation of cleansing stations that have as their function the protection of the air, water and soil from pollution. Bulgaria is a member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance which, since 1963, has included in its programmes coordinated scientific research into the problems of the hygiene of the atmosphere of settlements, and other aspects of the environment. Water The 1963 Law for the protection of air, water and soil frpm pollution established the General Directorate of Water Resources, which worked with the Ministry of Public Health and the Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry to formulate a number of decrees and orders. Among the more important is the amended Order No . 96 of 12 December 1969 (IDHL, 21 : 557) specifying the various health protection areas for the control of water pollution. Zone A is fully protected as a water supply area and may not be used for agriculture or other purposes . Zone B may be used for agriculture and for building, subject to hygienic regulations that are established by a commission designated by the Minister of Construction and Architecture. The duties of the General Directorate of Water Resources are now assigned to the Committee for Environmental Protection , under the Council of Ministers, which operates regional inspection stations where water samples may be analysed and appropriate action taken. Bulgaria is a member of the Danube Commission and has agreements with Turkey and Romania regarding pollution of the Black Sea. Air Article 31 of the Bulgarian Constitution states: "The protection and conserva- tion of nature and natural resources, water, air and soil , and of monuments 29 Environmental health services of culture, is the responsibility of state organs and enterprises, cooperatives and public organizations, and the duty of every citizen". The air pollution aspects of the Law for the protection of air, water and soil from pollution are administered by the Ministry of Public Health in collaboration with other appropriate ministries and the State Planning Committee. The GEis are responsible for air quality monitoring and the measurement of emissions. A table of maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances in the ambient air of population centres is included in Notice No. 3 of 9 Janu- ary 1970 (IDHL, 22: 45) and No. 64 of 1972. Health protection areas around industrial operations are prescribed by Notice No . I 3 of I 3 February 1970 (IDHL, 22: 54), which was revised by sanitary classification No. 0 I of 3 March 1972 (IDHL, 24: 266). Depending on the harmful emanations they emit and the technology of the industrial processes applied in the presence of the most modern treatment equipment, industrial activities are divided into seven groups (according to the minimum width of the health protection area): group I (3000 m); group II (2000 m); group III ( 1000 m); group IV (500 m); group V (300 m); group VI ( 100 m); group VII (50 m). The Public Health Law contains a section on measures to combat smoking (Chapter VIII, IDHL, 25: 512). Smoking is prohibited in working areas where non-smokers are present unless the latter have given their written consent. Smoking is also prohibited in working premises where pregnant women and nursing mothers are employed, even if they have raised no objections. The more recent Ordinance No. 2 of 11 March 1980 (IDHL, 31 : 752), is intended to ensure the right of citizens to protection against the damage they may be caused by smokers. Under the new Ordinance, smoking is prohibited in almost all public and working places, including restaurants at meal times, with exceptions for certain "luxury" restaurants. Responsibil- ity for enforcement of the Smoking Ordinance lies with the public health inspectors of the Ministry of Public Health. Noise A system for noise control is being established in the GEI service. Health Standards No. 0-64 of 3 November 1972 (IDHL, 24: 728) set permitted levels of noise in settlements. Another standard applies to noise produced by internal combustion engines. Hygiene and epidemiological inspectorates carry out noise tests in provincial cities and industrial centres on a daily basis. Solid and Hazardous Waste Responsibility for the removal of solid waste in urban areas, health resorts and tourist areas is assigned to the local people's councils by the Law for protection of air, water and soil. Provisional Health and Technical Stand- ards and Rules No. 0-44 of 13 July 1973 (/DHL, 25: 502), applicable to the management of solid waste from population centres, revise earlier regula- tions on the disposal of domestic waste but retain the sanitary classification 30 Bulgaria of industrial activities that applies also to air pollution (see above). Special arrangements are to be made for waste from industry. Poisonous and highly active substa nces are to be controlled by the Ministry of Public Health, the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry, and the Ministry of Forestry and Environmental Protection (now the Ministry of Forestry), according to Chapter II, Article 15 of the Public Health Law. Radiation Protection against ionizing radiation is assigned to the Radiation Safety Inspectorate of the Ministry of Public Health by Articles 17 and 18 of the Public Health Law (IDHL, 25: 524). A number of specific ordinances were issued by the Deputy Minister of Public Health (designated as Chief State Sanitary Inspector), in collaboration with the Chairman of the Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy and the Minister of the Interior in 1974 and 1975 (see IDHL, 26: 735 and 739). The Radiation Safety Standards follow those of the USS R. Bulgaria has two nuclea r power reactors . Addresses Ministry of Public Health 5 Place Lenin Sofia Tel. 86 31 Ministry of Forestry Antim I 17 Sofia Tel. 86 171 Ministry of Agricu lture and the Food Industry Botev 55 Sofia Tel. 85 31 87 84 5 I National Agricultural and Industrial Union Hristo Bo tev 55 Sofia Ministry of the Interior Gurko Sofia Tel. 87 80 11 87 75 11 Ministry of Construction and Architecture Dondukov 2 Sofia Tel.8501 State Planning Committee Dondukov 21 Sofia Tel. 8601 Committee for Environmental Protection 2 Place Banski Sofia Tel. 8601 31 r • Area: 1 2 7 899 km' Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia borders on the German Democratic Republic and Poland to the north, the Federal Republic of Germany in the west, Austria and Hungary in the south, and the USSR in the east. It has a continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The average temperature is 9 °C. Government and Basic Legislation The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic is a federal state of two Republics, the Czech and the Slovak Socialist Republics, each with its own government. The supreme organ of federal state power is the Federal Assembly, which 33 Environmental health services has two chambers: the House of the People and the House of Nations . Each constituent Republic has its own elected National Council or Parliament, which is responsible for all matters except external relations, defence, over- seas trade, transport and communications. For most services related to the environment there are parallel ministries in the two Republics, located in Prague and Bratislava, respectively. These ministries cooperate in the issu- ance of regulations, which are similarly worded in the two national lan- guages (Czech and Slovak) and are issued at about the same time. The Czech Socialist Republic contains seven regions (counties) and the city of Prague, which functions as a region; there are three regions and the city of Bratislava (functioning as a region) in the Slovak Socialist Republic. The regions are governed by elected Regional Councils. Each region is divided into districts governed by elected National Councils. For water administration the country is divided into river basins . There are over 10 000 communes, of which nearly 8000 have a population of less than 1000. About half of the population lives in 162 towns. The principal ministries involved in environmental protection are: the two Ministries of Forestry and Water Management; the two Ministries of Health; and the single Federal Ministry for Technology and Development. The Ministries of Forestry and Water Management are responsible, under the Water Law of 1973, for water supply, water quality, and pollution control. They also have responsibility for some aspects of air pollution. They operate two central water research institutes in Prague and Bratislava, respectively, as well as special branch laboratories. Two engineering insti- tutes, Hydroproject in Prague, and Hydroconsult in Bratislava, provide engineering services within the country. Hydroconsult also provides services in some foreign countries. There are also Hydrometeorological Institutes in Prague and Bratislava . The Ministries of Health are responsible for all aspects of public health, including the health aspects of water supply, under the Public Health Law No. 20 of 1966. The Health Ministries cooperate closely with their respective Forestry and Water Management Ministries, sharing laboratory reports and services at the regional level, as well as coordinating directives. The Chief Hygienists of the Socialist Republics in Prague and Bratislava have overall supervision of the establishment and maintenance of healthy living con- ditions in the Republics. In all public health matters involving water, the Ministries of Health act in accord with the respective Ministries of Forestry and Water Management. The Federal Ministry for Technology and Development, in coordination with the Ministry of Health , has responsibility for certain aspects of air pollution, noise and radiation (both ionizing and nonionizing). The administration of environmental laws and regulations is decentral- ized; the people's councils of the regions and districts are responsible for 34 Czechoslovakia administering the laws that protect the environment. In practice, however, the regional services come under the control of the regional or national committees and follow the directives of the ministerial departments. The Ministry of the Interior has overall control of the regional admin- istration. The Ministries of Health have established Institutes for Hygiene and Epidemiology at the regional as well as at the district level. Each regional institute and most of the district institutes are equipped with laboratory facilities. Czechoslovakia has bilateral agreements on pollution control and environmental protection with each of its neighbouring countries. The Danube forms 100 km of the border with Hungary, and Czechoslovakia is a member of the Danube Commission. Czechoslovakia is a member of CMEA, which has a committee that establishes standard methods for the analysis of water, air, etc. These methods are binding in matters involving bilateral compacts between CMEA countries and form the basis for many local standard methods. Water Administration of water supply and pollution control follows a special pattern because the country is divided into river basins that do not always follow regional boundaries. There is a water board for each river basin, which administers the water regulations. The water board must prepare documents based on expert opinions which set limits appropriate to the local conditions in response to requests for withdrawals or discharges. These expert opinions are binding on the political authorities in the region. Surface water and the beds of rivers and lakes are state property administered by the Ministries of Forestry and Water Management. Surface water and ground- water, beyond normal domestic needs , must be purchased from the State. The water boards levy fees for discharges of polluted water. At present these fees are based on volume, suspended solids and organic matter as BOD {biochemical oxygen demand). Other pollutants may be added later. The aim is to make the fees somewhat larger than the cost of removing the pollutants. Fees paid for the discharge of pollutants go into a no-year-limit fund that is earmarked for the improvement of water. Capital costs for the construction of approved municipal treatment plants come from the State Treasury, but operating costs are paid from the regional budgets. Every factory above a certain size must employ a water officer whose responsibility is both to the factory and to the State. Likewise, other ministries and regional administrative units must have water officers. The District or Regional Hygienist , who is the Director of the district or regional Institute for Hygiene and Epidemiology, has prime authority in matters endangering public health and is authorized to take all necessary measures , including stopping production if necessary, to protect health. The Director of Public Health, who is the Chief Hygienist, has overall authority at the republic level. In health matters concerning water, the 35 Environmental health services Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Forestry and Water Management must act in accord. The Water Law No . I 38 of 31 October I 973 (IDHL, 26: 511) repeals laws prior to 1960 regarding water supply and water pollution and serves as a basis for a number of decrees, including Decree No. 25 of 26 March I 975 of the Czech Socialist Republic, establishing indicators of the permissible level of water pollution (/DHL, 29: 321 ), and the corresponding Decree No. 30 of 26 March 1975 of the Slovak Socialist Republic. Indicators of the per- missible levels are set in terms of toxic elements, other chemical water quality parameters, and biological parameters. The latter include the be- haviour ofsalmonoid fish in water courses designed for water supply and of cyprinoid ( carp family) fish in other su rface waters. Also included is the pollution (saprobity) index, based on work done at the Department of Water and Environmental Technology in Prague . The Water Law states that groundwater is reserved for drinking and other specified purposes , as ordered by the Ministry of Health. Natural medicinal waters come under special regulations. Important natural aqui- fers may be designated as "protected water-resource zones". Discharge of wastewater must not jeopardize the quality of surface water or groundwater. The Ministry of Health's Order No. 45 of 13 June 1966 (IDHL, 18: 327) establishes, inter alia, three classes of water: (a) drinking-water; (b) water of domestic quality that may be used , if drinking-water is not available, for bathing, washing, and watering animals; and (c) water of industrial quality that may be used for any other purpose except the preparation of food. Oil pollution of surface water is covered in Order No. 35 of 1972 of the Ministry of Forestry and Water Management of the Czech Socialist Repub- lic and No. 12 of 1973 of the Slovak Socialist Republic. Air The Public Health Law of I 966 assigns responsibility for establishing maxi- mum permissible concentrations for the most harmful substances in the air to the Chief Hygienists of the Czech and Slovak Socialist Republics . Law No . 35 of 7 April 1967 concerns measures for the control of air pollution (IDHL, 19: 323). This Law is concerned mainly with the payments to be made by establishments responsible for causing air pollution and the fines which may be imposed on them for certain offences in connection with the control of such pollution. The Ministry of Forestry and Water Management is empowered (a) to work out proposals for technical and economic plans for the protection of the atmosphere; (b) to express its opinion on documents concerning invest- ment plans approved by the State Committee for Technology, which may markedly affect the purity of the air; (c) to determine the compulsory procedures for measuring discharges of harmful substances; and (d) to make provision for the carrying out of scientific and technical research in the field of air purity. 36 Czechoslovakia State Techical Inspectorates for the Protection of Air are established in each Ministry of Forestry and Water Management as inspection agencies for the Czech and Slovak Socialist Republics. The Chief Hygienist issued Instruction No. 34 of 14 July 1967 (/DHL, 23: 660) on maximum permissible concentrations of the most important harmful substances in the air. The Public Health Law of I 966 also states that, in connection with the provision of public services, smoking shall be permissible only in places specially reserved for this purpose. In places for the provision of meals to the public, at least one section must be set aside in which smoking is prohibited, at least during the normal period for the provision of main meals. Noise The administr~tion of regulations regarding noise is under the Environ- mental Protection Section of the Federal Ministry for Technology and Development. Instruction No. 32 of23 December 1966 (/DHL, 19: 322) concerns the protection of health against the objectionable effects of noise, under the Public Health Law of 1966. Maximum permissible noise levels are established for workplaces , out- door areas, motor vehicles, and industrial machines. The use of sound reproduction equipment in public transport vehicles is permitted only if the noise level is IO dB (A) (A being the frequency characteristic) less than the maximum permissible noise level, and if the equipment is installed in such a way that any traveller who does not wish to be disturbed by the sound reproduction can switch it off himself. Solid and Hazardous Waste The collection and disposal of municipal waste is the responsibility of local officials, with general guidance from the Ministry of Health . The transport , labelling, treatment and disposal of poisons and toxic chemicals is covered by Government Decree No . 56 of 10 April 1967 (/DHL, 19: 324), which is issued in accordance with the Public Health Law of 1966 and assigns responsibility for classification , labelling, and instructions for handling poisons, etc. to the Ministry of Health. This Decree has been supplemented by decrees assigning supervisory responsibility for handling poisons, dan- gerous chemicals, explosives and radioactive materials to special agents of national security under the Ministry of the Interior. Instructions have been issued regarding the transport , handling, storage, and disposal of these materials (No. 57, 1967). Radiation The administration of legislation regarding radiation is under the environ- mental protection section of the Federal Ministry for Technology and 37 Environmental health services Development. The State Environmental Commission of the Prime Minister gives advice and coordinates the activities of the various ministries but has no administrative power. Order No. 59 of 30 June 1972 (IDHL, 25: 65) of the Ministry of Health of the Czech Socialist Republic and the corresponding Order No. 65 of21 July 1972 of the Slovak Socialist Republic were made in agreement with the Czechoslovak Atomic Energy Commission and other agencies concerned, in accordance with the Public Health Law of 1966. They repealed earlier orders on health protection against ionizing radiation and the utilization of sources of ionizing radiation. They define radioactive materials and doses, provide detailed provisions concerning the general obligations of all con- cerned with ionizing radiation, and establish a system of licensing. Addresses Ministry of Health of the Czech Socialist Republic Trida Wilhelma Piecka 98 12037 Prague 10 - Vinohrady Tel. 73 06 51 Ministry of Health of the Slovak Socialist Republic Ceskoslovenskej Armady 6 88305 Bratislava Tel. 33 49 12 38 Ministry of Forestry and Water Management of the Slovak Socialist Republic Tr. L. Novomestskeho 2 84218 Bratislava Ministry for Building and Technology of the Slovak Socialist Republic Ceskoslovenskej Armady 4 81267 Bratislava Ministry of Culture of the Slovak Socialist Republic Suvorovova 12 81331 Bratislava r • Area: 43 000 km' Denmark The Kingdom of Denmark, one of the Scandinavian countries, consists of the peninsula of Jutland which borders on the Federal Republic of Ger- many, the major island of Zealand with the capital city of Copenhagen, a large number of adjacent islands, and the island of Bornholm in the Baltic. The Faroe Islands and Greenland also form part of the Kingdom but are administered separately . Principal commercial activities include heavy and light industry, agriculture and fishing. 39 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation Legislative authority resides in the single-chamber Parliament (Folketing), but all laws receive the formal approval of the Crown. Executive power is exercised by a Cabinet led by the Prime Minister who is responsible to the Folketing. Local government is in the hands of 14 counties (amtskommuner or amter), and the capital area which functions as a county. The counties are divided into individual communes (kommuner) that include villages, towns and the adjacent rural areas, and usually take their names from the principal town or village. There are 277 communes. Denmark is a member of the European Community, whose directives are binding within the country and are usually incorporated in administrative orders. Denmark has also signed the Helsinki Convention of 22 March 1974 on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (IDHL, 28: 121). Legislation concerning environmental problems is , in general, promoted by the Ministry of the Environment (Miljeministeriet). The basic legislation is contained in the Environmental Protection Law No. 372 of 13 June 1973 (IDHL, 26: 67), revised by Order No. 345 of 25 June 1981 (IDHL, 32: 833). This Law was revised in 1983. The National Agency of Environmental Protection (Miljestyrelsen, MST) has responsibility for and has issued regulations on air, soil and water pollution , water supply, marine pollution, control of solid waste and sew- age, leakage of oil and dangerous chemicals including emergency measures in case of accident , pesticide control, and nuclear (radioactive isotope) control. Control of sulfur in oil intended for fuel and the importation of new or dangerous chemicals also come under MST through the State Chemical Supervision Service (Kemikaliekontrollen). Cooperation among communes is encouraged . Three laboratories for freshwater, marine and air pollution, respectively, are attached to MST. The independent Water Quality Institute (VKI) may do contract work for MST, and the National Food Institute (Levnedsmid- delinstitutet) in the Ministry of the Environment has provided analytical services on organic pollutants in water. The National Agency for Physical Planning (Planstyrelsen), under the Ministry of the Environment, is responsible for all stages of planning, both national and regional. Plans originate at the commune level and are co- ordinated in the counties with guidance from the National Agency. There is no overall plan for the whole country. An important feature of the National and Regional Planning Act is the provision for public participation. Plans prepared by county councils or communes must be made public and all parties concerned must be notified. A public hearing on the plan, with a discussion of alternatives, is required before a plan is adopted by the local council. All adopted plans must be made public. Enforcement is initially at the commune level. In many cases the medical officer of health or the veterinary officer takes the initial action. In the case of large undertakings, such as factories , mines, quarries, and water extraction and wastewater 40 Denmark disposal systems, where the project influences more than one commune or where it is of such a nature that the commune is unable to handle it technically, the problem is referred to the county. Very large or important problems can be taken up by the Minister, usually through MST. Violations are prosecuted in the ordinary law courts. Appeals against decisions of the commune or county are referred to the Ministry. Appeals against decisions of the Ministry of the Environment are decided by a special Environment Appeal Board (Miljeankemevnet) , whose decisions are final. Interaction with other ministries The National Board of Health, associated with the Ministry of the Interior , may act independently as an adviser in any health matter. Most of the environmentally related functions of the National Board of Health have been transferred to the Ministry of the Environment. There are, however, closely related fields of competence which are dealt with in joint committees or in informal cooperation. Environmental health regulations for workers under the Ministry of Labour (Arbejdsministeriet) are limited to the workplace. On the other hand , there may be overlapping fields of competence between MST and the Labour Inspectorate (Arbejdstilsynet) with regard to the labelling of dan- gerous chemicals and similar problems: for example, rules appropriate for the general public may not be appropriate inside a factory. Denmark is signatory to the Nordic Convention on the Protection of the Environment of 19 February 1974. Order No. 487 of I October 1976 (IDHL. 29: 49), implementing the Convention, rules that the environmental interest of the neighbouring countries (Sweden, Finland and Norway) must be equated with the corresponding interest in Denmark. Administration is assigned to MST. The Faroe Islands and Greenland The Faroe Islands are an independent region under the Danish Crown. They have their own parliament, one of the oldest in Europe, but send repre- sentatives to the Danish Parliament. They have a high degree of autonomy in local laws, even to the extent that they do not belong to the European Community. Many Danish laws and regulations regarding administration and internal affairs do not apply in the Faroe Islands or Greenland . There is at present nothing corresponding to the Ministry of the Environment and there are very few environmental regulations. Danish laws regarding dump- ing at sea extend also to the continental shelf of the Faroe Islands. Authority to introduce environmental regulations resides with the Prime Minister (Legmadur). Greenland , like the Faroe Islands, is an independent region under the Danish Crown, has its own parliament and sends two representatives to the Danish Parliament. Greenland is administered partly by its own Min- istry in Copenhagen (Ministerietfor Gren/and), partly by its own Home Rule 41 Environmental health services authorities with its own local parliament (Landstinget) and its own govern- ing body (Landsstyret). Greenland has its own laws concerning a wide range of matters including, for instance, education and welfare. As regards en- vironmental matters , the Danish environmental laws do not apply to the Greenland area, apart from the laws regarding dumping of oil and other substances at sea. Ordinances for the collection and disposal of municipal waste are issued by each commune in Greenland, of which there are J 3, and a Home Rule regulation for the use of land in Greenland gives the frame- work for physical p lanning for the local communities, as well as for the whole of Greenland. Water The Water Supply Law No. 299 of 8 June I 978 (IDHL, 30: 761) requires the Minister of Environmental Protection to take account of environmental protection as well as health when implementing the Law. The Law makes the communal authorities responsible for monitoring water quality in water supply systems. They report , through the county councils, to MST. A series of orders issued under the Law in 1980 replaces earlier legislation and sets strict standards for, inter alia, the location and construction of underground installations for oil and chemicals that might cause groundwater pollution. Law No. 130 of9 April 1980 (/DHL, 31: 795) on the protection of the marine environment replaces earlier laws implementing international conventions on pollution of the Baltic and the high seas. The Law contains provisions regarding all types of waste discharge and detailed annexes listing different types of poisonous material. It makes MST, the State Shipping In pectorate, the Fishing Inspectorate, and the National Defence Forces jointly respon- sib le for supervising compliance with the Law. Sanitation of recreational facilities is the responsibility of local health authorities, usually the medical officer of health or the district veterinarian, following regulations laid down by MST. Beaches may be blacklisted by MST if they are found to have excessive bacteria counts, but it is up to the local authorities to close the beach if necessary. Likewise, although MST issues directives regarding environmental health in the urban areas, it is up to the counties and communes to enforce them. Air The basic Environmental Protection Law of 1973 has been supplemented by Law No. 259 of 26 May 1976 regulating the sulfur content of fuels (/DHL, 28: 58) and Law No . 267 of 8 June 1977 on lead in petrol (IDHL, 29: 58). Industries capable of causing heavy air pollution, as listed in the annex to the Law of 1973, must secure permits to operate. MST is the responsible agency, with enforcement at the commune level. 42 Denmark Noise The Environmental Protection Law of 1973 has as one of its objectives the prevention and control of nuisances due to noise. Denmark follows the ECE Recommendation (Addendum 8, Rule 9, 1968) concerning the approval of vehicles with regard to noise . A 1972 law prohibits the crossing of Danish air territo ry by civilian supersonic aircraft. This law does not apply to, and is not followed by, NA TO military planes based in Denmark. There are local ordinances regarding noise at airports . New regulations to control noise are under consideration . The Minister of the Environment has pointed out, in connection with discussions on a new environmental protection law, that the present Law cannot be used against loud concerts. To a large extent noise nuisances should be controlled by better planning and the use of less noisy equipment under the new regulations. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Law No. 212 of 23 May 1979 on chemical substances and products (IDHL. 30: 753) replaces earlier poison control laws, and supplements the Environmental Protection Law of I 973 with regard to the environmental damage that may be caused by chemicals, including also microorganisms. MST, the Chemical Control Agency, and the State Food Institute assist the Minister of the Environment in implementing the Law. Communal auth- orities enforce regulations at the retail trade level. The Law contains an annex on pesticides . A number of orders have implemented the Law, in- cluding Order No. 468 of 13 November 1979 on asbestos (IDHL. 31: 783) which will eventually prohibit the manufacture, importation , or use of products containing asbestos. The disposal of dangerous chemicals, including waste solvents, acids and oils is strictly regulated. A cooperative enterprise, Kommunekemi, founded by an association of communes, has a monopoly on collection from local depots, transportation , treatment and disposal of all dangerous chemical waste . They operate a control treatment plant in Nyborg on Funen. Special permission must be obtained from MST if waste chemicals are not delivered to Kommunekemi but are treated and disposed of in other ways. The collection and disposal of municipal waste, and its reuse , are dealt with administratively by the communes or counties, subject to regulations on oi l and dangerous chemicals and on pollution of marine , fresh, and underground waters . The city of Copenhagen offers a collection service for waste paints, solvents and other dangerous substances through retail supply stores. Radiation Laws for the protection of the public against ionizing radiation date back to Law No . 147 of 15 April 1930 on the use of X-rays (IDHL, 22: 721). This 43 Environmental health services was followed by Law No. 94 of 31 March 1953 on radioactive substances (JDHL, 22: 723) and the Atom Law No. 170 of 16 May 1962 on nuclear installations (IDHL, 15: 107 and 22: 720). Administration of regulations regarding ionizing radiation was orig- inally assigned to the National Board of Health in the Ministry of the Interior. However , Order No. 502 of 10 October 1974 (JDHL, 27: 106) transferred authority for protection against radiation from nuclear sources to MST. Denmark does not have any nuclea r power stations. Other sources of radiation are still regulated by the National Board of Health . Addresses Ministry of the Environment (Milj0ministeriet) 12 Slotsho lmsgade 1216 Copenhagen K Tel. (01) 12 7688 44 Natio nal Agency of Environmenta l Protecti o n (Milj0styrelsen (MST)) 29 Strandgade 1401 Copenhagen K Tel. (01) 57 83 10 Na tional Agency for Ph ysica l Pla nning ( Pia nstyrelsen) 23 Holbergsgade 1057 Copenhagen K Tel. (01) 136760 National Agency for the Protection of Na ture, Mo numents and Sites ( Fredningsstyre lsen) 13 Ama liegade 1256 Copenhagen K Tel. (0 I) 11 95 65 Natio nal Forest Service (Skovstyrel sen) 863 Strandvejen 2930 Klampenborg Tel. (01)63 I 166 National Food Institute (Levnedsmiddelinstitutet) 19 M0 rkh0j Bygade 2860 S0borg Tel. (0 1)696600 Minist ry of the Interi o r (lndenrigs ministeriet) Christiansborg Slotsplads I 12 18 Copenhagen K Tel. (0 1) I 16900 National Boa rd of Hea lth (S undhedsstyrelse n) Store Kongensgade I 1264 Copen hagen K Tel. (0 1) 14 10 11 Minis try of Labour (Arbejdsministeriet) Laksegade I 9 1063 Copenhagen K Tel. (0 I) I I I 3 40 La bour (Safe ty and Hea lth ) Inspectora te (Arbejdsti lsy net) Rosenvrengets Alie 16- 18 2100 Copen hage n 0 Tel. (0 I) 38 28 00 Other organizatio.,s Ko mmuneke mi A/S Lindholmvej 3 5800 Nyborg Tel. (09)31 1244 Water Quality Institute (Va ndk va litetsinst itutet (VK I)) Agern Alie 11 2970 H0rsholm Tel. (02) 86 52 11 r f • Area: 33 7 009 km2 ·•· .. --- ;._.•·• .. Finland Situated in northern Europe, Finland (Suoml) has borders with Norway in the far north, Sweden in the north-west , and the USSR in the east. The southern and western shores of the country lie along the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, including more than 10 000 offshore islands. The climate varies sharply, with warm summers and cold winters. Government and Basic Legislation Finland has a republican constitution, which combines a parli~mentary system with a strong presidency. The President has supreme executive 45 Environmental health services power, but legislative power is exercised by the si ngle-chamber Parliament in conjunction with the President. A Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister, is responsible to the Parliament. The country is divided into 12 provinces (Liiiini) , each administered by a Governor. The provincial administration has departments that are sub- ordinate to their corresponding ministries or national boards. Thus, a provincial Department of Social Affairs and Health is subordinate to the National Board of Health and supervises and guides health activities in the province. The provinces are subdivided into 475 communities, each administered by an elected community council that appoints local boards for various matters, including health and the environment. A number of ministries are responsible for the administration of various aspects of environmental law. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests is responsib le for most aspects of fresh water and for the control of pesticides. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health is responsible through the Radi- ation Safety Institute for the medical aspects of radiation and through the local health officer for drinking-water safety, and is directly responsible for classifying poisons and for recommendations on the control of air pollution in homes and in the air outside industrial plants. The Department of Environmental Protection , subordinated to the Ministry of the Interior , deals with matters concerning, for example, general planning, control and coordination of environmental protection (including environmental impact assessments), air pollution control, waste manage- ment, noise abatement , outdoor recreation , and the protection of the marine environment. The Council for Environmental Protection functions as an advisory board of trustees , subordinated to the Ministry of the Interior . Its field of activities is wide and it can concentrate on the most comprehensive environmental issues. Land-use planning and the control of this planning are important function s in environmental protection and they traditionally fall under the Ministry of the Interior. The functions of the National Board of Housing, under the Ministry of the Interior , are closely linked to the shaping of new environments and the maintenance of the existing housing tock . In the regional administration a section for environmental protection has been established in each provincial government. At local level , the establishment of environmental protection boards is encouraged, according to the recent report of a committee entrusted to consider the organization of environmental affairs in communities. Communities are responsible for public health in their areas and for enforcing the environmental regulations. Elected councils of communities or of community federations appoint local health boards, of which there are about 220, to represent consumers and be responsible for personal and environmental health services. They are subsidized by the Government and report to the Provincial Department of Social Affairs and Health , and to the National Board of Health, to which they also submit their five-year plans. Local water boards are responsible for investigations into water pollution 46 Finland and for planning, and issuing permits for, water use and sewage disposal. Violations of the water laws and adjudications on plans for water use are handled by the Water Courts. Finland is signatory to the Nordic Convention on the Protection of the Environment of I 9 February I 974. Act No. 268 of 1973 and Ordinance No. 248 of 1976, implementing the Convention, rule that the environmental interests of the neighbouring countries (Denmark, Sweden and Norway) must be equated with the corresponding interest in Finland. Water The most highly organized part of environmental legislation is in the field of water. Finland not only has an extensive coastline around its many islands but also more than 60 000 lakes. The Baltic Sea around the shores of Finland has a low salinity level and can be used for many industrial purposes as a replacement for fresh water. The Water Act of 1961 (No. 264) legalizes the use of water for various purposes and, with its amendments (No. 453 of 1963, No. 427 of 1970, No. 469 of I 976, No. 299 of 1979 and No. 69 of 1982) establishes rules for punishment of violations, water courts, water boards, and administrative details . Decree No. 83 of 1980 of the State Council (/DHL, 31 : 308) specifies the level of water purification necessary to qualify for a state subsidy. The Water Act is one of the largest acts currently in force in Finland and a number of decrees have been published under its authority. The Ordinance on precautionary measures for preventing water pol- lution, No. 283 of 6 April 1962 (/DHL, 14: 253), amended by Ordinance No. 429 of26 June 1970 (IDHL, 23: 702) and Ordinance No. 499 of27 June 1980 (/DHL, 32: 302), contains regulations for preventing water pollution and obliges those in charge of installations discharging efnuents to notify the water authorities thereof. Ordinance No. 114 of 6 February 1981 (/DHL, 32: 303) contains regulations regarding the reorganization of the National Water Board. This Board is under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, with responsibility for the administration of water resources. There is a water board in each community. The National Water Board is respon- sible for all aspects of fresh water including water supply, sewage treatment and disposal, recreational use , hydroelectric power, flood control, drainage, irrigation, fisheries, and log rafting. The original law on the prevention of marine pollution, No. 146 of 1965, was replaced by Law No. 298 of 1979 (/DHL, 31: 303), which takes into account international treaties binding on Finland with regard to the preven- tion of marine pollution. This Law makes special provision for the control of disposal of radioactive substances, including the deliberate abandonment of vessels at sea . Law No. 300 of 1979 (IDHL, 31 : 304) supplements Law No. 298 with regard to the prevention of water pollution from ships, and empowers the National Board of Navigation to restrict navigation in Fin- nish waters if this is necessary to avert a manifest risk of water pollution. 47 Environmental health services Other provisions restrict or prohibit the disposal of oil, hazardous liquids, solid waste and untreated sewage in Finnish waters . The country is divided into special Water Court districts that deal with legal matters concerning the distribution and disposal of water. They are administrative courts that depend heavily on expert opinions. There is a superior Water Court as a division of the Vaasa Court of Appeal. Air The Act for the protection of the air (No. 67, 1981) entered into force on I October 1982. The Act includes , inter a!ia, two main instruments: general directives and recommendations, to be issued by the Council of State. These can be (a) air quality standards; (b) emission standards; and (c) composition standards, e.g. for fuels. The directives and recommendations can apply to industry, energy conversion and cars. Certain industrial plants and similar installations must submit a notifi- cation on their activities to the provincial authorities. A list of the activitif's to be notified will be included in the Decree on air pollution control that will be promulgated by virtue of the Act. During the notification process, the provincial authorities can give instructions aiming at the control of emissions. The Act also includes stipulations on the organization of air pollution control administration. The Ministry of the Interior is the highest authority. Provincial authorities in the 11 provinces are the main authorities in prac- tice . Local, i.e. community, authorities will be responsible for air quality control in their respective areas. Certain state authorities, including the National Board of Health , and research institutes can be directed by the Decree to serve as expert institutes on air pollution questions . Noise Regulations dealing with noise abatement are included in various acts and statutes. By making use of these regulations it is possible, when necessary, to take noise abatement measures. Under the terms of the Public Health Act of 1965, the corresponding Implementing Regulations of 1967, the Planning and Building Act of 1958 and its Implementing Regulations , and the Act on certain neighbourhood relations, industrial establishments and power plants are to be located at such places where nuisances caused by them will have the minimum impact. According to the Implementing Regulations on public health, the suitability of the location reserved for a specific purpose, as far as noise is concerned, is a prerequisite for the approval of the location by the local Board of Health. A circular published by the National Board of Health in 1979 gives guideline values for maximum noise levels in residential, public building and rec- reational areas, and indoors in schools, hospitals and dwellings. 48 Finland The Road Traffic Act of 1957 (at present under revision ; a new Bill has recently been put before Parliament) and the Motor Vehicle Regulations issued to implement the Act contain provisions aimed at curtailing vehicle noise . The Regulations stipulate that the design of the car has to be such that its use does not cause noise that could be avoided by appropriate technical means. The Regulations also have a bearing on other types of vehicle. The Planning and Building Act makes it both possible and imperative for the planning authorities to ensure that industrial depository and traffic areas are appropriately situated in relation to housing, recreational and other areas. It is stipulated that any industrial plant that , through vibration or noise, causes permanent undue inconvenience to those living on the site or in the vicinity must not be located near a residential area or other public buildings. The Act concerning certain neighbourhood relations includes similar stipulations on nuisances and a special survey and permit system . Solid and Hazardous Waste The Waste Management Act (No. 673, 1978) came into force on I April 1979. This Act applies to all waste, including solids, sludges, fluids and gases produced by industry, services, commercial undertakings and domestic households, and which will not be discharged into the water or the air. The Act stipulates that waste management must make it possible to recycle the waste or to use it in some other beneficial manner, without its having detrimental effects on the environment. According to the Act, the municipalities are required to take care of waste management in their own area. The supreme direction and supervision of waste management rests with the Ministry of the Interior. Waste that, on account of its toxic or other properties, is difficult to treat or dispose of and is therefore considered as problem waste is listed in a Decision oft he Ministry of the Interior (No. 576, 1979). A special permit is compulsory for the treatment or disposal of problem waste. Problem waste is not allowed to be exported or imported without prior notice to the Ministry of the Interior. The Ministry has the authority to prohibit the export or import of waste when necessa ry. In autumn 1979 a limited company was founded by the State, com- munities and industry, to build a concentrated treatment plant for problem waste, to serve the interests of the whole country. Radiation Rad:ation protection is regulated by the Law on protection against radi- ation, No. 174 of 26 April 1957 (IDHL, 9: 474) and by Decree No . 328 of 27 September 1957 (IDHL, 9: 478), the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health being the responsible authority. 49 Environmental health services As regards the production of atomic energy, responsibility is assigned to the Ministry of Trade and Industry in the Atomic Energy Law, No. 356 of 25 October 1957 (IDHL, 9: 499). The licensing authorities are the National Board of Health in the case of medical uses of radiation, the Ministry of Trade and Industry as regards atomic energy, and the Radiation Safety Institute for other uses of radiation. The supervising authority for both radiation protection and nuclear safety is the Radiation Safety Institute, subordinated to the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. The statutory task of the Radiation Safety Institute is to prevent and limit any harmful effects associated with the use of radiation and nuclear energy under Law No. 536 of 20 June 1974 and Ordinance No. 103 of 14 February 1975 (IDHL, 27: 325). Among other responsibilities , the Institute investigates and supervises: the radiation doses received by workers and the general public from artificial sources of radiation; and naturally occurring radiation in man's environment. Addresses Ministry for Foreign Affairs Riddaregatan 2B 00170 Helsinki 17 Tel. 1601 641761 (press) Ministry of the Interior Regeringsgatan 4E 00171 Helsinki 17 Tel. 1601 50 Department of Environmental Protection Hagniisgatan 2 Helsinki Council for Environmental Protection Tavastviig 6 Helsinki Ministry of Agriculture and Forests Regeringsgatan 3 00171 Helsinki 17 Tel. 1601 1603319 (information) Office for the Management of Natural Resources Berggatan 16 Helsinki Ministry of Social Affairs and Health Snellmansgatan 4-6 00171 Helsinki 17 Tel. 1601 66 0 I 76 (information) Ministry of Education Fredsgatan 4 00171 Helsinki 17 Tel. 171636 Ministry of Traffic S Esplanadgatan 16 00171 Helsinki 17 Tel. 17361 Ministry of Trade and Industry Alexandersgatan 10 00171 Helsinki 17 Tel. 1601 1603319 (information) Finland Societies The Association for Protection of Natural Resources Peramiehenkatu I IA 00150 Helsinki 15 Tel. 6447 31 51 r f • Area: 64 7 026 km' France France is siiuated in western Europe, with coastlines on the North Sea, the English Channel, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea . It is bordered to the north by Belgium and Luxembourg, to the east by the Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland and Italy , and to the south-west by Spain. Corsica , which is part of metropolitan France, lies to the south. The Rhine river forms part of the boundary with the Federal Republic of Germany . The climate is temperate in most of the country, but in the south it is of the mediterranean type with warm summers and mild winters. 53 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation The Republic of France has a Parliament with two chambers, the Senate and the National Assembly . The President holds executive power and appoints the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, which governs the country and is responsible to Parliament. Metropolitan France has 21 administrative regions comprising 95 departments. Each department is administered by a Government-appointed prefect. Plans are being made to decentralize the administrative functions by forming new regions, corresponding roughly to the older provinces, with a degree of local autonomy much greater than the present regions. At the present time the regional administrations have little authority but act largely in an advisory and coordinating capacity. The director of health and social welfare of the department, assisted by medical officers of health, has responsibilities in the health field, including environ- mental sanitation. The prefect and the director of health and social welfare are advised by a departmental medical inspector. The departments are subdivided into about 36 000 communes, which vary greatly in size and population . At the level of the commune, the mayor is responsible under the administrative authority of the prefect. A health office must be established in all towns of more than 20 000 inhabitants, and in all communes of not less than 2000 inhabitants that are regarded as thermal spas or health resorts. A health office is directed by a physician, working full-time or part-time according to the size of the area. He is technically responsible to the departmental medical inspector. A local health committee acts in an advisory capacity. Although there is no basic environmental law, a number of decrees concerning specific types of pollution date back to the early years of the industrial revolution. The Law of 19 December 1917 deals with classified, i.e. dangerous, unhealthy or unfit, establishments that may emit smoke, fumes, dust , noise, or other objectionable matter. The I 917 Law was updated by the Environmental Protection Law No . 76-663 of 19 July 1976 (/DHL, 27: 734) which is administered by the Secretary of State for the Environment. This Law governs the operations of all factories, workshops or other installations that may create danger or nuisance to health, safety, amenities , agriculture, the environment, sites and monuments. They are subject to either authorization or declaration. The installations are defined in a register, which is the continuation of the Register of Dangerous, Insanitary, Noisy or Noxious Establishments issued under the Decree of 20 May 1953. Installations of classes I and 2 according to the Register of 1953 are now subject to authorization, and installations of class 3 are subject to declaration . Applications for authorization are addressed to the prefect of the department concerned and must specify the site , nature and volume of activity and the manufacturing processes and materials to be used, and give maps and plans of surroundings . They must contain a study including details of the treatment of emissions and dis- charges, the removal of waste, conditions of transport of materials and 54 France products and emergency plans, and a notice regarding the conformity of the installation with regulations for the protection of the workers . Supple- mentary regulations may be imposed , or original regulations eased when no longer justified. The first law directly addressing environmental pollution was the Decree of 30 July 1970 (/DHL, 21: 725) setting up a High Committee of the Environment, including among its members the Director-General of Public Health. Although the Decree was later repealed, it led eventually to the creation of a Ministry of the Environment. However, other ministries, notably those covering agriculture and health, retain large areas of re- sponsibility in environmental matters. Ministries frequently change titles, and responsibilities are shifted to meet current problems but the com- missions, directorates (directions), missions and inspectorates that make up the ministries continue as established offices, regardless of the title of the minister to whom they report. Many decrees refer to "The minister re- sponsible for the environment, or health, etc." without naming the ministry involved. To coordinate activities that impinge on the responsibilities of more than one ministry, there are a number of interministerial committees, each con- cerned with a specific aspect of environmental health and related matters. The enforcement of pollution control regulations takes two forms. The licensing of potentially unhealthy or unfit establishments is carried out at a local level with guidance in the form of orders or circulars from the central government. Contravention of the terms of the licence, if it leads to pol- lution that damages an individual's interest, can be dealt with by the courts. Pollution of a general nature, such as air pollution from multiple sources, requires preventive legislation. This may take the form of restrictions on the fuel that may be used (some fuels may be banned) or requirements for pre-emission testing of automobiles. The efficacy of such controls is moni- tored, and the data used to call for administrative action in case of emergen- cies and to suggest further refinements in the pollution control regulations. Water Two quite different sets of laws originally controlled water pollution. The Dangerous or Polluting Premises Act of 1917 (/DHL, 27: 734), revised in 1976, established a system of licences for operating commercial and indus- trial establishments. This covered location and allowable levels of pol- lutants. These laws are administered by communal officers. The Public Health Code, Title I, Book I, Chapter 3 relates to the sanitary aspects of drinking-water and is implemented by Decree 61-859 of I August 1961 and the Order of 10 August 1961 (IDHL, 13: 521). The department director of health and social welfare is responsible for the sanitary control of drinking- water supplies. 55 Environmental health services The first set of laws attempts to control the pollution of waters that may become sources of drinking-water; the second establishes limits for toxic substances, some of which could only come from industrial discharges. The Control of Water Pollution Law of 16 December 1964 (IDHL, 16: 528) is a comprehensive Jaw revising the Public Health Code with regard to the protection of water catchment areas, and providing for regulations that may override existing discharge licences. The prefects retain responsi- bility for the licensing and approval of technical plans, while the State determines standards and codes of practice and may prohibit the use of certain products capable of causing dangerous discharges. Conditions for granting and withdrawing licences for discharges are laid down in Decrees No. 73-218 and No . 73-219 (IDHL, 24: 785). The authority to regulate different aspects of water is divided among several ministries (those respon- sible for the environment, health , industry, agriculture), but the basic responsibility for pollution control lies with the Secretary of State for the Environment. To coordinate their activities , the National Committee for Water was established, with wide representation at all levels from ministries to communes and users. The provision of water supplies is assigned to departments, communes and groups of communities. They may undertake the construction of public works for water management , or grant concessions to semi-public utilities set up for that purpose. The country is divided into major river basins, in each of which there is a consultative committee to review plans and conflicts of interest regarding implementation of the Water Law (see Giradot, P.-L. Aqua, 2: 7-10 (1981)). Under the "polluter pays" principle all discharges, public or private, are taxed on the basis of the quantity of pollutants discharged . The River Basin Committee must agree to the assessment of pollution fees. In principle, funds received from pollution taxes are used to abate pollution by the construction of treatment works. In certain cases these funds may be used to subsidize a less polluting, but more costly, industrial process. In many communes sewage treatment is managed on a contract basis by firms specializing in the service . A number of decrees and orders regulate specific aspects of pollution, including directives of the European Communities. A substantial body of legislation governs the protection of groundwater. Here there is potential conflict with the mining laws under the Ministry of the Interior. Discharges to wells are prohibited, and all wells drawing more than 8 m3 per hour must be registered. Air The basic law on air pollution dates back to I 9 I 7, amended by Law No . 61-842 of 2 August 1961 (IDHL, 13: 531) on the prevention of at- mospheric pollution and smells. The I 96 I Law extends the control of air 56 France pollution from classified establishments to include all other industrial estab- lishments that present serious dangers or inconveniences. As is the case with water, there are two types of regulation that control air pollution. The most important is the local licensing procedure whereby potentially polluting industries must be situated so that their emissions do not directly pollute the air of residential areas. In areas where air pollution is widespread, a zone of special protection may be established by joint order of the ministries responsible for health, the interior , industry, equipment, and the environment. In the special zones in and around Paris, and in the departments of the north and the Rhone , interministerial orders fix limits for emissions of fumes, gases and other pollutants. The other approach is that of setting nationwide standards, such as for fuel oils and internal combustion engines. These have been adjusted to conform to directives of the European Communities. An Interministerial Order of 17 February 1976 prohibits the use of vinyl chloride monomer as an aerosol propellant (it had been used in hairsprays). Smoking is recognized as being adverse to health and a source of air pollution for non-smokers , and is therefore subject to restrictive decrees by Law No . 76-616 of 9 July 1976 (IDHL, 27: 732), which also sets strict controls on advertising. The ministers responsible for health and infor- mation cooperate in the issuance of decrees to implement the Law. A series of orders in 1978 by the then Minister of Health and Social Security (JDHL, 30: 44) implemented the Law and its amendments. Noise Regulations to reduce noise have been presented in the model Departmental Health Regu lations, as amended by the Circular of 17 November 1966 (JDHL, 18: 592). These very general regulations apply to disturbances , especially at night, street noise and noise in public places. A number of interministerial orders deal with noise from construction equipment and machinery. For motor vehicles, EEC type-approval of models is applicable and special regulations apply to noise from aircraft. The zoning of dwellings near airports, soundproofing, flight corridors, and "quiet hours" have been imposed to reduce problems of noise from civilian aircraft. Under some circumstances a private citizen may obtain damages for noise caused by military aircraft, i.e . sonic booms. The ministries responsible for public health , the environment, home affairs, plant , housing and traffic have all taken a hand in issuing orders and guidance for protection against noise. The mayors of the cities and com- munes have also issued special regulations to control noise and are the ultimate administrative officers in this respect. Solid and Hazardous Waste Local authorities are responsible for the treatment and collection of dom- estic and related municipal waste from public areas. Dumping must be done 57 Environmental health services only in licensed tips. There are increasingly severe penalties for repeated illegal dumpings. The use of garbage grinders and private incinerators is prohibited by the Standard Health Regulations. In principle , waste from industrial operations is regulated by the licence and notification procedures of the 1917 Law on classified establishments. However, Law No. 75-633 of 15 July 1975 on waste disposal and recovery of materials sets up more general conditions for the management of waste (dechets), which is defined as "any residue from a production, transform- ation, or utilization process, and any substance, material, product, or, more generally, any movable, that has been abandoned or that the holder intends to abandon" (IDHL. 26: 794). Emphasis is on recovery of reusable materials, elements or forms of energy. The National Agency for the Recovery and Disposal of Wastes has been established to facilitate waste recovery and disposal programmes. Technical Instruction 1980 from the Ministry of the Environment defines some waste materials that require special treatment and the criteria for selection of sites for such treatment methods and their operating conditions. State-financed regional treatment centres have been set up to deal with waste disposal. Poisons and toxic chemicals are regulated jointly by the ministries responsible for health, agriculture (for pesticides) and industry. A new law on the control of chemicals, Law No. 77-771 of 12 July 1977 (/DHL. 28: 975), requires that all chemicals not previously on the French market must be registered by notification to the Product Control Service of the Ministry of the Environment, with information regarding the intended use and potential hazards associated with such use. Copies of the notification also go to the ministries responsible for health and industry. Decrees implementing the Law were issued on 15 January , 28 May and 8 June 1979. Chemicals already on the market may be designated by decree for investigation . Radiation The basic legislation with regard to the general principles of protection against ionizing radiation is Decree No. 66-450 of 20 June 1966 (IDHL. 18: 106) concerning nuclear energy and space. The health aspects of ionizing radiation, including radioactive isotopes, are under the Secretary of State for Health . The Public Health Code regulates poisonous naturally occurring radioactive isotopes under the Poison Regulations , with special provision for substances obtained by nuclear synthesis or fission. Eura tom regulations concerning low-level sources of radiation that need not be registered are applicable. The Commission for Atomic Energy has a monopoly on the preparation , import and export of radioactive elements. Protection against ionizing radiation is the responsibility of the Inter- ministerial Commission for Artificial Radioactive Elements, the Intermin- isterial Commission for Basic Nuclear Installations, the Interministerial Commission for Standardizing Medical and Surgical Equipment, the Inter- ministerial Committee on Nuclear Safety, the Commission for Protection 58 France Against Ionizing Radiation, the Central Department for Protection Against Ionizing Radiation, and the Laboratory for Measuring and Controlling Ionizing Radiation in the Working Environment. Transport of radioactive materials is controlled by regulations closely following the recommendations of the International Atomic Energy Agency. The discharge of radioactive substances into water is regulated by the Eura tom Treaty of25 March 1957, as implemented by subsequent decrees, especially No. 74-1181 of 31 De- cember 1974 (/DHL, 26: 349). The discharge of radioactive substances into the air is covered by Law No. 61-842 of 2 August 1961 and Decree No. 74-945 of 6 November 1974 (IDHL, 26: 346). In both cases, licences are required. France has a vigorous nuclear energy programme with 14 power re- actors, as well as a nuclear weapons arsenal. Nonionizing radiation is regulated by the Secretary of State for Health. Ultrasound equipment for medical purposes is subject to an Order of 1 September 1975 (IDHL, 28: 959). Addresses Ministry of Town Planning and Housing (Ministere de l'Urbanisme et du Logement) 244-246 boulevard Saint-Germain 75775 Paris Cedex 16 Tel. 544 3993 High Committee of the Environment (Haut Comite de !'Environnement) 14 boulevard du General-Leclerc 92521 Neuilly-sur-Seine Cedex Tel. 758 12 12 Secretary of State for the Environment (Secretariat d'Etat a !'Environnement) 14 boulevard du General-Leclerc 92521 Neuilly-sur-Seine Cedex Tel. 758 12 12 General Inspectorate of the Environment (Inspection generale de !'Environnement) I ter , avenue de Lowendal 75700 Paris Tel. 5818940 Information Office (Service d'I nformation) 244 boulevard Saint-Germain 75775 Paris Cedex 16 Tel. 544 39 93 Directorate for Nature Protection (Direction de la Protection de la Nature) 14 boulevard du General-Leclerc 92521 Neuilly-sur-Seine Cedex Tel. 758 12 12 59 Environmental health services Directorate for the Prevention of Pollutants and Nuisances (Direction de la Prevention des Pollutions et Nuisances) 14 boulevard du General-Leclerc 9252 I Neuilly-sur-Seine Cedex Tel. 758 12 12 Ministry of Agriculture (Min istere de I' Agriculture) 78 rue de Varenne 75700 Paris Tel. 555 94 50; 555 95 50 Council for the Preservation of Rural Areas, Water and Forests (Conseil general du Genie rural, des Eaux et des Forets) 30 rue Las-Cases 75340 Paris Cedex 07 Tel. 555 95 32 Ministry of Social Affairs and National Solidarity (Ministere des Affaires sociales et de la Solidarite nationale) I place Fontenoy 75700 Paris Tel. 567 55 44 60 Secretary of State for Health (Secretariat d'Etat charge de la Sante) 20 rue d'Estrees 75700 Paris Tel. 567 55 44 Ministry of Industry (Ministere de l'Industrie) 10 I rue de Grenelle 75700 Paris Tel. 555 93 00 General Inspectorate for Industry and Commerce (Inspection generale de l'Industrie et du Commerce) 8 rue Leonard-de-Vinci 75116 Paris Tel. 5015910 r e ArH: 108178km2 ·.,··. :-_.··- .. • • • - ~• '• •. I ••.• ~ > German Democratic Republic To the north of the German Democratic Republic is the Baltic Sea; to the west and south is the Federal Republic of Germany; to the south-east Czechoslovakia ; and to the east Poland. It is warm in the summer but cold in the winter. Government and Basic Legislation Under the 1968 Constitution the supreme organ of state power is the People's Chamber ( Volkskammer). The Chamber elects the Council of State (Staatsrat) as its permanent organ. The Chairman of the Council is the 61 Environmental health services Head of State of the Republic . The executive branch of government is the Council of Ministers (Ministerrat), the chairman of which (Minister- President) is appointed by the People's Chamber. For local government, the country is divided into 15 districts (Bezirke) and the city of Berlin. Within the districts, urban and local councils are set up to administer the national laws and district regulations. The Republic's Constitution of 6 April 1968 contains in Article 15 the following principles. 1. Land is one of the most precious natural resources of the German Demo- cratic Republic. It must be protected and efficiently used. Land used for agriculture and forestry may only be withdrawn from such use upon author- ization by the competent government authorities. 2. The State and society provide for nature conservation in the interest of the wellbeing of all citizens . The conservation of water and air quality , and the protection of flora, fauna, and the natural beauty of the landscape shall be ensured by the competent authorities and are also the responsibility of every citizen. On 25 September 1975 the Council of Ministers promulgated the Stat- utes of the Ministry of Public Health (JDHL, 28: 516) which prescribe the Ministry's functions and responsibilities . Among these responsibilities are the implementation of measures to promote public health and prevent disease. The duties of the State Sanitary Inspectorate are prescribed by the Ordinance of 11 December 1975 (IDHL, 28: 522). It is composed of four bodies: the State Sanitary Inspectorate of the Ministry of Public Health, and the district, local , and borough sanitary inspectorates. It is responsible for medical services, food, and environmental protection. It must advise on or evaluate investments affecting: health conditions in dwellings; protection against noise; air, water, and soil quality; and food hygiene. It sets out the conditions under which its inspectors may have access to premises, take samples, impose requirements , etc. Where there is an immediate risk to human health , the director of the inspectorate concerned may stop pro- duction and may institute legal proceedings against persons who contravene health regulations. Inspectors can require that immediate measures be taken to eliminate unhealthy conditions or to comply with legal provisions. The State Sanitary Inspectorate of the Ministry of Public Health is directed by the Chief Public Health Officer (Haupthygieniker) , who is ap- pointed by the Minister. The district and local sanitary inspectorates are directed by district public health officers and local medical officers of health , respectively. In towns , urban district sanitary inspectors may be appointed under the direction of urban district medical officers of health . The duties of the State Sanitary Inspectorate cover a wide range of public health matters . They include the prevention and control of communicable disease, communal hygiene (housing; residential environment and town planning; recreation; air, water and soil pollution; protection against noise; 62 German Democratic Republic collection and disposal of waste; disposal of dead animals) and food and nutritional hygiene, including trade in foodstuffs and consumer goods. The district sanitary inspectorates deal with matters and problems of applied hygiene, and have laboratory facilities for microbiological examinations and other public health analyses. The directors of state undertakings and establishments of all kinds are responsible for compliance with legal health provisions , for organizing effective surveillance, and for ensuring active cooperation by their em- ployees in fulfilling health requirements. They must notify the State Sanitary Inspectorate immediately of conditions in their establishments that might endanger public health, and of the immediate measures taken; they must also act at once on the results of official inspections. Deputies are employed within major industries to monitor compliance with environmental pol- lution laws. The Environmental Culture Law of 14 May 1970 (/DHL, 22: 282) lays down principles for the rational exploitation of natural resources , pro- tection of waters and air, and control of noise. It replaces the Nature Conservation Law of 4 August I 954. The majority of the ordinances and regulations derived from this Law come from either the Ministry of Public Health or the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water Resources. In the planning of new installations and land use, the prospective oper- ator enters into a contract with the appropriate local or district authorities in which the levels of permitted emissions are agreed upon, together with licence fee to be paid and charges to be levied for pollution beyond the quantities specified in the contract. Violations thus become a breach of contract. Fees collected in connection with the control of pollution are earmarked for compensation for damage, and for measures to improve the environment. Water The Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water Resources was created by Notice of 3 January 1972 (/DHL, 24: 802) and revised by the Decision of23 October 1975 (/DHL, 28: 518). It operates under the Environ- mental Culture Law of 1970 and administers the Water Law of 17 April 1963 (IDHL, 17: 339). It is responsible for planning in the broad field of environ- mental protection , in collaboration with the Ministry of Public Health. It has special responsibilities in the field of water management , particularly in relations with member states of CMEA (Comecon). It has issued many ordinances concerned with licences for the orderly abstraction of water and treatment of wastewater. Article 3 of the Water Law provides that effluents must be used where possible for agriculture and industries must discharge their effluents above their intake points. Nationalized undertakings (VEB) responsible for water supply and wastewater treatment were set up in each district by Order of 13 May 1963. 63 Environmental health services The State Water Inspectorate was established by an Ordinance of 15 De- cember 1977 (JDHL, 30: 543) to work in close cooperation with the State Health Inspectorate. Another Ordinance of the same date revises the defi- nitions of water pollutants and establishes requirements to prevent pollu- tion. The State Water Inspectorate issues licences, imposes fees for polluting discharges and is the principal authority in case of pollution arising from accidents. Conservation of water resources was addressed by the Order of I De- cember 1976 (JDHL, 29: 76) in which a 20% reduction of industrial water requirements during the course of the I 976-1980 Five Year Plan was man- dated. Water officials ( Wasserbeauftragte) are to be appointed in each undertaking to assist the directors in making economical use of water. Marine pollution comes under the Helsi nki Convention on the Pro- tection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (JDHL, 28: 121) and compacts with Poland and the USSR . The enforcement of ordinances regarding marine pollution, at the local and district levels , is under directives from the State Water Inspectorate. Air The Environmental Culture Law of 1970 (/DHL, 22: 282), Articles 29 and 30, is the enabling Law concerned with the protection of the atmosphere against pollutants. The Fifth Ordinance of 17 January 1973 (JDHL, 26: 109) for the preservation of clean air assigns responsibilities to the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water Resources for economic activities, and to the Ministry of Health for monitoring and control, including maxi- mum ambient levels (/mmissionen, MIK) and emission (MEK) levels. The Ministry for Processi ng-Machine and Vehicle Construction and the Min- istry of Transport are responsible for pollutants arising from motor traffic. As in the case of water pollutants , licences are required for the con- struction and operation of potentially polluting undertakings and charges are levied for discharges in excess of established limits. In some cases national factories pay quite large sums for discharges , while in others installations downstream may prefer to be paid for "damages" arising from such discharges. In theory, levies for excessive discharges cannot be included in the planning of an undertaking. Revised regulations for implementing the Law were issued by the Minister of Health on 28 June 1979 (/DHL, 32: 152). Agencies of the State Sa nitary Inspectorate enforce the rules and, in cases of bad air pollution, work with the Meteorological Service . As in the case of water, there must be deputy emission control officers in all large instal- lations responsible for influencing the operation so as to achieve a low level of pollution and compliance with threshold emission limits. The emission control officers work with the local representatives of the State Sanitary Inspectorate. 64 German Democratic Republic Noise The regulation of noise in the environment is required by the Environmental Culture Law of 1970 (IDHL, 22: 282), Article 35. The Minister of Public Health and the State Sanitary Inspectorate have responsibility but there is emphasis on local regulations by town and communal councils in the Ordinance of 14 May 1970 (JDHL, 23: 763). Standards for noise emitted by new products are also regulated by the Ministry of Public Health. The Air Traffic Act of 31 July 1963 deals with the planning and operation of airports and aircraft to reduce noise. Solid and Hazardous Waste The disposal and recycling of waste is also addressed in the Environmental Culture Law of 1970 (JDHL, 22: 282), Section 39. The Law is implemented by the Sixth Ordinance of 11 September 1975 (JDHL, 28: 515), which assigns responsibility for waste collection and disposal primarily to the local and district councils, with advice from the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water Resources. Emphasis is on the recycling of waste as secondary raw material and in this regard the Ministry of Materials Supply is involved. The Institute for the Management of Secondary Raw Materials was set up to act as an information centre by the First Regulations of 8 September 1976 (JDHL, 29: 72) . The Second Regulations of21 April 1977 (JDHL, 29: 73) deal with the harmless disposal of toxic waste that cannot be used as secondary raw material. All procedures for the disposal of toxic waste must be approved by the State Sanitary Inspectorate and lists of harmful substances are to be is~ued and updated by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water Resources . The first list was issued as an Order of I 2 December 1977 (/DHL, 32: 150). Pesticides are regulated by the Ministry of Agricul- ture, Forestry and Food Processing in the Fourth Regulations of 18 Sep- tember 1979 (IDHL, 32: 126). Radiation Protection against ionizing radiation is the responsibility of the State Office for Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection according to a Decision of 30 August 1973 (/DHL, 26: 116). This Office is a continuation of the former State Central Organization for Radiation Protection. It is the competent state central agency in relations with the International Atomic Energy Agency, and issues licences especially for nuclear power installations (see IDHL, 32: 160). It cooperates with the Minister of Public Health and the Ministry of Labour in setting standards for protection against ionizing radiation. Non ionizing radiation, including high frequency and microwave radiation, is regulated by the State Sanitary Inspectorate (IDHL, 30: 544). 65 Environmental health services Addresses Ministry of Public Health Rathausstral3e 3 102 Berlin 66 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Processing Kopenickerallee 39-57 1157 Berlin r • Area: 248 677 km' Federal Republic of Germany To the north of the Federal Republic of Germany are Denmark, the North Sea, and part of the Baltic Sea; to the east lie the German Democratic Republic and Czechoslovakia; to the south are Austria and Switzerland; and to the west France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. The climate is temperate, with an average temperature of 9 °C, but there are consider- able variations between the north German lowlands and the Bavarian Alps. The Rhine river rises in Switzerland, flows along part of the border with France, then traverses the major industrial centres of Germany before emptying through the Netherlands into the North Sea. The German-Swiss border passes through Lake Constance (Bodensee). 67 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation The Federal Republic of Germany is a social and democratic federal state with a two-chamber Federal Parliament: the Bundesrat, which is composed of representatives of the eleven states or Liinder, and the Bundestag, which is composed of elected representatives . The Liinder execute federal law of concern to them in so far as the basic law does not otherwise provide or permit. Each Land has its own legislative assembly, which can pass laws except in matters that are exclusively the right of the Federal Parliament. Local responsibility for the execution of federal and state laws rests with the city and county authorities (Kreise). The Liinder have limited authority to conclude treaties with neighbouring countries regarding inter alia the environment and nature protection. The Federal Government is assisted by a number of councils and com- missions, which make recommendations that frequently become the basis for federal or state legislation. Thus, the Council of Experts on Environ- mental Questions advises the Ministry of the Interior , and the Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forestry is advised by the Advisory Council on Nature Conservation and Landscape. The private Association of German Engineers (VOi) has prepared extensive sets of standards for measuring environmental parameters. The Eighteenth Penal Legislation Amendment Law of 28 March 1980 (the Law for the control of environmental crimes) (IDHL, 31: 518) estab- lished a number of new penal offences, including the illegal release of ionizing radiation or dealings with nuclear fuels, pollution of water or air, noise, environmentally harmful waste disposal , serious endangerment of the environment, endangerment of protected areas , and serious endangerment through the release of poisons. Water According to Article 75, No. 4 of the Water Management Law as revised by Notice of 16 October 1976 (JDHL, 29: 92) the Federal Government has the overall power to enact laws concerning the management of water resources. The remaining legislative powers , particularly that of filling out the frame- work set up by the Federal Government , as well as the execution and enforcement of water laws, are placed with the Liinder. The Law applies to surface water, groundwater and coastal waters. Regulations under the Law are to be compatible with European Community regulations. The Wastewater Charges Law, 13 September 1976 (/DHL, 29: 86), provides economic leverage by levying taxes as of l January 1981 to encour- age antipollution attitudes. The new direction of this water regulation provides an economic incentive to build considerably more clarification plants than in the past; to raise the level of effluent purification technology; to introduce more low-effluent or effluent-free production processes; and to make economical use of goods produced with large quantities of wastewater. 68 Federal Republic of Germany The Law on cleaning agents (JDHL, 27: 554), the Regulation on phos- phate limits enacted in accordance with Article 4, Item 2 on 27 August 1975, and the Ordinance of 4 June 1980 (IDHL, 32: 558) provide for replacing, in two phases by I January 1984, up to 50% of the phosphates in detergents and cleaners by pollution-free substances. The Law on cleaning agents also requires that detergent formulations be filed with the Federal Office of Environmental Protection in Berlin (West). The Chemicals Law of 16 September 1980 (IDHL, 32: 515) generally creates the means of controlling ecologically hazardous substances as early as possible in the production process, in some cases going as far as pro- hibitions against the manufacture or use of certain substances. Section 7a of the Water Management Law contains three important sentences. I. A licence for the discharge of wastewater is only to be granted if the quantity and the noxiousness of the wastewater are kept as low as it is possible when applying procedures that are based on the generally recognized rules of technology . 2. The Federal Government, with the approval of the Bundesrat, enacts general administrative regulations concerning minimum requirements for the discharge of effluents, meeting the generally recognized rules of technology in the sense of sentence I. 3. If existing discharges of wastewater do not meet the requirements of sen- tence I , the Liinder have to ensure that the necessary measures will be taken. After the adaptation of old licences for wastewater discharges to this new legislation by the Lander, only two kinds of wastewater will exist as a consequence of sentence 3: wastewater that meets the quality requirements of Section 7a; and wastewater that the Lander shall ensure meets the quality require- ments within a period of time fixed by the Lander. A consequence of sentence I of Section 7a is that a new licence for the discharge of wastewater will be granted only if the wastewater treatment follows the procedures, and is of a quality, that correspond to the generally recognized rules of technology. As this requirement alone will not lead to uniform quality standards for the discharge of wastewater, the Federal Government is authorized to enact, with the approval of the Bundesrat, general administrative regulations that clearly determine what is meant by the purification of wastewater according to the generally recognized rules of technology. These administrative regu- lations determine for the first time on a federal level homogeneous minimum requirements for the discharge of wastewater. 69 Environmental health services These minimum requirements are compulsory everywhere in the Federal Republic of Germany and are independent of the state of the receiving water. These minimum requirements are, as a rule, discharge standards in the form of concentrations and/or the load of pollutants of specific products. The water authorities are now in the position to tighten up, if need be, the local discharge requirements but they may not relax them below the mini- mum requirements. The Federal Government and the Liinder have decided to fix minimum requirements according to the different types of domestic and industrial wastewater. The first general administrative regulation under the Water Manage- ment Law of 24 January 1979 defined minimum requirements for discharges of municipal sewage in terms of BOD5 (5-day biochemical oxygen demand), COD (chemical oxygen demand), and settleable solids for various size categories. Regulations have been promulgated or are being prepared for over 40 different groups of industrial discharges as well as utilities and public cleansing services. The Wastewater Charges Law rules that charges shall be levied on permits to discharge pollutants. The charges are levied on the permitted discharge, not on the actual discharge, and are calculated in terms of the volume and concentration of noxious substances according to a standard- ized formula. The revenue from wastewater charges may be used only for specific purposes connected with measures for maintaining or improving water quality. The Liinder may enact more stringent requirements to meet water quality objectives. Another important regulation is the Ordinance of 31 January 1975 (/DHL, 27: 543) on drinking-water and water for use in food preparation, which is administered by the Ministry for Youth, Family Affairs and Health. The local health authorities are responsible for the sampling and analysis of drinking-water . Other aspects of the federal Water Management Law are administered by the Ministry of the Interior in association with the Federal Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forestry, and other ministries. Enforce- ment is a responsibility of the Liinder. The Federal Government is signatory to conventions for the protection of the North Sea and the Baltic, and for the prevention of pollution on the high seas. There are also international agreements concerning the protection of the Rhine , the Mosel and Lake Constance. Air The Federal Law of 15 March 1974 for protection against harmful effects due to air pollution, noise, vibrations and analogous phenomena (IDHL, 25: 757) is sometimes referred to as the Law on protection against "immis- sions". This archaic English word is an incorrect translation of the German word Immissionen, which is defined in the Law to mean air pollutants, noise, 70 Federal Republic of Germany vibration, light, heat, radiation, and analogous environmental factors affecting human beings, plants or other objects. Immissionen levels must not be exceeded if the environment is to be protected against harmful effects. The term emissions (Emissionen) refers to discharges and radiation, etc. emitted from an installation into the air, but does not include discharges of liquids or solids, except as they may be suspended in the air. A number of ordinances, based on the Air Pollution Law of 1974 and the earlier Law of 5 August 1971 on lead in motor fuels (JDHL, 23: 495), set limits on sources of pollutants. The Federal Ordinance of 18 February 1977 (/DHL, 29: 100) sets up procedures for the issuance oflicences under the Air Pollution Law. The Federal Ministry of the Interior is the responsible authority under this Law and collaborates with the Federal Ministry of Transport in the case of vehicles. Noise Noise, as noted above, is covered by the same law as air pollution. Standards and guidelines have been issued for acceptable noise levels in various areas ranging from industry to hospitals. Vehicular noise is regulated by the design of the licensed vehicles and local planning of highway location. Noise from construction is regulated. Both aircraft types and airport zoning are subject to regulation . Supersonic flights have been prohibited. The Federal Ordinance of 28 July 1976 (IDHL, 28: 545) establishes limits for noise from lawnmowers. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Waste Disposal Law of7 June 1972 (IDHL, 23: 526) is the basic law for waste disposal, but it does not cover a number of areas for which legislation was already on the books. In particular radioactive substances, diseased plant and animal products , mine waste , wastewater , and waste oil are not covered (see below). As a basic principle "wastes must be disposed of in such a way that the public welfare is not adversely affected" . The Liinder must draw up plans for waste disposal and set up corporations for this purpose, but very hazardous waste may be rejected if it cannot be disposed of with ordinary municipal waste (see below). The Federal Ministry of the Interior is the leading ministry, but must consult with the Federal Ministry for Youth, Family Affairs and Health and the Federal Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forestry when wastewater and sludges are to be applied to agricultural land. The Waste Oil Act of 12 December 1968 provides subsidies for the collection, refining and reuse of waste oil. These subsidies are drawn from a reserve fund fed by an equalization charge paid by manufacturers and importers of certain mineral oils. The Chemicals Law of 16 September 1980 (/DHL, 32: 515) on protec- tion against dangerous substances is designed to protect man and the 71 Environmental health services environment from chemical hazard. The Law sets up a system of testing and notification to federal authorities. Pharmaceuticals, food, animal feed, cos- metics, plant protection agents, explosives, radioactive materials, and transport are covered under other laws. The Law aiso covers responsibility for worker protection, replacing laws at present in force in the Lander. All new chemical substances introduced in commerce must be tested and reported by notification. Chemicals already on the market can also be selected for testing. Requirements are in accordance with the European Community Council Directive of 1967 concerning classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous substances. In case of emergency, the Federal Government, through the Bundesrat, may issue a provisional ban on a chemical for a period of six months without the prior consent of the Lander. The Lander can likewise issue bans in an emergency for a period not to exceed three months. Some Lander have established hazardous waste dis- posal installations that are required to accept, treat and dispose of industrial waste in their assigned areas. The Federal Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forestry regulates pesticides and other plant protection agents under the Plant Protection Law of IO May 1968 (IDHL. 21: 280) and numerous ordinances. In some cases of residues in food, the Federal Ministry for Youth, Family Affairs and Health must be consulted. DDT is prohibited, with only minor exceptions, by the Law of7 August 1972 (IDHL, 25: 107). Radiation The Atom Law of23 December 1959 (IDHL, 12: 346) is administered by the Federal Ministry of the Interior. There have been a large number of ordi- nances and guidelines issued under the Law, culminating in the Notice of 31 October 1976 (IDHL, 29: 84) consolidating the Law, its amendments and regulations. The act complies with Euratom agreements. The Lander Com- mittee on Nuclear Power issued Guidelines on 5 June 1978 (IDHL, 30: 553). The Federal Republic of Germany has an agreement with the Swiss Federal Council on radiation protection in case of emergency (IO March 1980, IDHL, 30: 956 and 31: 522). The Federal Republic of Germany relies on the nuclear generation of electric power. Addresses Federal Ministry for Youth, Family Affairs and Health (Bundesministerium filr Jugend, Familie und Gesundheit) Directorate-General of Health Postfach 200 490 5300 Bonn 2 Tel. (228) 33 81 72 Federal Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forestry (Bundesministerium filr Ernlihrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten) Bonnerstra8e 85 53 Bonn-Duisberg Tel. (227) 52 91 Federal Ministry of the Interior (Bundesministerium des Innern) GraurheindorferstraBe 198 5300 Bonn I Tel. (228) 68 11 Federal Office of Environmental Protection (Umweltbundesamt) Bismarckplatz I 1000 Berlin 33 Tel. (30) 890 31 Principal environmental agencies in the Liinder Baden-Wiirttemberg Ministerium fiir Erniihrung, Landwirtschaft und Umwelt MarienstraBe 41 7000 Stuttgart I Bavaria Bayerisches Staatsministerium fiir Stadt- und Landentwicklung und Umweltschutz Odeonsplatz 3 8000 Munich 22 Berlin (West) Senator fiir Gesundheit und Umweltschutz Ander Urania 12-14 1000 Berlin 30 Bremen Senator fiir Gesundheit und Umweltschutz Bahnhofsplatz 29 2800 Bremen I Hamburg Gesundheitsbehorde der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg TesdorpfstraBe 8 2000 Hamburg 13 Federal Republic of Germany Hesse Hessischer Minister fiir Landwirtschaft und Umwelt HolderlinstraBe 1-3 6200 Wiesbaden Lower Saxony Niedersiichsisches Ministerium fiir Erniihrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten Calenberger StraBe 2 3000 Hanover North Rhine-Westphalia Minister fiir Erniihrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten des Landes Nordrhein- Westfalen Rol3stral3e 135 4000 Diisseldorf Rhineland-Palatinate Ministerium fiir Soziales, Gesundheit und Umwelt BauhofstraBe 4 6500 Mainz/Rhine Saar Ministerium fiir Familie , Gesundheit und Sozialordnung HindenburgstraBe 23 6600 Saarbriicken I Schleswig-Ho/stein Minister fiir Erniihrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten des Landes Schleswig- Holstein Diisternbrooker Weg 104-108 2300 Kiel I 73 r • Area: 131 944 km' Greece The mainland of Greece is a mountainous peninsula bordering the Ionian, Libyan and Aegean Seas with numerous islands to the south, east and west. It has frontiers with Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey and Yugoslavia. The climate is of the mediterranean type, with hot summers and mild winters. The main agricultural products are wheat, tobacco, cotton, sugar beet, olives and fresh fruit. Industrial products include textiles, cement, alumina, and electrical appliances. Important minerals are lignite, bauxite and nickel. The export of industrial products now exceeds that of agricultural produce. Over 5 million tourists visited Greece in 1978. Greece has one of the biggest merchant marine fleets in the world. 75 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation The Hellenic Republic has a single-chamber Parliament. Under the Consti- tution of 1975 the President is Head of State and is elected by Parliament for five years; Members of Parliament are elected every four years. The Presi- dent appoints the Prime Minister and, on the latter's recommendations, the other members of the Government. For administrative purposes Greece is divided into 52 prefectures (nomarchies), which form the administrative arm of the national Government. The basic units oflocal government are the 256 urban communes (demoi) and 5793 rural communes (koinotites). Every commune has an elected council and a mayor, who is also the chief executive. As political head of the commune he is responsible to the council for carrying out not only his own functions but also the decisions of the council. The basic act for the protection of the environment is Act No. 360 of 18 June 1976 (/DHL, 28: 279) to establish a National Council and a Con- sultative Commission for Physical Planning and the Protection of the En- vironment. This Act implements the Constitution of 9 June 1975, Part 2, Section 24 (/DHL, 29: 375) which prescribes that protection of the natural and cultural environment is a duty of the State. Under the Act the Ministry for Physical Planning, Housing and the Environment was established by Law No. 1032 of 10 March 1980. The emphasis of this Ministry is on detailed planning, while responsibility for the National Physical Plan remains with the Ministry of Coordination. The Ministry for Physical Planning, Housing and the Environment is responsible inter alia for expressing government policy on environmental matters, preparing plans and programmes, super- vising the implementation and coordination of special environmental pro- tection programmes, and dealing with other environmental matters that do not fall within the jurisdiction of any other agency. Presidential Decree No. 250 of 2 March 1981 established a special Physical Planning, Housing and Environment Service responsible for environmental matters (IDHL, 32: 560). The Prime Minister is Chairman of the National Council for Physical Planning and the Environment, with the Minister of Coordination as his deputy. The Ministry of Coordination and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs are assigned responsibility for the formulation of a unified programme for the participation of Greece in the activities of international organizations in the fields of environmental protection and physical planning. The National Tourist Organization exercises control over hotels, res- taurants and other places where meals are prepared and sold to the public, and has a strong influence on the other sanitary aspects of tourist areas. Chemical analyses of water, air, etc. for the detection of pollution are centralized in the National General Chemical Laboratory of the Minister of Finance . 76 Greece Water The management of water resources, including the sea, and the prevention of water pollution, is not a direct responsibility of the Minister for Physical Planning, Housing and the Environment. The establishment, maintenance and operation of water supply systems are under the exclusive competence of the communes according to the Communal Code approved by Law No. 1065 of 22 July 1980 (IDHL, 31: 829). However, the subsequent Law No. 1069 of 19 August 1980(/DHL, 31: 818) establishes new bases for water supply and wastewater companies that have in the past provided their services to many of the communes. The Ministry of Health and Welfare is responsible for health regulations for water supplies, and regulations regarding wastewater are made by presiden- tial decree from proposals of the Minister of Coordination, the Minister of the Interior, the Minister oflndustry and Energy, the Minister of Health and Welfare and the Minister of Public Works. Greece is signatory to the international Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil. Administrative authority lies with the coast- guard under the Ministry of Navigation and Transport. The coastal com- munes, almost all of whom discharge sewage into the sea, are responsible for the prevention of oil pollution from their sewage. A number of decisions deal with wastewater discharges from cities, industrial complexes, and oil prospecting. These specific decisions are to be harmonized with the direc- tives of the European Communities on control of pollution. Air and Noise The basic Civil Code of 1940 stated that emissions of fumes , soot, heat and noise may be prohibited by the occupant of another building only if it is probable that their existence would adversely affect his property. Once licensed, an operation cannot be prohibited unless the emissions are liable to have harmful effects on the property concerned. This rather limited Code has been extended by a number of specific decrees and orders from the ministries responsible for social services, industry and transport. These orders are designed to abate the high levels of air pollution that occur in the major cities. Among them are orders to install filtering equipment in fur- naces to prevent air pollution, make modifications to motor vehicles to reduce exhaust emissions, and prohibit the use of heavy fuel oil for domestic heating in Athens and Salonica. Administration is in the hands of local authorities under the overall supervision of the relevant minister. Ministerial Decision No. A2g/Ec. 3051 of25 April 1980(/DHL, 32: 460) of the then Minister of Social Services prohibits smoking in all "enclosed public places (public waiting-rooms, conference and meeting halls , lifts, etc.) belonging to State agencies, public or private corporate bodies, organ- izations, and other establishments". Section 2 exceptionally authorizes 77 Environmental health services smoking in long-stay public waiting-rooms (at airports , railway stations, etc.) provided that separate areas are designated for smokers. Noise regulations are issued by local authorities with guidance from the ministries responsible for social services and transport. Solid and Hazardous Waste Waste removal is a local responsibility but the Ministry of Agriculture sets regulations for the use and disposal of pesticides. Most of the decrees regarding hazardous substances apply to industrial workers . The Sanitary Regulations No. 22 l of 22 January 1965 address the disposal of sewage and industrial waste but are concerned primarily with the pollution of receiving waters . Radiation Health regulations regarding radiation were established in the Sanitary Regulations G3a/76 l (the Water Law) of 6 March 1968 (IDHL, 27: 572) and responsibility is assigned to the Minister of Health and Welfare. The Greek Atomic Energy Commission, which was established by Presidential Decree No. 940 of 18 December 1978 (IDHL, 31: 817), now has authority for all aspects of nuclear installations and radiation protection . Safety measures for such installations are drawn up by the Ministry of Industry and Energy, but general health aspects require coordination with the Health Service of the Ministry of Health and Welfare. Addresses Ministry of Health and Welfare Public Health Division 17 Aristotelous Street Athens Tel. 52223 60 Ministry of Coordination Zalokostas Street Athens Ministry of Agriculture 2 Acharnon Street Athens 78 Ministry of Commerce Platia Keningos Athens Ministry of Finance National General Chemical Laboratory 16 Tsoha Street Athens Ministry of Industry and Energy 80 Michalakopoulou Street Athens r • Area: 93 030 km' Hungary Situated in eastern Europe, Hungary is bordered in the north by Czecho- slovakia, in the east by the USSR and Romania , in the south by Yugoslavia and in the west by Austria. It has a continental climate with long, dry summers and hard winters. The Danube river forms part of the border with Czechoslovakia then turns south, crossing the country to Yugoslavia. Together with the Tisza river, which also has its headwaters outside the country, it is the major source of water either used directly or after charging of aquifers and bank- side filtration. 79 Environmental health services Lake Balaton in the centre of the country is the largest freshwater lake in central Europe and is famous as a recreational area. Government and Basic Legislation Under the 1949 Constitution supreme power is vested in Parliament. The Parliament elects from among its members the Presidium as its permanent legislative body and the executive organ of the State, but the Presidium is responsible to Parliament. The Chairman of the Presidium is Head of State. The Council of Ministers is the supreme administrative body of the State. It is appointed by Parliament on the recommendations of the Presidium. For administrative purposes the country is divided into the capital, Budapest, and 19 counties, 4 towns of county status, 96 towns of district status, 715 large villages, and 2311 villages with commune status. The Public Health Law No. II of 1972 (JDHL, 24: 512) contains prohib- itions on any contamination of the soil, water or air that endangers human health. Noise that is prejudicial to health is also prohibited. Poisons and hazardous substances, including radioactive materials, may be used and disposed of only in accordance with public health provisions . The Minister of Health is designated as principal minister with cooperation from other ministers in their areas of competence. For example, the Ministry of Posts and Communications issues regulations on water pollution from river traf- fic and air pollution from road traffic, and is responsible for regulating the transport of dangerous substances and radioactive materials. The Minister of Health is responsible for surveillance over sanitary and epidemiological conditions and for necessary control measures according to Government Ordinance No. 13 of 12 April 1972 (/DHL, 24: 509) imple- menting the Public Health Law. His responsibilities include laying down: standards and rules dealing with sanitary and epidemiological mat- ters; and detailed rules for the operation of the State Public Health and Epidemiological Supervisory Service. The Service is generally responsible for preventing and eliminating hazards to human health and taking appropriate measures for this purpose. It is directed by the Chief State Sanitary and Epidemiological Inspector, who also directs and controls those national establishments of the Ministry of Health that have sanitary and epidemiological functions, including the National Institute of Hygiene. He has a national inspectorate to assist him and to deal with matters of national importance. The Service is based on a network of sanitary and epidemiological stations (KOJAL or sanepids), which are situated in the capital, Budapest, and throughout the country at the various local administrative levels, operating under the corresponding councils. The KOJAL have the right to impose fines for offences against the Law, and to take other necessary measures. 80 Hungary The Environmental Protection Law No. II of 1976 (JDHL, 28: 281) is the framework legislation that establishes fundamental rules relating to the protection, preservation and planned development of the human environ- ment, in order to protect human health and systematically improve the living conditions of the present and future generations. The Law addresses pollution of the soil, water and air, and noise, vibration and radiation, including radioactive substances. Pollution in gen- eral is prohibited, and discharges are allowed only if measures are taken to prevent contamination or harmful pollution. Industries must use pollution control equipment. Any pollution caused by activities contrary to statutory provisions may result in a fine based on the quantity of pollutant discharged and its danger to the community. The revenue from environmental pro- tection fines should be disbursed primarily for environmental protection programmes. Responsibility for enforcement is assigned by the Law to the Council of Ministers, and existing laws and regulations connected with the preservation of the human environment remain in force. The functions of the National Bureau for Environmental and Nature Protection were redefined by Resolution of the Council of Ministers No. 1035 of 28 August 1977 (IDHL, 29: 147). The text also defines the role of Regional Environmental and Nature Protection Committees. Resolution No. 1003 of 6 February 1979 of the Council of Ministers (IDHL, 30: 241) lays down the respective functions of the Minister of Agriculture and Food, the Minister of Building and Town Planning, the National Water Board, the National Institute of Environmental Protection, and the Minister for Heavy Industry with regard to the supervision of environmental protec- tion activities. Hungary collaborates with the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) in the setting of standards for environmental pollutants. Water The Water Law (No. IV) of 1964° sets up the National Water Board under the Council of Ministers . The National Water Board now has independent authority with cabinet rank. Its research arm is VITUKI, a centre concerned both with water resources development and with pollution control. The National Water Board has its own water quality monitoring services, but these are concerned primarily with operational stability rather than health considerations. The Ministry of Health has the overall responsibility for formulating standards and protecting the health of the community; this includes the establishment of maximum acceptable concentrations of potential contami- nants in water and the investigation of pollution incidents relating to ground- water, surface water and potable supplies. It discharges most of these responsibilities through its National Institute of Hygiene. a FAO Food and agricultural legislation, 20(2): 17-24 (1971). 81 Environmental health services In the water field the National Institute of Hygiene's departments of water hygiene, physiology and toxicology have been deeply involved in water quality investigations. Routine environmental samples are analysed by the KOJAL network of monitoring laboratories under the control of the Ministry of Health - one for each of the 19 counties, plus one in Budapest. KOJAL stations are staffed by physicians, biologists and chemists, and investigate all aspects of environ- mental quality including daily samples of potable, surface and recreational waters, together with some samples of sewage and industrial effluents. Although the laboratories are responsible to the Ministry of Health, most of their budget is provided by the county in which they are situated. The National Bureau for Environmental and Nature Protection, a separate government department, has independent responsibilities which include the quality of all types of water. It has the power to impose direct fines on any organizations causing pollution. Although it also monitors sewage effluents and rivers, it has no legislative control over them. The Ministry of Agriculture and Food also monitors surface water and sediments for pesticide residues. The Ministry of Posts and Communi- cations is responsible for river traffic and has issued Ordinance No. 8 of I 5 May 1979 prohibiting discharges from vessels that could hinder navi- gation as well as any discharges of oil. The National Water Board in Regulation No. 2 of 26 May 1978 (IDHL, 29: 575) revised previous ordinances regarding fines for the pollution of surface water and set six classifications of surface water. The most limiting, Class I, applies only to Lake Balaton; Class II to drinking-water and bathing water; Class III to waters in industrial areas; Class IV to waters used for irrigation; Class V to sections of the Danube and Tisza rivers; and Class VI to other waters . For each class of water, permitted concentrations of pol- lutants are listed for 31 categories of pollutant. For each category, a rate for assessing fines per kilogram of pollutant discharged above the listed concen- tration is specified. In 12 of the categories, the permitted concentrations for discharge into Lake Balaton are more restrictive than for discharge into rivers that will be used as a source of drinking-water. Total phosphorus is set at 2 mg/I for both classes, although some parts of Lake Balaton are begin- ning to show signs of eutrophication. Ordinance No. 28 of 26 May 1976 of the Council of Ministers and Order No . 2 of 13 December 1970 of the National Water Board require that only refined sewage may be discharged into surface water and sewage conduits. The degree of efficiency of refinement is also specified . Producers discharg- ing sewage inadequate to these limits will be fined. Air Both Law No. II of 1972 and Law No. II of 1976 prohibit harmful pollution of the atmosphere. Ordinance No. I of9 January 1973 of the Council of 82 Hungary Ministers (IDHL, 25: 326) implements the 1972 Law and calls for classi- fication of the country into air quality sectors: (a) specially protected sectors, (b) protected sectors, and (c) other sectors subject to protective measures, i.e. industrial sectors. The Minister of Building and Town Planning is responsible for setting permissible discharge levels and for establishing the specially protected sectors. Classifications b and care referred to the Executive Committee of the Council of the Departments . Other offices involved include the Minis- try of Health, the Hungarian Office for Standardization, the Bureau for Air Quality Criteria, the Ministries of the Interior, Internal Trade, and Posts and Communications for air pollution arising from motor vehicles, and the National Bureau for Environmental and Nature Protection for coordination. In zones classified as specially protected sectors, industrial activities that would emit harmful air pollution are prohibited and a limit of I% sulfur in fuel is established by Ordinance No . 11 of 18 April 1973 (IDHL, 25: 328). In protected sectors, the maximum sulfur content is 3%. Maximum permitted levels of emission for SO2, NO., CO, NH3, Cl2, fluorides, and solid pollu- tants were established by the Ministry of Building and Town Planning in 1974. Fines for exceeding these levels were also established at the same time. Proceeds from the fines are to go to an air protection fund. The Minister of Health has published safety levels for additional air pollutants. Under the Environmental Protection Law No. II of I 976, licences are required for all undertakings liable to produce air-polluting discharges . The quality of ambient air is regularly measured in 500 settlements, most of them on a round-the-clock basis with automatic sampling. Data are collected and reported to the KOJAL stations. In Budapest, under the control of the municipal KOJAL station, there is an independent telemetric air emission monitoring network in function, and the data collected by it are immediately computerized, making the system suitable for prompt interven- tion in case of emergency. Noise The Public Health Law No. II of 1972 prohibits the production of noise at a level that is prejudicial to the health of persons in the vicinity. The Environ- mental Protection Law No. II of 1976 prohibits the generation of vibrations, oscillations or radiations that damage or endanger persons or protected constituents of the human environment. Enforcement is at the local level. Solid and Hazardous Waste Poison ordinances of 1953 and 1957, although repealed by the Public Health Law of 1972, still serve as a basis for toxicological regulations. Revisions to 83 Environmental health services update the legislation are under consideration. A Toxicological Information Service was set up by Government Ordinance No. 39 of 17 October 1970 (IDHL, 24: 503) under the National Institute of Occupational Hygiene. The Minister of Health issued Ordinance No. 12 of 21 October 1970 implement- ing the above Ordinance, and listed broad categories of chemicals and substances used in manufacturing, agriculture, consumer goods and all other substances that are poisonous to humans at a dose of I g or less. The use of any substances on the list must be reported to the National Institute of Occupational Hygiene, with the exception of plant protection products already licensed by the Ministry of Health. A list of authorized insecticides, rodenticides and repellents is issued annually by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food. The Public Health Law of I 972 and the Environmental Protection Law of 1976 both contain prohibitions against contaminating the soil. A pre- vious joint departmental Order of the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Building and Town Planning on the maintenance of public hygiene, issued in 1970, dealt with hazardous waste. Authority was assigned to the Epi- demiological Supervisory Service. The Order is out of date and Ordinance No. 56 of I 8 November 1981 of the Council of Ministers now provides for control of hazardous waste and for its neutralization. The collection and disposal of municipal waste is a local responsibility. The Air Pollution Ordinance No. 11 of 1973 (IDHL, 25: 328) establishes rules for the incineration of substances likely to produce offensive odours and packaging materials containing such substances. Radiation A National Atomic Energy Commission (OAB) was established by Decree No. 10 of 7 May 1964 (/DHL, 16: 330). A number of orders and directives were issued by the Ministry of Health implementing this Decree. The new Atomic Energy Law No. I of 1980, implementing Ordinance No. 12 of 5 April 1980 (IDHL, 31: 837), codified the laws and redefined the authority of OAB. The Ministry of Health has authority, with the help of the Joliot Curie Institute for Health Control of Radiation, to fix limiting values for radiation doses . The President of the National Water Board is to be con- sulted for limits on radioactive isotopes in water. Addresses Ministry of Health (Egeszsegiigyi Miniszterium) Arany J. U. 6-8 1361 Budapest V Tel. 32 31 JO 84 National Institute of Hygiene (Orszagos Kozegeszsegiigyi Intezet) Gyali u. 2-6 Pf. 64 1966 Budapest IX Tel. 14 22 50 Ministry of Agriculture and Food (Mezogazdasagi es Elelmezesiigyi Miniszterium) Kossuth L. ter 11 1860 Budapest V Tel. 32 23 00 National Bureau for Environmental and Nature Protection (Orszagos Kornyezet- es Termeszetvedelmi Hivatal) Kolto u. 21 Pf. 33 1531 Budapest XII Tel. 166600 National Institute of Environmental Protection (Kornyezetvedelmi Intezet) Szirmai I. u. 47 1113 Budapest XI Tel. 6667 32 National Water Board (Orszagos Viziigyi Hivatal) Fo u. 44-50 Pf. 351 1394 Budapest I Tel. 15 1031 Institute for Water Research (Vizgazdalkodasi Tudomanyos Kutat6intezet, VITUKI) KvassayJ .u. 1 Pf. 44 1428 Budapest IX Tel. 33 6140 Ministry of Building and Town Planning (Epitesiigyi es Varosfejlesztesi Miniszterium) Beloiannisz u. 2-4 Pf. 613 1370 Budapest V Tel. 112200 Hungary Ministry of Posts and Communications (Kozlekedes- es Postaiigyi Miniszterium) Dob u. 75-81 Pf. 87 1400 Budapest VII Tel. 220220 Hungarian Office for Standardization (Orszagos Szabvanyiigyi Hivatal) Olloi ut 25 Pf. 24 1450 Budapest IX Tel. 183011 National Atomic Energy Commission (Orszagos Atomenergia Bizottsag) Kossuth L. ter 4 1054 Budapest V Tel. 32 71 72 Joliot Curie Institute for Health Control of Radiation (Joliot Curie Orszagos Sugareges- zsegiigui es Surgarbiol6giai Kutat6 Intezet) Pentz K. u. 5 Pf. 101 1775 Budapest XXII Tel. 264080 National Institute of Occupational and Industrial Health (Orszagos Munka- es Ozemegeszsegiigyi Intezet) Nagyvarad-ter 2 Pf. 22 1450 Budapest IX Tel. 13 78 90 National Institute of Food and Nutrition (Orszagos Elelmezes- es Taplalkozastudomanyi Intezet) Gyali ut 3/a Pf. 52 1476 Budapest IX Tel. 33 41 30 85 Iceland The Republic of Iceland consists of one large island and numerous smaller islands in the North Atlantic just south of the Arctic Circle. The main island is 250 km south-east of Greenland, 800 km north-west of Scotland, and 1000 km west of Norway. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has an average temperature of IO °C in summer and I °C in winter. The population is concentrated around the coast and there are no inhabitants in the centre of the country. About half of the population lives in the capital city, Reykjavik, and its suburbs. Major industries are based on fishing and agriculture , mainly sheep and dairy farming. Heavy industries , such as aluminium and iron (ferro-silicon) 87 Environmental health services smelting, have recently been established, based on hydroelectric power. There are extensive areas of geothermal heat, which is utilized to a high degree for central heating as well as for generating electricity. Government and Basic Legislation Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected by universal adult suffrage for a term of four years, and the Cabinet, consisting of the Prime Minister and other ministers appointed by the President. In practice, in accordance with the Constitution, the President performs nominal func- tions only; real executive power is held by the Cabinet. Legislative power rests jointly with the President and Parliament (A/thing). The A/thing chooses 20 of its members to form the Upper House and the other 40 the Lower House. For local government purposes under the Municipal Act (Sveitarstj6r- narlog No. 58 of 29 March 1961) the State is divided into 202 municipalities, 22 communes and a number of towns . The functions prescribed by the Act include water and sanitation services and public health. The Law No . 50 of 29 May I 981 on sanitary measures and control , which became effective on I August I 982, repealed and replaced earlier legis- lation. It established the National Centre for Hygiene and Environmental Protection (Hollustuvernd rikisins) under the Ministry of Health and Social Security, with general responsibility for health and the environment, in- cluding food control, water supplies and discharges, disposal of refuse, emissions from factories, radiation protection, air pollution and noise. The Law No. 57 of 20 May 1978 on health services provides for linkages between local health centres and the public health committees and defines the role of the centres in sanitary measures and control. For public health purposes the State is divided into eight Health Areas, each with an Area Community Physician . After the local election held every fourth year, the local authorities in towns and communes select 47 public health committees which are re- sponsible for the execution of sanitary measures and control within their geographical boundaries. In six of the eight Health Areas there is one Public Health Board, in one there are two, and in one there are three. These Boards consist of the chairmen of the public health committees and the Area Community Physician who is de Jure chairman. The Public Health Boards organize and coordinate sanitary control within the Health Area and employ public health inspectors. The National Centre cooperates with the public health committees and the public health inspectors in every appropriate way. The Centre super- vises and coordinates all sanitary control, including food and environ- mental control, and laboratory and research activity in this field. It exerts direct control only in the case of specialized tasks , in consultation with the 88 Iceland public health committees, if this is stipulated by law or if it is so directed by the Minister. The Centre has the duty of organizing public information and education in sanitary matters and of initiating courses when appropriate, and is responsible for the education and training of public health inspectors. If the Board of Directors of the National Centre considers that, in accordance with the law, certain measures important to public welfare are necessary, and a public health committee does not take appropriate action in spite of guidance from the National Centre, the Board should suggest to the Minister ways of executing the necessary measures. If it is felt that there is such a grave danger connected to an activity or the use of substances that cessation of such activity or use is imperative, the National Centre has the power to discontinue immediately such activity or use temporarily, with the assistance of the police when needed. In cases where the public health committee disagrees with the measures taken, an appeal can be made to the Minister. This does not , however, delay the National Centre's original decision. In any other disagreement on the execution of the Law on sanitary measures and control, or any related orders, directives , bye-laws, etc. , the parties involved can appeal to the National Centre. If one or both parties are not in agreement with its decision, the matter can be referred to a Committee of Appeals , where one member is appointed by the Supreme Court , one by the National Union of Municipalities, and the third by the Chief Medical Officer. The Law No. 85 of 31 December 1968 on toxic and hazardous substances (IDHL, 22: 470) gives the Minister of Health and Social Security the power to regulate the manufacture and use of such substances. The Nature Conservation Law, No. 47 of 16 April 1971 (/DHL, 29: 580), established basic policy regarding the need to protect nature by avoiding pollution. The Nature Protection Assembly was set up under the Nature Conservation Law by Order No. 65 of 2 April 1975. This advisory body meets every third year. The execution of the Law is in the hands of the Nature Conservation Council under the Ministry of Education. The Minister of Foreign Affairs deals with any pollution and with nature conservation within the extraterritorial area adjacent to the Keflavik Inter- national Airport . Water The basic water law is Law No. 15 of 20 June 1923 which prohibits the deposit of anything that can contaminate lakes and streams or become a risk to humans or animals. Fish are given special protection by a number of regulations, because the sale of fishing rights is an important tourist in- dustry. Private fishing gear, for example, must be sterilized when brought into the country. The 1981 Law on sanitary measures and control covers water supplies and reservoirs. 89 Environmental health services Air The Minister of Health and Social Security has the authority to control emissions of smoke and fumes under the Toxic and Hazardous Substances Law of 1968. Order No. 164 of 15 June 1972 (JDHL, 29: 580) implements the Law and defines procedures for the issuing or revoking by the Minister of permits for factories where toxic and hazardous substances are used or produced , or are a byproduct. The National Centre for Hygiene and En- vironmental Protection is responsible for execution of the Order. Indoor air pollution from tobacco smoke is addressed in Law No. 27 of 11 May 1977 (JDHL, 30: 570). The Minister of Health and Social Security may prohibit smoking in certain public places and public transport vehicles. Noise The general public health orders that apply to all communes should contain regulations regarding noise, according to the 1981 Law on sanitary measures and control. Administration is in the hands of local authorities, which may make more stringent regulations for their own localities. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Nature Conservation Law of 1971 established nature conservation committees. Under Regulation No. 205 of 1973 the committees are respon- sible for inspection to ensure that the provisions of the Law regarding improper disposal of solid waste and refuse are obeyed, and must report infractions to the local police for action. The Toxic and Hazardous Substances Law of 1968 established a poisons list which has been modified by subsequent regulations, including Order No. 445 of 16 May 1978 and No. 349 of 30 August 1978 (IDHL, 31: 330). The Poisonous Substances Board is under the Minister of Health and Social Security, and takes advice from the Ministries of Agriculture, Energy and Industry, and Trade and Commerce. Under the Law toxic waste must be disposed of in such a way that it does not damage the environment. Local enforcement lies with the police and local medical officers. The Toxic and Hazardous Substances Law does not apply to ionizing radiation or to pharmaceutical products . Radiation The Radiation Protection Law No. 95 of20 December 1962 (JDHL, 15: 414) requires a person to hold a licence to possess , manufacture, transport, sell , or deliver radioactive substances or apparatus for the generation of ionizing radiation. The State Radiation Protection Authority was set up under 90 Iceland the Ministry of Health and Social Security by Order No. 5 of 12 January 1968 (JDHL, 22: 468). International Commission on Radiological Pro- tection (ICRP) recommendations are relied upon for guidance. The 1981 Law on sanitary measures and control repealed parts of the Radiation Protection Law, and the State Radiation Protection Authority is now part of the National Centre for Hygiene and Environmental Protection. Addresses Ministry of Health and Social Security Laugavegur 116 105 Reykjavik Tel. (91)25000 National Centre for Hygiene and Environmental Protection (Hollustuvernd rikisins) P.O. Box 505 121 Reykjavik Tel. (91)29633 Ministry of Education Hverfisgotu 6-8 IOI Reykjavik Tel. (91)25000 The Nature Conservation Council Hverfisgotu 28 IOI Reykjavik Tel. (91)27855; (91)22520 Ministry of Fisheries Lindargata 9 IOI Reykjavik Tel. (91)25000 Ministry of Trade and Commerce Arnarhvoli 101 Reykjavik Tel. (91)25000 Ministry of Energy and Industry Arnarhvoli IOI Reykjavik Tel. (91)25000 Ministry of Transportation and Communication Arnarhvoli 10 I Reykjavik Tel. (91)25000 91 r • Area: 70 283 km' Ireland The Republic of Ireland is situated in the Atlantic Ocean west of Great Britain, from which it is separated by the Irish Sea. In the north-east it borders on Northern Ireland. The climate is mild and equable with no especially dry season. The economy of the country is based largely on agriculture , light in- dustry and tourism. Government and Basic Legislation Ireland has a two-chamber Parliament comprising a Senate and a House of Representatives (Dail). The President is Head of State and is elected by 93 Environmental health services popular vote for a period of seven years. Executive power is effectively held by the Cabinet led by the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President with the prior approval of the Dail. There are 16 government departments, each headed by a cabinet minister. There are a number of state-sponsored bodies with varying degrees of concern in the environmental area. l. An Foras Forbartha (The Institute for Physical Planning and Research) 2. The Institute for Industrial Research and Standards 3. The Industrial Development Authority 4. An Foras Taluntais (The Agricultural Institute) 5. The Central Fisheries Board 6. Regional Fisheries Boards 7. Bord F<iilte (The Tourist Board) 8. The Nuclear Energy Board Water The Local Government (Water Pollution) Act of 1977 provides an effective updated legal framework for the control of water pollution. Its object is to ensure that the quality of national water resources is maintained to a standard consistent with their various beneficial uses . The Act applies to inland waters, tidal waters and the sea. Discharges into tidal waters and the sea from vessels or marine structures are governed by the Dumping at Sea Act, 1981 , which is administered by the Minister for Transport . The elected local authorities are 27 county councils , 4 county borough corporations, 7 borough corporations, 49 urban district councils and 28 boards of town commissioners. For the administration of the health services there are 8 health boards, each of which serves several counties. Local authorities receive direction from the Minister for the Environment and over half of their financial support from the National Exchequer. The local authorities (except for the town commissioners) are planning authorities under the Local Government (Planning and Development) Acts of 1963 and 1976 and their amendments, including Statutory Instrument (SI) No . 65 of 1977. The Minister for the Environment has overall responsi- bility for physical planning and development. All development, defined in the legislation as "the carrying out of any works on, in or under land, or the making of any material change in the use of any structure or other land", requires planning permission . Exceptions to this requirement are the use of land for agriculture and forestry , development by state departments, de- velopment by planning authorities in their functional area , and certain minor works set out in SI 65 of 1977. 94 Ireland Any person aggrieved at the decision of a planning authority on an application for planning permission may appeal to An Bord Pleanala, an independent tribunal responsible for the determination of appeals, refer- ences and certain other matters under the provisions of the Planning Acts. The Board also deals with appeals under the Local Government (Water Pollution) Act of 1977. Each planning authority is required to make a development plan for its area and to review and update it at least once in every five-year period. This development plan sets out the policy and objectives of the planning auth- ority for the development of its area. The Minister for the Environment has the responsibility and the appropriate powers to ensure that plans are coordinated effectively and may direct a planning authority to amend its plan. The primary powers of control under the Water Pollution Act of 1977 are vested in local authorities, and chief among these powers is the licensing of discharges into water and sewers. There is a right of appeal to An Bord Pleanala against the decision of the local authority on a licence application. Licences are subject to review at three-yearly intervals , but may be reviewed by the local authority within this period if it has reason to believe that the discharge is a significant threat to public health or if an unforeseen material change has taken place in the receiving water. The Act includes a general prohibition on the polluting of water, but this does not apply to trade or sewage effluents that are subject to the licensing system. Another important provision of the Act enables local authorities to make water quality management plans, setting out objectives for the preven- tion and abatement of pollution , and providing the informational frame- work for decisions on water quality issues. The role of the Minister for the Environment is essentially a supervisory one, the implementation of national policy on water pollution control being ensured mainly through the issue of guidelines to the local authorities. He has , however, a specific statutory power to prescribe quality standards for discharges and for water, and local authorities must observe such standards in the setting of licence conditions. While discharges from public sewers are not subject to licensing, any legal standards prescribed by the Minister place a statutory duty on the local authority to ensure that the sewage effluent does not contravene those standards. Water pollution comes under specific statutory controls as well as cer- tain non-statutory controls, for example the attachment of pollution control conditions to state aid such as that granted by the Industrial Development Authority or the Department of Agriculture for development projects. The main statutory controls are contained in the physical planning system operated by local authorities under the Local Government (Planning and Development) Acts , 1963 and 1976, and by the provisions of the Local Government (Water Pollution) Act, 1977. The physical planning system provides a statutory pollution control system of a general nature. Con- ditions for the control of water pollution may be attached to planning 95 Environmental health services permission for a project. For example, it may be prescribed that an effluent be treated to a certain standard or that waste be disposed of in a certain manner. The Local Government (Water Pollution) Act, 1977 is the principal statutory control on water pollution. This Act, which came into effect on 15 March I 977, includes provision for control, by means of a flexible licensing system to be operated by local authorities, of the dis- charge of trade effluents and certain sewage effluents from land or premises into water (including inland waters, tidal waters and the sea). Appeals against conditions attached to licences may be made to An Bord Pleanti/a. Domestic sewage discharges are excluded from the licensing procedure. The main feature of the Water Pollution Act is that it facilitates an inte- grated approach to the overall management of water resources and pro- vides strong powers for the local authorities under the general guidance and the policy and regulatory control of the Minister for the Environment. The Act also facilitates compliance with international obligations concern- ing the control of water pollution from land-based sources, including obli- gations arising under the European Communities Environment Pro- gramme. While the polluting waste arising from farm enterprises and from operations such as silage-making cannot be licensed under the Water Pol- lution Act, the Act contains a general prohibition on causing or permitting an unauthorized entry of polluting matter into water. An offence against this provision carries the risk of a heavy fine and/or imprisonment. In addition, local authorities are enabled to require people who have control of poisonous, noxious or polluting matter to prevent such matter from enter- ing water. Air All aspects of industrial installations are subject to control by the Minister for the Environment under the Planning Acts. The Minister for the En- vironment is authorized to enact regulations to control the pollution of the atmosphere by Act No. 26 of 1962 ([DHL, 17: 904). Regulation SI No. 156 of I 970 covers the emission of smoke from any premises other than a private dwelling. The Regulation covers all industrial and commercial operations and multiple dwellings with central furnaces above a given size, as well as the burning of leaves, rubbish, etc. in the garden of a private dwelling. The Minister for the Environment has also issued regulations in line with Euro- pean Community regulations regarding sulfur in fuel oil and lead in petrol. Emissions of hydrochloric acid gas and acid gases of sulfur and nitrogen are controlled by the Alkali etc. Works Regulation Act of I 906, which was enacted for the control of pollution from early, and in many cases now obsolete, chemical processes. The Chief Alkali Inspector, who is the as- sistant chief engineering adviser to the Department of the Environment, has the power to identify sources of such pollutants, to establish the best possible means of reducing pollution to acceptable levels and to recommend 96 Ireland that proceedings be taken against the emitter ifhe fails to install such means or, having installed them, fails to use them. Emissions of smoke, visible vapour, grit, sparks, ashes, cinders or oily substances are prohibited by SI No. 190 of 1963 as authorized by the Road Traffic Act No. 24 of 1961. The regulations set no numerical limits, however, on unavoidable emissions. The Minister for the Environment administers the Act. Noise Section 51 of the Local Government (Planning and Development) Act, 1963 makes it an offence to make or cause any noise or vibrations likely to give reasonable cause for annoyance. Local authorities may initiate prosecutions of offenders under the Act. Conditions relating to noise or vibration levels may be attached to planning permission under the Planning Acts of 1963 and 1976. Regulations under the Road Traffic Act require that vehicles be fitted with effective exhaust silencers and audible warning devices but must not have gongs, sirens or other strident-toned devices . The regulations do not, however, set numerical values on noise. Solid and Hazardous Waste Local authorities are empowered by the Public Health (Ireland) Act of 1878, as amended , to collect domestic and trade waste. These powers have been supplemented recently by regulations made by the Minister for the Environ- ment implementing the directives of the European Communities on (a) waste, (b) polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and (c) toxic and dangerous waste. The European Communities (Waste) Regulations , 1979 (SI No . 390 of 1979) give effect to the directive on waste (IDHL, 31: 538). The Regulations make local authorities responsible for the planning and supervision of waste operations in their areas and empower them to issue permits to any person for the storing (for himself or on behalf of another person) or tipping of waste. The storing or tipping of waste without such a permit is prohibited . Holders of permits and other persons dealing with waste on behalf of others are required to keep a register of their waste operations. The European Communities (Waste) (No. 2) Regulations , 1979 (SI No. 388 of 1979) implement the directive on PCB (IDHL, 31: 538) and make arrangements designed to secure the proper disposal of these substances. The European Communities (Toxic and Dangerous Waste) Regulations, 1982 (SI No. 33 of 1982) implement the directive on toxic and dangerous waste and came into operation on I January 1983 . These Regulations are broadly similar to the Regulations on general waste (SI No. 390 of 1979) but the requirements are more stringent. Permits must be obtained by all per- sons treating, storing or depositing toxic and dangerous waste, whether such waste is their own or not . The transportation of toxic and dangerous waste are tightly controlled by a consignment note system. 97 Environmental health services Radiation The Nuclear Energy Board, established under the Nuclear Energy Act No. 12 of 1971 (/DHL, 25: 551), reports to the Minister of Transport in an advisory capacity. The Electricity Supply Board has one nuclear power plant under construction . Control of the exposure of factory workers to ionizing radiation is the responsibility of the Minister of Labour. The Minister for Health is respon- sible for non-industrial radiation such as diagnostic X-rays. Addresses Department of Health Custom House Dublin I Tel. (01)742961 ; (01)714711 Department of the Environment Custom House Dublin I Tel. (01)742961 Department of Agriculture Agriculture House Kildare Street Dublin 2 Tel. (01) 78 90 11 Department of Industry and Energy I. Kildare Street Dublin 2 Tel. (01)789411 2. Clare Street Dublin 2 Tel. (01)715233 Department of Trade, Commerce and Tourism Kildare Street Dublin 2 Tel. (01) 78 94 11 98 The Planning Appeals Board (An Bord Pleanala) Irish Life Centre Lower Abbey Street Dublin 2 Tel. (01) 72 80 11 The Institute for Physical Planning and Research (An Foras Forbartha) St Martin's House Waterloo Road Dublin 4 Tel. (01)7642 11 The Agricultural Institute (An Foras Taluntais) 19 Sandymount Avenue Balls bridge Dublin 4 Tel. (01)688188 The Central Fisheries Board Balnagowan Mobhi Road Glasnevin Dublin 9 Tel. (01)379206 The Institute for Industrial Research and Standards Ballymun Road Dublin 9 Tel. (01)370101 The Industrial Development Authority Lansdowne House Balls bridge Dublin 4 Tel. (OJ) 68 66 33 Nuclear Energy Board 20-22 Lower Hatch Street Dublin 2 Tel. (01)764373 Ireland 99 r I • Area : 301 225 km2 Italy Italy is a peninsula extending from southern Europe into the Mediterranean Sea together with a number of adjacent islands, the largest being Sicily to the south-west and Sardinia to the west. Italy borders on France to the north- west, Switzerland and Austria to the north, and Yugoslavia to the north-east. It has a mediterranean climate and an extensive coastline. Government and Basic Legislation Under the 1948 Constitution, legislative power is held by the two-chamber Parliament consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies or Lower IOI Environmental health services House. The President, who is elected in joint sessions of both Houses of Parliament, is Head of State; he appoints the Prime Minister and , on the latter's recommendation, the other ministers. Executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers, over which the Prime Minister presides as President of the Council. The country is divided into 20 regions, which have a large degree of autonomy, 94 provinces and more than 8000 communes. Five of the regions have special status, either because they are islands (Sicily and Sardinia) or because they contain minority populations (Friuli-Venezia, Trentino-Alto Adige and Valle d'Aosta). The provinces of Trento and Bolzano have been given legislative jurisdiction concerning most aspects of the environment and pollution control by the constitutional laws of 1971-72. Major cities have provincial status. A government commissioner in each regional capital supervises the administrative functions of the State and coordinates them with those of the region. The special regions have a governmental structure similar to that of the communes, with a directly elected council , an executive board and a president. The regional council may present proposed legislation for its area to the national parliament on a range of subjects, including public health and the environment. Regional law has the same validity as ordinary laws and government acts . Italy is a member of the European Communities, whose directives must be reflected in the national legislation. Each province has two separate administrations: the provincial admin- istration, which is the decentralized unit of the central government with an elected council and a president, and the communes in the province . The coordinator of the central government's administration of the province is a governor or prefect, appointed by and responsible to the Minister of the Interior. His duties include promulgating and carrying out national laws and supervising certain public health duties. He is assisted by advisory groups and councils. Each commune has three organs of government , similar to those in the province : the council , the board and the mayor. The functions of the council include the provision of health services and the supervision of the local police force. As an officer of the central government , the mayor must publish the laws, regulations and announcements of the State and assume certain functions in regard to public works and public health . The communes are subject to strict administrative and financial control by the provincial and central governments. Provincial inspectors examine their organization and administration , and if a commune is not performing its duties the central government or the province can take appropriate action . The Consolidated Health Law No. 1265 of 27 July 1934 has been supplemented by many more recent laws and decrees. Law No. 296 of 13 March 1958 established the Ministry of Health (IDHL, 10: 319) which is responsible for most of the regulations protecting water, air and soil against pollution from discharges such as radiation and pesticides. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is responsible for the preservation of forests, 102 Italy national parks and protected areas. The Ministry of Industry, Trade and Artisan Crafts has responsibility for any applications of radiation or radioactive isotopes. The Ministries of Public Works and the Merchant Marine are responsible for major water projects, and structures and regu- lations to reduce pollution of inland and coastal waters, respectively. An independent ministry of the environment existed for a short time before it was merged with the Ministry of Cultural Assets . Its activities were limited to fact-finding and it had little administrative power. The enforcement of environmental laws and regulations is in the hands of the local police unless serious danger to health exists, in which case the Minister of Health can make use of the carabinieri (who are army corps serving as police) in addition to local health officers. In most communes there is a health officer who, in cooperation with the regional health in- spectorate, directs the communal health inspectorate and assists the com- munal veterinarians and other staff. The regional health inspectors are responsible for those smaller communes that have no health officer. Water The Law No. 319 of 10 May 1976 for the protection of water against pollution repeals earlier laws and includes extensive tables of acceptable concentrations of pollutants in industrial discharges (/DHL, 28: 627). The Law is carried out by a ministerial committee comprising the Minister of Public Works (as Chairman), the Minister of the Merchant Marine and the Minister of Health. The provincial laboratories for hygiene and prophylaxis under the Ministry of Health have inspectors for water pollution who are empowered to take water samples, even inside factory premises. Law No. 319 supplements several laws and decrees, including Law No. 126 of 16 April 1976 on the control of discharges to marine waters . Law No . 650 of 24 December I 979 requires regional governments to regulate the disposal of industrial wastewater using standards more stringent than those in Law No. 319. The regional governments establish their own standards and rules for the disposal of municipal effluents. Italy is a signatory to international conventions on the prevention of marine pollution and the protection of the Mediterranean . Marine dis- charges must be licensed through the Ministry of the Merchant Marine. The use of public water, including groundwater , is regulated by requests for concessions which are submitted to the Office of Civil Engineers in the Ministry of Public Works. Large concessions are quoted by decree of the President of the Republic, while smaller requests may be granted by a regional decree based on an opinion from the Adviser for Public Works. Discharges into the Mediterranean are subject to pollution control regu- lations administered by the Ministry of the Merchant Marine and the local port authorities . The regions have no power in this area. 103 Environmental health services Air The Anti-smog Law No. 615 of 13 July 1966 (IDHL, 18: 667) is concerned with thermal installations, i.e. units that burn fuel to produce heat. This Law established two separate air pollution control zones, Zone A and Zone B, based on the fact that northern Italy contains most of the industry and hence has more polluted air than southern Italy and the major islands, which have little industry or polluted air and much unemployment. The Anti-smog Law is consistent with the general policy of attempting to locate industry in impoverished areas. Zone A includes cities in the north with populations between 70 000 and 300 000 and cities in the south and the islands with populations between 300 000 and I million. Zone B includes cities in the north with populations over 300 000, and in the south and the islands those over I million . Where special conditions exist, a city may be transferred from one zone to the other. Not all municipalities are included in the air pollution zones and no locality that is not a municipality has been assigned to a zone . Decisions on zoning are made by the Central Commission for Atmospheric Pollution under the Ministry of Health . Industrial pollution is governed by national regulations in the form of lists of emissions compiled by the Higher Health Council on the advice of the Ministry of Industry. Permits are issued by the mayor , who is also responsible for factory siting. The local health officer advises the mayor on air pollution problems. Air pollution is also regulated by the categorization of fuels, based essentially on their sulfur content. The air pollution regulations contained in the Town Planning Law No. 1150 of 17 August 1942 and its modifications must be applied in all municipalities that belong to a zone. Special regulations apply to areas such as Venice, where air pollution in the form of sulfur acids is causing the rapid decay of objects of art, especially marble statues on buildings. Motor vehicles are subject to emission limits based on the per- formance of factory prototypes . Under the Traffic Consolidation Act No. 393 of 15 June 1959 and its amendments , there is no follow-up in- spection to determine the actual levels of carbon monoxide and hydro- carbons emitted. Diesel engines are subject to a more stringent smoke opacity test. Limits are set by the Ministry of Health in conjunction with the ministries responsible for industry, transport , home affairs and labour, together with the Central Commission for Atmospheric Pollution and the Higher Health Council. Law No. 584 of 11 November 1975 prohibits smoking on specified public premises, although exemptions can be granted by the mayor if suitable ventilation is provided. The Ministry of Health has jurisdiction. Noise There is very limited legislation to control noise in the environment. Some local regulations regarding noise from automobile exhausts are included in Article 47 of the Traffic Consolidation Act but emphasis is placed on the 104 Italy minimum sound level necessary for horns and other signalling devices to be heard and to contribute to traffic safety. Prohibitions on the use of horns in urban areas have been largely ineffective. The authority to set limits on noise from air traffic is reserved for the State and delegated to the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Law No. 366 of20 March 1941 on urban waste assigns responsibility for the collection, transport and disposal of domestic waste to the communes on a monopoly basis. The emphasis is on its reuse in agriculture and the recovery of valuable components. A few composting plants have been built but the agricultural or other use of waste accounts for only a few per cent of the total. The Ministry of Health has the authority to supervise and control operations. Many of the regions have enacted legislation and assigned funds to improve solid waste handling within their communes. The Law No. 833 of 23 December 1978 establishing the National Health Service (IDHL, 30: 584) assigns responsibility to the regions for the supervision of the production, possession and use of, as well as trade in, toxic gases and other hazardous substances. The Ministry of Health has issued a series of decrees prohibiting or limiting the use of a number of specific pesticides, under Decree No. 257 of 11 February 1961 establishing the Higher and Provincial Health Councils (IDHL, 13: 306) and Decree No. 1255 of 3 August 1968 (IDHL, 21: 587) governing phytopharmaceutical products. New legislation is under consideration to provide better control of toxic industrial effluents to reduce the danger from incidents such as that at Sevesoa and in the Vicenza Provinceb. Radiation Italy is a signatory to the treaty instituted by the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). All matters concerning ionizing radiation and nuclear pollution follow Euratom regulations and are the responsibility of the State. The Ministry of Industry, Trade and Artisan Crafts has prime responsibility, but works with the Ministries of Labour, Public Education, Agriculture and Forestry, and Health where appropriate, as well as with the National Committee for Nuclear Energy (CNEN). The medical uses of isotopes and radiation come under the Ministry of Health, as does the use of a Silano, V. Case study: accidental release of 2,3. 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) at Seveso, Italy. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe, 1981 (document ICP/ RCE 903(7)/8). b Toxicological appraisal of halogenated aromatic compounds following groundwater pollu- tion: report on a WHO Working Group. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe, 1980. 105 Environmental health services radiation in the preparation of foodstuffs. Under Law No. 833, establishing the National Health Service, the regions are responsible for the inspection of premises and equipment for trade in, and storage of, natural and artificial radioactive substances, and of apparatus emitting ionizing radiation. They are also responsible for the monitoring of environmental radioactivity. There are no regulations regarding nonionizing radiation. Addresses Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 20 Via XX Settembre 00187 Rome Tel. 4665 Ministry of Cultural Assets 27 Via del Collegio Romano 00186 Rome Tel. 67 23 Ministry of Health Via della Letteratura 00100 Rome Tel. 5994 Ministry of Industry, Trade and Artisan Crafts 33 Via Veneto 00187 Rome Tel. 47 05 106 Ministry of the Interior Palazzo Viminale 00184 Rome Tel. 46 67 Ministry of Public Works Piazza di Porta Pia 00198 Rome Tel. 8482 Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation Piazza della Croce Rossa 00161 Rome Tel. 84901 r f • Area: 2 586 km' Luxembourg Luxembourg is situated between Belgium, France and the Federal Republic of Germany (Rhineland-Palatinate). Almost all of the country is drained by branches of the Mosel River which discharges into the Rhine. The climate is temperate. Government and Basic Legislation The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a hereditary and constitutional mon- archy. Legislative power is held by the Chamber of Deputies, but some legislative functions are exercised by the advisory Council of State 107 Environmental health services appointed by the Grand Duke. Executive power is vested in the Grand Duke but is normally exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Presi- dent of the Government. The Grand Duke appoints the ministers who are responsible for administrative acts signed by him in their respective areas of competence. For administrative purposes the country is divided into districts and communes. The districts serve only as administrative units and are headed by appointed commissioners who liaise between the central and local auth- orities. The communes exercise substantial administrative power and are responsible for all local enforcement. The Burgomaster, who is appointed by the central government, heads the College of Burgomaster and Aldermen which is responsible for the day-to-day administration ofnational laws. The police, including inspectors of health, safety and pollution, come under the responsibility of the Burgomaster. The Ministry of the Environment, which was separated from the Min- istry of Health in 1977, is responsible for most aspects of the human environment, although some responsibilities remain in the Ministry of Health. Some other ministries are involved in special aspects of environment problems, i.e. the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Public Works as far as surface water management and the construction of sewage treat- ment plants is concerned. The Higher Council for Nature Conservation, organized by Ministerial Regulation of9 December 1973, and the National Committee for the Protection of the Environment, created by Ministerial Regulation of 29 June 1981, have a strong advisory role in the central government. They are charged with providing advice on all questions regarding nature and the environment and with drafting bills for govern- ment action. The Environmental Administration created by the Law of 27 Novem- ber 1980 (IDHL, 32: 561) is responsible for the implementation of laws and regulations concerning the human environment. The Law of 16 April 1979 (IDHL, 31: 81) concerning dangerous, unhealthy or offensive establishments may be used for environmental pro- tection in so far as all plants, works and other establishments need a licence, delivered by the Ministry of Labour, after consultation with the Ministry of the Environment. The licence fixes conditions for the operation of the establishment in such a way that public and occupational safety and health as well as the environment are protected. The first general nature conser- vation law of 29 July 1965 has since been incorporated into the Law of 27 July 1978 for the protection of the natural environment (IDHL, 30: 253). A useful review of laws and regulations up until 1976 is given in The law and practice relating to pollution control in Belgium and Luxembourg, by J.M. Didier et al., published in London in 1976 by Graham & Trotman, Ltd, with a supplement in 1978 (abbreviated in further references to BL). 108 Luxembourg Water Regulations to prevent water pollution can be traced back to an edict of 13 August 1669 prohibiting the throwing of refuse or filth into streams or onto river banks. Other earlier laws were concerned more with protecting navigation than with the effects of soluble pollutants. The Law of 16 May 1929, however, specifically prohibits the discharge of matter likely to limit the use of water for domestic, industrial and irrigation purposes. The purification of wastewater from industries and the larger communes is required by ministerial decrees of9 September 1929 and 22 December 1938. The degree of purification actually achieved under these decrees has fre- quently been insufficient. The 1938 Decree called only for mechanical purification (primary settling) of wastewater from built-up areas. The Law of 16 April 1979 provides for the setting of effluent limitations on industrial wastewater, etc. Water supplies were initially obtained from groundwater and a number of ministries have been involved in various aspects of groundwater pro- tection and supply. The Law for the protection of groundwaters of 7 Jan- uary 1961 was implemented by the Grand-Ducal Regulations of 17 August 1963 and involved the departments responsible for civil engineering (geo- logical service), forestry, public health and agriculture, and the Inspectorate of Mines. The Grand-Ducal Regulations of 13 November 1970 established standards for drinking-water quality. The formation ofa major water reservoir in the north of the country, by a dam at Esch-sur-Sure, has led to a number of special regulations to protect its waters, starting with the Law of27 May 1961 for sanitary protection of the reservoir, which establishes protective zones around the area. Grand- Ducal Regulations of 12 November 1971 and 21 March 1980 further imple- ment the 1961 Law. Directives of the European Communities regarding water have been implemented by Grand-Ducal Regulations of 21 July 1976 on detergents (IDHL, 30: 250), of 12 June 1981 on the quality of surface water suitable for drinking-water supplies, of 17 May 1979 on the quality of bathing water (IDHL, 31: 82) and of20 December 1980 on the quality of water suitable for fish life (IDHL, 32: 561). In principle, the communes are responsible for both water supply and wastewater treatment, but many have entered into agreements with other communes to secure more abundant supplies or to consolidate treatment facilities. The Ministry of the Environment is the main authority in water matters but relies on other departments for technical assistance. The Ministry of Health nevertheless retains full responsibility for sanitary protection of the Esch-sur-Sure reservoir, which currently supplies water for 60% of the population. Luxembourg is a signatory to a number of international compacts, including a treaty with the Land of Rhineland-Palatinate in the Federal 109 Environmental health services Republic of Germany on the Sure River, which deals with both water supply and the elimination of transboundary pollution, and a convention with Belgium concerning the construction of an international sewage treatment plant on the upper Sure River near Martelange. A broader tripartite pro- tocol concerning pollution of the Mosel River was concluded in Paris on 20 December 1961 between France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Luxembourg. Luxembourg is also a member of the International Com- mission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution. Air The Law of 16 April 1979 concerning dangerous, unhealthy or offensive establishments provides a powerful tool for combating air pollution. The Law and the subsequent regulations put responsibility for controlling noxious emissions in the hands of the Minister of Labour. The Ministry of the Interior has power under the 1978 Law for the protection of the natural environment to prohibit construction outside built-up areas or within 100 metres of a watercourse or a grove of trees if this construction consti- tutes a danger to the atmosphere. The Air Pollution Control Law of21 June 1976 (JDHL, 30: 249; BL: 316) is a framework law providing the authority to control pollution from industrial, agricultural , domestic and mobile sources. Grand-Ducal Regulations under this Law were issued on 20 June 1977 concerning lead in petrol, and on 12 July 1978 implementing the Council Directive concerning the sulfur content of certain liquid fuels (IDHL, 30: 249). Administration of the air pollution laws is assigned to the Ministry of the Environment. By the Grand-Ducal Decree of 23 November 1955, Article 25 of the Highway Code requires that motor vehicles and motor- cycles must not emit fumes that can hinder traffic or inconvenience other road users. The Highway Code is administered by the Ministry of Transport and Power. Noise The Law of 16 April 1979 concerning dangerous , unhealthy or offensive establishments is very important in relation to noise abatement as well as for combating air pollution. Noise is also a communal responsibility. The Model Communal Regulations for noise abatement deal essentially with noise from home appliances. The Highway Code, administered by the Ministry of Transport and Power, governs noise on the open road. The Noise Control Law of 21 June 1976 (IDHL, 30: 250; BL: 401) was implemented by Grand-Ducal Regulations of 13 February I 979 (JDHL, 31: 78) concerning the noise level in the immediate vicinity of establishments and construction sites. The Ministry of the Environment has administrative authority under this Law. 110 Luxembourg Solid and Hazardous Waste The basic responsibility for the collection and disposal of municipal waste lies with the communes. Their control of industrial waste is limited to licensing, under the 1872 Order regulating dangerous, unhealthy or incon- venient buildings. The Department of the Interior was given control of waste outside built-up areas under the 1965 Law on nature conservation . The Waste Disposal Law of 26 June 1980 (JDHL, 31 : 846) sets down the basic principles for reducing environmental degradation arising from waste disposal and encourages its recycling instead. Administration of the Law is assigned to the Ministry of the Environment. Three regulations dated 26 June 1980 (IDHL, 31 : 846) implement Council directives on waste oil , on waste from the titanium dioxide industry, and on polychlorinated bi- phenyls, respectively. Pesticides are regulated by the Ministry of Agriculture in cooperation with the Ministry of Health under the Law of 20 February 1968 (IDHL, 19: 403) and the Grand-Ducal Regulations of29 May 1970 (JDHL, 21: 752). The Regulation of 29 October 1981 includes bans on persistent organochlorine compounds, carbon tetrachloride, chloropicrin , alkyl mercury products, all inorganic mercury substances, compounds of lead, cadmium, selenium, arsenic and certain specific pesticides. Radiation The Law of25 March 1963 on the protection of the population against the dangers resulting from ionizing radiation (/DHL, lS : 118) assigned responsibility to the then Ministry of Public Health. Regulations issued under this Law on 8 February 1967 conform with the recommendations of Euratom. All radioactive substances used in Luxembourg are imported. The only significant source of ionizing radiation appears to be from X-ray examinations. Addresses Ministry of the Environment 19-21 Boulevard Royal 2910 Luxembourg Tel. 48 82 87 Administration of the Environment IA rue Auguste Lumiere 1950 Luxembourg Tel. 491191 Ministry of Health 57 Boulevard de la Petrusse 2910 Luxembourg Tel. 40801 Directorate of Health 57 Boulevard de la Petrusse 2910 Luxembourg Tel. 408 01 111 Environmental health services National Laboratory of Health 42 rue du Laboratoire BP 1102 1011 Luxembourg Tel. 491191 Ministry of Agriculture I rue de la Congregation 2910 Luxembourg Tel. 47 81 112 Ministry of the Interior 19 rue Beaumont 2910 Luxembourg Tel. 47 81 r f • Area: 316km' ---.' Malta The Republic of Malta consists of a group of islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the largest being Malta, Gozo and Comino. It is 97 km south of Sicily and 290 km north of the African coast. The climate is warm, with an average temperature of 22.6 °C in summer and 13. 7 °C in winter. Rainfall is insufficient to supply the need for water and, in order to increase water supplies from existing distillers and ground- water resources, the Government of Malta in February 1982 decided to install one 20 000 m3 reverse osmosis seawater desalination plant and one 4540 m3 reverse osmosis brackish water desalination plant. 113 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation Under the 1974 Constitution, legislative power is held by the single-chamber House of Representatives. The Head of State is the President, who appoints the Prime Minister and, on the latter's recommendation, the other ministers. Executive power is exercised by the Government. The island of Malta is governed directly by the central government and has no system of local government. There are no large municipalities ; the largest is the capital, Valletta, with a population of 14000. The coordination of environmental matters in Malta is achieved (a) through the Malta Human Environment Council , an interdepartmental body chaired by the Minister of Health and composed of representatives of those ministries and departments whose responsibilities include one or more aspects of environmental work , and (b) through a small Environment Div- ision , that operates within the general administrative framework of the Department of Health. The Environment Division , in collaboration with other departments wherever appropriate, is responsible for dealing with matters of general environmental import. In particular, it acts as the technical liaison with overseas organizations, including those within the United Nations system, and coordinates national participation in regional and international en- vironmental programmes. Major emphasis is currently being placed on programmes in the field of marine pollution prevention and control, and Malta is currently participating in a number of United Nations sponsored pilot projects as part of the Mediterranean Action Plan. The main environment law is the Food, Drugs, and Drinking-Water Act No . XL of 1972 (IDHL, 25: 351 ). The Minister of Health and Environment is empowered by this Act to make regulations in respect of food and water and a number of regulations have been published. The Act is a comprehensive measure dealing not only with food safety and food hygiene but also with the prevention of fraud and of the misleading description and false labelling of food and drugs. The Food Hygiene Regulations made in 1969 under an earlier ordinance remained in force when the new Act became law. The Medical and Health Department (Constitution) (Amendment) Act No . XIV of 3 June 1969 (IDHL, 22: 330) lays down the structure of the Department of Health and the responsibilities of the various officers . En- vironmental health in general is the responsibility of this Department. Health inspectors perform duties related to food among other things, including the inspection of food premises, and submit samples to the Public Health Laboratory. They are responsible to the medical officer of health of the region in which they operate . The Chief Government Medical Officer, who is the Chief Adviser to the Government on health matters , is advised by principal medical officers and senior medical officers on the planning, development and administration of the services for which the Department is responsible. The Chief Government Medical Officer is also Superintendent of Public Health. 114 Malta Regional medical officers of health and the health inspectors are respon- sible for a number of subjects including environmental and public health services. They are referred to collectively in the 1972 Food, Drugs, and Drinking-Water Act as the "sanitary authority", and are responsible for the enforcement of the Act as well as of the Food Hygiene Regulations of 1969. The Ministry of Agriculture is also, to some extent, concerned with the environment through the Directors of Fisheries and of Agriculture. The control of pesticides is the joint responsibility of the Departments of Health and of Agriculture. Water The Ministry of Health and Environment is responsible for water quality under the Food, Drugs, and Drinking-Water Act No. XL of 1972. The administration of water services is the responsibility of the Water Works Department of the Ministry of Works. The Marine Pollution (Prevention and Control) Act No. XII of 1977 (IDHL, 28: 1026) implements inter- national and regional conventions and protocols relating to the protection of the marine environment. In the field of the control of oil pollution at sea, the Division of the Environment advises the armed forces of Malta (who are responsible for the actual control operations) on techniques and the most appropriate dis- persants. A national contingency plan to combat any major oil pollution accident occurring in the vicinity of Malta's coastline is in the process of finalization. A regional oil-combating Centre for the Mediterranean Sea was estab- lished in Malta in 1976 by a grant from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in cooperation with the International Maritime Or- ganization (IMO). This implements the Barcelona Convention of February 1976 on oil pollution in the Mediterranean Sea, which was signed by plenipotentiaries from 16 of the 18 states with shores on the Sea. The Centre is sited on premises provided by the Maltese Government, on Manoel Island in the Marsamxett Harbour. Its basic objectives are to facilitate cooperation among the Mediterranean states in the event of a massive oil spillage and to help them to develop their own anti-pollution capabilities. It has been active in collecting and disseminating information on products, equipment and experts available in the Mediterranean states to combat oil pollution of the sea, and its role may be expanded to include other harmful substances besides oil. Air The Clean Air Act No. XVIII of 1967 (IDHL, 20: 264)and regulations issued under it are concerned primarily with "dark smoke" from chimneys of industrial plants and other buildings, and from ships in Maltese waters. The Act is administered by a Clean Air Board under the Ministry of Health and 115 Environmental health services Environment. The Tobacco (Control of Advertisement) Act No. XXXI of 1970 (]DHL. 24: 183) prohibits tobacco advertising in cinemas and on television. Smoking on public transport and in cinemas and theatres is prohibited. Noise Local nuisance laws are relied upon for defence against excessive noise. Solid and Hazardous Waste The collection and disposal of solid waste in Malta is the responsibility of the Department of Health. Control of pollution of the environment through litter is enforced through the Litter Act of 1968 and by certain sections of the Code of Police Laws (Chapter 13). Contamination of the environment by agricultural chemicals is regu- lated under the Pesticides (Control of Importation, Sale and Use) Act No. III of 1966 (IDHL. 20: 260). It is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture in consultation with the Ministry of Health and Environment. A scheme to provide control over other dangerous chemicals was started in 1981. The Ministry of Trade and Industry plays an important role through the control of the issue of import licences. Radiation The Ministry of Health and Environment is responsible for regulations regarding exposure to radiation. Addresses Ministry of Health and Environment 15 Merchants Street Valletta Tel. 24071 Ministry of Agriculture 4 Old Mint Street Valletta Tel. 25236 Ministry of Works Water Works Department Valletta Tel. 220 10; 299 18 116 Ministry of Trade and Industry Lascaris Valletta Tel. 24411 Ministry of Tourism 6 Harper Lane Floriana Tel. 24444 Monaco The Principality of Monaco lies on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of France, near the Italian border. The principal industry is tourism but there are more than JOO light industries in the Principality. Government and Basic Legislation Monaco is a constitutional hereditary principality. Executive power is vested in the Prince and legislative power in a National Council elected by universal suffrage. The Government is composed of a Minister of State and 117 Environmental health services three Government Counsellors, public health being the responsibility of the Government Counsellor for the Interior. The present Constitution dates from 17 December 1962. A series of conventions with France were signed on 18 May 1963, replacing the Con- vention of neighbourhood and administrative assistance of 1951 under the Treaty of 2 February 1861 and the Treaty of 17 July 1918. The country consists of a single commune which is in effect a city with four boroughs called villages, Monaco-Ville , Monte Carlo, la Condamine and Fortvieille. The Directorate of Health and Social Services functions under the authority of the Government Counsellor for the Interior, with the support of a Higher Committee for Public Health (established by Order No. 2962 of 16 February 1963). It has a section responsible for health regulations, including water supply and sanitation; housing and food hygiene; industrial and occupational health; bathing places and swimming pools; and marine and sanitary services. The responsibilities of a technical committee set up within the Depart- ment of Public Works and Social Affairs by Order No. 2327 of22 September 1960 were broadened to include air and water pollution control, in addition to the maintenance of public safety, hygiene, health and order, by Order No. 4724 of 11 May 1971 under Law No. 954 of 19 April 1974 (JDHL, 28: 1029). Water The responsibility for water supply lies with the Government. Wastewat·er disposal is managed by the Commune under regulations of the Department of Public Works and Social Affairs. Monaco is the headquarters of the Commission for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea. Air Air pollution regulations are administered by the Commune under regu- lations from the Department of Public Works and Social Affairs. Noise Excessive street noise is regulated by the Commune. The former coastal railway was rerouted underground in part, to reduce the noise. Solid and Hazardous Waste Municipal waste is a Commune responsibility. Poisons are regulated by the Directorate of Health and Social Services in the Department of the Interior, 118 Monaco according to Article 9 of Ordinance of the Sovereign No. 1153 of 21 Feb- ruary 1931 , as amended by Ordinances No. 364 of I March 1951 and No. 433 of 3 September 1951 (IDHL, 4: 389). Waste from the Principality is disposed of in France. Radiation Monaco follows French law regarding ionizing radiation . Addresses Directorate of Health and Social Services Department of the Interior Monaco 119 r f .. • Area: 446 550 km' ,:- .. •·, .. Morocco The Kingdom of Morocco, in North Africa, is bounded in the north by the Mediterranean Sea and in the west by the Atlantic Ocean; to the east it adjoins Algeria and to the south Mauritania. The Atlas mountains occupy much of the interior and are responsible for significant winter rainfall. The climate along the Mediterranean coast is temperate , the central and western regions are subtropical, and the southern and eastern portions are desert. Government and Basic Legislation Morocco is a constitutional monarchy. The legislature, representing the whole political spectrum, is composed of deputies elected either directly or 121 Environmental health services indirectly through chambers of commerce, industry, agriculture and the provincial councils. Executive power is exercised bv the Government. The King, as Head of State, appoints the Prime Minister. The Kingdom is divided into 7 economic regions and about 35 provinces, each under a governor appointed by the King. The provinces are subdivided into urban municipalities and rural communes. The Government has recently adopted a new policy that grants considerable autonomy to local authorities. For health and environmental sanitation, each province is under the authority of a chief medical officer appointed by the Minister of Public Health. The central sanitation service is represented at the provincial and prefectural level by municipal public health offices. In municipalities the mayor is responsible for municipal administration, in cooperation with the local authorities. The municipal services include a health office that deals with all matters relating to environmental sanitation, under the supervision of a medical director. In rural communes, the district medical officer is responsible for health matters. Environmental sanitation activities in rural areas are carried out by sanitary technicians and assistants. Training programmes have been established for the technical staff of the Ministry of Public Health engaged in environmental sanitation . Senior sanitary engineers are trained in a course, started in 1971, at the Sanitary Engineering Centre, Mohammedia Engineering School, Rabat. It is open to civil and chemical engineers and the specialization course takes 18 months. It provides the national administration with staff who can supervise the environmental sanitation services, as well as planners and designers in all aspects of sanitary engineering. Technicians specialized in environmental sanitation are trained in a two-year course at the Management School of the Ministry of Public Health . They supervise technical staff working in the field, including sanitary tech- nicians and assistants . Candidates are selected by competitive examination among sanitary technicians. Those laws known as dahirs that were issued under the protectorate are still valid. Decrees and orders implement the dahirs at the national level. Local authorities (autonomous municipalities) may make necessary rules and bye-laws within the framework of dahirs and decrees. The Ministry of Public Health is responsible for all questions regarding environmental health. The health service has general responsibility for the inspection of water supplies , sanitation and other aspects of community health. It operates both central and regional laboratories for public health. Municipalities come under the general supervision of the Ministry of the Interior. Communes are regulated by provincial governors, who in turn also come under the Ministry of the Interior. The Ministry of Housing, Town Planning and the Environment (Ministere de I' Habitat, de I' Urbanisme et de /'Environnement) is jointly responsible with the Ministry of Public Health and the Ministry for Commerce, Industry and Tourism for the environmen- tal aspects of planning new industries and urban areas. 122 Morocco Water The planning of all water resources at the national level is the responsibility of the Ministry of Public Works, through the Office for Water Works (Direction de l'Hydrau/ique). The National Office for Potable Water has the authority to set guidelines for drinking-water quality in agreement with the Ministry of Public Health. These guidelines are implemented at the municipal level by the municipal health authorities. Planning to reduce water pollution is carried out by an interministerial commission that includes the Ministry of Public Works, the Ministry of Housing, Town Planning and the Environment and, if the water is to be used for agricultural purposes, the Ministry of Agriculture. Most inland communities discharge sewage that has received little or no treatment into streams used for irrigation. A major water supply reservoir has been built in the Bou Regreg valley above Rabat, which supplies potable water to about one third of the total population in the coastal area between Kenitra and Casablanca. Air The Ministry of Public Health has the authority to establish guidelines for air quality, but these must be implemented at the municipal level. The Minister of Housing and Regional Planning has the authority in the plan- ning of new industries to set conditions that will minimize the adverse effects of air pollution. Noise The regulation of noise is considered to be strictly a municipal responsibility. Solid and Hazardous Waste Municipalities are responsible for waste collection and disposal. The Min- istry of Agriculture, by Order No. 26-69 of JO January 1969 (IDHL, 21: 597), laid down conditions for the use in agriculture of certain preparations based on poisons (i.e. pesticides), including prohibitions against the disposal of unwanted leftovers on roadsides or in ditches, ponds or watercourses. Orders No. 27-69 and No. 28-69 ([DHL, 21: 598 and 599) similarly cover the use of carbon disulfide and carbon tetrachloride fumigants. The orders are based on the Dahir of 1922 regulating trade in poisons. There are at present no national laws or regulations on the disposal of toxic chemicals or waste oils. Responsibility lies in principle with the Minister for Commerce, In- dustry and Tourism. 123 Environmental health services Radiation The basic law on protection against ionizing radiation is Law No. 005-71 of I 2 October I 97 I (JDHL, 24: 197). All activities involving radioactive sub- stances are subject to prior licensing under conditions to be laid down by decree. The use of radioactive substances in food or toys is prohibited. The Ministries of Public Health and of Housing, Town Planning and the En- vironment have joint responsibility for formulating decrees to implement the Law. Addresses Ministry of Public Health (Ministere de la Sante publique) 335 avenue Mohammed V Rabat Tel. 60675 Ministry of the Interior (Ministere de l'Interieur) Direction des Collectivites locales Quartier administratif Rabat Tel. 65541; 64243 Ministry of Public Works (Ministere des Travaux publics) Quartier administratif Rabat Tel. 60695 Office for Water Works (Direction de l'Hydraulique) Avenue John Kennedy BP Casier Rabat-Chellah Rabat Tel. 50683; 515 19 National Office for Potable Water (Office national de !'Eau potable) (ONEP) 6 bis rue Patrice Lumumba Rabat Tel. 340 04; 511 19; 633 17 124 Ministry of Agriculture (Ministere de I' Agriculture) Direction de l'Equipement rural BP 432 Avenue John Kennedy Rabat Tel. 626 36; 517 10 Ministry for Commerce, Industry and Tourism (Ministere du Commerce, de l'Industrie et du Tourisme) Quartier administratif Rabat Tel. 61508; 61566; 62676 Ministry of National Education (Ministere de !'Education nationale) Ecole Mohammedia d'Ingenieurs BP 765 Rabat-Agdal Tel. 71905; 71906; 72647 Ministry of Labour (Ministere du Travail) Quartier administratif Rabat Tel. 62763; 63444 Ministry of Housing, Town Planning and the Environment (Ministere de !'Habitat, de l'Urbanisme et de !'Environnement) Quartier administratif Rabat Tel. 635 33; 602 67; 629 71; 643 84 r • Area: 40 844 km' ·. ,··, Netherlands The Kingdom of the Netherlands is bounded by the Federal Republic of Germany to the east, by Belgium to the south and by the North Sea to the west and north. It has a temperate climate. The land is generally flat except in the extreme south, and much of the country has been reclaimed from the sea. The Rhine river forms an extensive delta system with the Meuse. Both rivers bring in industrial pollutants from countries upstream . Air pollution from industry in countries surrounding the Netherlands adds to that pro- duced locally, causing episodes of severe atmospheric pollution, especially in the Rhine area. 125 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation The Netherlands is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with legis- lative power vested in the Crown and a two-chamber Parliament or States- General (Staten Generaa/). Legislation must be approved by both chambers. The Sovereign appoints and presides over the Council of State and, with the Cabinet, consults it on legislation and administrative policy and on the issuing of decrees. The Council is the highest Court of Appeal in admin- istrative disputes. Most Jaws are passed by Parliament and implemented through general administrative orders that provide directions for the de- tailed application of the laws. Advice is obtained at many stages of the regulatory process. The texts of laws and general administrative orders appear in the Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (Bulletin of Acts, Orders and Decrees); the texts of ministerial orders appear in the Nederlandse Staatscourant (Government Gazette). National legislation is recorded by date and a number preceded by Stb (Staatsblad). For local government the Netherlands is divided into 11 provinces, each of which has its own directly elected representative body, the Provincial States. Each Provincial States elects from its members an executive body of Deputy States (College van Gedeputeerde Staten). A Commissioner is ap- pointed and may be discharged by the Crown, and is the representative of the Crown in the province. He acts as chairman of both the Provincial States and the Deputy States. Provincial States have a constitutional right to make their own decisions on measures in the interest of the province. There are also about 840 communes, each governed by a Burgomaster appointed by the Crown and assisted by aldermen (chosen from and by the Council) and the elected Council. Communes may make local regulations within the limits set by national framework legislation. There are also about 620 water corporations, who manage internal water, and additional in- dustrial and manufacturing corporations who can write and enforce regu- lations in their areas of competence. The local health officers and the inspectors of the competent corporations are empowered to take action in cases of local pollution. The former Ministry for Public Health and Environmental Hygiene was broken up in late 1982. Most of its health-related activities were transferred to the Ministry of Welfare, Health and Cultural Affairs, while most of its environmental activities went to the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environmental Protection. The general system of controlling pollution and otherwise protecting the environment is to require licences for all undertakings and activities that may cause damage. An attempt is being made to apply the "polluter pays" principle by levying fees for discharges into air and water. In some cases these charges may go into a fund to construct pollution abatement facilities. A number of consultative councils have been set up to coordinate activities that involve more than one ministry. The Central Council for Environmental Hygiene and nearly a dozen special councils (concerned 126 Netherlands with air, water, mines, etc.) deal with various aspects of environmental control and give advice to the ministers. The Netherlands is a member of the European Communities and is signatory to several international compacts regarding pollution. Those that have come into force are reflected in national decrees. Water The control of water in the Netherlands goes back to the earliest systems of dikes and pumps to drain and reclaim land from the North Sea and the Rhine Delta. Most of the water corporations are still concerned with water removal, but several now work on the augmentation of water supply and the control of pollution . There are two water sectors in the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and the Environment, one for water supply and the other for pollution control. The National Waterways Authority, the Drinking- Water Supply Board, and the Ministry of Transport and Public Works also have functions in the control of water. The Law No. 150 of 6 April 1957 on drinking-water supplies and the Decree No. 345 of7 June 1960 (IDHL, 10: 110 and 13: 129) make up the basic legislation . The Law and subsequent amendments have been codified through the Crown Decree of 31 August 1976 (JDHL, 30: 87). The Law of 13 November 1969, Stb 536 (IDHL, 23: 92) on the pollution of surface waters (known as WYO) sets up a licensing system for discharges. The enforcement of this Law is directed by the Ministry of Transport and Public Works and is carried out by the provincial executives and their deputies with the advice of the National Institute for Effluent Treatment (RIZA). Among the decrees enacted under WYO, that of28 November 1974, Stb 709 (IDHL, 27: 176) contains a list of substances whose discharge into surface waters is prohibited or subject to licence. The Council Directive on biodegradability of surfactants in washing products is implemented by the Decree of 16 June 1977, Stb 474 (IDHL, 30: 95). The WYO is currently being revised to bring it into line with Council directives. The Netherlands is signatory to the Convention for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution . Marine pollution is covered by the WYO and by the laws of 16 Sep- tember 1966 (No. 400) and of 5 June 1975, Stb 352 (/DHL, 18: 778 and 28: 317) which implement the London and Oslo Conventions. The Bonn Con- vention of 1969, which was ratified in 1972, Stb 472, provides for coop- eration among the North Sea states to control oil pollution. Drilling and mining in the territorial waters of the North Sea comes under the Mines Council , while drilling in the Netherlands zone of the North Sea continental shelf is under the authority of the Ministry of Economic Affairs, with advice from the Mines Council. 127 Environmental health services Air Air pollution from factories and other installations used to be controlled by licences issued at the commune level under the Nuisances Act of 1875 and amendments up until 1952, Stb 274. The present Law on air pollution (WL V) of 26 November 1970, Stb 580 (JDHL, 23: 97) retains the validity of licences issued under the Nuisances Act and the Mining Law of 1903, and sets up framework legislation to control the composition of fuels, the design and operation of installations, and the steps to be taken in cases of severe pollution. A number of decrees implement the Law in general following the directives of the European Communities. The Deputy States of the provinces have the authority under the WLV to issue licences with notification to the local authorities and the public, who in turn have the opportunity to file objections. The former Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Hygiene was the principal ministry in this area and had a sector devoted to air. The Ministry of Transport and Public Works is responsible for prototype licensing of motor vehicles in compli- ance with emission standards. Licences for the operation of industrial plants may include requirements for charges under the "polluter pays" principle. Charges levied under WLV are used to cover the costs of applying the Law, and in special cases may be used to pay compensation for damage caused by air pollution . Noise The Ministry of Transport and Public Works also has the authority to set noise standards for urban traffic , the enforcement of which lies with the local police authorities. Noise from factories can be regulated by the Nuisances Act of 1875 by including acoustic calculations in the planning procedures . A noise abatement bill , under consideration in 1976, was intended to provide framework legislation to guide local authorities in the preparation of rules and regulations. Solid and Hazardous Waste Municipal waste collection and disposal is a local matter subject to regu- lations at the provincial level. All provinces have landscape regulations regarding the visibility of dumps, etc. The Wastes Law of 23 June 1977, Stb 455 (IDHL. 30: 92) deals with domestic waste, automobile wrecks and other categories of waste, and requires the provinces to draw up plans and issue licences for waste disposal. The former Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Hygiene issued guidelines for provincial plans. The Chemi- cal Waste Law of 11 February 1976, Stb 214 (IDHL, 28: 322) covers both chemical waste and used oil, and requires licences for the storage, transport and treatment of such waste. The authorities may prohibit the manufacture or marketing of substances or goods that give rise to hazardous waste. The 128 Netherlands Decree of 26 May 1977, Stb 435 (IDHL, 30: 92) includes lists of substances and processes that come under the Chemical Waste Law. The Decree of 12 May 1979, Stb 281 (IDHL, 32: 291) implements the Council Directive regarding polychlorinated biphenyls. The Pesticides Law of 12 July 1962, Stb 288 (IDHL, 28: 306), as amended on 5 June 1975, provided that applications for licences had to be submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries or the former Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Hygiene, as appropriate. The Ministry of Social Affairs and the Ministry of Transport and Public Works are also concerned with certain aspects of this Law. The Asbestos Decree of l April 1977, Stb 269 (IDHL, 30: 91) places various issues related to asbestos under the authority of the Ministry of Social Affairs, which is responsible for the protection of workers' health. Radiation The Nuclear Energy Law No. 82 of21 February 1963 (IDHL, 14: 659), which came into force in 1970, takes precedence over all the environmental legis- lation mentioned in this chapter where radioactive materials are concerned. The Ministry of Economic Affairs has prime authority, with advice from the Central Council for Nuclear Energy, the Scientific Council for Nuclear Energy and the Health Council. The former Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Hygiene had a sector dealing with radiation, and several other ministries are also concerned. The State Inspectorate of Public Health and the Labour Inspectorate, under the Ministry of Social Affairs, are the principal agents of surveillance. The Netherlands has agreements with its neighbouring countries regarding liability for damage resulting from acci- dents to nuclear installations. Several nuclear power plants and research reactors are operated in the Netherlands. The Decree of 5 February 1980, Stb 108 (IDHL, 32: 323) brings the rules regarding exposure to medical and dental X-rays into line with the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Addresses Ministry of Welfare, Health and Cultural Affairs Postbus 439 Dokter Reijersstraat 12 2160 AK Leidschendam Tel. (70) 20 92 60 Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environmental Protection Postbus 20951 Van Alkemadelaan 85 20951 EZ The Hague Tel. (70) 26 42 0 I 129 Environmental health services Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Post bus 2040 I Bezuidenhoutseweg 73 2500 EK The Hague Tel. (70) 79 39 11 Ministry of Transport and Public Works Postbus 20901 Plesmanweg 1 2500 EX The Hague Tel. (70) 74 74 74 Ministry of Economic Affairs Post bus 20 IO 1 Bezuidenhoutseweg 30 2500 EC The Hague Tel. (70) 79 89 11 Ministry of Social Affairs Post bus 20801 Zeestraat 73 2500 EV The Hague Tel. (70) 71 59 11 130 Central Council for Environmental Hygiene (Centrale Raad voor de Milieuhygiene) Postbus 5306 Huis te Landelaan 492 2280 HH Rijswijk Tel. (70) 94 89 48 National Waterways Authority (Rijkswaterstaat) Postbus 20906 Koningskade 4 2500 EX The Hague Tel. (70) 26 40 11 National Institute for Effluent Treatment (Rijksinstituut voor Zuivering van Afvalwater) (RIZA) Postbus 17 Maerlant 6 8200 AA Lelystaad Tel. (3200) 408 74 r f 4100000 • Area: 324 219 km' Norway The Kingdom of Norway is in the western part of Scandinavia with Sweden to the east; inside the Arctic Circle it borders on Finland and the USSR. It includes the archipelago of Svalbard, halfway between North Cape and the Pole, which consists of Spitzbergen, a dozen other major islands and numerous small islands. The climate of Norway is tempered by the Gulf Stream whose influence extends to Svalbard. The Atlantic and North Sea coastal areas have mild winters and cool wet summers. Inland, the climate is more extreme. The coast includes a large number of deep fjords with shallow sills across their 131 Environmental health services entrances, which make them natural traps for pollutants. Norway has several oil and gas wells on its continental shelf area in the North Sea. Government and Basic Legislation Norway is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy, legislative power being held by Parliament (Storting). Executive power is nominally held by the King but is exercised by the Cabinet (Council of State) led by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is appointed by the King in accordance with the will of the Storting. The country is divided into 20 counties (fy/ker), including the City Council of Oslo and Bergen. The counties are divided into 454 urban and rural municipalities (kommuner). These municipalities are administered by locally elected councils through an executive committee (Jormannskap) and have considerable autonomy in environmental matters. Smaller municipal- ities cooperate on a district basis, establishing common laboratory services and appointing inspectors. By the Treaty of Svalbard of 9 February 1920, Norway was granted sovereignty over Svalbard and the territorial waters of the archipelago. Nearly half of Svalbard is designated as parks and nature reserves. There is a Soviet coal-mining community in the archipelago which is largely indepen- dent of the Norwegian Government. The Ministry of the Environment was established by Crown Resolution of 5 May 1972 (/DHL, 26: 568). It has broad responsibility for most aspects of environmental protection covering water, air, noise and waste, as well as nature reserves. It is responsible for the coordination of local planning under the Building and Planning Act of 1965. Planning is regarded as a local responsibility under this Act , with guidance from the Ministry of the Environment. The State Council for the Conservation of Nature was established by the Nature Protection Law No. 63 of 19 June 1970 (/DHL, 23: 306) and plays a significant part in overall planning policy under the Ministry of the Environ- ment, especially for the thinly populated areas. A Crown Resolution of 24 May 1974 (/DHL, 26: 580) established the State Pollution Control Authority (SPCA) under the Ministry of the En- vironment. It functions as a secretariat for the Smoke Control Council, the Oil Pollution Control Council , the Product Control Council and the Air- craft Noise Abatement Commission . Norway is signatory to the Nordic Convention on the Protection of the Environment ( 19 February 1974). The Convention rules that the environ- mental interest of the neighbouring countries (Denmark, Finland and Swe- den) must be equated with the corresponding interest in Norway. 132 Norway Water Legislation for the control of water pollution was consolidated in Law No. 75 of26 June 1970 on the prevention of water pollution (/DHL, 23: 307), which became effective on I January 1971. Administration of this Law passed from the Ministry of Industry to the Ministry of the Environment when the SPCA was established in 1974. The basic principle of the Law is that all activities that may pollute the waters of the Kingdom must be licensed by the Ministry. The Regulation of I May 1980 on wastewater discharges deals with sewage from small settlements and groups of summer cabins following ministerial guidelines. The quality of drinking-water is the responsibility of the health auth- orities according to Crown Resolution of28 September 195 l (IDHL, 4: 103). Recent amendments to this Resolution, dated 10 August 1979 (/DHL, 31: 124), prohibit bathing that would pollute drinking-water and water used for food preparation. The Regulations of2l January 1972 (/DHL, 26: 568) apply to the control of trade in drinking-water. Monitoring at every stage of the operation must be carried out in accordance with the guidance given by the State Institute of Public Health. Air The Neighbours Act of 1961, which applies to emissions of gas or smoke, noise, radiation and the like, remains the basic law controlling air pollution from industry. Amendments, especially of 2 February 1973 and 31 May I 974, have strengthened and broadened the Act. Licences are required for nearly all industrial undertakings, as well as for coal- and oil-fuelled establish- ments. The Fuel Oil Law No. 64 of 19 June 1970 (IDHL, 23: 307) regulates the sulfur content of fuel oil for heating in areas subject to air pollution. Acidification of lakes caused by sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the air is generally considered to be Norway's largest single pollution problem. Lakes in an area of more than 13 000 km2 in southern Norway are now practically devoid offish. In an additional 20 000 km 2 the fish stocks are being depleted . The damaging effects on human health, a reduction in the yield of forests and crops, and the corrosion of materials, including historical monuments , are among the other effects of acid precipitation. This acidification is a consequence of emissions of sulfur dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. A number of studies confirm that these pollutants travel hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere. It is estimated that about 90% of the sulfate depositions in Norway are caused by emissions in other countries. The administration of the air pollution aspects of the Neighbours Act and the Fuel Oil Law is the responsibility of the Ministry of the Environ- ment, the SPCA and the Smoke Control Council (Reykskaderadet). 133 Environmental health services The lead content of motor vehicle fuel is regulated by the Product Control Act of 11 June 1976. The use and production of chlorofluoro- carbons as aerosol propellants is prohibited by Regulations of I June 1979, pursuant to this Act. Both are administered by the SPCA. Noise The Neighbours Act of 1961 is used to control noise from industrial oper- ations. The Road Traffic Act of 1965 covers the type control of motor vehicles with regard to noise, and the use of speed limits and town planning as a means of reducing the impact of noise from traffic. The Product Control Act is another important instrument for the reduction of noise emitted by different products. The Ministry of Communications has administrative authority over both roads and aircraft. Solid and Hazardous Waste The purpose of the new and comprehensive Pollution Control Act of 13 March 1981 is to protect the external environment from pollution and to reduce existing pollution, as well as to promote the improved treatment of waste. The Product Control Council (Produktkontrol/rddet) , the SPCA and the Ministry of the Environment are responsible for the administration of this Act. The Product Control Council includes representatives from a number of authorities and organizations with an interest in these matters. The tasks of the Council include working out guidelines and taking decisions on matters of importance or fundamental principles. The SPCA, which has the main administrative responsibility for imple- menting the Act, may take decisions on individual matters and impose provisional prohibitions on a product. In addition , the SPCA has the power of inspection , but other central or local authorities may also be granted this power. The Ministry of the Environment has the ultimate responsibility for the implementation of the Act, and issues regulations under it. So far, only a few specific chemicals have been subject to regulations. The Act has primarily been used to collect information on and to offer guidance for the safe handling and disposal of dangerous chemicals. The control of toxic substances and other substances damaging to health was earlier exercised by the Directorate of Health Services in pursuance of the Act relating to medical products and poisons, etc. dated 20 June I 964 and of the regulations relating to toxins and to substances damaging to health, both dated 19 February 1965. The administration of these regulations was transferred to the SPCA on I January 1981 but they are expected to be replaced soon by others relating to chemical substances and products. These new regulations will introduce a control system covering the production, import , classification, labelling, 134 Norway sale, packaging and other handling and treatment of chemical substances and products. The authority to implement these regulations will be divided between the SPCA and the Labour Inspection. The Labour Inspection will be responsible for products used in an occupational context, while the SPCA will be responsible for chemical products in other connections. A number of chemical substances and products will continue to be subject to special legislation, for example medical products, pesticides, foods, cosmetics, tobacco and alcoholic drinks. Radiation The State Atomic Inspectorate is part of the Ministry of Oil and Energy. Regulations of 23 January I 976 (JDHL, 28: 1031) on ionizing and other radiation implying health hazards have been made by Crown Resolution. On behalf of the Ministry of Social Affairs, the State Institute of Radiation Health administers these Regulations, which go back to Law No. I of 18 June 1938 on the use of X-rays and radium. The Minister of Defence may exempt certain installations and materials from the provisions of the Regulations. Addresses Ministry of the Environment (Milj0verndepartementet) Myntgaten 2-Dep. Oslo I Tel. 11 90 90 (in Oslo) (02)4190 10 (from outside) 11 75 09 (information secretary) Department for Pollution Control (Avdeling for Forurensningssaker) Tel. 11 76 IO State Pollution Control Authority (Statens Forurensningstilsyn) Postboks 8100 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 22 98 10 Norwegian Polar Institute (Norsk Polarinstitutt) Postboks 158 1330 Oslo Airport Directorate for Wildlife and Freshwater Fish (Direktoratet for Vilt og Ferskvannsfisk) Elgesetergt I 0 7000 Trondheim Ministry of Social Affairs (Socialdepartementet) Postboks 8011 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 22 90 (02)4190 10 (in Oslo) (from outside) Information Secretariat ( Oppl ysni nsse k reta ria tel) Tel. 1185 58 Health Directorate (Helsedirektoratet) Postboks 8 I 28 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 118506 135 Environmental health services Statens Tobakkskader.\d Postboks 8025 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 118270 Ministry of Agriculture (Landbruksdepartementet) Postboks 8007 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 119090 (02) 419010 118709 (in Oslo) (from outside) (information) State Foundation for the Protection of Nature (Statens Naturskadefond) Postboks 8140 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 38 0485 Office for Agricultural Information and Guidance (Kontoret for lnformasjon og Rettleiing i Landbruk) Moervegen 12 1430 As Tel. 94 13 65 Ministry of Oil and Energy (Olje- og Energidepartementet) Postboks 8148 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 119090 (02)4190 10 11 7007 136 (in Oslo) (from outside) (information) State Atomic Inspectorate (Statens Atomtilsyn) Postboks 2495, Solli Oslo 2 Tel. 443022 Ministry of Communications (Samferdselsdepartmentet) Postboks 8010 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 119090 (02)419010 119509 (in Oslo) (from outside) (information) Highway Directorate (Vegdi rektora tet) Postboks 8109 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 2060 50 Air Traffic Office (Luftfartsverket) Postboks 8124 Dep. Oslo I Tel. 33 3890 r Poland The Polish People's Republic extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to Czechoslovakia in the south, and from the USSR in the east to the German Democratic Republic in the west . The climate is temperate. Government and Basic Legislation Under the 1952 Constitution the supreme organ of State power is the single-chamber Parliament (Seym). The Seym elects from its members the Council of State to be its permanent organ. The Cabinet (Council of State) is the supreme executive authority but is responsible to the Seym. The Supreme 137 Environmental health services Board of Control exercises surveillance of national and local administration. It is responsible to the Seym and to the Cabinet but is independent of the Government, whose activities it supervises. Since 1975 there has been a two-tier system oflocal government, with the country divided into 49 provinces (voivodships, wojewodztwo), including three major cities, Warsaw, Crakow and Lodz. The provinces are divided into 803 towns and 2070 communes (gmina). Local government is carried out by People's Councils elected every four years at province and community level. Local regulations are coordinated by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The State Sanitary Inspectorate was created by Decree No. 160 of 14 August 1954 (JDHL, 7: 313). Its powers and duties and the principles governing the arrangements for its work are set out in Ordinance No. 161 of the Council of Ministers of 14 August 1954 (JDHL, 7: 317). It works from sanitary and epidemiological stations (sanepids) under the direction of the Chief Sanitary Inspector, who is an Under-Secretary of State responsible to the Minister of Health and Social Welfare in all matters pertaining to sani- tation and epidemiology. The Chief Sanitary Inspector is appointed by the Council of Ministers and has a Sanitary and Epidemiological Council to advise him. The members of the Council include the Director and heads of departments of the National Institute of Hygiene and the chiefs of some of the sanepids. The Ministry has a sanitation and epidemiology department headed by a physician with the title of Sanitary In~pector. Each province has a sanepid and each district a local station . The current provisions for their organization are contained in an Order of 14 August 1962 (IDHL, 15: 801) of the Minister of Health and Social Welfare, made under the Decree of 14 August 1954 on the State Sanitary Inspectorate.Instruction No. 35/62 (IDHL, 15: 803) issued by the Minister specifies the structure and powers of these stations. The staff of the provincial sanepids are appointed and paid by the province but function as the executive units of the State Sanitary Inspectorate. Each sanepid is directed by a sanitary inspector who is a physician and is responsible to the Chief Sanitary Inspector of the State. The staff employed include physicians, pharmacists, microbiologists, veter- inarians, chemists, laboratory technicians and hygiene instructors. A sani- tary and epidemiological council attached to each sanepid acts as an ad- visory body to the sanitary inspector. The provincial sanepids perform a variety of duties relating to hygiene, sanitation and epidemiology, and are divided into a number of departments. The sanepids are also responsible for many aspects of environmental surveil- lance and measurements of pollutants. In their control work, laboratory and field sanepidstafffollow standardized procedures developed by the National Institute of Hygiene, a state institution under the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare that supervises the sanepids and trains their laboratory staff. Each provincial sanepid is visited about every four years by Institute staff to see that the procedures are being followed. The Institute prepares five-year plans for the sanepids to follow . The results of the examinations and analyses performed are sent to the Institute, which submits reports to the Minister. 138 Poland The district and port sanepids are subordinate to those of the provinces. Of the approximately 350 district sanepids, about 150 have laboratories. These district laboratories perform a much more limited range of work but can do microbiological and chemical tests. The Ministerial Department of Land Use and Environmental Protection was established by the Law of 29 March 1972 and was later incorporated into the Ministry for Administration, Local Economy and Environmental Protection. It has authority over water and air pollution, noise and waste management under the Law of29 March and the Ordinance of2 l April 1972 (/DHL, 24: 582). A new environmental law was passed in 1980, which included articles on the preservation of nature. A number of other ministries are also involved in certain aspects of environmental health services. Thus, the Poisons Law of 21 May 1963 (/DHL, 15: 587) required the Minister of Health and Social Welfare to compile poison lists in agreement with the ministries for the chemical industry, agriculture , forests and the timber industry, internal trade, and foreign trade. The names and responsibilities of ministries change from time to time, and there is a move to reduce the total number of ministries. Cooperation between laboratories and inspectors reporting to different ministries is very good at the field level. Water The basic water law is the Law of 24 October 1974 which repeals earlier legislation. It provides that licences must be obtained for water abstraction . The emphasis throughout is on the protection of fresh water likely to be used for human consumption. Many Polish cities obtain the major part of thei r water supplies from surface waters that have received upstream discharges of sewage and industrial waste. The Law does not contain specific require- ments to reduce pollution of the Baltic Sea or its estuaries from sewage discharges. Poland is signatory to the Helsinki Convention of 1974 on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (/DHL, 28: 121) and participates in a comprehensive research programme on pollution of the central Baltic Sea area. Administration of the water laws passed in 1972 from the Central Bureau for Water Resources Management to the then Ministry of Land Use and Environmental Protection (now the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Economy). The emphasis of this Ministry is on the control of pollution , while the sanitary control of drinking-water and bathing water, including sea beaches, is a responsibility of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. The monitoring and enforcement of health regulations are a function of the sanepids, whereas special water laboratories have been constructed to moni- tor pollution and water flow . 139 Environmental health services Air The Law of 21 April 1966 on the protection of the atmosphere against pollution (JDHL, 18: 792) designated the Central Bureau for Water Re- sources Management as the principal agency in air pollution control. When this agency was abolished in 1972 most of its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Land Use and Environmental Protection. The State Sanitary Inspectorate retained the authority to make measurements of air pollution. The Law does not apply to indoor air. The Order of 15 September 1966 implementing the Law requires prior notification of the quality and quantity of expected discharges to the pro- vincial agency responsible for air pollution control. Permissible emission limits are set by the provincial agency in collaboration with the State Sanitary Inspectorate. Undertakings that discharge more than 40 000 m3 of air per year are required to make detailed measurements of their emissions and report them to the People's Council of the province under the Order of 31 January l 967 (IDHL, 19: 832). The Ordinance of 23 March 1967 (JDHL, 19: 833) deals with air pollution protection zones around sources of emissions. The zones may be used for the cultivation of plants or trees but not for dwellings or public buildings. The Order of 30 May 1967 establishes five classes of protection zones differing in width from 50 m to 1000 m depending on the nature of the production process. Deviations from the assigned protection zone classification may be justified based on specific local conditions. Maximum permissible concentrations of air pollutants are listed in the Ordinance of 15 May 1972 (IDHL, 24: 583) which amends earlier ordinances to include, in addition to combustion products and volatile sulfur com- pounds, further chemical compounds, i.e . arsenic , fluorine, lead, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, benzene, phenol and formaldehyde. Indoor air pollution from tobacco smoking was the subject of the Ordinance of 4 June 1974 of the Minister of Health and Social Welfare (JDHL, 26: 200). A ban on smoking was imposed on all organizational units under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. The ban applies to all areas serving the public, with certain exceptions for rooms set aside for smokers. It is further recommended that similar or- dinances be enacted by other ministries and provincial and town administrations. Noise The then Ministry of Land Use and Environmental Protection was given the main authority in regulations to suppress noise by virtue of the Law of Land Use and Environmental Protection of 29 March 1972. Disturbing the peace 140 Poland by making noise is a punishable offence under the Public Offences Code of 20 May 1971 , Article 14. Traffic noise is regulated by the Ministry of Transport and local authorities under the Ordinance of 20 July 1968 on traffic and public roads. Planning regulations such as that of 21 August 1959 set conditions for the placement and construction of public and residential buildings to minimize the effects of noise from industry. Solid and Hazardous Waste Waste disposal was assigned to the then Ministry of Land Use and Environ- mental Protection by the Ordinance of 21 April 1972. The collection and disposal of domestic waste is a local responsibility. The treatment and disposal of chemical and other toxic waste comes under the Poisons Law of2 l May 1963 (IDHL, 15: 587). Article 14 deals with the destruction or neutralization of poisons, which must be done under conditions laid down by the State Sanitary Inspectorate or other official regulations. The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare established poison lists by Ordinance of28 December 1963 (JDHL, 16: 724). Regulations for the issuance of licences to deal in poisons were made under the Ordinance of 10 February 1964 (/DHL, 16: 725). The Ministry of Agriculture is respon- sible for the control of pesticides used on crops, but the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is concerned with pesticide residues in foodstuffs. The Ministry of Agriculture issued an Order of 22 April 1965 (IDHL, 17: 595) concerning licences for dealing with chemicals designed for plant protection purposes. The Plant Protection Institute must confer with the National Institute of Hygiene with regard to the labelling and assignment of poison classification. The Environmental Protection Inspectorate and the State Sanitary Inspectorate share responsibility for enforcing the various regu- lations on the discharge and disposal of toxic waste. Radiation An Atomic Energy Agency was established by the Law of 12 April 1973 and implemented by the Ordinance of 31 May 1973 (/DHL, 26: 198). The Agency has full responsibility for all aspects of the utilization of nuclear energy, including the safe disposal of radioactive waste and the monitoring of radiation throughout the country. This Law replaced some aspects of earlier legislation that was based essentially on workers' protection laws and paid only minor attention to the exposure of the general population. Exposure to nonionizing radiation, specifically microwaves, is regulated by Ordinance of 25 May 1972 (IDHL, 24: 584) but only from the point of view of workers. Implementation lies with the State Sanitary Inspectorate. 141 Environmental health services Addresses Ministry of Health and Social Welfare Miodowa 15 00-923 Warsaw Tel. 313441 Ministry of Agriculture and Food Economy Wspolna St. 30 00-923 Warsaw Tel.218913; 219452 142 Ministry for Administration, Local Economy and Environmental Protection ul. Filtrowa 57 02-056 Warsaw Tel. 254481 r • Area : 92 082 km2 -:.·:_ ••• •·•·· Portugal Portugal lies on the western side of the Iberian Peninsula and borders on Spain to the north and east. It includes the islands of Madeira and the Azores which lie in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North Africa. Portugal has a mild, temperate climate with an average temperature of 16 °C, although the interior is drier and hotter. The principal rivers rise in Spain. Government and Basic Legislation The Republic of Portugal adopted a new Constitution in 1976, under which it is governed by the President, the Council of the Revolution , the Assembly 143 Environmental health services of the Republic and the Government. The President is elected by popular vote for a period of five years. He appoints the Prime Minister after con- sultation with the Council of the Revolution and the Assembly, and appoints the other members of the Government on the proposal of the Prime Minister. The country is divided for administrative purposes into 18 districts (distritos), two autonomous island groups, Madeira and the Azores, and the Overseas Territory of Macau. The district governments reflect the structure of the national government. The Civil Governor is appointed and operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. There are depart- ments corresponding to the other national ministries and an elected council representing the municipalities and other organizations. There are about 300 municipalities (conce/hos), which are further divided into communes (Jreguesias) or parishes (par6quias). The municipalities, governed by mayors, have a high degree of independence and are responsible for implementing most environmental laws in conformity with national guidelines and stan- dards . The mayor appoints committees presided over by board members; they collaborate with the municipal authorities in special matters such as hygiene and art. Section 66 of the Constitution of 1976 on the environment and the quality of life (IDHL, 29: 435) prescribes that every citizen has the right to a sound and ecologically balanced environment and a duty to protect it. Citizens whose enjoyment of the right to a proper environment is endangered or harmed are entitled to seek legal redress and compensation for damages. A National Commission for the Environment (CNA) is responsible for the study and evaluation of pollution problems and for the drafting of new legislation to implement Section 66 of the Constitution. The Ministry of Social Affairs has responsibility for health, which originally included environmental health. The basic health law is Decree- Law No. 413/71 of 27 September 1971 (IDHL, 24: 208) amended by Law No. 56/79 of 15 September 1979 (IDHL, 32: 386). For the purposes of administering the health and social welfare policy, the country is divided into regions encompassing one or more districts. The guidance, direction and execution of health and welfare measures are the responsibility of the General Directorates of Health, of Hospitals and of Social Welfare. The Secretariat of State for Health under the Ministry of Social Affairs admin- isters, among other departments, the General Directorate of Health (DGS), the National Institute of Health (INSA) and the Office for Studies and Planning (GEP). For each municipality there is a health officer (delegado de saude) who directs the municipal health centre (centro de saude concelhio}, which is independent of the municipal government. A Ministry of the Environment (Ministerio da Qua/idade de Vida) was established by Law No. 28/81 of 12 February 1981 and included the Secre- tariat for the Environment. Implementing legislation under this environ- ment law is being prepared by the CNA. 144 Portugal The Act No. 6065 of 1929 on classified industries likely to create a danger or nuisance to health , the environment, etc. follows the French Law of 19 December 1917 (seep. 54). The Ministry of Social Affairs, the Secretariat of State for the Environment and the Ministry for Industry, Energy and Export all apply decrees derived from this Act. New legislation is under consideration to clarify some of the conflicts that arise between this Act and more recent legislation. Water Water supply, sewerage and sewage treatment are the direct responsibility of the municipalities. In Lisbon there is a public utility, EPAL, covering the Greater Lisbon area. The General Directorate for Basic Sanitation (DGSB) under the Ministry for Housing, Public Works and Transport establishes standards for construction and performance, and the Water Sanitation Board under the General Directorate of Health performs tests on water quality and treated sewage through the local health centres. The General Directorate of Hydraulic Resources Management (DGRAH) under the Ministry of Housing, Public Works and Transport has authority over the rivers . The major activity of this Directorate is focused on the quantity of water, most of which arises in the mountains on the Spanish side of the border, but there is a Department for Pollution Control (SCP) concerned with water quality. About 50% of the population is connected to sewers but only 20% of the sewage receives treatment before it is discharged into a river , estuary or the open sea. In rural areas and smaller communities septic tank drain fields dispose of most of the sewage. Some sewage is used for irrigation in the dry areas. The pollution of aquifers and groundwater is the concern of DGSB. Air Air quality in the urban areas is essentially a municipal responsibility and the only effective control comes from the application of the laws for the licensing of classified industries . A new Decree-Law No. 255/80 of 30 July 1980 addresses the problem of air pollution in five heavily industrialized regions: Oporto, Estarreja, Lisbon, Barreiro/Seixal and Sines. Adminis- tration of this Decree-Law comes under the Secretariat of State for the Environment. The Ministry of Social Affairs has responsibility for the health aspects of air pollution under the Decree-Law of 1971 and Decree No . 35/72 of 31 January 1972 regulating the National Institute of Health (/DHL, 25: 425). A special study of methods for improving hygienic conditions in slum areas is being carried out under the sponsorship of the DGS and the Ministry of Housing, Public Works and Transport. The DGS has also issued Order No. 212/78 of 18 April 1978 prohibiting smoking on urban public transport (/DHL, 30: 638). There are as yet no regulations controlling 145 Environmental health services exhausts from motor vehicles, but essentially all motor vehicles are im- ported from countries that require type compliance with exhaust standards. Noise The control of noise is considered to be a municipal responsibility. The Ministry of the Environment publishes norms for noise levels to be used as guidelines for local regulations. Solid and Hazardous Waste Ordinary municipal solid waste is a municipal responsibility. Assistance in planning is provided by the DGSB, and the local health centre monitors for unsanitary conditions. The Act of 1929 regulating classified industries provides some control of industrial waste through licences. The control of poisonous and hazardous chemicals has only recently begun to receive legislative attention . Representatives from departments of health, industry, commerce, agriculture and the environment are working with the National Commission for the Environment to draft appropriate legislation . Decree-Law No. 494/80 of 18 October 1980 prescribes provisions con- cerning the disposal and storage of pesticides. Regulations are to be issued jointly by the minister responsible for physical planning and the environ- ment and other competent ministers concerning the above provisions. Radiation The Nuclear Energy Board recommended protective zones around nuclear installations and centres for the handling of radioactive ores, and these were authorized by Decree-Law No. 41400 of27 November 1957 (IDHL, 10: 157) and implemented by Decree-Law No. 44060 of25 November 1961 ([DHL, 13: 555). The 1961 Decree-Law established the Committee for Protection against Ionizing Radiation, which includes members from departments for national defence, agronomy and occupational health, the Medical Guild and the Nuclear Energy Board. The Department of Nuclear Energy was originally under the Ministry for Industry and Technology, but under the new Constitution and according to the Decree-Law No . 548 of31 December 1977 and Statutory Decision No. 126 of22 May 1978 it was abolished and a new department was created: the Department of Protection and Nuclear Security. By the Decree-Law No. 290/81 of 14 October 1981 , this Department comes under the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Export. 146 Addresses Ministry of Social Affairs (Ministerio dos Assuntos Sociais) Av. Jolio Cris6stomo, 9 1000 Lisbon Tel. 5445 60 Secretariat of State for Health (Secretaria de Estado da Saude) Av. Jolio Crisostomo, 9 1000 Lisbon Tel. 5427 64 General Directorate of Health (Direc~ao Geral de Saude) (DGS) Alameda D. Afonso Henriques, 45 1200 Lisbon Tel. 57 56 60 National Institute of Health (Jnstituto National de Saude) (INSA) Av. Padre Cruz 1600 Lisbon Tel. 7928 77 National School of Public Health (Escola Nacional de Saude Publica) (ENSP) Av. Padre Cruz 1600 Lisbon Tel. 79 57 93 Ministry of Internal Affairs (Ministerio do Interior) Pra~a do Comercio 1100 Lisbon Tel. 37 1103 Ministry of the Environment (Ministerio da Qualidade de Vida) Rua Prof. Gomes Teixeira 1200 Lisbon Tel. 609541 ; 677001 Secretariat of State for the Environment Pra~a Duque de Saldanha, 31 1000 Lisbon Tel. 56 1103 Portugal General DirectJrate for the Quality of the Environment Pra~a Duque de Saldanha, 31 1000 Lisbon Tel: 548011 National Commission for the Environment (Comissao Nacional do Ambiente) (CNA) Pra~a Duque de Saldanha, 31 1000 Lisbon Tel. 544025 Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce and Fisheries (Ministerio da Agricultura, Comercio e Pescas) Pra~a do Comercio 1100 Lisbon Tel. 321909; 321966 Ministry for Industry, Energy and Export (Ministerio da Industria, Energia e Exporta~lio) Rua da Horta Seca, 15 1100 Lisbon Tel. 327391/95; 36 30 91/97 General Directorate of External Commerce (Direc~ao-Geral do Comercio Externo) Av. Republica, 79 1000 Lisbon Tel. 771911 Department of Protection and Nuclear Security Av. Republica , 45-60 1000 Lisbon Tel. 770060 147 Environmental health services National Laboratory of Technological and Industrial Energy (Laborat6rio Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia Industrial) (LNETI) R.S. Pedro de Alcantara, 79 Lisbon Tel. 36 88 56 Ministry of Housing, Public Works and Transport (Ministerio da Habitar,ii.o, Obras Publicas e Transportes) Prar,a do Comercio 1100 Lisbon Tel. 879541; 879361 General Directorate for Basic Sanitation (Direcr,ii.o-Geral do Saneamento Basico) (DGSB) Rua Antero de Quental, 44 1100 Lisbon Tel. 54 35 44 148 General Directorate of Hydraulic Resources Management (Direcr,ii.o-Geral dos Recursos e Aproveitamentos Hidraulicos) (DGRAH) Rua de S. Mamede, 23 1100 Lisbon Tel. 866165; 866169 Department for Pollution Control (SCP) Tel. 57 96 85; 57 97 35 Secretariat of Housing and Urban Development Av. 5 de Outubro, 153 1000 Lisbon Tel. 730601; 730617 r . . _ e ArH: 23 7 &00 kml ··• .. • - • , : · Romania Romania is situated in south-eastern Europe. To the south-east is the Black Sea, to the north and north-east the USSR, to the north-west Hungary, and to the south-west Yugoslavia. The Danube river forms most of the border with Bulgaria, while the border with the USSR includes a part of the Danube delta where it empties into the Black Sea . The climate is continental with hot summers and cold winters . 149 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation Under the I 965 Constitution the supreme organ of state power is the single-chamber National Assembly. The Assembly elects the President of the Republic and, from its own members, the State Council and the Council of Ministers, which is the highest state administrative body but responsible to the Assembly. In 1968 the local government structure was reorganized and the country was divided into 40 regions or provinces (including the capital, Bucharest, which has a special status and structure), 242 towns and some 2600 rural municipalities and communes. Bucharest has 8 municipalities, each with a population of approximately 170 000, and 12 suburban communes each with about 7000 inhabitants. The councils of the municipalities are sub- ordinate to the City Council, which is responsible direct to the National Assembly and the State Council. Each of these administrative units has an elected council and committees for various subjects. The Ministry of Health and the Higher Health Council are legally responsible for implementing government and parliamentary public health policies according to the Health Protection Law of 6 July 1978 (/DHL. 30: 263), which repeals the Decree of 30 December 1965 establishing the State Sanitary Inspectorate (JDHL. 17: 939). Health units are established at the local level or in other ministries (such as National Defence, the Interior, and Transportation), in which case they are under the jurisdiction of the Min- istry of Health for the purposes of medical and health activities. Medical and polyclinical dispensaries and sanitary and epidemiological centres are set up in communes and in business and educational establishments. Among their duties are the monitoring of wells and drinking-water sources for compli- ance with public health standards. Hygienic standards, to be proposed by the Ministry of Health for ap- proval by the Council of State, include conditions for safeguarding the quality of water, air and soil, of drinking-water sources and of installations, for the prevention of radioactive contamination, and for the disposal and neutralization of wastewater and solid waste. The Environmental Protection Act of 23 June 1973 lays down rules for the protection of water, air and soil, and the reduction of noise. The Act created the National Council for the Protection of the Environment under the Council of Ministers entrusted with the coordination and guidance of activities for environmental protection. The Ministry of Health, the Min- istry of Agriculture and the Food Industry and other ministries and councils all retain some administrative authority over different aspects of environ- mental health protection. Water The Water Management Act of20 April 1973 covers all surface, ground and boundary water, except where international conventions provide otherwise. 150 Romania It lays down general principles such as that water should be used rationally; the needs of the population take precedence over other uses; and ground- water, including springs, should be reserved for drinking-water,fire-fighting and special manufacturing processes that require water of this quality. It provides that all uses of water shall be subject to a permit. Earlier regu- lations exempted domestic use from this requirement. The 1973 Water Management Act prohibits all pollution of surface water and groundwater that makes the water unfit for the purposes that it would normally be used for. The Water Act of28 March 1974 repealed the Water Management Act of 1973 and through the Official Bulletin No. 31 of 1974 set up the National Water Council under the Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry. The Council is responsible for the implementation of laws regarding water supply and pollution control and it lays down the tasks of water manage- ment authorities . These are responsible for data collection and the super- vision of water quality. Water quality supervisory commissions were estab- lished to deal with rivers where special measures are required to coordinate protection efforts. These commissions function at the local level with repre- sentatives of all users and potential polluters under the guidance of the National Water Council. Decree No. 414 of 1979 establishes threshold values for the principal polluting substances in wastewater prior to dis- charge. The Ministry of Health is responsible for setting standards for drinking-water. The local people's councils are responsible for the pro- tection of drinking-water supplies and the disposal of wastewater. The Environmental Protection Act states that sewage effluent should be used for agriculture in the summer months and should not be discharged into the sea. It also provides for subsidies to treatment plants to prevent sea pollution. Air The Health Protection Law of 1978 makes the Ministry of Health responsible for preparing hygienic standards for safeguarding the quali ty of the air in workplaces and public establishments. All economic and sociocultural units (factories, schools and other public institutions and organizations) may only operate with a health licence issued by the district health agency or the health agency for the municipality of Bucharest. The health licence is required before the opening of a new installation and may be withdrawn if it is not operating in a hygienic manner. In the case of industrial establish- ments , the suspension of activities following the withdrawal of the health licence must be approved by the Council of Ministers. Emissions that have an adverse effect on the public can be a cause for review and possible cancellation of the health licence. Smoking is prohibited in entertainment halls , educational establish- ments, meeting rooms, medical consulting rooms and hospital wards, local public transport, retail shops, and other public places prescribed by the district people's council or the people's council of the municipality of Bucharest. 151 Environmental health services The Environmental Protection Act contains a general prohibition against establishments that do not possess treatment installations or purification plants and imposes on them the duty of adopting modern technological methods to avoid air pollution . The recuperation of useful elements from emissions and the proper storage of useless substances is also required. The Act also contains references to reducing air pollution from transportation. The Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry is responsible for taking measures of protection and preservation in the field of atmospheric pollution and for carrying out surveys of air pollutants according to Decree No. 14 of 1971 . The people's councils function at the local level to combat air pollution. Noise The Environmental Protection Act of 1973 imposes the duty of reducing noise both in the workplace and in public. The Institute of Hygiene has conducted numerous studies on the harmful effects of noise and has estab- lished standards and norms for sound insulation in schools and public buildings. Town planning must take into account the noise of construction, operation and accompanying traffic. There are also regulations limiting the noise produced by motor vehicles. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Environmental Protection Act of 1973 imposes the duty of reducing unnecessary waste, recovering useful elements and properly disposing of useless substances . Responsibility for the disposal of municipal waste lies with the local administration. The Ministry of Health is responsible for regulations regarding poisons, and consults the Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry in the preparation of standards for the use and disposal of pesticides. Decree No. 466, issued in 1979 jointly by the ministries for health, agriculture, labour, and the chemical industry and the National Water Council, establishes norms for the destruction of toxic chemicals. Radiation The State Committee for Nuclear Energy operates under Decree No. 870 of 30 December 1969 (IDHL, 23: 116). It has a monopoly on the preparation, use and storage of radioactive substances, as well as the responsibility of disposing of waste and contaminated materials . The Ministry of Health establishes standards for exposure and provides for the periodic exam- ination of persons handling radioactive materials and other sources of ionizing radiation. 152 Addresses Ministry of Health 6 rue Ilfov Sector VI 70052 Bucharest Tel. 134230 Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Industry 24 Boulevard Republicii Sector III 70044 Bucharest Tel. 144020; 140680 National Water Council 34 Boulevard Republicii Sector II 70058 Bucharest Tel. 13 68 80 Romania National Council for the Protection of the Environment I Piata Victoriei Sector I 70073 Bucharest Tel. 143400 State Committee for Nuclear Energy Platforma Magurele-Bucuresti 70059 Bucharest Tel. 80 70 40; 23 80 50 153 r ,:-.. •·,., _ ... --,,. ,, ._ .. _:' ,:'.---··,..-.-;:--··\ 21 000 • Area : 61 km' San Marino The Republic of San Marino is a land-locked state in central Italy, 20 km from the Adriatic above the city of Rimini. Wine, building stone, ceramics and textiles are the principal industries. Italian currency is the legal tender. Government and Basic Legislation The Republic of San Marino remained independent when modern Italy was consolidated as a kingdom. A treaty of friendship and a de facto customs union with Italy was concluded on 22 March 1862 and renewed in 1872, 1897 and 1939 with several subsequent amendments. 155 Environmental health services Legislative power is vested in the Great and General Council which has 60 members, two of whom are appointed to serve as regents with executive power for six-month terms. The Congress of State (Congresso di Stato) consists of 11 departments. There are Commissions for Social Welfare and Health and for Public Works. Regulations and standards follow Italian examples to the extent that is appropriate to this small country. The Department of Health is the principal administrator of environmental health legislation. Addresses Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Palazzo Begni-Belluzzi San Marino Tel. 99 23 45 156 Department of Health Via la Toscana Cailungo San Marino Tel. 90 44 54 r I eAIN:I04191W .. . .. --··· Spain The Kingdom of Spain occupies more than four fifths of the Iberian Pen- insula in south-west Europe. It is bounded by France and the Bay of Biscay to the north , by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and by the Mediterranean Sea to the south and east. It includes the Balearic Isles in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The climate of the mainland is less temperate than most countries in western Europe, with hot summers and, in the hilly interior, cold winters. The sunny, mild climate of the Mediterranean coast and the islands draws many tourists from northern Europe. Major industrial and urban concen- trations in Madrid, in the centre of the country, and Bilbao , on the north 157 Environmental health services coast, have produced serious air pollution incidents. Several rivers that rise in Spain flow westward through Portugal. Government and Basic Legislation Spain is a parliamentary monarchy with the King as Head of State. He appoints the President of the Government (Prime Minister) and, on the latter's recommendation, the other members of the Council of Ministers. The Parliament has two chambers, the Congress and the Senate. The Coun- cil of Ministers initiates legislation for discussion by Parliament. For local government, the country is divided into 50 provinces, each with an Assembly and an appointed Civil Governor. In the 1979 Constitution, Article 148 prescribes that the Autonomous Communities (provinces with common historical , cultural and economic characteristics, island territories, and provinces historically having a separate regional identity) may assume responsibility for a number of policy issues, including environmental pro- tection, social welfare and health. Article 149 prescribes that the areas of policy for which the State is to retain sole responsibility include inter- national health, the general principles and coordination of health policy, pharmaceutical legislation, basic environmental legislation (without preju- dice to the powers of the Autonomous Communities to lay down additional provisions in this field) and the regulation of conditions governing the acquisition, granting and registration of professional qualifications (IDHL, 31: 374). A series of crown decrees in 1979 extended the responsibility for health to the Basque country, Catalonia and Extremadura along with various other responsibilities (IDHL, 31: 376). Health includes the surveil- lance of drinking-water, wastewater, solid waste, air pollution, housing and town planning, and the environment in general. Some Autonomous Com- munities have also been given responsibility for the health-related activities of offensive, unhealthy, harmful or hazardous establishments or industries. Local authority in health and environmental matters rests with the Governor, who is assisted by the Provincial Delegate Committee of Public Health and the Provincial Directorate of Health. The Provincial General Councils are responsible for the organization of the provincial health and hygiene services. Provinces are subdivided into municipalities or communes headed by mayors and municipal councils (ayuntamientos). The mayor is the health authority and is assisted by an advisory body, the local health council, and by the local chief of public health who receives technical directives from the provincial director of public health. The municipal authorities and the local chiefs of public health are responsible for environmental health. Each provincial health office has a full-time staff of doctors, pharmacists and veterinarians who advise and, at times, supervise municipal officers. Each province has a laboratory for bacteriological examinations and chemical analyses of food, water and other substances, and their facilities are available to the municipalities. 158 Spain Each municipality is obliged to employ a physician, a veterinary officer and a pharmacist. The larger authorities each employ a number of full- time, and the smaller authorities part-time, private practitioners. Very small authorities are usually grouped together for the purposes of health services with the various officers covering several districts. The environmental health section of the Ministry of Labour, Public Health and Social Security is the main agency responsible for the health as- pects of water and air. Other ministries exercise control over specific aspects of environmental pollution . The organization and rules of procedure of the Interministerial Commission on the Environment (CIMA) were revised by Crown Decree No. 1310 of23 April 1977 (/DHL, 31: 354). The Commission is responsible for formulating policies for the control, protection and improvement of the environment by coordinating the activities of the com- petent agencies and drawing up and promoting a coherent overall policy directed towards the fulfilment of those objectives. "Environmental policy" is defined as follows : protecting the soil , waters, the air, vegetation, flora and fauna , and other natural resources, as well as human settlements, artistic and cultural resources, and other factors which contribute to the quality of the human environment, against adverse factors; correcting damage caused by the activities of man and natural phrnomena, as well as the effects of such activities; and ensuring the enhance- ment and growth of environmental resources by promoting their proper control and management. CIMA is to carry out the following duties: ensuring the u11ified planning and implementation of all activities concerning the environment carried out by the appropriate min- istries and agencies, as well as compliance with directives and the fulfilment of objectives related to the surveillance, protection and improvement of the environment, and the principles of the applicable legislation; drawing up joint action programmes to be carried out by the com- petent agencies and harmonizing those programmes that are drawn up by the various government departments by coordinating their development at each stage of their implementation; making studies and reports, and promoting and coordinating en- vironmental research; promoting the drawing-up of general provisions and measures for the surveillance, protection and improvement of the environment and advising those ministries that are involved in this field; drawing up lists of the provisions in force , making proposals to amend and update them, and promoting the organizational reforms necessary to ensure a more effective environmental policy; 159 Environmental health services keeping abreast of matters relating to the environment and channel- ling such reports and complaints as it receives; raising public awareness of environmental topics and disseminating information about them; cooperating with the Ministry of External Affairs in coordinating Spanish policy within international agencies and at international meetings; and carrying out such other duties as are assigned to it by legislation . The Commission is made up of a number of specialized committees, including the Committee for the Protection of the Urban Environment, the Committee for the Prevention of Air Pollution, the Committee for the Pre- vention of Pollution of Continental Waters, the Committee for the Preven- tion of Pollution of Marine Waters, the Committee for the Protection of Nature and the Rural Environment, and the Committee on Environmental Health. The ministry responsible for health has been reorganized twice in the last few years. In 1978, Crown Decree No. 3302 of22 December (IDHL. 31: 359) reorganized the Ministry of Health and Social Security. In I 98 I it was merged with the Ministry of Labour, with little change in the function of its divisions , to form the Ministry of Labour, Public Health and Social Security. The Ministry of Public Works and Town Planning was reorganized by Crown Decree No . 2093 of 3 August 1979 (IDHL, 31: 355). The Ministry includes the Under-Secretariat for Physical Planning and the Environment (Subsecretaria de Ordenacion def Territorio y Medio Ambiente). The sub- sidiary agencies of the Under-Secretariat include the General Directorate for the Environment and the Study Centre for Physical Planning and the Environment. The Directorate is responsible for submitting proposals prior to the formulation of environmental policy, implementing that policy, administering matters within the jurisdiction of the Ministry, and coordi- nating the above activities with those of other ministries and public bodies. The subdivisions of the Directorate include the General Subdirectorate for Environmental Coordination and the General Subdirectorate for In- formation and Dissemination. The Regulation concerning activities of a troublesome, unhealthy, harmful and dangerous character was approved by the Unhealthy Activities Decree No . 2414 of 30 November 1961 (IDHL, 13: 340). Under this Regu- lation the industrial discharges of waste, emissions and radiation must meet certain standards, and certain activities such as the use of injection wells for polluted water are prohibited. A number of subsequent regulations have been issued under this basic authority. 160 Spain Water The responsibility for water services is spread amongst several ministries and organizations. Water resources and river management at the national level are the responsibility of the Ministry of Public Works (MOPU), which also controls the various comisarios de aguas. These are government commissions, each responsible for a major river system, that act as river authorities with their own pollution inspectorates. Abstraction and discharge licences, together with river engineering works, all need to be approved by the comisarios. Once the water is outside the river system, it ceases to be their responsibility or that of MOPU at the national level. Monthly quality analyses are per- formed on samples from many strategic points along the rivers but these are concerned with conservation and quality rather than directed towards par- ticular uses of the water. Intensive surveys are performed whenever licences for new discharges or abstractions are being considered. Water supply and the treatment of domestic sewage are the responsi- bility of the local authorities, usually organized by the Confederaci6n Hidro- grdfica of groups of water users. These have long-standing rights of ab- straction and discharge. The control of water quality , including that of rivers and coastal waters, and the recreational activities associated with them, is the responsibility of the environmental health section of the Ministry of Labour, Public Health and Social Security (MTSSS). The final responsibility lies with MTSSS even when other government departments have functional responsibilities for the source of pollution. Some of the routine responsibilities of MTSSS are delegated to provincial governments (see p. 158). Industrial effluent control is the responsibility of the Ministry of In- dustry and Energy, as is the control of cleaning compounds, detergents and other goods used by the public that could be expected to contribute to water pollution. The basic laws on water pollution are old and fragmentary. The pro- visions of the Water Act of 13 June 1879 are still in force although they were supplemented in 1900 and 1925. The Regulations on the administration of water courses and their beds of 14 November 1958 established the Con- federaci6n Hidrografica and the Servicio Hidraulico. The latter organization may authorize discharges within its region that are not harmful to down- stream users and fix appropriate discharge limits. Licences to withdraw water must be accompanied by a licence to discharge wastewater. Imple- mentation of the Regulations is assigned to the local comisarios de aguas. The Unhealthy Activities Regulation of 1961 contains a list of allowable levels for pollutants in discharges. Royal Decree No. 928 of 16 March 1979 was issued by MOPU on the protection of the sanitation of water supplies destined for human consumption. 161 Environmental health services Air The 1961 Unhealthy Activities Decree covered emissions from factories and other undertakings that may cause damage to humans (unhealthy) or to plants, livestock and marine resources (harmful). The 1977 Decree reorgan- izing CIMA requires it to coordinate the activities of the various ministries responsible for combating air pollution. Population centres with a high degree of air pollution or noise were required by Decree No . 2107 of 16 August 1968 (IDHL, 21: 634) to adopt special bye-laws for the protection of the environment. The municipality of Madrid is subject to special rules . The Law No. 38 of22 December 1972 on the protection of the ambient atmosphere (IDHL, 25: 171) which was implemented by Decree No. 833 of 6 February 1975 (/DBL, 27: 633) stated that the Minister of the Interior was responsible for the surveillance and evaluation of air pollution in the exter- nal environment and for the coordination of the work of those municipal councils that have their own air pollution surveillance stations. This work has now been transferred to the Ministry of Labour, Public Health and Social Security. The Ministry of Industry and Energy is responsible for setting maximum emission levels for each industrial activity and the Min- istry of Agriculture for agricultural and food-processing activities. The Ministry of Public Works and Town Planning is responsible for air pollution from public works , including quarries for gravel and ore-handling in port areas. The local authorities are responsible for enforcement and for adopt- ing appropriate municipal ordinances. Methods for the analysis of air pollutants in the ambient air are set by the Ministry of the Interior, while methods for measuring emissions are set by the Ministry of Industry and Energy, both subject to prior approval by CIMA. A national air pollution network was set up under the Ministry of the Interior. In clean-air zones the provincial health board is responsible for the surveillance and control of air pollution. In zones declared to be affected by air pollution CIMA may recommend more stringent emission limits than apply in general. A zone shall be declared to be affected by air pollution when sulfur oxides and/or particulate matter exceed permissible levels. Special regulations to reduce air pollution may be enacted on an ad hoc basis in areas affected by air pollution. The declaration that a zone is affected by air pollution may be revoked by a proposal from CIMA, after consultation with the trade union organization, with the MTSSS (previously with the Ministry of the Interior) and with the competent provincial authorities. The Civil Governor is responsible for coordinating control measures in case of an air pollution incident in his province. Industries that are listed as potential sources of air pollution must have appropriate equipment for reducing emissions before they can be licensed to start up. Air pollution produced by motor vehicles comes under the Minister for Industry and Energy for type approval of motor vehicles and periodic inspec- tion . The General Directorate of Health, together with the municipalities, 162 Spain is responsible for ambient air measurements of pollution from motor ve- hicles (Decree No. 3025 of9 August 1974, IDHL, 26: 604). This activity now comes under the Ministry of Labour, Public Health and Social Security. Noise The Decree of 1968 requiring municipalities to regulate activities that lead to air pollution also included noise and vibrations. Norms are established by the Ministry of Labour, Public Health and Social Security. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Urban Waste and Residues Law No. 42 of 19 November 1975 (/DHL, 28: 1053) assigns responsibility for urban waste, including industrial activ- ities, to the ayuntamientos. Mining, agricultural and livestock waste are subject to other laws. Dangerous waste comes under the 1961 Unhealthy Activities Decree. Municipal waste must be delivered to the ayuntamientos, who may require industrial waste to be detoxified and who must provide controlled dumps in suitable places. Such dumps are classified as trouble- some, unhealthy, harmful and dangerous activities under the 1961 Unhealthy Activities Decree. Installations for the utilization of industrial waste are also so classified and require both a municipal licence and authorization from the provincial office of the Ministry of Industry and Energy. The recycling and reuse of waste is to be encouraged. CIMA is the coordinating office for the development of better waste disposal methods by the Ministries of the Interior, Public Works and Town Planning, and Agriculture. It also reports on pollution of the environment and subsoil resources as a result of solid waste disposal. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for standards and model municipal ordinances for waste disposal. There is as yet no specific legislation on the overall control of industrial chemicals. Radiation The Nuclear Energy Law No. 25 of 29 April 1964 (IDHL, 16: 190) specifies the measures to be observed for safety from and protection against ionizing radiation. Regulations concerning nuclear and radioactive installations were issued as Decree No. 2869 of 21 July 1972 by the General Directorate of Energy of the Ministry oflndustry and Energy. Radiation used for medical purposes is regulated by the Directorate of Health. 163 Environmental health services Addresses Ministry of Labour, Public Health and Social Security (Ministerio de Trabajo, Sanidad y Seguridad Social) (MTSSS) Paseo de! Prado 18 Madrid 14 Tel. 23093 72 Ministry of Agriculture Paseo de Infanta Isabel Madrid 7 164 Ministry of Public Works and Town Planning (Ministerio de Obras Publicas y Urbanismo) (MOPU) Nuevos Ministerios Madrid 3 Tel. 253 1600 Ministry of Industry and Energy (Ministerio de Industria y Energia) Paseo de la Catellana 160 Madrid r • Area: 449 964 km' . -.. · Sweden Sweden covers the eastern and southern parts of the Scandinavian pen- insula, bordering on Norway to the west, Finland to the north-east, the Baltic Sea to the east and south and the Kattegat to the west. The country extends about 1600 km from north to south with extensive archipelagoes. Sweden is a country abounding in water. There are 100 000 lakes with a combined surface area of about 40 000 km 2, equivalent to 9% of the coun- try's total area. There are two major islands, Gotland and Oland in the Baltic. The climate ranges from temperate maritime in the south, where most of the population live, to arctic in the north. 165 Environmental health services More than 80% of the population lives in urban areas but there is a relatively large number of second homes or vacation cottages. Even in the urban areas there is good access to wooded areas and forests. Government and Basic Legislation Sweden is a representative and parliamentary democracy. The King is Head of State but has representational and ceremonial duties only. The Parlia- ment (Riksdag) has 349 members elected by universal suffrage for three years. The country is governed by the Cabinet, which is responsible to Parliament. Government and administration are two separate functions. The min- istries concern themselves with the preparation of new legislation to be submitted to Parliament. Central administrative boards and the 24 county administrations execute the law. County councils are popularly elected; they can impose taxes, and are mainly responsible for health and medical care. Each council appoints an executive committee. At the next \eve! are the municipalities, of which there were 278 in 1982. Each has a directly elected council. This is a decision-making body that appoints boards for admin- istrative and executive duties. Each municipality is required to appoint certain special local bodies, including a public health committee, on which are devolved particular responsibilities. The administrative boards are non- political and are staffed with tenured civil servants. Environmental legislation The Nature Conservancy Act No. 822 of 1964(with its amendment No. 1025 of 1974) establishes that the natural environment is a national asset to be protected and conserved, that nature is accessible to all according to the Right of Common Access, and that nature conservation is the concern of both national and local authorities. This Act makes it possible for areas of natural interest to be preserved under various designations. The Right of Common Access (Allemansriitt, literally "everyone's right") is rooted in Swedish common law and has been codified in the Nature Conservancy Act. The right of common access means that everybody has the right to move freely about the countryside on public and private prop- erty - provided that no damage is inflicted - to pick wild mushrooms, berries and flowers (but not nuts or planted crops), to use lakes and rivers, and to go boating (but not fishing), so long as private grounds around dwellings and cultivated areas are respected. Camping for one night is allowed on land that is not used for agriculture and is distant from dwellings. Driving motor vehicles off the road in open country is forbidden, with the exception of snow vehicles in certain areas. The Environment Protection Act No. 387 of 1969 (IDHL, 21 : 173) is the basic act covering environmental nuisances such as air and water pollution, and noise. It was substantially revised by Act No. 420 of 1981 and Ordinance No. 574 of 1981. The main part of the Act lays down conditions for the 166 Sweden conduct of polluting activities. First of all, an establishment that is harmful to the environment must be located so that "the purpose may be achieved with the least possible encroachment and inconvenience without excessive cost". The basic principle is that disturbances must be prevented as far as is practically possible, and that unnecessary disturbances should not be tol- erated under any circumstances. The Environment Protection Act is sup- plementary to Act No. 329 of 1973 ([DHL, 25: 609) on products hazardous to health and to the environment, and to certain parts of the Nature Conservancy Act. The three acts set up framework legislation that is used as a basis for implementing ordinances containing detailed rules and regu- lations by the appropriate boards. The Act on products hazardous to health and to the environment provides for stricter controls over goods that, through their chemical or chemicophysical properties and handling, may cause human injury or en- vironmental damage. The main principle in the Act is that the harming of people or the environment by chemical products is to be prevented as far as possible. Two chief approaches are chosen. First, anyone who manufactures, sells, imports or otherwise handles chemical products is charged with a duty to take such steps and observe such precautions as are needed to prevent or to counteract any ill effects arising from the products. Second, the auth- orities exercise surveillance over the relevant operations and have powers to intervene with coercive measures to prevent any injurious effects. A basic principle is that the mere suspicion that a chemical product may be harmful to man or the environment means that producers, etc. must adopt pre- cautions and that the authorities have powers to intervene against the product. Sweden is a signatory to the Nordic Convention on the Protection of the Environment (19 February 1974). Act No. 268 of 1973 and Ordinance No. 248 of 1976, implementing the Convention, rule that the environmental interests of the neighbouring countries (Denmark, Finland and Norway) must be equated with the corresponding interest in Sweden. Administration of the Act is assigned to the National Environmental Protection Board (Statens Naturvardsverk, SNV). Administrative boards At government level, the responsibility for environmental questions is largely vested in the Ministry of Agriculture. There is also the Environ- mental Advisory Council , which acts as an advisory and information- providing body to the Government. The National Environmental Protection Board (SNV) is the principal administrative authority for the planning and management of the environ- ment . It lies administratively under the Ministry of Agriculture and works through county boards that reflect the divisions of the National Board. The Nature Conservancy Act gives the Board an advisory role delegating de- cisions to the county boards. Under the Environment Protection Act the Board has both decision-making and advisory functions . 167 Environmental health services The National Franchise Board for Environmental Protection has a function similar to that of a court of law. Its activity falls f"ntirely within the scope of the Environment Protection Act and consists chiefly of examining applications for permission to carry on activities that are injurious to the environment. The parties (applicant and complainant) may appeal against its decision to the Government. SNV may also appeal against the Franchise Board's decisions. The Government Bill No. 111 of 1972 concerns the management ofland and water resources and presents guidelines for weigh- ing the differing demands for these natural resources. Potentially polluting activities must get a permit either from the National Franchise Board for Environmental Protection or from the county administration, depending on the type of activity and the scale of the project. Franchises can be reviewed and revoked if the situation changes, although a permit in general does not expire in under 10 years. Government support can be secured for the construction of major pollution control facilities. The Products Control Board's field of activity lies within the framework of the Act on products that are hazardous to public health and the environ- ment, and the Board is a completely independent authority. It issues general regulations for the handling, storage, etc. of products that are injurious to public health and the environment, decides on questions concerning the registration of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides , examines applications for permission to use polychlorinated biphenyls, and publishes lists giving guidance on poisons, dangerous substances, etc. Applications for per- mission to trade in, manufacture and use such products in individual cases are generally examined by certain other authorities. The Swedish Forest Service administers Crown land and is responsible for the care of national parks and nature reserves. It has been a long standing practice of the Forest Service to set aside special areas, known as domain reserves, on Crown lands. The National Land Survey Board often comes into contact with prob- lems of nature conservation in connection with building development and land valuation. The responsibilities of the Board now also include the production of maps. The National Administration of Shipping and Navigation and the Swedish Customs Board are concerned among other things with the pre- vention of oil pollution. Thus the Administration issues safety regulations and the Swedish Customs Board is responsible for combating oil pollution along the coast and at sea. The National Board of Health and Welfare deals with matters concern- ing air and water pollution, pursuant to public health and radiation pro- tection legislation and various other enactments. The National Institute of Radiation Protection is responsible for radi- ation protection, for example in connection with nuclear power stations. The National Road Administration and the National Road Safety Office deal with certain matters concerning motor vehicles as a source of pollution. 168 Sweden Water Water pollution is handled at the national level by SNV and the National Franchise Board for Environmental Protection under the Environment Protection Act and related acts. Freshwater supply is handled by the National Board of Health and Welfare. The Water Act of 1918 contains a wide variety of regulations with a bearing on nature conservation. The rules regarding construction in water, the use of groundwater supplies, etc. all prescribe the consideration of nature conservation in judging the admissibility of such activities. The Water Association Act of 1976 stipulates that a water association may be formed with the objective of promoting the purposeful use of water by means of purification, water regulation schemes, or other water manage- ment measures. Special provisions against the pollution of the sea by oil are administered by the National Administration of Shipping and Navigation and by the Swedish Customs Board. Act No. 6 of 1976 implements the Helsinki Con- vention of 22 March 1974 on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area. Acts No. 7 and No. 8 of 1976 and Ordinance No. 573 of 1976 supplement conventions on the prevention of pollution of the seas. Act No. 850 of 1971 deals with the control of the pollution of boundary waters with Norway and Finland. The aim of municipal wastewater pollution control is to reduce to innocuous levels not only substances with a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and turbidity but all toxic materials, as well as to make significant reductions in algal nutrients that promote eutrophication. Or- dinance No. 1075 of 1976 permits the use of lime (a toxic substance within the law) to neutralize acidity in lakes. Acidity that kills fish is caused by sulfur and nitrogen oxides in combustion gases, 75% of which come from sources outside Sweden. The National Board of Fisheries can award grants for the liming of lakes. The National Board of Health and Welfare, under the authority of the Public Health Act Np. 663 of 1958 ([DHL, 11 : 473), issues regulations on substances in drinking-water that are injurious to health. Act No. 107 of 1962 authorizing the addition of fluorine to water to prevent dental caries was repealed nine years later by Act No. 859 of 1971 (IDHL, 14: 492 and 24: 399). Instead, the National Board of Health and Welfare now recommends the use of fluoride tablets or topical applications (Order No. 26 of 24 May 1977, IDHL, 29: 452). Air Air pollution problems are handled at the national level by SNV and the Franchise Board, although other boards also have significant roles. SNV deals with problems of sulfur in heating fuels. Important legislation in this field includes the Act and the Ordinance on sulfur content in fuel oil. The 169 Environmental health services Products Control Board deals with problems of lead in motor fuel and prohibits the use of chlorofluorocarbons in aerosol dispensers (Ordinance No. 1095 of 1977; IDHL, 29: 458). SNV administers the Motor Vehicles Emissions Order No. 673 of 1979, using test conditions prescribed by federal authorities in the United States (JDHL, 25: I 87). Compulsory labels for use on tobacco products designed to reduce smoking, especially of cigarettes with high levels of tar and nicotine, have been published by the National Board of Health and Welfare by Order No. 17 of 26 February 1981 (/DHL, 32: 460). The control of pollution from factories comes under SNV and the Franchise Board operating through plans adopted by local and county administrations under the guidance of the National Board of Urban Plan- ning. The Building Act of 1974 and the Building Statute of 1959 provide the basic law, supplemented by the Government Bill No. 111 of 1972 on the management of land and water resources. Noise Noise pollution is dealt with by SNV under the Environment Protection Act. Additional input comes from city planning, the traffic safety admin- istration, public health ordinances at local and county levels and the ad- ministration of Air Traffic Acts No. 297 of 1951 and No. 558 of 1961. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Ordinance No. 346 of 1975 on waste hazardous to the environment (/DHL, 27: 855) applies to industrial waste from a variety of sources but not to household garbage. That is covered by the Refuse Collection Act No. 596 of 1979 and Ordinance No. 1024 of 1974. The Products Control Board and SNV issue regulations regarding labelling, containers and transport of hazardous substances. The ultimate disposal of dangerous waste is in prin- ciple reserved to the company Swedish Waste Conversion Ltd (SAKAB). The disposal of ordinary waste is a municipal responsibility . Radiation The control of radiation is assigned to the National Institute of Radiation Protection under the Ministry of Agriculture . The Radiation Protection Law No. I 10 of 1958 (JDHL, 10: 541) has been augmented by numerous amendments and ordinances, including Law No. 245 of 1976 (/DHL, 28: 125) which extends its coverage to devices emitting nonionizing radiation. The Law No . 33 I of I 960 on protection against accidents in nuclear plants places the responsibility on the county councils to see to it that measures are taken to protect the public from radioactive emanations from nuclear plants. 170 Addresses Ministry of Agriculture (Jordbruksdepartementet) (Jo) S-103 33 Stockholm Tel. (08) 763 10 00 National Environmental Protection Board (Statens naturvardsverk) (SNV) Box 1302 S-171 25 Solna Tel. (08) 98 18 00 National Franchise Board for Environmental Protection (Koncessionsniimnden for miljoskydd) Box 34067 S-100 26 Stockholm Tel. (08) 22 39 00 Products Control Board (Produktkontrollniimnden) Box 1302 S-171 25 Solna Tel. (08) 98 18 00 Swedish Forest Service (Domiinverket) S-791 81 Falun Tel. (023) 840 00 National Land Survey Board (Statens lantmiiteriverk) (LMV) S-801 12 Giivle Tel. (026) 10 03 40 National Board of Health and Welfare (Socialstyrelsen) (SOS) S-106 30 Stockholm Tel. (08) 14 06 00; (08) 23 60 60 Sweden National Institute of Radiation Protection (Statens stralskyddsinstitut) (SSI) Box 60204 S-104 01 Stockholm Tel. (08) 24 40 80 National Administration of Shipping and Navigation (Sjofartsverket) (Sjov) S-601 78 Norrkoping Tel. (OJ I) 191000 National Road Administration (Statens viigverk) (VV) S-781 87 Borliinge Tel. (0243) 750 00 National Board of Fisheries (Fiskeristyrelsen) Box 2565 S-403 17 Gothenburg Tel. (031) 176380 National Board of Urban Planning (Statens planverk) Box 22027 S- 104 22 Stockholm Tel. (08)540940 Swedish Waste Conversion Ltd (Svensk Avfallskonvertering AB) (SAKAB) Box 2217 S-171 02 Solna Tel. (08) 27 26 50 Environmental Federation (Miljoforbundet) Box 51 S-751 03 Uppsala Tel. (018)135560 171 Environmental health services National Association of Environmental Protection Groups (Miljovardsgruppernas Riksforbund) (MIGRI) Ullsavragen 14 S-752 48 Uppsala Tel. (018)300000 172 Swedish Society for the Protection of Nature (Svenska naturskyddsforeningen) (SNF) Kungsholms Strand 125 S-112 34 Stockholm Tel. (08) 54 14 70 r • Area: 41 288 km• :- .... Switzerland The Swiss Confederation (Confederation helvetique) is situated in the centre of Europe with the Federal Republic of Germany to the north , Austria and Liechtenstein to the east , Italy to the south and France to the west. The Rhine river rises in Switzerland and collects sewage from industrial and urban areas. Branches of the Rhone, Po and Danube also rise in Switzerland but only the Rhone receives a significant contribution of urban sewage there. The climate is generally temperate, but there are wide and sudden variations due to differences in altitude, aspect and gradient. 173 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation Switzerland is a federal republic consisting of20 cantons and 6 half-cantons. The present Constitution dates from 1874. The highest authority is the electorate, i.e. all voting citizens. All federal laws, as well as laws in most of the cantons, are subject to popular referendum. There is a very high degree of independence at the canton level and the Federal Government can only make laws and regulations regarding matters that are expressly authorized by the Constitution . These matters include those public works that involve a major part of the country, such as highways, railways, pipelines for petroleum products , rivers and forests. Legislative authority is vested in a two-chamber parliament. The Stiinde- rat, or Council of States, consists of two representatives from each canton; the Nationalrat, or National Council , is made up of 200 councillors dis- tributed according to population . The chief executive authority is the Bundesrat, or Federal Council , consisting of seven members who act as ministers or chiefs of the seven administrative departments. The Federal Department of the Interior is responsible for the administration of most environmental legislation through the Public Health Service, the Water Inspectorate and the Office of Environmental Protection . Each canton and half-canton is sovereign in all matters not restricted by the Federal Constitution . Some cantons even have limited rights to conclude agreements with foreign states (Articles 9 and IO of the Constitution). Each canton has its own written constitution, government and parliament. In most communes all citizens may participate directly in the government of the commune through periodic meetings of the Assembly of Electors , which is the supreme organ of the commune. In the most populous communes or municipalities the communal Assembly is replaced by an elected Council. In the three smallest cantons legislative authority rests with the Landsgemeinde, an open-air assembly of enfranchised citizens. Most of the larger cantons are divided into districts (Amtsbezirke) , each consisting of a number of adjacent communes , with a Prefect (Regierungsstatthalter or Oberamtmann) rep- resenting the cantonal government. The laws and regulations of the can- tons that implement federal legislation are administered by ministers whose titles and spheres of operation are usually different from the corres- ponding federal ministers . There is thus a wide diversity oflocal legislation . There is also a strong determination to resist federal domination and many pieces of federal legislation in the environmental field have not b.een ratified. Proprietary information and trade secrets, including the nature and quan- tities of chemicals and other substances used in production, are strictly safeguarded. Two federal orders amending Article 24 of the Constitution are basic to environmental legislation: the Order of 25 March 1954 (IDHL, 6: 733) introducing Section 4 on the control of water pollution, and the Order of 24 June 1971 (IDHL, 23: 137), Section 7 on the control of air pollution, noise and waste disposal. Article 24-6 of the Constitution deals with nature 174 Switzerland protection. The Law of8 December 1905, governing trade in foodstuffs and household goods, covers water for human consumption, whether packaged or distributed in pipes. The Office of Environmental Protection was set up in the Federal Department of the Interior by Order of the Federal Council of26 May 1971 (IDHL. 23: 136) with authority to draft federal laws concerning the pro- tection of the environment. Most of the other activities assigned to this Office are of an advisory nature and there are very few federal ordinances dealing with environmental matters other than those concerning water. The cantons have responsibility for making building regulations and the Federal government has power only to establish principles for plan- ning. The Federal Planning Act of 22 June 1979 requires the cantons to identify protected areas where settlement or building must be restricted in order to protect nature and control pollution . An emergency federal act provided a temporary legal basis for the prevention of land speculation while the Planning Act was under consideration. Many Swiss federal laws and regulations , including those that apply to foodstuffs, water and radiation, are also valid in the Principality of Liechtenstein. Water The 1954 constitutional amendment to Article 34-4 on the control of water pollution was implemented by Federal Law of 16 March 1955 (IDHL, 8: 507). The Law states that account must be taken of the technical possibilities for removing pollutants and the self-purification of surface water and groundwater. Financial and economic costs should also be taken into account, except where the quality of drinking-water or industrial water is involved. The cantons were given authority, subject to federal supervision , to control discharges and to set standards and charges necessary to ensure adequate and lasting protection against pollution. The Water Protection Law of8 October 1971 (IDHL, 24: 403), based on Constitution Article 24-4, repeals earlier water laws but retains many of their provisions. It obliges the cantons to exercise their jurisdiction over watercourses by implementing the regulations and measures necessary to prevent pollution. The Law came into force on l July 1972 and the cantons were required to ensure that existing sewers and other pipelines carrying polluting substances complied with federal regulations within IO years. The deadline was extended to l July 1987 by the Amendment of 20 June 1980 (IDHL, 32: 318). Sewage must be purified before discharge. The Law also contains provisions against depositing solids, such as sewage sludge and municipal and industrial waste, in or beside watercourses or on the ground where they might leach into groundwater. Violation of the regulations can lead to suits for damage and provision is made for liability insurance, especially for private house-owners. 175 Environmental health services Ordinances implementing this Law include that of 19 June 1972 (JDHL, 24: 412) on water protection, as amended on 6 November 1974 (IDHL, 27: 648), which establishes that the Federal Office of Environmental Protection shall provide a technical and supervisory service for water protection with advice from the Federal Commission for Water Protection, a new tech- nical advisory body set up under the Department of the Interior. Cantonal plans for water protection must be submitted for examination and approval to the Federal Office of Environmental Protection which may, where ne- cessary, order the plans to be modified or supplemented. The control of the pollution of groundwater from liquids, especially oil and sewage, liable to cause a deterioration of water quality is dealt with by the Ordinance of 19 June 1972 (JDHL, 24: 415), as amended on 17 Janu- ary 1979 (/DHL, 30: 328). The cantons are required to divide their areas into water protection zones depending on the degree of risk to groundwater. The Sewage Sludge Ordinance of May 1981 limits the heavy metal and bacteria in sewage sludge that is to be applied to grazing land and requires its pasteurization, composting or chemical disinfection before it can be used for such purposes. The Ordinance of 8 December 1975 (/DHL, 27: 652) on the discharge of wastewater sets forth quality and quantity standards for receiving waters. It provides for more stringent conditions for discharges from heavily popu- lated or industrialized areas, or where water quality objectives are not being met by the standard conditions. It also provides for less stringent conditions in the case of isolated buildings with few inhabitants, and other situations that have a low potential for causing pollution. The biodegradability and phosphate content of detergents is regulated by two ordinances of 13 and 15 June 1977 (/DHL, 29: 477 and 478). The Federal Laboratory for Materials Testing and Research for Industry, Build- ing and Arts and Crafts determines whether detergents comply with the regulations. The Swiss Federal Institute for Water Resources and Water Pollution Control (EA WAG) operates a large laboratory in the suburbs of Zurich. Besides water, the scope of its work includes municipal solid waste. Air Article 24-7 of the Federal Constitution on the protection of man and his natural environment (IDHL, 23: 137) states: I. The Confederation shall legislate on the protection of man and his natural environment against harmful or troublesome influences to which they are sub- ject. In particular, it shall control air pollution and noise . 176 2. The responsibility for enforcing the federal provisions shall rest with the cantons, except where such enforcement is reserved by law to the Confederation. Switzerland This section has not yet been implemented, although a comprehensive environmental protection law has been under consideration since Octo- ber 1979 and was approved by the National Council in March 1982. Can- tonal legislation imposes widely differing restrictions on the production of air pollutants, depending on the locality. Zurich, for example, has enacted ordinances against nuisances based on the Public Health Law of 4 Novem- ber 1962 (/DHL, 15: 861) but there is no federal law regarding nuisances such as smoke, soot, fumes or noise. The Federal Planning Act of 1979 provides for uniformity of planning to prevent industrial air pollution from impinging on residential areas but this offers no protection from ubiquitous air pol- lutants such as those from automobiles or residential heating systems. A series of federal ordinances regulate lead in petrol but there is no federal legislation on sulfur in fuels. Cantonal legislation, which can take into account local conditions of topography, climate and type of industry, is relied upon to provide tht! necessary protection against air pollution. The Office of Environmental Protection in the Federal Department of the Interior gives advice on problems involving air pollution and can help coordinate local laws. Noise Nearly all of the Section on air pollution applies mutatis mutandis to noise. The Constitution Article 24-7 deals with both air and noise. Other articles in the Constitution can provide federal authority to deal with specific sources of noise, such as national highways (Article 36-2), motor vehicles (Article 37-2), and aircraft (Article 37-3), but there have been very few federal ordinances based on this general authorization. An exception is the Aircraft Noise Ordinance of 30 January 1978 (/DHL, 29: 481). In general , the regulation of noise is left to local authorities. Solid and Hazardous Waste The collection and disposal of ordinary municipal waste is strictly a local responsibility. For example in the Canton of Geneva, the Law of 16 Decem- ber 1966 on the disposal of waste states: communes are required to take measures for the disposal of domestic wastes; the disposal of agricultural, industrial and dangerous wastes is the responsibility of the parties concerned. The Constitution Article 24-7 empowers the Confederation to legislate on waste disposal but, pending the enactment of a comprehensive environ- mental protection law, little use has been made of this authority. There were a large number of canton poison laws preceding the Federal Poisons Law of21 March 1969 (IDHL, 23: 800) which was implemented by the Ordinance of 23 December 1971 (/DHL, 23: 840). This Law assigns 177 Environmental health services responsibility for the control of poisons to the Federal Office of Public Health in the Department of the Interior. It calls for the establishment of a licensing system for trade in poisons and the establishment of a poisons list. The cantons are responsible for the enforcement of the Law, subject to federal surveillance. The Swiss National Accident Agency is required to consult other agencies on the administration of the Poisons Law. Paragraph 63 deals with the disposal of poisons, which must not be abandoned on or- dinary waste disposal sites. The Water Protection Law of 1971 states that the cantons must ensure that solid refuse produced by households and industry is collected and disposed ofby being deposited in a place set aside as a refuse dump, by composting, by incineration, or by some other method, in such a way as to preclude any risk of pollution. In cases where cantons themselves do not undertake such tasks, they must engage the communes, other bodies under public law, associations set up for this specific purpose, or the producers of waste to perform them in their stead. The cantons must ensure that the communes, associations or others responsible for undertaking such tasks take the requisite measures and perform the necessary work. Most of the cantons have enacted specific legislation implementing the Federal Poisons Law. There have been a number of regulations based on the Law that deal with specific aspects of it, such as that of 21 February 1978 (/DHL, 32: 291) which applies only to examinations for licences for whole- sale and retail trade in chemicals. The general control of poisons is by way of federally approved labels. Sample labels must be submitted, with a declar- ation of the contents and properties of each substance entering the Swiss market. Emphasis is on acute toxicity and potential carcinogenicity and information on environmental impacts is not required at present. The Federal Station of Agricultural Research must approve pesticides, which must also have a Health Service classification. Radiation The Constitution Article 24-5 assigns responsibility for atomic energy and radiation protection to the Federal Government according to Federal Order of 20 December 1957 (/DHL, 9: 838). A comprehensive ordinance on pro- tection against ionizing radiation was issued on I 9 April I 963 (/DHL, 15: 636). All uses and applications of radiation are subject to licence from the Federal Public Health Service in the Department of the Interior. The Department of the Interior is required to arrange one or more dumps for radioactive waste and to control their use. Inspection duties are distributed among the Swiss National Accident Agency (SUV A) in the case of insurable risks, the Federal Factories Inspectorate in the case of factories, and the Federal Office of Public Health in all other cases. The competent cantonal authorities may be requested to aid the inspectors in the removal of dangerous installations. A number of cantons have passed regulations designating a competent cantonal authority to enforce the federal legislation (/DHL, 15: 671 and 676). 178 - ---------- - ------- -- -------- - ----------, Switzerland The Federal department of the Interior published an ordinance regu- lating nuclear research institutes on 12 September 1969 (IDHL, 21: 650). The Ordinance of 17 May 1978 (IDHL, 30: 326), based on the Federal Law of 23 December 1959 on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, stated that the then Federal Department of Transport and Communications and Energy was to issue licences for nuclear power plants. The Federal Office of Energy Economy in the Department of Transport and Energy Economy has auth- ority to issue licences for other uses of radiation. Switzerland has three nuclear power plants and has agreements on radiation protection with the Federal Republic of Germany and France (IDHL, 30: 956 and 32: 323). Addresses Federal Department of the Interior 3003 Berne Tel. (031)619111 Federal Office of Public Health Post Box 2644 3001 Berne Tel. (031)6195 11 Federal Office of Environmental Protection Schwarztorstral3e 53 3003 Berne Tel.(031)619311 Federal Department of Transport and Energy Economy 3003 Berne Tel. (031)614111 Federal Office of Energy Economy, Nuclear Power Division Kapellenstral3e 14 3003 Berne Tel. (031)615632 Federal Department of Public Economy 3003 Berne Tel. (031)612111 Division of Agriculture Mattenhofstra13e 5 3000 Berne Tel. (031)6125 11 Federal Station of Agricultural Research 3097 Liebefeld - Berne Tel. (031 ) 598111 Federal Laboratory for Materials Testing and Research for Industry, Building and Arts and Crafts (EMFA) 8600 Diibendorf Tel. (01) 823 55 11 Swiss Federal Institute for Water Resources and Water Pollution Control (Eidgenossiche Anstalt fiir Wasser- versorgung, Abwasserreinigung und Gewasserschutz) (EA WAG) 8600 Diibendorf Tel. (01)8235511 179 r • Area : 774816km' Turkey Part of the Republic of Turkey (Thrace) is in Europe and part (Anatolia) in Asia, the two parts being separated by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles, which link the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Most of Turkey is in Asia, where it is bordered on the north by the Black Sea, in the east by the Islamic Republic oflran and the USSR, and in the south by Iraq, Syria and the Mediterranean Sea. The European part is bounded by Bulgaria and Greece. The capital, Ankara, is situated in a high basin in the centre of Anatolia, surrounded by mountains that inhibit air mixing. The climate in the interior 181 Environmental health services is continental with great extremes of temperature. On the Mediterranean coast the climate is more equable. Government and Basic Legislation Turkey is a democratic republic, legislative power being vested in the two-chamber Grand National Assembly consisting of the Senate and the National Assembly. The President appoints the Prime Minister, who in turn appoints the Council of Ministers. The country is divided into 67 provinces (vi/ayet) which are subdivided into 572 districts (kaza) and about 1800 municipalities. Governors of prov- inces are appointed by the central government. The Governor is the admin- istrative head with authority over the mayors of the municipalities in his province. The Deputy Governor for Districts (kaymakan) coordinates dis- trict matters. Legislation regarding environmental health is scanty. The Public Health Law No. 1593 of 24 April 1930 (Bulletin de /'Office international d'Hygiene publique, 23: 575 ( 1931)) empowers the Minister of Health and Social Assistance to regulate undesirable environmental health situations. The Ministry has established a central public health laboratory, the Refik Say- dam Central Hygiene Institute in Ankara, with divisions in Istanbul, Izmir, Diyarbakir, Adana and Erzurum. The Institute serves as a national refer- ence laboratory and supports the provincial public health laboratories. A Secretariat for the Environment has been established in the Office of the Prime Minister. The enforcement of environmental pollution laws in the cities is the responsibility of the municipal health department , headed by medical doc- tors, with actual enforcement delegated to the municipal police. The Min- istry of Health and Social Assistance provides guidelines and has power to enforce regulations. Internal assistance in dealing with the main water and wastewater problems of the municipalities is provided by the general direc- torate of the Bank of Provinces (Iller Bankasi) of the Ministry of Recon- struction and Resettlement , a centrally funded organization concerned with municipal public works. Assistance to villages on similar issues comes from the General Directorate of Roads, Water and Electricity (YSE). A number of international agencies provide aid in pollution control through projects ranging from brief surveys to full-time fellowships and the provision of analytical instruments for monitoring pollution. The United Nations De- velopment Programme and WHO have a permanent office in Ankara to coordinate assistance, and both the United Nations Environment Pro- gramme and the World Bank also contribute to pollution control services. The Turkish Stand2rds Institute, founded in 1960, is authorized by Law No . 132 to deal with the preparation of standards. It is an autonomous body with its own General Assembly, consisting of representatives of ministries, scientific groups, industry, chambers of commerce and other interests. The 182 Turkey smaller Standards Council discusses and approves draft standards and decides whether standards should be mandatory or voluntary and which ministry should administer them. Water The Public Health Act of 1930 includes requirements for the safety of drinking-water supplies. Article 242 restricts the intentional pollution of surface waters and springs, and prohibits industrial effluents that could cause pollution . Article 244 applies to municipal sewage. Licences for industrial discharges are granted by the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance with guidance from the Ministry of Commerce. The Water Act of 10 May 1926 dealt with the local management of water supplies. An amendment of January 1935 empowers the municipalities or local councils to prohibit agricultural operations liable to pollute water supplies. The Ground Water Act published on 16 December 1960 requires prior approval from the Ministry of Public Works before groundwater may be extracted. The Regulation of 20 July 1961 under this Act requires that proper measures be taken to prevent pollution of surface water or groundwater. A number of regulations deal with various aspects of spring water and drinking-water: No. 12 043 of 8 July 1965; No. 12 378 of 18 August 1966; No. 12 958 of 4 July 1968; No. 13 393 of 7 January 1970; No. 14918 of 17 June 1974; and No. 15282 of I July 1975. The Regulation for the dis- infection of drinking-water and water for ordinary use was published as No. I 2 264 on 30 March I 966. Article 20 of the Law on Products No. 1380 of 1971 is concerned with the protection of commercially valuable aquatic life , especially fish and crayfish. Turkey has a large export market for crayfish. Ordinance No. 14 607 of 27 July I 973 under this Law sets discharge limits for nearly 200 substances. The discharge of untreated sewage or radioactive substances is forbidden. The Ordinance requires municipalities to treat their sewage before it is discharged but this requirement has not yet been implemented and there are, as yet , no municipal sewage treatment plants. Offences against Article 20 of the Law are dealt with by the principal criminal courts. The State Hydraulic Affairs Administration (Dev/et Su ls/en) is respon- sible for supplying water to municipalities of over 100000 people. Air General legislation to control air pollution does not exist. The Public Health Law of 1930 has sectors dealing with unhealthy establishments. Regulation No. 208 establishes licence conditions and prohibits enlargements or alter- ations to these establishments beyond the limits of the licence. Failure to comply with the regulations can lead to their closure. Enforcement lies with the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance, both within and outside the 183 Environmental health services municipalities. Ankara suffers from severe air pollution, caused to a large extent by the use of lignite fuel in poorly designed and operated heating systems. Specific coordination of air quality monitoring in the capital is carried out by the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance. The Ministry of Energy provides training for stokers and is initiating the manufacture of smokeless fuel. The municipal police inspectors measure excessive smoke emissions and campaign in the news media to try to encourage public awareness of air pollution problems. There are no laws on vehicle emissions. There is no type-testing for emissions from motor vehicles assembled in Turkey and no laws regulating the lead content of petrol. Noise The only general legislation regarding noise is the General Nuisance Law, Turkish Criminal Code No. 765, which states: Whoever, intemperately or in a shameful manner, openly hurts or disturbs another, shall be punished by light imprisonment for not more than 15 days or by a light fine of not more than 900TL [Turkish Lire]. Local regulations apply to the noise produced by motor vehicles and in public areas or amusement places. A draft regulation for combating noise has been sent to the Coordination Committee. Solid and Hazardous Waste The powers and duties of municipalities with regard to the collection and disposal of solid waste are governed by the Public Health Law of 1930 and the Municipal Law of 1830, supplemented by the Directory of Municipal Health Administrative Regulations and the Regulations for Muni- cipal Health Administration. Municipalities are responsible for the col- lection and disposal of domestic and commercial solid waste but not indus- trial waste. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has the main authority for the regulation of toxic and hazardous substances used in agriculture. It provides guidelines for the use and disposal of poisons and is responsible for licensing pesticides and plant protection products under the Law No. 6968 of 1957 for agriculture control and quarantine. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for the transport and handling of dangerous substances. Radiation The licensing of nuclear installations was assigned to the Atomic Energy Commission by Decree No. 7/9141 of 5 December 1974 (IDHL, 30: 843). A 184 Turkey Nuclear Safety Committee was set up in 1978. So far Turkey does not have any nuclear power reactors. The health aspects of the use of X-rays and radioisotopes are the re- sponsibility of the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance. Addresses Ministry of Health and Social Assistance Ankara Tel. 18 15 48 Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry T.C. Tarim Bankanligi Ankara Tel. 15 58 49 Secretariat for the Environment, Office of the Prime Minister Tel. 186230 Atomic Energy Commission Tel. 27 8155 Turkish Standards Institute Tel. 18 7240 WHO Office c/o The Resident Representative of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) PK 407 Ankara Tel. 284031 185 USSR The USSR, which stretches from the Baltic Sea in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east, and extends 4800 km from north to south, is the largest country in the world. Its western frontier runs from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea in the south. The country is bordered in the west by Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Norway, Poland and Romania, in the south by Afghanistan, China, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Mongolia and Turkey, and in the east by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. 187 Environmental health services Government and Basic Legislation Under the 1977 Constitution, the USSR is a single federal State comprising 15 Union republics of equal status. Some of the Union republics contain autonomous republics, regions (ob/asts) and okrugs. For example, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) has 16 autonomous republics and 5 autonomous oblasts. The highest legislative organ is the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which consists of two equal chambers, the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. At a joint session the members elect the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet as the permanent working body. The Chairman of the Presidium is Head of State. The Supreme Soviet appoints the Council of Ministers, headed by a Chairman, which forms the supreme executive and administrative organ of state authority and is responsible to the Supreme Soviet. Each of the Union republics has its own constitution and administrative and territorial structure, with a single-chamber Supreme Soviet and a Coun- cil of Ministers that deals with matters coming within the jurisdiction of a Union republic. The Supreme Soviets of the USSR and of the Union and autonomous republics are elected for a period of five years. The 15 Union republics consist of 120 ob/asts, 20 autonomous republics, 6 territories (krajs), 8 autonomous oblasts and 10 national okrugs. These are divided into 3 l 17 districts (rayons) . There are 2040 towns, 41 249 rural councils and 3784 urban-type settlements. Self-government is exercised in these administrative areas. Although they differ considerably in population and the area they cover, their structures, organization and responsibilities are all similar. The local councils , comprising deputies elected every 2½ years, consti- tute the organs of state authority in these administrative units. The rights and responsibilities of the councils are prescribed by law. Within the limits of their powers, the local councils deal with matters of local importance, implement the decisions of higher state organs, take part in discussions on subjects of concern at the republic and Union levels, and put forward their own proposals. Each council elects an executive committee from among the deputies. This committee is the executive and administrative organ of the council and implements its decisions. Each of the larger executive committees has depart- ments and divisions that exercise direct control over the various services in a given area such as health, social security and education . The USSR has a state system of health care. State policy for the pro- tection of the health of the people was laid down in the Fundamental Principles of Health Legislation of the USSR and the Union republics, adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on 19 December 1969 ([DHL, 21 : 407). In accordance with this legislation, the health care of the popu- lation is an obligation of all state agencies, undertakings, institutions and 188 USSR organizations. Their powers in respect of the health care of the population are determined by the legislation of the USSR and of the Union republics . The Law of 19 December 1969 contains provisions relating to a wide range of environmental health subjects, including the elimination and pre- vention of environmental pollution. The Law specifically mentions measures that must be taken to prevent pollution of the atmosphere, bodies of water, groundwater and soil, and to suppress noise. It also provides for the sanitary surveillance of radioactive and poisonous substances, including pesticides for plant protection. Although the Ministry of Health is the principal ministry for most aspects of environmental pollution, collaboration with other ministries at several governmental levels (see the Section on water), as well as inputs from a number of specialized commissions, is usually required. The current regulations for the sanitary service were laid down in Decree No. 361 of 31 May 1968 of the Council of Ministers, which states that the sanitary and epidemiological service shall be directed by: the Chief State Medical Officer of Health of the USSR; and the chief state medical officers of health of the Union republics , the autonomous republics , krajs, regions, okrugs, towns, municipal and rural districts , rivers, ports and water transport sections. The sanitary and epidemiological stations (sanepids) form the basic unit of the service in republics, regions , districts , towns, marine and river basins, and large industrial plants. These stations supervise measures relating to the health protection of the environment, and the prevention of communicable and occupational diseases. Their duties include, in addition to the usual medical laboratory services, measurements of pollutants in air and water, vibration, noise and radiation. The sanepidstations are the principal source of environmental measurements and provide the base for all inspection of environmental pollution. There are more than 4000 such stations, each equipped with its own hygiene and bacteriological laboratory and staffed by specialists in various disciplines such as public health physicians, epidemi- ologists, bacteriologists, biologists and engineers. These experts special ize in various branches of hygiene and environmental pollution. The chief physician of a sanepid is the deputy chief state medical officer of health of the corresponding territorial unit. Each sanepid has an advisory council that operates according to a plan approved by the chief medical officer of health of the district in which the sanepid is based. The principal task of the council is to assist the sanepid to resolve problems relating to the improvement of its services. The councils are composed of experienced public health workers, together with specialists from establishments for medical treatment and prophylaxis, scientific re- search institutions, industry, trade unions , and social organizations. Approval of environmental standards and rules that apply throughout the USSR lies with the Ministry of Health of the USSR. 189 Environmental health services The Ministry of Health of the USSR and the ministries of health of the Union republics examine and reach agreement on proposed standards and technical requirements relating to the quality of drinking-water and water used for other purposes, sewage treatment and levels of pollutants in dis- charges, air pollution, radioactivity, other radiation and noise, in addition to medical and food standards. These standards and technical requirements are subject to ratification by the Ministry of Health of the USSR, or by the ministries of health of the Union republics acting on its behalf. Water The Fundamental Principles of Water Legislation of the USSR and of the Union republics are presented in the Law of 10 December 1970 (IDHL, 23: 882). The Decree of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the intensi- fication of nature conservation and the improved utilization of natural resources (1973/2) states that the Ministry of Soil Improvement and Water Economy of the USSR is primarily responsible for the protection of water from pollution, obstruction and depletion . The Ministry of Health of the USSR is called upon to exercise state control over the implementation of measures to prevent the pollution of surface water. The Ministry of Geology is responsible for the control of the prevention of depletion and pollution of subterranean water and controls the state record for water resources. The observance of the rules on the use of water by power stations is supervised by the Ministry of Energetics and Electrification, while the USSR State Com- mittee for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Control , attached to the Council of Ministers of the USSR, organizes a service for the observation and control of the level of water pollution, as well as the supervision of the state record of water resources. The exploitation of mineral water resources is controlled by the State Committee for Science and Technology at the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for Science is charged with the elaboration, in co- operation with appropriate ministries and agencies , of plans for nature conservation. The USSR State Planning Commission confirms schemes for the integrated use of water and water balances which have Union-wide significance. a All Union republics have enacted water codes. For example, the Law of 30 June I 972 of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic for the control of water pollution (IDHL, 26: 433) requires prior approval for a large number of acts that would be expected to lead to water pollution. Marine pollution is also the subject of a number of decrees. Decree No. 5590-VIII of 26 February I 974 intensifies previous control measures against the pollution of inland, maritime and territorial waters. Maritime a Ercman, S. European environmental law. Berne, Bubenberg-Verlag AG , 1977, p. 446. 190 USSR pilots are responsible for the surveillance of Soviet sea waters and the prevention of oil pollution. The USSR is a signatory to the 1974 Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (IDHL, 28: 121). Air The Law approving the Fundamental Principles of Health Legislation, as already mentioned, gives the Minister of Health administrative power to make provision for and apply measures to prevent the pollution of the atmosphere. Other authorities with joint responsibility are: the Ministry of Energetics and Electrification, the Ministry of Chemistry and Processing, the Ministry of Machine Building, the USSR State Committee for Hydro- meteorology and Environmental Control , the State Committee for Science and Technology, and the State Planning Commission . Maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances in the ambient air of population centres have been given in the List of Standards of Chemicals in Air No. 1892-78, approved on I August 1978 by the Deputy Chief Medical Officer of Health of the USSR. At the regional levels proper planning of industrial areas and the establishment of habitation-free zones is relied upon to keep industrial air pollution within allowable limits. The Law of25 June 1980 on the protection of the atmosphere (IDHL, 31 : 577) lays down framework legislation regarding what must be done to reduce air pollution, and does not assign responsibilities at levels below the Council of Ministers of the USSR and of the Union republics. Existing regulations remain in effect until they are suspended . Noise The Law approving the Fundamental Principles of Health Legislation states that the executive committees of local Soviets are required to carry out measures aimed at preventing and suppressing noise in populated areas. Sanitary norms on admissible noise in houses , public buildings and on building sites were issued by the Chief Medical Officer of Health of the USSR as State Standard 12.1-003-76 in 1976. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Law approving the Fundamental Principles of Health Legislation assigns responsibility for waste disposal to the local level and gives the agencies of the sanitary and epidemiological service authority to prohibit or temporarily suspend the operation of establishments that by reason of their waste or refuse could have a prejudicial effect on human health. There is no special law on toxic substances, but control is exercised over all chemical substances at all stages of their life cycles. Permission for the introduction of new substances is given by the Ministry of Health acting 191 Environmental health services with the State Bureau of Standards and the State Committee for Hydro- meteorology and Environmental Control. The Ministry of Chemistry and Processing also has its own toxicological laboratories. The use of pesticides in agriculture and the fishing industry is controlled by the Ministry of Health of the USSR and is governed by special documents laying down codes of good practice in agricultural technology. The Ministry of Health of the USSR approves maximum permissible residues for pesti- cides in food products and methods of determining them. These standards are binding on farms and undertakings and within all ministries and depart- ments. The documents currently in force lay down maximum residue levels for more than 160 pesticides in various food products of vegetable and animal origin. Radiation Radiation Safety Standards NRB-76 of 1976 replace the standards of I 959, 1962 and 1969. They follow the Recommendations of the International Com- mission on Radiological Protection, ICRP publications No. 6 and 9. The Standards apply both to workers and to individual members of the public; for the public maximum permissible doses are usually one tenth those for workers . Doses slightly in excess of the limit may be tolerated for short periods if there are no medical findings to the contrary. In the event of an accident that contaminates significant areas of the country a commission including the chief medical officer of the area and the safety engineer may set temporary local permissible levels for radiation. Addresses Ministry of Health of the USSR Rahmanovskij pereulok 3 101431 GSP Moscow K-51 192 Ministry of Agriculture Orlikov pereulok 1-11 Moscow r • Area: 244 046 km' . · ... ~. '' . . '. - .. ··: ___ .. _.,.:)····-. United Kingdom The United Kingdom consists of the island of Great Britain and the north- eastern corner oflreland, together with a number of islands off the northern coast. Great Britain is divided into England in the south, Wales in the west and Scotland in the north . The climate is temperate. The central counties of England, the Midlands, are heavily industrialized and there is a high popu- lation density in the London area. Government and Basic Legislation The United Kingdom is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The two-chamber Parliament, comprising the House of Commons and the 193 Environmental health services House of Lords, is the supreme legislative authority. Primary legislation may be initiated in either House; it is usually introduced in the House of Commons, but in any case requires the approval of both Houses. Executive responsibility rests with the Government, headed by the Prime Minister. Many government functions affecting Scotland, Wales and Northern Ire- land are carried out by the various departments of their respective Secretaries. of State. Local government is carried out by a diversity of local authorities. In England (except London) and Wales there are 53 counties subdivided into 369 districts. The Greater London area is divided into the City and 32 Lon- don boroughs. Each county and subdivision has its own elected council. Scotland has 9 regional councils, subdivided into 53 elected district councils and 3 all-purpose island councils. Northern Ireland is divided into 26 dis- tricts, each of which has an elected district council. In addition to these elected local councils, there are water authorities in England and Wales that follow river basins, local branches of some ministries such as the Depart- ment of Health and Social Security (DHSS), and special inspectorates such as the Alkali and Clean Air Inspectorate under the Health and Safety Executive. The government of Scotland differs in many details from that in Eng- land. Ministries and departments have different names in some cases and their responsibilities and authority are not exactly the same as those of their English counterparts. The laws applying to Wales are more closely inte- grated with English law. Northern Ireland remained united with England, Wales and Scotland when Ireland (Eire) received its independence. The Assembly of Northern Ireland was dissolved in 1975 because of civil unrest and the province is governed at present by Parliament through the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. Some English departments, including the DHSS and the Department of the Environment (DOE) have their counter- parts in Northern Ireland. The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are not part of the United Kingdom, but are direct dependencies of the Crown with their own legis- lative and taxation systems. The first environmental protection edict is said to have been a prohibi- tion on the burning of coal in London fireplaces at the time of Queen Eliza- beth I. This prohibition was soon set aside and the first nationwide air pollution control act was the Alkali Act of 1863. The Public Health Acts of 1848, 1936 et seq. now include sections on water and sewage disposal as well as noxious fumes from trade and industry. The comprehensive Control of Pollution Act, 1974 (JDHL, 26: 627) has major sections dealing with: land, water, noise and air. This Act applies to Scotland as well as to England and Wales. As the various sections of the Act are implemented, earlier conflicting legislation is amended or repealed. At the central government level most pollution problems are dealt with by the DOE in conjunction, as appropriate, with the Scottish and Welsh Offices. There is also a Department of the Environment in Northern Ireland 194 United Kingdom (DOE(NI)). The DOE is concerned with the pollution of rivers, lakes and underground water, air pollution, noise (except from motor vehicles and aircraft, and in the workplace) and the disposal of solid and radioactive waste. The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food is responsible (under the Radioactive Substance Act, 1960) for authorizing the discharge of radioactive waste from major nuclear establishments. The control of emis- sions and noise from civilian aircraft lies with the Department of Trade. Responsibility for the control of traffic and vehicle noise rests with the Department of Transport, while the Health and Safety Commission, answerable to the Secretary of State for Employment, is responsible for legislation on noise and pollution control. Pesticides are controlled in various ways, the most important being the control over marketing exer- cised through the Pesticide Safety Precautions Scheme, which is admin- istered jointly by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the Health and Safety Executive on behalf of the government departments and agencies responsible for agriculture, health and safety. The Health and Safety Commission has certain responsibilities for pollution control under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act, I 974 (IDHL, 26: 622). The Secretary of State for the Environment has general responsibility for coordinating the work of the Government on environmental pollution in England. The Secretaries of State for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are responsible for the overall coordination of pollution control in their respective areas. To a very large extent the implementation of environmental legislation is left to the competent elected local authorities (county and district coun- cils and water authorities). Each case of pollution is dealt with on its own merits and there is great resistance to the imposition of uniform national standards. The general principles are: to make full use of the processes of natural purification inherent in the environment; and to make the polluter pay for any additional treatment necessary to protect against excessive levels of noxious substances. No attempt is made to equalize the costs of pollution control among different areas , but there is a reluctance to implement laws that will lead to great expense for existing installations without allowing them time to adjust to the new requirements. Planning has always been a local function but the Local Government Planning and Land Act, 1980 reforms overlapping planning functions to simplify regulations and abolish many local controls. The Act is an attempt to speed up the handling of planning applications to encourage new developments. 195 Environmental health services Water The present system of water management dates from the Water Act , 1973 (IDHL, 25: 638) which replaced nearly 1500 local bodies who were respon- sible for various aspects of water, sewage and rivers, with ten regional ·water authorities in England and Wales. Their boundaries follow river basins, with the exception of parts of the border between England and Scotland. In Scotland the corresponding reorganization in the Local Government (Scot- land) Act, 1973 gave authority for water to nine regional and three local councils. In Northern Ireland the DOE(NI) operates the water services. Water authorities are responsible for the water supply, including the pro- tection and allocation of groundwater, the control of river flow and surface pollution, water treatment and distribution, the collection and treatment of sewage and the disposal of treated sewage and sludge. The Water Act, 1973 authorizes the continued existence of private water supply companies as agents of the regional water authorities. Guidance comes primarily from the DOE with significant inputs from the departments responsible for agricul- ture and fisheries. The powers of the water authorities to control pollution will be strengthened and extended when Part II of the Control of Pollution Act , 1974 is fully implemented. Under the 1974 Act all discharges of trade or sewage effluent to fresh or coastal water or the land are subject to control by the water authorities and suitable restrictions may be applied. Dumping and other non-regular entries are not considered as discharges and severe penalties may be applied to such activities. The largest proportion of effluent discharges to rivers comes from sewage treatment plants operated by the water authorities themselves. Dis- charge consents in this case cannot be approved by the authorities that cause the discharge, but must be authorized by the appropriate Secretary of State. The water authorities have powers to prevent, forestall or remedy pollu- tion and, if the pollution is caused by an illegal discharge, to send the bill to the polluter. If a farmer follows an agreed code of good agricultural practice he will normally be protected from charges for causing pollution. This protection may be withdrawn, however, if the Secretary of State is satisfied that serious pollution has been or may be caused by a particular agricultural practice. The United Kingdom does not suffer from a deficient rainfall generally, although the driest areas are those with the greatest density of population . Thus, in the eastern part of England, rivers may be subject to a high degree of reuse to satisfy the demand for water. Greater London relies on surface water containing a substantial proportion of sewage effluent, although the head waters of the River Thames are maintained by groundwater outflows originating from rainfall towards the west . The advantages of having one comprehensive authority responsible for the entire water cycle (i.e. from 196 United Kingdom supply to disposal) were seen during the drought of 1976, when it was necessary to close locks on the River to divert the flow for water abstractions only. There is no legal definition of wholesomeness in the context of public water supply but the responsibility for the supply of wholesome water was vested in statutory water companies by the Water Act, 1945. In addition the Public Health Act, 1936 made local medical officers of health responsible for ensuring that the public received water that was wholesome. Since 1974, the provision of a wholesome potable supply has been the responsibility of the regional water authorities or of statutory water companies acting on their behalf. When questions as to whether water is wholesome arise refer- ence is made to the WHO International standards for drinking-water, pub- lished in 1971. The National Water Council, which was established by the Water Act, 1973, has principally advisory functions related to England and Wales although its decisions may be influential in the rest of the Kingdom. Mem- bers of the Council include the chairmen of the IO water authorities and 11 others appointed by the Secretary of State for the Environment and the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. The Council is advised by a number of standing committees on various technical aspects of its work. The Water Research Centre is a private company providing research and engineering development in the water field . It operates laboratories devoted to water supply, sewage treatment and disposal, and the engineering of water distribution and sewerage systems. The Centre is financially supported by the regional water authorities and various industries , and much of its research is directly related to their general needs. In addition it carries out contract work for individual customers and government departments. Under the Dumping at Sea Act, 1974, the dumping of waste in United Kingdom waters or from United Kingdom vessels is prohibited except in accordance with a licence granted by the appropriate authority. In England this is the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food; in Scotland and Wales the respective Secretary of State; and in Northern Ireland the Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland). This Act gives effect to the two conventions for the prevention of pollution of the sea by dumping (the Oslo and London Conventions) which have been ratified by the United Kingdom. Air The Alkali Act of 1863 took its name from the new alkali industry that grew up to provide chemicals for the increasing quantities of fabrics being manu- factured in England. The first alkali process liberated large quantities of hydrogen chloride to the air. Although the Act was specifically aimed at this emission, a new process for producing chlorine bleach from hydrochloric 197 Environmental health services acid did more to abate the nuisance than did enforcement of the Act. The Act was extended subsequently to cover other processes until the legislation was consolidated in the Alkali etc. Works Regulation Act, 1906, which remained the governing statute until 1974 when it was partly subsumed by the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act, 1974. Although certain portions of the Alkali Act were repealed when the relevant parts of the Control of Pollution Act, 1974 and the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act, 1974 were brought into effect, the Alkali and Clean Air Inspectorate in England remains an important agent for the control of industrial air pollution under the direction of the Health and Safety Execu- tive. The corresponding agency in Scotland is Her Majesty's Industrial Pollution Inspectorate for Scotland. The Alkali Act sets specific emission limits for only four processes. In the case of other processes, the inspec- torates work on the basis that the best practicable means should be used to control emissions. Methods and emission limits are continuously being revised to take account of developments in processes and products. The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act, 1974 includes provisions to protect not only employees but other persons from dangers arising out of work. Employers must use the best practicable methods for preventing the emission of noxious or offensive substances. The Act established a Health and Safety Commission, appointed by the Secretary of State for Employ- ment. The Commission in turn appoints the Health and Safety Executive which includes the Alkali and Clean Air Inspectorate. The secretaries of state responsible for the environment are answerable to Parliament for the adequacy of the measures taken by the Commission to control emissions and they have the power to make regulations on these matters. The Health and Safety Executive does not have jurisdiction over agriculture. The Public Health Acts 1936 et seq. are the primary weapon against noxious emissions that do not come under the Alkali Act or other specific legislation. They are implemented in the form of regulations published and enforced by local authorities. The Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968 replaced and extended the provisions relating to smoke nuisances in the Public Health Acts, and control certain emissions from industrial combustion processes not within the scope of the Alkali and Clean Air Inspectorate. These Acts empower local authorities to make smoke control orders that prohibit the emission of smoke from buildings, including dwellings, in any part of their districts. Householders who, as a result of a smoke control order, have to change their means of cooking and heating may claim from the local authority a grant of 70% or more of the reasonable cost of installing suitable domestic smokeless appli- ances. Well over one third of the premises in the United Kingdom, including nearly 95 % of those in Greater London, are now believed to be covered by orders. Although the quality of air has greatly improved, there are some areas where work remains to be done to achieve the standards agreed in the European Communities Directive on smoke and sulfur dioxide. The limit 198 United Kingdom values for concentrations of these pollutants are based on the World Health Organization's evidence of their effects on health. The Control of Pollution Act, 1974 extended the powers of local auth- orities to carry out investigations into air pollution from non-domestic sources. The Act gives the Secretary of State power to make regulations regarding substances that have countrywide application. The Secretary of State for Transport has issued statutory instruments (Sis) for sulfur in oil and lead in petrol that coordinate with European Communities directives. The Secretary of State for Transport also administers the Road Traffic Act, 1972, which provides for type-testing of motor vehicles for exhaust emis- sions. Roadside checks of heavy vehicles and other vehicles over three years old for smoke offences also come under the Secretary of State for Transport. The planning of industrial developments is in the hands of local auth- orities but they can call on the services of the Alkali and Clean Air Inspec- torate for advice in this process. Noise The noise provisions of the Control of Pollution Act, 1974 strengthened the powers of local authorities to control environmental noise. The earlier Public Health Acts and the Noise Abatement Act, 1960 were more limited and tended to work in favour of noise-makers. The 1974 Act makes provision, among other things, for local authorities to designate areas as noise abatement zones and also covers noise from construction sites. It does not deal with noise from road or air traffic. The Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations, 1978, as amended, based on the Road Traffic Act , 1972 (IDHL, 24: 616), set maxi- mum permissible noise emission levels for different types of motor vehicle. They are coordinated with European Communities directives and provide for EEC type-approvals . The Civil Aviation Acts, 1949, 1968, 1971, 1978 and 1980, the Airports Authority (Consolidation) Act, 1975 and the Air Navigation (Noise Certifi- cation) Order, 1980 all contain provisions relating to aircraft noise. The Civil Aviation Authority is responsible for administration under the Secre- tary of State for Trade. Local bye-laws regulate traffic patterns and flight times to minimize noise disturbances. The United Kingdom follows the standards drawn up by the International Civil Aviation Organization re- garding the design of jet engines and other major sources of aircraft noise. The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act , 1974, which is administered by the Health and Safety Commission and Executive, applies to the protec- tion of the public as well as of workers from any noise which might endanger their health or safety. In view of the legislation described above, however, the Health and Safety Commission and Executive have concen- trated on protecting the hearing of workers; a consultative document pro- posing comprehensive new regulations on this subject was published in 1981 . 199 Environmental health services A DOE circular to local authorities on planning and noise (10/73) calls attention to the role of proper planning in avoiding new noise-sensitive development in areas subject to potentially high level~ of noise. The DHSS has a division responsible for the medical aspects of noise. Solid and Hazardous Waste Under the 1972 Local Government Act, county councils are responsible for waste disposal and district councils for collection. (This applies primarily to domestic waste, but includes some commercial waste. Industrial waste is largely dealt with by the private sector.) The disposal of controlled waste (i.e. household, industrial or commercial waste) is regulated by the Control of Pollution Act , 1974 and responsibility for granting licences to operate disposal sites rests with the county councils in England and the districts in Wales and Scotland. The purpose of the licensing system is to ensure the protection of water resources and public health. Additional controls over the transportation of particularly hazardous waste ("special waste") are provided in the Control of Pollution (Special Waste) Regulations, 1980 which came into force on 16 March 1982. The Deposit of Poisonous Waste Act, 1972 was repealed at the same time. The Department of the Environment in England issues guidance circulars and provides technical advice; the Welsh Office and the Scottish Develop- ment Department have similar responsibilities . The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, and the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland, give advice to farmers on good practice in the utilization and disposal of farm waste. If farms cause water pollution, redress lies with the water authorities . A notifications scheme for new substances is being implemented under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act , 1974, following European Com- munities directives. Notification schemes for poisons already exist under the Poisons Rules, 1978 which is administered by the Home Office. The min- isters and departments responsible for agriculture are responsible under the Farm and Gardens Chemicals Act, 1967 for the labelling of pesticides. A formally negotiated agreement between government and industry, in the form of the Pesticide Safety Precautions Scheme, requires notification of new pesticides to be made to the Health and Safety Executive or the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Certain European Communities directives on dangerous substances, particularly polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated terphenyls, vinyl chloride aerosol propellant and tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate fire retardant, are implemented by Sis issued by the Department of the Environ- ment and the Department of Trade in 1980. The Health and Safety Execu- tive has issued a comprehensive document concerning the revision of regu- lations regarding the packaging and labelling of dangerous substances. 200 United Kingdom Radiation The Radioactive Substances Act, 1960 (IDHL, 13: 163) is concerned pri- marily with the safe disposal of radioactive waste. Under this act, disposal of radioactive waste from major nuclear sites is prohibited unless authorized by both the Secretary of State for the Environment and the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, or their counterparts in other parts of the Kingdom. Other disposals, with certain specified exceptions, require the authorization of the Secretary of State alone. Except where specifically exempted, persons using radioactive materials must register their premises. The disposal of low-level radioactive waste takes place in the form of discharges of liquid and gaseous effluents and disposal of solid materials on land or into the deep ocean. An independent committee, the Radioactive Waste Management Advisory Committee, advises environment ministers on their responsibility for radioactive waste management policy. Proposals for comprehensive new ionizing radiation regulations, which would replace various pieces of existing legislation and would implement the relevant European Communities Euratom directive, are currently being developed. Addresses Department of the Environment Room A3.20 Romney House 43 Marsham Street London SW! 3PY Tel. (01)21233 74 Department of Health and Social Security (DHSS) Alexander Fleming House Elephant and Castle London SE! 6BY Tel. (01)4075522 Welsh Office Health Services I Division Pearl Assurance House Greyfriars Road Cardiff CF! 3JL Tel. (0222)44151 Scottish Office Dover House Whitehall London SWIA 2AG Tel. (01)2333000 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Great Westminster House Horseferry Road London SWIP 2AE Tel. (01)2166687 Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland Chesser House 500 Gorgie Road Edinburgh EH 11 3A W Tel. (031) 443 40 20 Scottish Development Agency 120 Bothwell Street Glasgow G2 7JP Tel. (041) 248 27 00 Northern Ireland Office for Home Affairs Stormont Castle Belfast BT4 3ST Tel. (0232) 630 11 201 Environmental health services National Water Council The Chief Executive I Queen Anne's Gate London SWI Tel. (01)2228111 Health and Safety Executive Baynards House I Chepstow Place London W2 4TF Tel. (01) 229 34 56 Alkali and Clean Air Inspectorate Queen Anne's Chambers 27 Broadway London SWI Tel. (01)273 3000 Secretary of State for Transport Department of Transport 2 Marsham Street London SW! Tel. (01)2123434 Secretary of State for Trade Department of Trade I Victoria Street London SWI Tel. (01) 215 78 77 202 Civil Aviation Authority CAA House 43-59 Kingsway London WC2 Tel. (01) 379 73 11 Department of Industry I Victoria Street London SWIH 0ET Tel. (01)2157877 United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority 11 Charles II Street London SW! Tel. (01)9305454 Atomic Energy Research Establishment Harwell OX 11 ORA Tel. (0235) 24141 The Water Research Centre 9 Dartmouth Street London SWl8 9BL Tel. (01)2220493 r • Area : 255804km' Yugoslavia Yugoslavia is located in the south-east part of Europe. It has boundaries with Austria and Hungary in the north, with Italy in the west, with Bulgaria and Romania in the east and with Albania and Greece in the south. The Drava river forms part of the border with Hungary, the Danube with Romania, and the country has a long south-western coastline on the Adri- atic Sea. It has a moderate continental climate in the hilly interior, but in the coastal areas the climate is mediterranean, with frequent rainfall throughout the year. 203 Environmental health services Since the Second World War there has been a rapid development of industry and agriculture. Government and Basic Legislation The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a federal state in the form of a state community of voluntarily united republics. It consists of the Socialist Republics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia, and the Socialist Autonomous Provinces ofVojvodina and of Kosovo which are constituent parts of the Socialist Republic of Serbia. The Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has two chambers. The Federal Chamber consists of30 delegates from each republic and 20 from each autonomous province; the Chamber of Republics and Autonomous Provinces consists of 12 delegates from the assemblies of each republic and 3 from the autonomous provinces. In the Federal Chamber, the Committee for Labour, Health and Social Welfare deals with problems related to health, social policy, labour relations, etc. The Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a body of social self-management and the supreme organ of power within the framework of federal rights and duties. The Assembly decides on amend- ments to the Constitution; discusses foreign policy; decides on war and peace; proclaims the election of the Presidency; adopts the social plan of Yugoslavia and the federal budget; and discharges other affairs specified by the present Constitution. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has a collective Presi- dency whose rights and duties are laid down by the Constitution. The Presidency consists of one representative of each republic and autonomous province. This body exercises the rights and duties of the Head of State. Each republic has its own Assembly of three chambers. Republics are subdivided into communes or municipalities, all of equal status. The Com- munal Assembly, in every commune, has three chambers: the sociopolitical chamber of directly elected representatives of the inhabitants; the chamber of a.,:;sociated labour, elected by employees of the economic, cultural and welfare organizations and a variety of other organizations; and the chamber of local communities, elected by the communities. A communal assembly can deal with all matters of interest to its population except those that have been assigned to other bodies. In municipalities with a number of villages, and in large cities such as Belgrade, local committees may be formed to discharge business of direct local concern. As regards health, the Federation through its agencies adopts the social plans of Yugoslavia and regulates: 204 the fundamentals of the system of social planning; the protection of the life and health of the people by combating contagious diseases that endanger the country as a whole; Yugoslavia the marketing of medicines; the conservation and improvement of the human environment as it concerns the country as a whole and the interna~-ional community; the sale and transport of explosives and radioactive and other dan- gerous substances and the transport of inflammable liquids and gases when this is in the interests of the country as a whole; the sale of poisons and the manufacture and sale of narcotics; the fundamentals of the system of water exploitation where it is of concern to two or more republics or autonomous provinces; standards, technical norms, and quality standards for products and services, ensuring the enforcement of relevant federal regulations when this is in the interests of the country as a whole and so specified by federal statute; the organization of the collection, recording, and processing of sta- tistical and other data on the state of individual sectors of social life, demographic data, data on economic and other developments, data on health and other data of concern to the country as a whole; and the information system as a whole and particularly in the field of health. All other matters relating to health and the environment (especially the organization and management of health services) are within the competence of republics, provinces and communes. Major responsibility for the federal aspects of environmental health lies with the Federal Committee for Labour, Health and Social Welfare which also directs the Federal Institute of Public Health, the statute and affairs of which are regulated by a special law. The Federal Institute of Public Health analyses problems in the field of the protection of the human environment and their effect on the lives and health of the population within the frame- work of the rights and duties of the Federation. It is also authorized to examine water for noxious matter and to collect, record and process statis- tical data and information in the field of environmental health. Water The protection of inter-republican and international rivers, of international waters such as border lakes and the sea and of the coastal sea of Yugoslavia is regulated by the Law on fundamentals of the regime of water of concern to two or more republics or autonomous provinces and on interstate waters (Official Register of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), No. 2, 1974 and No. 24, 1976). On the basis of this Law, the Government of 205 Environmental health services Yugoslavia passed the Ordinance of2 February 1978 on the classification of waters (Official Register of the SFRY, No. 6, 1978; IDHL, 29: 890) and the Order on maximum permitted concentrations of radionuclides and noxious matters in these waters (Official register of the SFRY, No. 8, 1978). Four classes of inter-republic and international waters were established by the Ordinance of2 February 1978: I, water suitable in its natural state, or after disinfection, for drinking or food preparation and surface water suit- able for salmonoid fish ; II , water suitable for bathing, aquatic sports and cyprinoid fish or that can be treated to make it suitable for drinking or food preparation; III, water suitable for irrigation and industry (except food); IV, water that may be used for other purposes only after appropriate treatment. Water used only for navigation and saline waters in general are not included in the classification. The coastal waters of Yugoslavia are also classified into four categories of water: I, for the breeding of oysters and other shellfish; II , for bathing and recreation; III, for fishing; IV, for the closed harbours of the Yugoslav sea ,. coast. The protection of other water (particularly its categorization, manage- ment, use and protection) is regulated by the republics and autonomous provinces. The Federal Hydrometeorological Institute monitors qualitative and quantitative changes in inter-republic, international and coastal waters of Yugoslavia, while the Federal Institute of Public Health monitors these waters for noxious matter. The Federation sets criteria for drinking-water safety ( Official Register of the SFR Y, No. 9, 1980 and No. 14, 1980) based on the Law on the health safety of food products and objects for general use ( Official Register of the SFRY, No. 55 , 1978), and for the quality of natural potable mineral water based on the Law on standardization ( Official Register of the SFR Y, No. 38, 1977). The communes and cities are responsible for the removal of wastewater (sewage). Industrial and other organizations are obliged to purify their wastewater before discharge. Air The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has agreed to the international Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. In accordance with this Convention, a regulation on the protection of the air against pollution of concern to the whole country and the international community is in the course of preparation. At present , the protection of the air against pollution is ensured by a total of 42 republican and provincial regulations, covering the whole country. Working people, citizens, and labour and othe r organizations are ob- liged to monitor the level of pollution and undertake appropriate measures to combat it through their organs and organizations. Labour and other 206 Yugoslavia organizations have to monitor, either by themselves or through authorized institutions, the air pollution created by themselves. The Federation determines the maximum allowed concentrations of harmful substances contained in the exhaust gases of internal combustion engines (Article 92 of the Regulation on accessories, equipment, dimensions and the total weight of road traffic vehicles, in the Official Register of the SFRY, No. 20, 1978 and No. 4, 1980). Administrative organs responsible for sanitary inspections as well as other authorized bodies have the right to ban the location, construction, operation or functioning of objects or installations that pollute the air. Air pollution at ground level is monitored by the health service, while that at higher levels is monitored by the meteorological service. Air pollu- tion is monitored in Belgrade and the capital cities of the republics and provinces, as well as in other major cities and industrial centres. Noise The level of noise made by road traffic vehicles is regulated by the Feder- ation (Article 97 and 98 of the Regulation on accessories , equipment, dimensions and the total weight of road traffic vehicles , in the Official Register of the SFRY, No. 20, 1978 and No. 4, 1980). The level of noise and protection against noise in settlements and places for rest and recreation are the responsibility of the republics and provinces. A law on protection against noise in settlements has been passed only in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia. A law or social compact that will solve the problem of protection against noise for the country as a whole is under consideration. Solid and Hazardous Waste The Federation has regulated the transport and traffic of poisons, radio- active substances, and inflammable and other related substances such as pesticides. The republics and provinces also regulate the traffic in waste, while the communes and cities are responsible for the collection and tempo- rary and final disposal of waste. Radiation The Federation passed the Law on the protection against ionizing radiation (Official Register of the SFRY, No. 54, 1976; IDHL, 29: 872) on the basis of which the Federal Committee for Labour, Health and Social Welfare issued a series of regulations on various matters concerning this protection. A series of specific regulations issued on 11 April 1977 (JDHL, 29: 875) sets standards for various aspects of radioactive materials, including expo- sure limits, use, storage and disposal, and the training of handlers . Republics and provinces have also passed laws and regulations on protection against 207 Environmental health services ionizing radiation and the monitoring of radioactivity in the biosphere. Microwave radiation has not yet been regulated. The competent agencies in the republics and autonomous provinces are responsible for supervising compliance with these laws. Separate provisions are made in the case of the Yugoslav People's Army and international trade in sources of ionizing radiation. The supervisory agencies have the following powers and duties. 1. To eliminate shortcomings in connection with work involving sources of ionizing radiation. 2. To suspend work involving sources of ionizing radiation and with- draw approval for the use of such sources. 3. To suspend the construction of establishments, premises and installa- tions for whose site, construction or reconstruction no special authorization has been issued, until such time as authorization is granted or the prescribed conditions are met. 4. To prohibit the transportation of sources of ionizing radiation into, out of, or within Yugoslavia until such time as the prescribed conditions are met. Addresses Federal Committee for Labour, Health and Social Welfare Bulevar A vnoj-a 104 11070 Belgrade Tel. 6625 55 Federal Institute for Standardization Slobodana Penezica-Krcuna 35 I 1000 Belgrade Tel. 644066 208 Federal Hydrometeorological Institute Bircaninova 6 11000 Belgrade Tel. 6465 55 Telex 11404; 11141 Federal Institute of Public Health Slobodana Penezica-Krcuna 35 11000 Belgrade Tel. 64 40 66; 64 43 50; 64 63 76 European Communities Membership of the Communities consists of the countries of Belgium, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. The unrelated United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) is reviewed in the last Chapter on international organizations. Government and Basic Legislation The European Economic Community (EEC), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Atomic Energy Community 209 Environmental health services (Euratom) operate under a single Council and a single Commission as established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, with amencments up to 1977. The Communities can negotiate treaties on behalf of their Member States with other international bodies, such as the United Nations. The environmentally related sections of the law of the European Com- munities are available in a loose-leaf format under the title Environmental law of the European Communities, compiled by Odile Seidel, and published by Erich Schmidt Verlag in Berlin in 1976 with later revisions. Most of the environmentally related acts issue from the EEC, although radiation ques- tions are handled by Euratom. The purpose of the European Communities (or the European Com- munity as it is now known) is to improve living and working conditions and to promote the development of economic activities by developing a free trade zone, common agricultural policies, and the harmonization of na- tional economic policies and regulatory systems in order to eliminate econ- omic and political barriers between the Member States. From earlier con- cerns with consumer protection, occupational safety and common industrial standards in the Member States, the Commission has moved on in the last decade to promote common environmental legislation and research as well. European Community laws are initiated and implemented by the Com- mission, but approval has to be obtained from the Council of Ministers. Although the Member States continue to pass their own national legislation and to exercise executive and regulatory functions, they are obliged as signatories to the Treaty of Rome to proceed only within the Community framework. The Commission itself, however, has no mechanism for policing the national implementation of its decisions, directives and regulations, but if the Member States fail to do so they can be called upon to appear before the European Court of Justice. In order to formulate proposals to be put to the Council of Ministers for decisions, and for its own decision-making processes, the 14-member Com- mission has extensive consultation procedures with the Member States through expert and interest committees, making use as appropriate of the Economic and Social Committee, which is an advisory body of represen- tatives of consumers, labour and industry. The Commission meets at least weekly and decisions are taken by majority vote. The 10-member Council meets regularly at ministerial level to take final decisions. Propositions from the Commission are channelled through the Committee of Permanent Representatives, which is composed of the heads of the permanent national delegations to the Community and their staff. Many Council decisions are taken on a weighted majority vote but for matters regarded by any Member State as vital to its interest a unanimous vote must be sought. Distinctions are made between Community regulations which have to be adopted as part of the law of Member States, directives which must be implemented but in the manner best suited to each Member State, decisions 210 European Communities which are binding on those to whom they are directed, and recommendations and opinions which have only an advisory and non-mandatory function. A Declaration of the Council of 22 November 1973 set up a programme of action of the European Communities on the environment. The Declara- tion covers action not only to reduce pollution and nuisances but also to improve the environment and maintain a satisfactory ecological balance. It is recognized that the "polluter pays" principle must be used in such a way as to avoid any distortion of trade or investment. Among the administrative offices of the Commission is the Directorate General for Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety. Water EEC directives dealing with water intended for human consumption include No. 75/440/EEC on the quality of surface water intended for drinking- water, No. 80/778/EEC on the quality of water intended for human con- sumption, and No . 80/777 /EEC on natural mineral waters (IDHL, 31: 905). Directive No. 80/68/EEC on the protection of groundwater against certain dangerous substances lists categories of industrial products but specifically exempts domestic effluents from isolated dwellings and other minor sources of pollutants (IDHL, 31: 192). It amplifies the more general Directive No. 76/464/EEC on discharges to the aquatic environment (IDHL, 27: 718). Directives on water quality for special uses include those on bathing No. 76/160/EEC (IDHL, 27: 709), freshwater fish No . 78/659/EEC and shellfish No . 79/923/EEC (/DHL, 31: 186). To prevent pollution from detergents Directive No. 73/404/EEC sets a lower limit of 90% on bio- degradability and Directive No. 73/405/EEC establishes test methods for biodegradability. The Paris Convention of 1974 on the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources was signed by the Community as such and by the interested Member States according to Council Decision No. 75/437/EEC. The Berne Convention of 1963 for the Protection of the Rhine against Chemical Pollution was joined by the Community in Council Decision No. 77/586/EEC (IDHL, 28: 957). The Barcelona Convention of 1976 on the Protection of the Mediter- ranean Sea against Pollution, and its different protocols, was concluded by the Community according to Council Decisions No. 77/585/EEC (/DHL, 28: 957) and No. 81/420/EEC. The standardization of methods for the analysis of water was formalized by Directive No. 79/869/EEC following Council Decision No. 77/795/EEC on the exchange of information on water quality between Member States (/DHL, 29: 330). Air Quality limit values and schedules of measurements of sulfur dioxide and suspended particles in the atmosphere were set by Directive No. 80/779/EEC 211 Environmental health services (IDHL, 31: 930). A common procedure for measurement was set up by Council Decision No. 75/441/EEC. The sulfur content of diesel fuel oils was standardized on two levels by Directive No. 75/716/EEC: Type A is for general use and Type Bis for use where diesel oil is not an important source of sulfur dioxide pollution. The levels are to be progressively reduced. A similar directive, No. 78/611/EEC on the lead content of petrol, provides that Member States shall set maximum lead levels at or below 0.40 g/1 but not lower than 0.15 g/1. The Council Resolution of 15 July 1980 on transboundary air pollution from sulfur dioxide and suspended particles (/DHL, 31: 935) implements Directive No. 80/779/EEC with the objective of reducing trans boundary air pollution. Member States are required to accept EEC type certification of spark ignition motor vehicles established by Council Directive No. 70/220/EEC, which was amended by No. 78/665/EEC according to Commission Direc- tive No. 77/102/EEC (IDHL, 28: 251). Diesel engine type-approval for exhaust emissions is similarly regulated by Directives No. 72/306/EEC and No. 77/357/EEC. The use of chlorofluorocarbons was recognized as a potential hazard to the ozone layer in Council Resolution of 30 May 1978 on fluorocarbons in the environment (JDHL, 29: 539) and Member States were required to take all appropriate measures to reduce chlorofluorocarbon emissions by Council Decision No. 80/373/EEC. Noise Council directives setting standards for motor vehicle noise started with No. 70/157/EEC, which has been amended by Council Directive No. 77/ 212/EEC (/DHL, 28: 253) and Commission Directive No. 81/334/EEC (IDHL, 32: 302). General road worthiness tests are dealt with by Council Directive No. 77 I 143/EEC. Motorcycle noise is dealt with by Council Directive No. 78/1015/ EEC (IDHL, 30: 164) and noise from wheeled tractors used in agriculture or forestry by Council Directive No. 74/151/EEC. Construction plant equip- ment, i.e. machinery used to perform work on civil engineering and building sites but not primarily intended for the transport of goods or persons, comes under Directive No. 79/113/EEC. Noise certificates for subsonic aircraft as specified by the Convention on International Civil Aviation of July 1978 must be in order for planes operating in the Member States, according to Directive No. 80/5 I/EEC. Solid and Hazardous Waste The basic directive on waste is Directive No. 75/442/EEC, which encourages the prevention, recycling and processing of waste for the recovery of raw materials and energy. Disposal must not endanger human health or the 212 European Communities environment. Arrangements must be made for the inspection and super- vision of waste disposal and the "polluter pays" principle is to be applied. The Directive does not apply to wastewater, gaseous emissions, mining waste or radiation, nor to substances specifically included in other Com- munity rules. Directive No. 78/319/EEC (IDHL, 29: 337) deals with toxic and dangerous waste and includes in an Annex a list of 27 categories of toxic and dangerous substances and materials. Member States may adopt more stringent rules than those issued by the Community. Emphasis in the Directive is on licensing, inspection and the accurate identification of waste. Directives dealing with the disposal of specific substances include No. 75/439/EEC on waste oils , No. 76/403/EEC which deals with the disposal of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and related compounds (IDHL, 28: 221) and No. 78/176/EEC which deals with waste from titanium dioxide manufacturers (IDHL, 29: 333). The basic directive on the classification, packaging and la belling of dangerous substances, No. 67/548/EEC, has been amended by No. 79/831/ EEC (JDHL, 30: 933). This last amendment provides for a system of notifi- cation before placing any new chemical substances on the market. PCBs, polychlorinated terphenyls and vinyl chloride, as an aerosol propellant, are prohibited by Directive No. 76/769/EEC (IDHL, 28: 478). The manufacture and use of chlorofluorocarbons is discussed in the Section on air. Rules for the classification, labelling and use of pesticides containing toxic substances are based on Directive No. 78/631/EEC (IDHL, 29: 540) which includes detailed Annexes. Substances are classified in term of their acute toxicity, for instance LO 50 is the dose that kills 50% of the test animals in a relatively short time. Certain persistent toxic chemicals that may accumulate in the environ- ment, such as mercury compounds and a number of chlorinated organic compounds, are prohibited by Directive No. 79/ I 17 /EEC except for certain special applications. The Committee on Waste Management was established by Commission Decision No. 76/431/EEC (JDHL, 28: 222) to advise the Commission on waste management policy and appropriate legal measures to implement that policy. Radiation The Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community was signed at the same time as the Treaty establishing the EEC in 1957. Amend- ments have been made to it up until 1973. The various EEC directives on waste (see the Section on solid and hazardous waste) all specifically omit radioactive waste from their definitions. Council Decision No. 75/406/Eur- atom established an experimental programme on the management and storage of radioactive waste. The Council Resolution of 18 February 1980 on the implementation of a Community plan of action in the field of 213 Environmental health services radioactive waste implemented Council Decision No. 80/237 /Euratom estab- lishing the Committee on the Reprocessing of Irradiated Nuclear Fuels. Basic standards for the protection of the health of workers and the general public from the dangers of ionizing radiation were adopted by Council Directive on 2 February 1959, as amended up until 26 Novem- ber 1966. General principles for radiation protection and specific dose levels were set out in Council Directive No. 76/579/Euratom (IDHL, 28: 223) as amended by Directives No. 79/343/Euratom and No. 80/836/Euratom (/DHL, 31: 936). In general, the recommended maximum dose levels are consistent with the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The basic principle of radiation safety adopted by the Communities is that all activities involving radioactive substances and processes must be registered and licensed by the Member States according to Community standards. Commission Regulation (Euratom) No. 3227/76 of 19 Octo- ber 1976 codifies these regulations. The Commission Decision No. 79/520/ Euratom set up an advisory group of high-level independent experts in the field of nuclear safety as a result of the nuclear reactor accident at Three Mile Island in the United States on 28 March 1979. Addresses Health and Safety Directorate Commission of the European Communities Jean Monnet Building PO Box 1907 Avenue Alcide de Gaspari L-2920 Luxembourg Tel. 430 11 214 Directorate General Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety 200 rue de la Loi 8-1049 Brussels Tel. 235 5990 International organizations A large number of international organizations are responsible for regu- lations, standards and directives that may influence environmental law or regulations in their member countries. The European Community is unique in that it has the power to make treaties on behalf of its Member States, and its regulations and Council directives must be implemented in the laws of the Member States. For that reason, the European Community is treated in this work on the same basis as if it were a federated nation (see the previous Chapter). The World Health Organization (WHO) The World Health Organization, one of the United Nations family, with its headquarters in Geneva, has six regional offices. The Regional Office for Europe serves the needs of 33 Member States. The environmental health service of the Regional Office for Europe is divided into units covering (a) basic sanitation (water supplies, waste dis- posal, housing and settlements); (b) environmental pollution (air, water and radiation); (c) environmental systems management (toxicology, epidemi- ology and environmental health impact); (d) food safety (additives and contaminants); (e) occupational health; and (j) planning, services and training. The Regional Office has executed major water supply and sewerage schemes in Algeria, Morocco, Turkey and Yugoslavia, and has acted as executing agency for a number of major projects concerning the legal, administrative and technical aspects of pollution control in, for example, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Spain. A number of intercountry projects are also under way or have been completed. Many of the major European pollution problems affect more than one country: a coordinated programme concerning the River Danube is at the preparatory stage and work is in progress on the possible health effects of trans boundary air pollution. It has cooperated with local governments in Algeria and Turkey in establishing programmes for the disposal of municipal solid waste and has sponsored a working group on the microbial problems associated with the application of sewage sludge to land. In cooperation with four of the other regional offices, the Regional Office for Europe organized a well attended international conference in Algiers on the reuse of sewage effluent in arid countries. 215 Environmental health services WHO headquarters in Geneva is cooperating with other international organizations to implement the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, which runs from 1981 to 1990 and will entail the mobilization of very large resources for investment, involving the World Bank, the United Nations Development Programme and many bi- lateral funding agencies , together with major financial commitments by the countries involved themselves. A major milestone in the Decade programme will be the publication by WHO of Guidelinesfordrinking-waterquality, Vol. I. This work will replace the International standards for drinking-water, 3rd ed. published by WHO headquarters in 1971, which has served as a basis for many national laws and regulations throughout the world . A three-volume manual , Examination of water for pollution control, which represents the collaboration of over 300 scientists throughout the world , was sponsored by the Regional Office for Europe and published commercially by Pergamon Press in 1982. Environ- mental health criteria is a series of booklets published by WHO headquarters in Geneva. Most of the 20 current volumes deal with specific contaminants from the point of view of the whole body load , including intake from air, water and food. The reports represent the collective views of an inter- national group of experts. There are publications by WHO and its regional offices on almost every aspect of environmental health services. Training programmes for environmental health engineers and scientists are also provided, with emphasis on trainees from developing countries. Other United Nations Affiliated Organizations The Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) is one of the five regional economic commissions set up by the United Nations Economic and Social Council. In addition to all major European countries it also includes Can- ada, Cyprus and the United States. It has issued a Declaration of Policy on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, including Transboundary Pol- lution of 23 April 1980 (IDHL, 31: 967). It has also issued regulations on motor vehicles including the following. 216 Uniform Provisions concerning the approval of Motor Cycles with regard to Noise . Addendum 40: Regulation No. 41 . The date of entry into force as an Annex to the Agreement concerning the adoption of uniform conditions of approval and reciprocal recognition of ap- proval for motor vehicle equipment and parts, done at Geneva on 20 March 1958, was 1 June 1980 (IDHL, 31: 971). Uniform Provisions concerning the approval of Vehicles equipped with Diesel Engines with regard to the Emission of Pollutants by the Engine. Addendum 23: Regulation No. 24. Revision 1, incorporating the 02 series of amendments which entered into force on 11 Feb- ruary 1980. Annex to the Agreement concerning the adoption of International organizations uniform conditions of approval and reciprocal recognition of ap- proval for motor vehicle equipment and parts, done at Geneva on 20 March 1958 (IDHL, 32: 157). These regulations appear to be compatible with related EEC regulations. The ECE cooperates with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), another member of the United Nations family, in the ECE Cooper- ative Programme on the Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe, and has prepared for ratification the Convention on Long-range Trans boundary Air Pollution of 13 Novem- ber 1979 (IDHL, 30: 965). The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was set up as a result of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment held in June 1972. It is based in Nairobi, Kenya and administers a voluntary fund, part of which is devoted to environmental problems. Among these programmes is the UNEP initiative on environmental assessment called Earthwatch. Earth- watch has three main components: the International Referral Service for Sources of Environmental Information (IRS), the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC), and the Global Environmental Mon- itoring System (GEMS). GEMS programmes include air and water pollu- tion surveillance and biological and food monitoring. GEMS-AIR is carried out with cooperation from WMO and both the air and water programmes are carried out with cooperation from WHO. UNEP has drawn up a programme to develop the Mediterranean, reduce pollution and protect its marine environment. The programme is in three parts, the first of which is a convention and two protocols signed in Bar- celona, Spain in 1976, which became international law in February 1978. By September 1980 it had been ratified by 16 Mediterranean states (all except Algeria and Turkey). The second part is a diagnostic inventory of the Mediterranean being carried out over the next IO years, and consists of five or six priority programmes including a long-term study of the development plans of the Mediterranean governments. The World Bank (The International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- ment) with headquarters in Washington, DC has many projects involving water supplies and sanitation in developing countries. It provides technical assistance and its publications are of value especially in Mediterranean countries. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) with headquarters in New York is the world's largest agency for technical cooperation. Its funds are distributed to developing countries to aid technical and financial develop- ment. Of greatest interest from an environmental point of view is its work to strengthen national and regional developmental planning. 217 Environmental health services The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco) with headquarters in Paris has set up various forms of inter- governmental cooperation concerned with the environmental sciences and research on natural resources. Examples of these are the man and biosphere programme (MAB) which at present has 900 projects under way in 90 coun- tries, using an interdisciplinary approach to solving practical problems of environmental resource management in such areas as arid lands, humid tropical zones, mountain ecosystems and urban systems, and the inter- national hydrological programme (IHP), dealing with the scientific aspects of water resources assessment and management. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) with headquarters in Vienna is primarily concerned with the peaceful uses of atomic energy and ensuring that it is not used for military purposes. It is authorized to set standards for the protection of health from the use of atomic energy and it is devoting continuing attention to the handling and treatment of radioactive waste. The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) located in Sutton, Surrey, in the United Kingdom is a commission of specialists from 19 countries. It serves as a consultant to WHO, IAEA, EEC, OECD, UNEP and other international organizations concerned with radiation protection. Its standards and limits find their way into national and international regulations. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) with headquarters in Rome is concerned with the beneficial uses of the environ- ment. Its recommendations with regard to inland and coastal fisheries include control of polluting effluents. Its work with forests and forestry has an indirect but significant effect on the environment. It is also concerned with the proper use of pesticides to maximize production while controlling their adverse health and environmental effects. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations with headquarters in London. It acts as depositary for most of the international conventions for protection of the sea, including the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil , 1954, as amended in 1962 and 1969; the International Convention relating to Intervention on the High Seas in cases of Oil Pollution Casual- ties, 1969; the Convention on International Compensation Fund for Oil Pollution Damage, I 971 ; and the International Convention on Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973. A number of other agreements are listed in the introductory Chapter, in the Section on water. Other European Organizations The European Communities are dealt with in the previous Chapter. 218 International organizations The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) with headquarters in Moscow includes Cuba, Mongolia and Viet-Nam in addition to seven Eastern European countries. It has a Permanent Commission on Public Health and a Standing Conference of Chiefs of Water Resources Auth- orities. Its Institute of Standardization serves as a source for standard methods. It has sponsored among others Standard methods for the water quality examination for the member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, published in Prague in 1968 and in Moscow in 1973. Because the CMEA is based on the principles of the sovereign equality of all member countries, its standards, though widely used, are purely voluntary and need not be adopted by its member countries. The Council of Europe in Strasbourg, with 21 members in western and southern Europe, now devotes most of its attention to problems of human rights. It is active in the fields of the conservation of nature and natural resources and has sponsored conferences on the protection of international waters against pollution, environmental protection, and regional planning. It now confines its environmental activities essentially to education, but it was responsible for an agreement on the restriction of the use of certain detergents in working and cleaning products. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in Paris includes Canada, Japan and the United States in addition to the countries of western and northern Europe. It has an active Environment Committee, which has dealt with such useful subjects as the "polluter pays" principle and its implementation; the long-range transport of air pollutants; eutrophication; detergents; environmental impact assessment procedures; and the control of certain chemicals. Work is continuing in most of these areas as well as on other subjects such as transfrontier pollution, environ- mental impacts of energy production, and traffic restraint. Many of the Environment Committee's studies are published and are available to the general public. A recent decision of the OECD Council concerns the mutual acceptance of data on the toxicity assessment of chemicals (IDHL, 32: 533) which deals among other things with OECD Test Guidelines and OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice. It also prepared a report on The cost and effectiveness of automotive exhaust emission control regulations, published in Paris in 1974 (IDHL, 32: 210) and sponsors the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA). The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) with headquarters in Brussels established the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society in 1969 for the purpose of undertaking international studies of specific prob- lems of the human environment. The objective was to stimulate the ex- change of experience and technical knowledge and to put the findings into practice. Studies are normally carried out under the leadership of one or 219 Environmental health services more member countries. Studies have been initiated over a wide range of environmental problems including the disposal of hazardous waste; coastal water pollution; inland water pollution; air pollution; and advanced waste- water treatment. It has also sponsored educational programmes on the technical control of pollution at NATO Advanced Study Institutes. I IIIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIII IIII .. 0 0 0 7 8 5 'i 5 .. 220