Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action
Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations World Health Organization Rome & Geneva, 2019 Required citation: FAO and WHO. 2019. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides - A call for action. Rome. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) or World Health Organization (WHO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO or WHO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO or WHO. ISBN 978-92-5-132029-7 [FAO] ISBN 978-92-4-151706-5 [WHO] © FAO and WHO, 2019 Some rights reserved. This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode). Under the terms of this licence, this work may be copied, redistributed and adapted for non-commercial purposes, provided that the work is appropriately cited. In any use of this work, there should be no suggestion that FAO or WHO endorses any specific organization, products or services. The use of the FAO or WHO logo is not permitted. If the work is adapted, then it must be licensed under the same or equivalent Creative Commons licence. If a translation of this work is created, it must include the following disclaimer along with the required citation: “This translation was not created by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) or WHO. FAO/WHO are not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation. The original English edition shall be the authoritative edition. Disputes arising under the licence that cannot be settled amicably will be resolved by mediation and arbitration as described in Article 8 of the licence except as otherwise provided herein. The applicable mediation rules will be the mediation rules of the World Intellectual Property Organization http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/rules and any arbitration will be conducted in accordance with the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL). Third-party materials. Users wishing to reuse material from this work that is attributed to a third party, such as tables, figures or images, are responsible for determining whether permission is needed for that reuse and for obtaining permission from the copyright holder. The risk of claims resulting from infringement of any third-party-owned component in the work rests solely with the user. Sales, rights and licensing. FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. Requests for commercial use should be submitted via: www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request. Queries regarding rights and licensing should be submitted to: copyright@fao.org. Cover photograph: Shutterstock While all pesticides can be dangerous when used inappropriately, highly hazardous pesticides are always of particular concern due to the severe adverse effects they can cause to human health and the environment. They constitute a relatively small share of all pesticides registered globally, and yet they can cause the most harm. With adequate investment in scaling-up alternatives, es- pecially existing and new ecological options for pest control, these pesticides that pose unacceptable risk to humans and the environment can be phased out from agriculture and their risk reduced in the health sector by appropriate actions. © FA O /G iu lio N ap ol ita no
Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 5 Synthetic pesticides are inherently hazardous, and among them, highly hazardous pesticides cause disproportionate harm to the environment and human health. There is partic- ular concern in low-income countries, where highly haz- ardous pesticides cannot be used safely. Highly hazardous pesticides are defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management (2014)1 as pesticides that are acknowledged to present particularly high levels of acute or chronic hazards to health or environment according to internation- ally accepted classification systems such as WHO or GHS [the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals] or their listing in relevant binding international agreements or conventions. In addi- tion, pesticides that appear to cause severe or irreversible harm to health or the environment under conditions of use in a country may be consid- ered to be and treated as highly haz- ardous. A full description of the eight criteria to identify highly hazardous pesticides can be found on pg. 22. What are highly hazardous pesticides? 1 The FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management (the Code of Conduct) is a voluntary framework to guide government policy makers and regulators, the private sector, civil society, and other stakeholders on best practices in managing pesticides throughout their lifecycle, from production, use to disposal. • can be very toxic to humans. For example, a fourth of a teaspoon of carbofuran or monocrotophos active ingredients can cause death if ingested; • are primarily, but not only, older generation, off-patent chemicals still readily available and in use in many low – and middle – in- come countries, even when less hazardous alternatives have al- ready been authorised (see “why highly hazardous pesticides are still used” at pg.11); • cannot be used safely in low – and middle – income countries where suitable Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for protection against highly hazardous pesticides is not available or not used because it is too expensive or too uncom- fortable to wear; • have been phased out from agri- culture in a number of countries without affecting agricultural pro- ductivity; • are one of the most common means of suicide worldwide, ac- counting for 15-20 percent of all suicides2; • can be found in local food sys- tems and global food commodi- ties such as bananas, coffee and rice, but the most contaminated crops are fruit and vegetables. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 6 Facts on highly hazardous pesticides: 2 Mew, E. J., Padmanathan, P., Konradsen, F., Eddleston, M., Chang, S.-S., Phillips, M. R., & Gunnell, D. 2017. The global burden of fatal self-poisoning with pesticides 2006-15: Systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders. Elsevier B.V. Oxford, England. M inimum requirement for PPE for mixing and filling spray tank with WHO class I and II pesticides in- cludes overalls and boots, gloves, face- shield or googles, apron and hood or hat and Res- piratory Protective Equipment. Wear gloves Wear eye protection Wear boots Wear respirator Wear ear protection Wear protection over nose and mouth Wearcoveralls Wear apron For more information refer to the FAO/WHO Guidelines for personal protection when handling and applying pesticides. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 7 What are their impacts on sustainable development? 3 WHO, 2018 4 Bretveld, R.W. et al., 2006 5 ILO, 2010 Highly hazardous pesticides cause adverse social, environmental and economic effects that undermine the achievement of sustainable devel- opment. • Health Every year more people die from (unintentional and intentional) pes- ticide poisoning than snake-bite. According to WHO data, an esti- mated 77,000 people died world- wide in 2016 from all forms of unin- tentional poisoning (WHO Public Health Impact of Chemicals: Data addendum for 20163). The propor- tion of deaths due to unintentional pesticide poisoning is unknown due to limited data, but may be sub- stantial. In addition, it was estimated that more than 155,000 deaths from self-inflicted injury involved pesti- cides in 2016. • Gender Women are particularly susceptible to adverse effects. Rural women are directly exposed to pesticides while performing tasks such as mixing pesticides and refilling pesticide tanks or weeding in recently sprayed fields. In addition to acute pesticide poisoning, chronic effects on their reproductive health are a serious concern4. • Children and Child labour Over 60 million children are en- gaged in hazardous work in agri- culture5. Pesticide exposure is one of the main hazards as it can severely affects the normal devel- opment of children’s immune and neurological systems. Children can already be exposed and affected during their pre-natal phase. Physi- cal abnormalities and accidental poisoning of children exposed to pesticides are re-ported in devel- oping countries. • Biodiversity The use of highly hazardous pes- Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 8 6 TFSP., 2015 7 Woodcock et al., 2017 8 Levillain et al., 2012 9 EFSA, 2017 ticides is predicted to result in sub- stantial impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. It has specifically contributed to declines in the populations of birds, insects, amphibians and aquatic commu- nities. Negative impacts of highly hazardous pesticides on aquatic and soilborne organisms and their beneficial functions on ecosystems are widely reported in scientific lit- erature6. • Pollinators The use of systemic insecticides from the group of neonicotinoids negatively affect pollinator repro- ductive potential7 and it has been linked, together with other interact- ing factors, to global declines in honey bees and wild bees, thus re- ducing their function as pollinators. • Water, air and soil Highly hazardous pesticides’ con- tamination is found in surface and groundwater resources, and in soils worldwide, sometimes 30 years after their application8. • Food safety and international trade Pesticides, especially highly haz- ardous pesticides, residues in food are an important trigger of export rejections. The most ‘non-compli- ant worldwide are fruit and vegeta- bles. In 2016, the Food and Feed Safety Alert of the EU issued 222 notifications for pesticide residues, out of which 143 led to rejections9. The continued use of highly hazardous pesticides undermines the attainment of several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) because of their adverse effects on health, food security, biodiversity and other environmental negative impacts such as pollution. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 9 that the existing levels of environ- mental contamination are causing large-scale adverse effects on bees and other beneficial insects10 and on insectivorous bird populations. The need to severely restrict their use or mitigate their effects in agriculture and prevent future registration due to the high hazard they pose to the environment is gaining a large con- sensus. The European Union has al- ready issued a complete and perma- nent ban on all outdoor uses of the three most commonly used neoni- cotinoid pesticides: clothianidin, im- idacloprid and thiamethoxam (Euro- pean Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/783, 2018/784, 2018/785, 2018). In order to protect pollinators the Health Canada’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) is can- celling many uses of neonicotinoids on crops that bees find attractive and is not allowing spraying of some crops before or during bloom. The PMRA’s risk assessment has also found that seed treatment uses are acceptable, however, it has made as a requirement the addition of label statements for all cereal and legume crops to minimize exposure of polli- nators to dust during planting of treated seeds. PMRA is currently Are neonicotinoids highly hazardous pesticides? Neonicotinoids are the most widely used insecticides in the world. They are used as seed treatments or as fo- liar sprays on a broad range of crops. Due to their systemic action, they are absorbed through the roots of plants and translocated to their leaves, flow- ers and pollen. Recently, WHO has also prequalified certain neonicoti- noid-based products for vector con- trol (see details in the next section). Although neonicotinoids are consid- erably less toxic to mammals than organophosphate and carbamate in- secticides, their level of persistence in soil and water raises concerns. Substantial residues are commonly found in the environment, including in wildflowers. A rapidly growing body of evidence strongly suggests 10 Pisa, L.W., et al. 2015 Exposed bees may die or have an impaired ability to forage for nectar, to learn and re- member where flowers are located and to find their way home to the nest or hive. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 10 Use of neonicotinoids in malaria vector control One of the neonicotinoids, cloth- ianidin, is recommended and has been prequalified by WHO for use in indoor residual spraying for malaria vector control, al- though unlike its possible chronic effects against bees, it may not necessarily be toxic to humans or may not spill over to the envi- ronment when used in a disease control programme as it is ap- plied to house walls inside the home with the aim of killing in- door resting mosquitoes. evaluating whether the risk mitigation already put in place remains ade- quate, or if additional mitigation mea- sures are required11. Use of highly hazardous pesticides for vector control in public health In public health, much has already been done to eliminate the use or risks of the most hazardous pesti- cides. However, as a result of the relatively small market share for vec- tor control insecticides within the global pesticide market, the invest- ment into the development of alter- native products for this market has been limited. In view of these con- straints and limitations, the WHO In- tegrated Vector Management (IVM) approach promotes rational use of insecticides in vector control. Due to the nature of the interventions, which by and large consist of using the human host as an attractant and placing the insecticide either be- tween the host and the disease vec- tor or near the host and the vectors’ resting places, rational use of insec- ticides by means of their targeted application is relatively straightfor- ward in vector control when com- pared to other types of pesticide use. IVM promotes these principles to minimise the potential effects of insecticides on human health and the environment, and to reduce the selection pressure for insecticide re- sistance. The use of insecticides in- cluding some highly hazardous pes- ticides in vector control is critical to the prevention of transmission of vector-borne diseases and the health and wellbeing of populations impacted by these diseases. Where no alternatives exist, the controlled use of some highly hazardous pes- ticides, applied under the profes- sional supervision of vector control services, need to be considered, as the public health benefits outweigh the risks associated with the tar- geted use of these pesticides. 11 https://www.canada.ca/en/health- canada/services/consumer-product-safety/reports-publi cations/pesticides-pest-management/fact-sheets-other- resources/update-neonicotinoid-pesticides-2020.html Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 11 Why are highly hazardous pesticides still in use in low-and middle-income countries? Several highly hazardous pesticides already banned in high-income countries are still used in low-and middle-income countries, where the risk of human and environmen- tal exposure is, almost without ex- ception, much higher than in those countries where they have been banned or severely restricted. Source: Data provided by Kynetec 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 635 Monocrotophos Methamidophos Chlorpyrifos 820 670 Pesticides used by six top exporter countries on vegetables and fruit between 2012 and 2016 (metric tonnes active ingredient) Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 12 Even though the awareness of and willingness to mitigate the risks posed by highly hazardous pesti- cides have grown tremendously in many countries, advancing with their restriction or phasing out requires addressing policy and structural challenges, such as: • Entrenched commercial inter- ests in maintaining the production, export and use of highly haz- ardous pesticides. An analysis of the implications for human rights of the management of hazardous pesticides can be found in the Re- port of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food12. • Unsustainable agricultural poli- cies that favour the expansion of input-intensive, commercial agri- culture and the re-introduction of pesticide subsidies. • Failure to cost for externalities (uncompensated costs including public health and environmental damages such as water contami- nation) into the pricing of pesti- cides which gives them a deceptive but significant price ad- vantage over alternative (more sustainable) methods. • Limited capacity for pesticide risk assessment and monitor- ing: the average number of staff working in the national pesticide registration authorities in low and middle-income countries is 3 as opposed to 700 in the United States of America or 150 in the United Kingdom13. • Insufficient independent scien- tific studies on health and envi- ronmental effects and science– policy interface to support deci- sion-making and regulatory action. • Inadequate investment towards innovative alternative solutions: ranging from enabling regulations for biopesticides to the need to consolidate a market demand for innovative solutions. • Farmers’ reluctancy to innova- tion because changes to farming practices are perceived as risky and consistent and reliable advi- sory services are not widely avail- able. Emergency responses to new pest outbreaks (e.g. Fall Armyworm) can increase the pressure to use highly hazardous pesticides upwards. 12 The full report is available at https://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A/ HRC/34/48 13 FAO survey 2013, data from 109 countries Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 13 Agroecology Agroecology is based on applying ecological concepts and principles to optimize interactions be- tween plants, animals, humans and the environment while taking into con- sideration the social aspects that need to be addressed for a sustainable and fair food system. Agroecology under- lies Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and is based on context-specific design and organization, of crops, live- stock, farms and landscapes. It works with solutions that conserve above and below ground biodiversity as well as cultural and knowledge diversity with a focus on women’s and youth’s role in agriculture. Pest management in agriculture should fit into wider sus- tainability objectives and practices and avoid the use of products and methods that undermine them14. Biological products Farmers can complement agroecological manage- ment practices with a range of regis- tered biological products for pest control such as plant extracts, pheromone traps and microbial pathogens, depending on the actual pest situation and the availability of effective solutions. Some leading countries in Africa have adopted specific biopesticide legisla- tion and engaged with commercial biopesticide companies to make bio- logical control viable. Biopesticides in these countries are used in agriculture and forestry. Many other countries still lack the legislative framework, the commercial arrangements or the in- centives to make biocontrol a large- scale reality. Green chemistry Low-risk synthetic pesticides can be used as a last re- sort. Integrated vector management This is a rational decision-making pro- cess to optimize the use of re¬sources for vector control. The Integrated Vec- tor Management (IVM) process is lo- cally adapted and involves evidence- based use of vector control tools. The key intervention tools currently include use of insecticide-treated/long-lasting insecticidal nets, use of insecticides in indoor residual spraying and space spraying, use of bacterial or chemical larvicides, larvivorous fish, and larval source management includ¬ing envi- ronmental methods. For personal pro- tection, repellents are recommended. What are the alternatives? 14 FAO Agroecology website: http://www.fao.org/agroecology/home/en/ Global biopesticide market to increase at a rate of 16–17% Sustainable farming systems Good agricultural practices Building on the principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), agroe- cologically-based alternatives to pesticides include farm and land- scape management measures aimed at preventing pest outbreaks. These measures focus on the preservation of ecosystem services, in- cluding natural pest control and soil health (fertility, biological activity, structure, etc) and include for instance the management of riparian areas and natural habitats to augment the population of beneficial in- sects. Agroecological ly based alternatives Virus Bacteria Pest Monitoring Crop botany Low-risk chemical pesticides Botanical Fungi Semiochems Natural enemies Mircro organism Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 16 The joint FAO/WHO Guidelines on Highly Hazardous Pesticides pub- lished in 2016 intend to help countries address the risks of highly hazardous pesticides following three key steps: 1 Identification Countries analyse their pesticide registries against eight criteria (see back page) to identify which prod- ucts are highly hazardous. 2 Needs and risks assessment Countries assess the actual needs and benefits for these products and their risks to human health and the environment, taking into con- sideration available alternatives. 3 Mitigation options Countries identify risk mitigation Three key steps in Pesticide Risk Reduction: 1. Reduce reliance on pesticides. De- termine to what extent current levels of pesticide use are actu- ally needed. Make optimum use of non-chemical pest manage- ment and eliminate unjustified pesticide use. 2. Select pesticides with the lowest risk. If use of pesticides is deemed necessary, select prod- ucts with the lowest risk to human health and the environ- ment from the available regis- tered products that are effective against the pest or disease. 3. Ensure proper use of the selected products for approved applica- tions and in compliance with in- ternational standards. Guidance on Pest and Pesticide Management Policy Development, 2010 http://www.fao.org/3/ca8116en/ca8116en.pdf What is being done? © FA O/ Lu is Ta to / FA O 00 16 84 25 Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 17 The joint FAO/WHO Guidelines for the registration of microbial, botanical and semiochemical pest control agents for plant protection and public health uses (2017) pro- vide additional guidance to facilitate the registration of alternative products. measures. The most appropriate mitigation measures may be differ- ent for each highly hazardous pes- ticide and for each condition of use. A key enabling factor in mitigation is the availability of alternatives. Countries have several mitigation options available to them in relation to highly hazardous pesticides ranging from ending use, restricting use or changing formulations or condi- tions of use. Pesticides with an extremely high toxicity require a level of personal protection that cannot be ensured. In line with Articles 3.6 and 7.5 of the FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Manage- ment, a complete phase out is the recommended mitigation measure for these products when countries are not in a position to handle them within risk margins that are consid- ered as acceptable. Pesticide regulatory authorities can be guided in this process by the FAO Pesticide Registration Toolkit which provides, among others: • methods for hazard and risk as- sessment • access to information on individual pesticides • databases of registered pesticides around the world • access to scientific reviews of pes- ticides Article 3.6. Pesticides whose han- dling and application require the use of personal protective equip- ment that is uncomfortable, ex- pensive or not readily available should be avoided, especially in the case of small-scale users and farm workers in hot climates. Article 7.5. Prohibition of the impor- tation, distribution, sale and pur- chase of highly hazardous pesti- cides may be considered if, based on risk assessment, risk mitigation measures or good marketing prac- tices are insufficient to ensure that the product can be handled with- out unacceptable risk to humans and the environment. FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management (the Code of Conduct) Global governance and policy dialogue • In 2015, the International Confer- ence on Chemicals Management (ICCM4) adopted a resolution that called for concerted action to ad- dress highly hazardous pesticides, with emphasis on promoting agroe- cologically based alternatives. • WHO has developed a Global Vec- tor Control Response 2017– 203015 to guide global action. • The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management and its technical guidelines are guided and supported by the Joint Meet- ing on Pesticide Management: an international panel of experts that advises FAO and WHO. 150 highly hazardous products out of more than 2 500 registered pesticides in Botswana, Mozambique, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe have been identified. Myanmar has imposed restrictions on 19 highly hazardous pesticides. Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, India, China have acted to identify and remove certain highly hazardous pesticides and the process is ongoing and iterative. 15 https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/ 259205/9789241512978-eng.pdf Over 2 300 farmers interviewed in field surveys carried out as part of FAO-led projects. The conditions of pesticide use in all countries were likely to result in undue exposure, substantiating the need for immediate mitigation measures. National multi-stakeholder platforms in place for the agriculture, public health and the environment sectors to cooperate, exchange information, design risk mitigation plans and facilitate solutions. Regional collaboration and capacity building • Capacity building programmes for pesticide regulators in 61 countries. • Regional committees and net- works of pesticide regulatory authorities established to strengthen collaboration and shar- ing of information. • Regional guidelines for the har- monization of pesticide risk as- sessments developed to tighten risk assessments towards interna- tional standards. • Dialogue with green commodity initiatives (banana, cotton, cocoa and coffee) ongoing to set a ‘no use’ policy of highly hazardous pesticides as a production stan- dard. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 20 What more can be done? The way forward Despite the progress made, many highly hazardous pesticides are still in use under circumstances that pose unacceptable human health and environmental risks. Stepping up efforts to mainstream the sound management of pesticides into sus- tainable policies and initiatives is therefore an urgently required action to enable the achievement of Agenda 2030. Immediate actions • Identify, de-authorize and pre- vent future registration of highly hazardous pesticides – for policy- makers. • Cancel the distribution and sales of highly hazardous pesti- cides in countries where risk miti- gation measures are insufficient to ensure that the product can be handled without unacceptable risk to humans and the environment (Article 7.5 of the International Code of Conduct) – for pesticide industry. • Combat illegal trafficking through global and regional col- laboration and stronger inspection and monitoring systems – for pol- icy-makers. • Incentivize agroecological prac- tices and invest in the development of sustainable alternative solutions to highly hazardous pesticides – for agricultural producers, develop- ment partners and donor agencies. • Build a vibrant biopesticides market – for private sector. • Invest in innovation and green chemistry – for academia and donor agencies. • Improve risk assessment proce- dures for pesticides and pesti- cide-coated seed to take into ac- count possible impacts and cumulative effects, including sub- Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 21 lethal and indirect effects, on wild and managed pollinators as well as other non-target species. • Mainstream the implementation of the chemical conventions (Basel, Rotterdam and Stock- holm) and sound pesticide man- agement into policy and invest- ment priorities – for development partners and donor agencies. Continued actions • Educate policy-makers and the general public on the adverse ef- fects of highly hazardous pesti- cides – for civil society. • Capacity building of pesticide regulators to strengthen risk as- sessments – for governments, pol- icy-makers and donor agencies. • Establish or implement pesticide residue monitoring schemes – for policy-makers. • Monitor negative health and en- vironmental effects of highly haz- ardous pesticides to inform deci- sion-making – for governments, civil society. • Expand green agricultural com- modity market – for private sec- tor. • Assist countries party to inter- national conventions in achiev- ing national objectives and com- mitments – for signatories of international conventions. The Joint Meeting on Pesticide Management (JMPM) The Joint Meeting on Pesticide Management (JMPM) has first recommended the 8 criteria on highly hazardous pesticides. The JMPM advises FAO and WHO on the implementation of the Inter- national Code of Conduct on Pes- ticide Management and prepares relevant guidance documents. It also reviews new developments, problems or issues requiring global attention pertaining to pesticide regulation and management. JMPM members are drawn from the two international expert panels: the FAO Panel of Experts on Pes- ticide Management and the WHO Panel of Experts on Vector Biology and Control. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 22 Criteria FAO/WHO criteria to identify highly hazardous pesticides: 1 Pesticide formulations that meet the criteria of Classes Ia or Ib of the WHO Recommended Clas- sification of Pesticides by Hazard; or 2 Pesticide active ingredients and their formulations that meet the cri- teria of carcinogenicity Cate- gories 1A and 1B of the Globally Harmonized System of Classifica- tion and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS); or 3 Pesticide active ingredients and their formulations that meet the cri- teria of mutagenicity Categories 1A and 1B of the GHS; or 4 Pesticide active ingredients and their formulations that meet the cri- teria of reproductive toxicity Cat- egories 1A and 1B of the GHS; or 5 Pesticide active ingredients listed by the Stockholm Convention in its Annexes A and B, and those meeting all the criteria in paragraph 1 of Annex D of the Con-vention; or 6 Pesticide active ingredients and formulations listed by the Rot- tedam Convention in its Annex III; or 7 Pesticides listed under the Mon- treal Protocol; or 8 Pesticide active ingredients and formulations that have shown a high incidence of severe or irre- versible adverse effects on hu- man health or the environment Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 23 Resources The FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management (2014) and the associated guidelines for implementation: http://www.fao.org/pest-and-pesticide-management/guidelines- standards/faowho-joint-meeting-on-pesticide-management-jmpm/guide- lines-tools/en/ The FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management: Guidelines on Highly Hazardous Pesticides (2016): www.fao.org/3/i5566e/I5566E.pdf The SAICM Strategy to address highly hazardous pesticides: www.saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/EPI/HHP%20strategy%20English.pdf Addressing highly hazardous pesticides in Mozambique, FAO (2016): www.fao.org/3/a-i5360e.pdf The FAO Pesticide Registration Toolkit: www.fao.org/pesticide-registration-toolkit/en The FAO Agroecology Knowledge hub: www.fao.org/agroecology/home/en WHO resources on sound management of pesticides are available at: https://www.who.int/teams/control-of-neglected-tropical-diseases/vector-ecol- ogy-and-management Global Chemicals Outlook II; From Legacies to Innovative Solutions: Imple- menting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development – Synthesis Report, UN Environment, 2019. https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/chemicals-waste/what-we- do/policy-and-governance/global-chemicals-outlook • Levillain, J., Cattan, P., Colin, F., Voltz, M., & Cabidoche, Y. M. 2012. How physical en- vironmental factors and farming practices determine soil contamination by a persistent organic pollutant, chlordecone, in the French West Indies. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 159 : 123– 132. • Mew, E. J., Padmanathan, P., Konradsen, F., Eddleston, et al. 2017. The global burden of fatal self-poisoning with pesticides 2006- 15: Systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders. Elsevier B.V. Oxford, England. • Ntzani, E.E., Ntritsos, G.M.C., Evangelou, E. & Tzoulaki, I. 2013. Literature review on epidemiological studies linking exposure to pesticides and health effects. EFSA Supporting Publications 10(10), 159 pp. • Pisa, L.W., Amaral-Rogers, V., Belzunces, L.P., et al. 2015. Effects of neonicotinoids and fipronil on non-target invertebrates. En- vironmental Science and Pollution Research, 22: 68 [online]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3471-x • Van Lexmond, M.B., Bonmatin,J-M., Goul- son, D. & Noome, D. A. 2015. Worldwide integrated assessment on systemic pesticides. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(1): 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3220-1 • World Health Organization (WHO). 2018. The public health impact of chemicals: Knowns and unknowns – Data addendum for 2016. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/1066 5/279001/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-18.09- eng.pdf?ua=1 • Woodcock, B. A.,. Bullock, J. M., Shore, R. F., Heard, M. S., et al. 2017. Country- specific effects of neonicotinoid pesticides on honey bees and wild bees. Science. Vol. 356, Issue 6345, pp. 1393-1395. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 24 References • Arnold, T. et J. Parrent. 2014. Native pollinator observation and monitoring - Pilot Project. Grey Bruce Centre for Agroecology. Ontario http://gbcae.com/GBCAEdownloads/5_Pol- linatorMonitoring_FullReport.pdf • Bretveld, RW., Thomas, CM., Scheepers, PT., Zielhuis, GA., Roeleveld, N. 2006. Pes- ticide exposure: the hormonal function of the female reproductive system disrupted? Re- productive Biology and Endocrinology, 4: 30. http://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7827-4-30 • European Commission Implementing Re- gulation (EU) 2018/783, 2018/784, 2018/785, 2018. This regulation amends Implementing Regulation (EU) No 540/2011 as regards the conditions of approval of the active substances imidacloprid, clothianidin and thiamethoxam. • European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) 2017. The 2015 European Union report on pesticide residues in food, EFSA Journal, vol. 15(4):4791: 134 pp. Parma. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pu b/4791 • Fox, J., Gulledge, J., Engelhaupt, E., Burow, M., et al. 2007. Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 104(24), 10282-10287. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0611710104 • UN Environment, 2019. Global Chemicals Outlook II; From Legacies to Innovative Solu- tions: Implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sus- tainable Development – Synthesis Report. https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/chemi- cals-waste/what-we-do/policy-and-gover- nance/global-chemicals-outlook • International Labour Organization (ILO), 2010. Accelerating action against child labour – Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work 2010. https://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/lang --en/index.htm Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 25 International and regional economic communities and organizations committed to sustainable agriculture Academia and research partners working on strengthening pesticide risk assessment capacity Civil society engaged in raising awareness and reducing the impacts of pesticides Private sector committed to providing innovative solutions Resource partners Key partners in reducing pesticide risks Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides A call for action 26 Contacts Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations http://www.fao.org/pest-and-pesticide-management/en/ Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00153 Rome - Italy World Health Organization https://www.who.int/teams/control-of-neglected-tropical-diseases Avenue Appia 20 1211 Geneva - Switzerland