WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E
REPORT ON THE
REGIONAL TRAINING COURSE ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Amman, Jordan, 19 August - 7 September 1992
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean
Centre for Environmental Health Activities (CEHA) Amman, Jordan
June 1993
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS. • • • • • • • • . • • . . • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • . • . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • i
EXECUTIVE StJM!i,!ARY. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ii
1. INTRODUCTION. • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1
2. OBJ"ECTIVES AND SCOPE. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2
3. PROCEEDINGS. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3
3.1 Environmental Health Implications in ••••••••••••••••••••• 3 Solid Waste Management
3.2 Solid Waste Surveys: Quantities, .•••••••••••••••••••••.•• 4 Sources and Composition
3.3 Local Government Responsibilities, •••.•.•.•••••.••••.••.• 4 Legislative Framework and Finances in the Control of Solid Wastes
3.4 Solid Waste Preparation, Collection, ••••••••••••••••••••• 5 Transfer, Transport and Disposal Facilities
3.5 The Role of Computers and their Use •••••••••••••••••••••• 7 in Solid Waste Management
3.6 Environmental Health Impact Assessment ••••••••••••••••••• 7 of Solid Waste Management Systems
3.7 Leachate, Gas Movement and Environmental ••••••••••••••••• 8 Considerations of Landfills
3.8 Waste Separation, Recycling, Recovery •••••••••••••••••••• 8 and Reuse
3 . 9 Composting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.10 Selection and Optimum Use of Solid •.•••••.••••••••.•.••.• 9 Waste Equipment
3.11 Disposal of Special (Medical, Hazardous, ••••.••.••••••••• 10 etc. ) Wastes
3.12 Development of Methods and Procedures •••••••••••••••••••• 10 for Evaluating Existing Landfill Sites
3.13 Visits to Disposal Sites and Vehicle ••••••••••••••••••••• 10 and Equipment Maintenance Facilities in Amman
3.14 Solid Waste Management in Gaza Strip •••••.•.••••••••••••• 11 Refugee Camps
3.15 World Health organization and its ••••••••••••••••••••••• 12 Environmental Health Programme and Services to Member States in EMR
3.16 Solid Waste Management Problems and .•••••.••••••••••••••• 13 Environmental Health Conditions in Some EMR Countries
3.17 CEHA's Role and Services in Environmental •••••••••••••••• 13 Health in EMR
4 • COUNTRY REPORTS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 14
5. EVALUATION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • . • • . . • • • • • . • • . • • • • • • • 2 0
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 21
6.1 Community Participation, Education ••••••••••••••••••••••• 21 and Awareness
6.2 Training of Environmental Health •••••••••••••••••••••••• 22 Personnel in Solid Waste Management
6.3 Appropriate Solid Waste Management ••••••••••••••••••••••• 22 Technologies and Options
6.4 Legislation and Institutional set Up ••••••••••••••••••••• 23
6.5 National Strategies, Goals and Plans .•.••.•.••••••••••••• 24 of Action
Annexes
1. Agenda . . . . . . • . • . • • . • • . . . . . . • . . . • . • • . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • 2 5 2 • Programme • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 6 3. List of Participants ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 31 4. Checklists/Methods for Evaluating Disposal Sites ••••••••••.•• 36
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ABBREVIATIONS
AIT : Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok
CBSWCMS : Community-based Solid Waste Collection and Management Systems
CEHA : Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities
CEHANET : CEHA's Environmental Health Regional Network
EH : Environmental Health
EHIA : Environmental Health Impact Assessment
EMR : Eastern Mediterranean Region of WHO
GAM : Greater Amman Municipality
IRC : International Water and Sanitation Centre, the Netherlands
kg/p/day Kilograms per person per day
MSW : Municipal Solid Waste
SWM : Solid Waste Management
UNCED : United National Conference on Environment and Development
UNRWA : United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
WHO : World Health Organization
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Regional Training Course on Solid Waste Management was organized by the Centre for Environmental Health Activities (CEHA), in Amman, Jordan, from 19 August to 7 September 1992. The opening ceremony, inaugurated by H. E. the Minister of Health of Jordan, Dr Aref Al Bataineh, was attended by Dr Hussein A. Gezairy, Regional Director, for the Eastern Mediterranean, Dr M. I. Sheikh, Director of Environmental Health in EMRO, Dr A. M. Abdel Hadi, WHO Representative to Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic, representatives from United Nations and international agencies and organizations, as well as WHO staff and the press.
Participants from Afghanistan, Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, and Republic of Yemen, and three WHO consultants, WHO staff members from EMRO and CEHA and nine observers (three from the Ministry of Health, Jordan, and six from UNRWA Refugee Camps in Gaza, West Bank and Lebanon) attended the course.
The participants made brief presentations on the status of solid waste management practices and legislation in their countries.
The consultants presented papers on: (i) environmental health implications in solid waste management; (ii) solid waste surveys: quantities, sources and composition; (iii) legislation, finance and responsibility in control of solid waste; (iv) solid waste storage, collection, transfer, transport and disposal facilities; (v) role and use of computers in solid waste management; (vi) EHIA of solid waste management systems (vii) leachate, gas movement and environmental considerations of landfill; (viii) waste separation, recycling, recovery and reuse, compositing; (ix) selection and optimum use of solid waste equipment; (x) disposal of special wastes (medical and hazardous, etc.); (xi) development of methods and procedures for evaluating existing landfill facilities; and (xii) composting.
The Director of the Division of Environmental Health in EMRO, provided a regional overview with a presentation on "World Health Organization and its Environmental Health Programme and Services to Member States in the Eastern Mediterranean Region"; the WHO Training and Research Adviser in CEHA reviewed solid waste management problems and environmental health conditions in some EMR countries and a joint presentation was made by the WHO Coordinator in CEHA and the WHO Information Sc.;if.=nLl:::;L on "CEHA's Role and Services in Environmental Health in EMR". After each presentation, ample time was provided for questions and answers, and indepth discussions.
Five full-day field visits were arranged, in cooperation with the Greater Amman Municipality (GAM) and the University of Jordan (UOJ), and included trips to sanitary landfill sites of Rusaifa, Al-Akaider, Madaba and Al-Hurnra; Ho�pital waste incinerator of UOJ; Recycling operations in the factories of paper and cartons, and agricultural plastics; container maintenance workshops in Tla'-Al-Ali district; waste collection vehicle maintenance workshop of GAM; and the administrative, financial and cost recovery system of GAM.
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The participants expressed satisfaction with the technical presentations, discussions, and site visits. They formulated conclusions and recommendations for consideration, adoption and future implementation by EMRO/CEHA and Member States of the Region. There was unanimous agreement on the following five major observations:
1. Solid waste management is one of the most pressing environmental health problems in the Region, needing immediate and urgent attention in the coming decade.
2. Basic information and data, about the solid waste management problem, health risks, appropriate local technologies and environmental health needs are not available for Member States in EMR.
J. Adequate rules and regulations, policies, strategies and plans of action for the management of solid waste, do not exist in most of the Member States.
4 . There is a great shortage in Member States of trained personnel for solid waste management and its associated health risks.
5. Proper sanitary landfilling can still offer a good, economical and practical solution to the disposal of municipal solid waste in the Region.
Other recommendations were covered under various categories in their order of importance: community participation, education and awareness: EH personnel and strengthening needs in solid waste management: appropriate solid waste management technologies and options; legislation and institutional setup: and national strategies, goals and plans of action.
1. INTRODUCTION
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E
A Regional Training Course on Solid Waste Management was organized by the Centre for Environmental Health Activities (CERA) of the Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR) of WHO, from 19 August to 7 September 1992 in Amman, Jordan. The course was attended by 22 representatives from the Islamic State of Afghanistan, Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and Republic of Yemen, and nine observers (three from Ministry of Health, Jordan and six from UNRWA refugee camps in Gaza, West Bank and Lebanon) . Three consultants from the United Kingdom and Jordan, WHO staff members from EMRO and CEHA assisted with the course.
The opening ceremony of the course was inaugurated by H. E. the Minister of Health of Jordan, Dr Aref Al Bataineh. In his inaugural speech, the Minister extended a warm welcome to the participants and emphasized the need to focus attention on identifying the most appropriate methods and solutions to the problem of solid waste in the Region for protecting the health of the population and the environment. He said that Jordan is adopting the policy of sanitary landfilling of municipal solid wastes and has identified a site, 90 km from Amman, for the disposal of industrial, toxic and hazardous wastes.
Dr Hussein A. Gezairy, Regional Director for the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region, in his speech welcomed the participants and expressed his appreciation to the Government of Jordan for hosting the course. While assessing the progress and achievements made by the Region during the International Drinking Water supply and Sanitation Decade, he pointed out that environmentally safe management and disposal of municipal solid wastes (MSW) were neglected. He urged the Member states to recognize the importance of improper storage, collection and disposal of MSW that are currently endangering public health and safety. It is only by training personnel, strengthening appropriate legislation, promoting appropriate, affordable, and adaptable technologies and modernizing equipment that the ever-increasing solid waste problems and associated health risks can be solved or reduced in the Region.
While reviewing WHO's efforts in the training of national staff in solid waste management, he emphasized that, as a result of urban population pressure, limited and financial resources, shortage of appropriate technologies, it is necessary to concentrate on community-based solid waste collection and management systems which are, usually more sustainable and cost-effective. These systems can result in safe, hygienic, sound and "health-friendly" environment.
In conclusion, Dr Gezairy reiterated the commitment of WHO to the strengthening of national capabilities of Member States in assessing environmental health problems, adopting appropriate legislation, training of personnel and assisting in the follow-up of the recommendations of this course. This training course was designed to be part of such assistance to help better understanding and assessment of solid waste management problems and needs and to eventually carry out the proposed recommendations.
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The opening ceremony was also attended by Dr M. I. Sheikh, Director of the Division of Environmental Health in EMRO, Dr A. M. Abdel Hadi, WHO Representative to Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic, representatives of United Nations and international agencies and organizations, and WHO staff members and the press.
The draft agenda and the programme were adopted, with minor amendments, and are included in Annexes 1 and 2 respectively. A list of participants, consultants, secretariat members and observers is in Annex 3.
2 • OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
The broad objectives of the course were to raise the level of knowledge and awareness of the participants through familiarization with fundamentals, procedures and practices of solid waste collection, transportation and disposal; various solid waste management technologies available; present legislation, standards and guidelines (national and international) related to solid waste management; landfill designs, operation and maintenance, and through discussions and site visits to enable them to exchange experiences in their respective countries with other participants.
The course covered:
(a) Environmental health implications in solid waste management;
(b) Solid waste surveys: quantities, sources and composition;
(c) Legislation, finance and responsibility in control of solid waste;
(d) Solid waste storage, collection, transfer, transport and disposal facilities;
(e) Role and use of computers in solid waste management;
(f) EHIA of solid waste management systems;
(g) Leachate, gas movement and environmental considerations of landfills;
(h) Waste separation, recycling, recovery and reuse;
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Each participant also made a brief presentation addressing the main features of his/her country's solid waste management practices, systems and legislation.
3. PROCEEDINGS
3.1 Environmental Health Implications of Solid Waste Management
Solid waste is likely to contain human pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa and helminths) from soiled disposable baby napkins (diapers) , disposable paper handkerchiefs, contaminated food and waste from pets. The handling and disposal of solid waste can present the same potential for disease transmission as the collection and disposal of excreta and sewage. In addition, inadequate storage and collection and poor disposal practices in solid waste management serve as breeding sites for rats, flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches and other vermin which can act as passive vectors in transmitting disease.
Apart from the potential health risks that arise from the possible presence of infective agents in solid waste or their transmission through insects and vermin to which the general public are exposed, workers employed in solid waste collection and disposal are susceptible to the same health risks, but, in addition, are known to have a higher risk of accidents than the average industrial worker. This vulnerability arises not only from working outdoors, exposed to all weathers in changing complex situations and in proximity to heavy equipment, but also because the waste worker might be exposed to a range of dusty, flammable and otherwise hazardous materials and often has to take account of road traffic and activities of undisciplined groups. The public are also at risk as a result of the possible presence of toxic and hazardous substances in solid waste.
Thus public health and safety risks which might be associated with solid waste are:
exposure to pathogens (causing dysentery, food poisoning, etc.);
diarrhoea,
exposure to toxic and hazardous substances; and
physical injury (cuts and abrasions from sharps).
cholera,
Population groups which might be exposed to these risks include householders, children, vagrants and scavengers, solid waste workers, and the general public.
Serious health risks or concerns can result from the contamination of groundwater supplies as a result of poorly controlled landfills or abandoned landfill sites, and release of gases due to improper incineration of toxic and hazard materials (such as HCl, HF, furans and dioxins). Such health and safety risks can be minimized:
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1) through proper stor�ge of solid waste at home, large buildings and commercial premises and on the street, by minimizing leakage or spillage of waste materials;
2) by minimizing accidents and injuries to workers involved in waste collection and transport by providing safety clothing, as well as proper training in the operation, management, and handling of various solid waste equipment and materials; and
3) through proper siting, designing and managing the solid waste. disposal facilities, such as sanitary landfills, incineration, composting, resource recovery and recycle operations, etc.
The discussions, during the question and answer session, revealed that no health statistics were available in the Region, indicating a direct relationship between higher morbidity rates and solid waste workers; yet, waste handlers maintain poorer health conditions as compared to their counterparts in other professions with similar socioeconomic levels and life-styles.
3.2 Solid Waste Surveys: Quantities. Sources and Composition
Data on the amount, sources and characteristics of refuse in a city should be the basis to the planning, designing and satisfactory operations of solid waste management (storage, collection, transport, resource and component, and disposal) systems and the application of disposal methods. Essential data can be gathered through physical surveys or use of questionnaires. The quantity and quality of solid waste generated may be affected seriously by local conditions (climate, seasons, socioeconomic conditions, income levels, etc.) and the type and activity of the source. For example, the typical residential waste generation rate in �man is 0.4 kg/p/day, and uncompacted density of waste is 240 kg/m. The physical composition includes food (61.3%) , paper (15.6%) , cardboard (8.3%) , plastics (3.6%) , leather (2.3%) , wood (1.1%) , glass (3.7%) , tins and cans (3.5%) and garden trimmings (0.45%) . The moisture content in various waste components varies from 81.2% (food) to 6.9% (tins and cans) . The hospital waste generation rate from the University of Jordan hospital in Amman is 4.84 kg/patient/day, with an overall density of 202 kg/m3 and moisture content of 43%. The waste generation rates in the Hussein and the Islamic Hospitals and the Royal Farah Centre were 5.58, 3.73 and 6.41 kg/patient/day respectively.
The solid waste in Greater Amman, as compared to more developed nations such as the U.S.A., the U.K., Germany and others, contained more food and less paper, plastics, glass and metal contents.
Therefore solid waste management systems must be tailored to each community's or city's special solid waste.
J.3 Local Government Responsibilities, Legislative Framework and Finances in the Control of Solid Wastes
Solid direction,
waste management involves planning, organization, legislation, financing and controlling of various parts of
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so that all the components function correctly and Sound management is essential to achieve efficient,
reliable operations that are well accepted by the
an under-taking harmoniously. sanitary and community.
It is very important to have effective national solid waste management legislation or regulations that should clearly define the functions and responsibilities of local, national and cooperating agencies. The broad governing administrative principles in each solid waste management organization, for a successful operation, should clearly define and include: lines of authority and responsibility and its flow, and distribution and division of responsibilities among organizational divisions, units or sections. Coordination between solid waste collection and disposal units is very important for harmonious operations. For better operational purposes and equipment maintenance, both units may be located in the same bureau, division or department. Some times it is more appropriate to set up a separate solid waste management agency or authority which includes a governing board and adequate staff and facilities to provide all essential services.
Training of staff in solid waste is an essential and integral part of the personnel system in any agency. A good training programme is rewarding not only to the employee, but also to the organization in terms of improved performance and efficiency. The programme should include all safety and hazard prevention measures.
One of the most important components in the successful operation and management of the solid waste systems is the preparation of a sound and proper financial budget, indicating revenues, cost recovery, capital and operational costs, liabilities, etc. and sources of funds. Unnecessary costs and funds can be saved by involving public and obtaining their acceptance and permission at early stages of initiating a solid waste management facility.
A complete review of the various solid• waste management and environmental health regulations and laws as well as the set-up - administrative, financial and legal of the· Greater Amman Municipality, was presented and explained in detail.
J. 4 Solid Waste Preparation. Collection, Transfer, Transport and Disposal Facilities
Solid waste preparation or preprocessing methods are key to successful and economical operation of collection and disposal systems. They are used primarily to reduce the mass or volume of waste or change otherwise the form of the wastes in order to achieve one or more of the following objectives:
Improvement of its acceptability in environmental terms: Separation and recovery of recyclable material or its energy value: Reduction in volume of capacity required of landfill site: Minimization of overall cost.
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In order to achieve these objectives, processing options need to be considered at all stages of the disposal chain, from initial collection to final disposal, and also for different categories of wastes. Compaction and concretization are treatment processes for increasing the density of wastes, while minimizing the environmental effects of transport, such as visual litter and odour problems. Bailing and shredding (wet and dry) are usually volume-reducing processes. Preprocessing of solid waste prior to incineration is essential to increase the efficiency of the incineration process, as well as separation of components that are potentially valuable resources, such as paper, glass, ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Very few countries in the Region are following any preparation procedures before the solid waste is collected and disposed.
Solid waste collection operations make up a major share of the overall solid waste management costs. The planning of collection systems requires identification of the most suitable combination of methods and equipment to meet local conditions, and involves a thorough understanding of these conditions, wide range of refuse collection activities and the application of engineering economics. In order to achieve any cost savings, information must be available concerning factors such as types and quantities of solid waste, disposal methods available, available collection and disposal equipment, population density and its zoning, physical lay-out of the area: land zoning: type and location of containers, possible collection route, overall pick-up and haul time, the size of crew, and other related factors.
The role and effect of all of the above mentioned factors on the overall waste-collection efficiency and optimization was demonstrated, during the course, using the Greater Amman Municipality lay-out, collection routes and disposal sites. The optimum selection of crew sizes and the number of waste collection vehicles needed were demonstrated through the use of graphical charts, figures and monographs. Mechanized collection, even though initially more expensive, may offer, in the long run, more efficient and lesser health hazardous solutions.
Transfer stations are more likely to be economical if initial conditions include traffic congestions, large solid waste quantities and the location of the disposal site requires longhauls. Long distance haul or transport of solid waste may be carried out through rail, barges, semi-trailer trucks, pipeline transport and other locally sustainable options. The use of transfer stations or facilities in the EMR is very limited.
Sanitary landfilling seems to be the most common method of solid waste disposal in the Region. However, proper site selection and design must include factors such as land requirements, topography, public health and nuisance problems, climate, accessibility, availability of cover material, haul distances, location of ground water and its pollution potential, public acceptance, future land use, drainage, equipment capability, security and safety measures, gas and leachate movement control, and other environmental factors.
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Specific methods and procedures for landfilling and the selection of equipment utilized for the disposal of solid wastes, considering Amman as an example, were presented and discussed. The importance of local conditions, technical feasibility, public health considerations, costs of various collection and disposal methods, importance of public support and the importance and feasibility of salvage or reclaiming solid waste components in the selection of appropriate disposal methods were discussed. In order to minimize or optimize waste management costs, vehicle scheduling and maintenance operation systems (number of vehicles, staffing, timings, different waste collection vehicles used for different purposes) of the Greater Amman Municipality were fully explained. Various checklists and tables, such as weekly labour ticket report; monthly equipment maintenance report; landfilling operating cost and equipment cost reports; landfill facility cost report; OSHA checklists for evaluating safety of industrial hygiene, ladders, house keeping, lighting, equipment, etc. were discussed. Separate checklists (Annex 4) for evaluating operations in the existing landfilling sites, as well as selecting new sites were prepared, and discussed, before site visits to various disposal sites in and around Amman City by the participants.
3.5 The Role of Computers and Their Use in Solid Waste Management
The application of computers in the planning, developing, operating and managing of solid waste systems has increased considerably, especially in developed countries, during the last decade, following a rapid growth in numbers and capabilities of personal computers, and production of a variety of programmes and software packages specifically designed for use in the waste-management industry. Developing countries still lag behind developed countries in this area.
A brief overview of the available solid waste planning and operational efficiency programmes was presented. Advantages and disadvantages of commercially available programmes, as well as those designed in-house were discussed. The HARBINGER model and its components used for strategic planning and development of a waste disposal plan, was explained. The use of a computer programme developed by HABITAT was demonstrated to, and practised by, the participants, using their national solid waste data (waste quantities, vehicle types, collection crews and routes, etc.). The HABITAT programme which was quite easy to use due to its interactive nature generated lot of interest among the participants. The participants received a copy of the programme diskette for their use.
3.6 Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Solid Waste Management systems
The Eastern Mediterranean Region has been witnessing considerable population and industrial growth, and higher levels of urbanization, requiring the sound planning and management of large volumes of solid waste, concentrated in major urban centres. Sound management systems in health-friendly environment require that the environmental health impacts of solid waste management systems (storage, collection, transportation, disposal and recovery) be assessed before their
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implementation. Involvement of communities at the planning stages through environmental health impact assessment (EHIA) may result in more sustainable and locally suitable solid waste management schemes. EHIA assists decision-makers in arriving at more practical and feasible solutions.
The successful, safe and effective operation of the solid waste disposal facility at Rusaifa, near Amman, was presented and considered as "environmentally sound" in view of its initial selection, based on the partial use of EHIA, while the Al-Akaider waste disposal site was judged as environmentally unsound and unsafe, due to the absence of EHIA in its selection and operation process.
3.7 Leachate. Gas Movement and Environmental Considerations of Landfills
Properly controlled and managed sanitary landfills can function as practical and attractive solid waste disposal sites. However, the decomposition of organic waste material, due to bacterial action in the presence of oxygen and moisture, results in the production of toxic leachate and gas. Leachate, if not collected, treated and properly disposed, results in the pollution and contamination of surface- and ground-water resources. Landfill gas, if not properly monitored and controlled, may migrate and give rise to flammability, toxicity and explosion in buildings near landfills.
Various systems and measures for leachate collection, treatment and disposal were presented and discussed, based on experiences in the U.K. and other countries. Also, systems related to gas monitoring, coll�ction, control and utilization were reviewed. A case-study covering gas generation and associated hazards, based on sanitary landfill sites near Amman, was presented and discussed. The discussion, at the end of the lecture, revealed that 80% to 90% of the operating landfills in the Region do not have any leachate o� gas control systems.
3. 8 Waste Separation. Recycling. Recovery and Reuse
Most of the communities are putting more emphasis and focus on the disposal of solid waste, rather than separating its components for recovery, recycle and reuse. Recycling can conserve material and energy, prevent pollution and produce less waste and/or a less harmful waste. The greater the conservation of resources the lesser is the pollution and environmental impairment. The highest rated strategy for conservation is waste prevention and minimization. The strategies that might be adopted to achieve waste minimization, on a sustainable basis, include legislation, government purchasing policies, market stabilization schemes for recycled material, tax breaks, subsidies for installation of capital equipment in association with recycling, virgin materials tax, banning materials which cannot be recycled or reclaimed, good design and consumer education.
urban solid waste management aimed at health impacts are likely to involve development of legislation, codes of
Future developments in minimizing environmental and greater public participation,
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practice and guidelines and, only to a limited extent, improvements in technology. sufficient technology already exists to achieve a high level of environmental and health control in urban solid waste collection and disposal, but the whole concept of implementation requires consideration of local factors and trends in public opinion.
There is a general awareness in some Member States, for example Jordan, to recover and recycle some solid waste components.
3.9 Composting
The decomposition of municipal solid waste, especially with high organic content, is carried by the naturally occurring microorganisms, in the presence of optimum temperature (30-35°C), moisture content (20-70%) , oxygen (15-18\) , carbon-nitrogen ratio (25: 1 to 35: 1) and pH (5-8) conditions. The various processes, depending on the situation, being used are traditional windrowing, aerated static plie, rotating drum, vertical aerated reactors, tunnel reactors and mechanical turning. The process is considered as completed only when the composted product (humus) is biologically stable, is not phytotoxic and is hygienically safe for handling.
The two major prerequisites for composting are: (1) the separation of non-compostable material, such as glass, metal, plastics, plaster, dust, ashes, as well as low degradable material or residues, such as textile, leather, wood and oil from the solid waste, and (2) a sustainable market for the sale or disposal of human material or compost which can be used as a soil conditioner or as a low-value fertilizer for agriculture and plantation.
The composting process in the EMR has not been popular due to the absence of recovery, segregation and reuse practices in Member States.
3.10 Selection and Optimum Use of Solid Waste Equipment
The selection of suitable equipment (vehicles, containers, etc.) for any of solid waste operations involves a thorough understanding of all local conditions (socio-economic and cultural) that affect solid waste production, collection and disposal, and a complete knowledge of the types and sizes of equipment available for this work. The basic considerations are size and capacity of containers and vehicles, loading height, unloading devices, water tightness of collection bodies, cost, safety and comfort of collection crews, adaptability of collection equipment for other work, appearance of vehicles, desirable turning radii, relative merit of compactor versus enclosed non-compactor or open-top vehicles, topography of collection zones and hydrogeological conditions of disposal sites.
Optimum selection and use of equipment depends upon the judicious combination of the size of the collection vehicle, number of workers per vehicle, the type of solid waste pick-up, and the number of trips per day for a given haul distance to the disposal sites. Using solid waste management of Greater Amman Municipality as an example, various considerations and factors in the selection of the equipment and its use were explained. Copies of specifications and standards used by the Municipality were distributed to the interested participants.
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3.11 Disposal of Special {Medical. Hazardous. etc,) wastes
Hazardous and special wastes create potential health and environmental hazards to human beings, plants and animals. currently, such wastes, in most of the developing countries, are dumped on land, buried below ground or discharged to open water-bodies causing serious pollution problems. In order to minimize such problems each waste must be identified, labelled, stored, transported and properly disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. Various management methods, strategies, policies and systems being followed in developed countries, such as the U.K., the U.S. A. and Canada and in Europe, were reviewed and discussed.
Clinical wastes, of all wastes arising in a community, are now commonly acknowledged as most hazardous and potentially dangerous. These wastes include pathological and infectious wastes, as well as sharps, pharmaceutical and chemical wastes. Such wastes result in direct health hazards and risks to personnel and, therefore, they must be properly stored in colour-coded safety containers, transported in special vehicles and incinerated in special incinerators or disposed of at special sites.
A review of current hazardous and special wastes disposal procedures in EMR revealed that current practices and regulations do not require producers of such wastes to dispose them of at any specially designated sites or special incineration facilities; instead, they are mixed with municipal solid waste, transported in the same vehicle and disposed of at regular sanitary landfill sites.
J.12 Development of Methods and Procedures for Evaluating Existing Landfill Sites
In order to evaluate the performance of existing sanitary landfill sites and their potential health hazards, checklists were developed, reviewed and discussed with, and used by, the participants during their visits to the Rusaifa, Al-Akaider, Madaba and other sites. Criteria for selection/screening of disposal sites, developed by the Greater Amman Municipality were reviewed and discussed.
The participants judged, based on developed, sites visited, except the environmental and.health considerations.
the use of the checklists, Rusaifa site, as unsound on
J.13 Visits to Disposal Sites and Vehicle and Equipment Maintenance Facilities in Amman
Five full-day field trips were arranged in cooperation with the Greater Amman Municipality (GAM) and the University of Jordan (UOJ) . The visits included trips to sanitary landfill sites of Rusaifa, Al-Akaider, Madaba and Al-Humra; waste incinerator of UOJ Hospital; recycling operations in the factories of paper and cartons, and agricultural plastics; container maintenance workshops in Tla'a Al-Ali district; waste collection (container and crew) system of Abu Nusair district: waste collection vehicle maintenance workshop of GAM; and Baqaa' refugee camp to observe environmental health conditions; and administrative, financial and cost recovery systems of GAM.
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During the visits to disposal sites, the participants used their checklists, observed landfilling operations and the use of processes and equipment; discussed the operation and maintenance, follow-up and safety procedures with the staff at the sites.
The visit to Abu-Nusair District (new city) gave the participants a good idea about sizes, types, location and distribution of various solid waste storage containers, as well as the personnel needed for different types of waste collection vehicles. The solid waste production, storage, collection and disposal data for this city was utilized by the participants in the HABITAT computer programme.
The number of computer, has very city.
vehicles and personnel required as estimated by a close to actual facilities being utilized in the
During the visit to University of Jordan Hospital, the participants were able to see the special containers and facilities used for the storage of clinical waste, vehicles used for transporting special wastes from the source to the incinerator, as well as physical characteristics and design considerations used for the incinerator.
The visit to solid waste storage container's maintenance workshop in the Tla'a Al-Ali district demonstrated to the participants the sanitation and maintenance procedures and problems.
The paper and carton factory management explained to the participants as to how 70% of the requirements of the factory is met by the used paper and cartons collection from different areas and cities, and used in producing cartons for packaging.
About 70% of the agriculture plastics utilized in the Plastic Factory are those which are recovered and recycled, for making new refuse sacks and agriculture plastics. The recovery and recycle operations were demonstrated to the participants.
During the visit to Baqaa refugee camp, the participants observed and learned about the water supply, sanitation, refuse collection, and drainage facilities and systems, and how they are funded and maintained. They also learned about the socio-economic hardships faced by the camp inhabitants.
A detailed presentation covering the GAM set-up, units especially those related to solid waste, and the administrative, financial and cost recovery systems and enforcement policies for the polluters were explained to the participants.
3.14 Solid Waste Management in Gaza Strip Refugee Camps
The environmental health services provided by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), jointly with WHO, include environmental sanitation, surface water drainage, refuse and sewage disposal, water supply, including chlorination and general assistance for self-help projects to refugees in Gaza strip.
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The daily waste generation rate in the camps is 0.87 litre/�erson, while the total
3 annual waste volume has risen from
69686m in 1986 to 88580m in 1990. For lack of storage containers, the piled up waste is collected manually by sanitation workers and/or inh!bitants and is carried to the large skip-lift containers (8-10 m capacity), and is later open-dumped and burnt in the communal collection points to avoid health hazards. UNRWA is, currently, focusing on improving waste collection and disposal as well as training more sub-professional staff through the WHO fellowship programme.
Due to the inadequacy of current solid waste management facilities and services, several health and environmental problems, such as smoke, odour and smell, insects and rodents transferring infectious diseases from the dumps to the inhabitants and others, exist in the Gaza strip. While incineration facilities are neither available nor encouraged, land availability for sanitary landfilling is becoming reduced, and the pilot composting plant failed to function; these places Gaza strip in a very critical situation of facing serious environmental and health problems created by the ever increasing volumes of the solid wastes generated. This necessitates a critical review of the solid waste situation in terms of planning, selection and development of centrally-located regional facilities for treatment and disposal schemes funded by financing agencies.
3. 15 World Health Organization and its Environmental Health Programme and Services to Member States in EMR
During the detailed and comprehensive overview of WHO's role, functions, services at various levels (HQ/EMRO/CEHA), Dr M. I. Sheikh, Director of the Division of Environmental Health in EMRO, explained to the participants as to how the national staff (individuals and agencies) could receive and benefit from WHO activities. WHO is not a funding agency, but a decentralized and specialized technical intergovernmental agency in health, including environmental health. The importance of EH in the preventive approach to achieve the goal of health for all by the year 2000 and in view of the UNCED-Agenda 21 was fully highlighted. Various EH technical areas and their situation in the Region were reviewed. The participants were encouraged to make full use of CEHA and its services (training, research, information, teaching learning documents, technical cooperation etc. ) available to Member States.
The success Villages", and EMR and other successful.
of programmes, such as "Healthy Cities" and "Healthy their contribution towards improved EH conditions in WHO regions was considered as very encouraging and
Due to the interdesciplinary nature of the EH programme, the role of technical focal points, other than the Ministry of Health (MOH), in the implementation of EMRO/CEHA activities was highlighted and explained. The procedures for submitting special studies or research proposals for funding by EMRO/CEHA were clarified.
Observers from the West Bank, Gaza strip and Lebanon Refugee camps were assured of the full support and cooperation of WHO, through UNRWA, in various health aspects facing the refugees.
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3.16 Solid Waste Management Problems and Environmental Health Conditions in Some EMR Countries
Dr M. z . Khan, WHO Training and Research Adviser in CEHA, made a presentation of the regional population, socioeconomic conditions and environmental health situation in the EMR. He pointed out that 30\ to 40\ of the people in the Region are residing in major urban centres and are faced with serious health hazards due to improper or inadequate solid waste collection and disposal facilities.
The average daily waste generation rates in EMR of 0. 5 to 0. 6 kg/person would result in an annual waste generation of 95 and 135 million tons in 1992 and 2000 respectively. This waste, i! sanitary filled, would require , annually, 106 and 150 million m areas in the same years. Even though the increased level of urbanization has placed a tremendous pressure on the available land for sanitary landfilling, 80\ of the EMR States are, at present, have chosen this option in one form or another. Incineration of municipal solid waste is almost prohibitive in large urban centres , such as Karachi, Teheran and Cairo , where the atmosphere is almost saturated with toxic , gaseous and particulate pollutants.
A review of solid waste composition of 13 large Member States in EMR shows that while the maj or component of the waste is food (60\ to 80% ) which is easily biodegradable through composting to useful humus as a soild conditioner and low-quality fertilizer , the segregation of non-compostable components and the potential market for sale of humus are the two maj or limiting factors in its application and suitability. Waste minimization, through source separation and reuse , required serious and significant efforts in mass education in changing the social and behavioural outlook of the communities, especially in a Region where more than 50\ population are women and their literacy rate is very low. The role of women in improving Environmental Health conditions and achieving the goal of HFA/2000 should not be underestimated.
Grouping through the that about indicators.
of countries in EMR into four categories by CERA, use of the 10 health indicators for EH conditions, showed 60% of the EMR population met only 3 or less EH
Only about one third of the Member States have some standards, legislation , policies or plans of action for managing solid waste in an environmentally sound manner.
3. 17 CEHA' s Role and Services in Environmental Health in EMR
Dr H. El Baroudi, WHO Coordinator in CEHA, reviewed CEHA's linkage to EMRO, its structure , staffing, facilities and services currently being rendered to, and planned for, the Member States in the Region. He mentioned that the Centre has so far trained 2000 national EH staff in the Member States through national and regional training activities. CEHA tries to maintain the latest EH information about the EMR countries through its direct database linkage, for example, Jordan and Egypt, and through the CD-ROM system. The global
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and international EH information is maintained uptodate through close coordination with IRC, WHO Headquarters, AIT and other databases . CEHA' s efforts towards publications on teaching learning material were highlighted.
Dr N. Al Shorbaji, WHO Information Scientist in CEHA, explained the CEHANET capabilities, flow and exchange of EH information, the purpose and function of national focal agencies, and of national collaborating centres . Various EH information documents, either already published or under production, were mentioned. The participants were encouraged to complete the CEHA' s Professional as well as EH Institutions forms for inclusion of information in the directories, as well as to receive CEHA updates, Newsletters, reports, etc. on a regular basis, and, on request articles, listed in the CEHA Contents.
4. COUNTRY REPORTS
4. 1 Egypt
The presentation was made by Mr Maged Mahmoud Kamel Khalil on the characteristics, collection, transportation and disposal of solid waste in Cairo City. The daily municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in the city at an average rate of 0 . 7 - 1. 0 kg/person is about 6000 tons. The MSW consisted mostly of organic matter (63. 51), paper ( 14% ) , and dust and stones (14% ) , while other components , such as glass , textile, boxes , plastics and ferrous and non-ferrus materials, were present in small percentages . About 75% of the daily waste is collected and transported to disposal sites by the Cairo Cleaning and Beautifying Authority, while the remaining 25\ is collected and disposed of by private companies. About JO\ of the solid waste is planned to be composted, while the remaining goes to sanitary landfills. He also pointed out that all city dumps were converted into public gardens .
Another presentation was made by Eng. Mohamed Ahmed Abdullah Marzouk on solid waste management in Alexandria. He first presented general information about the city and then the MSW problem. The city generates daily , at the rate of 0. 5 kg/person, about 1500 to 2000 tons of MSW . Only 60% of the city population has waste collection services, while the other 40% tend to dump the waste at the nearest available site and burn it periodically. Due to shortage of areas available for sanitary landfilling, the city is more inclined towards composting of solid waste . At designated areas in the city, workers separate reusable materials as part of salvage and recycling efforts . He presented some information on the "package compost units" being currently utilized in Alexandria .
The agencies responsible for setting up legislation for solid and hazardous waste management in Egypt are the Ministries of Health, Environment and Industry and the related national legislation is covered by Law # 48 (1981 ) and Law # 3 80 (1982 ) .
Problems such inadequate daily of solid waste smoke and gases .
as bad odours and files continue to prevail due to collection and transport facilities . Also, burning
in containers , or in streets results in unpleasant
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4 . 2 Islamic Republic of Iran
A joint presentation was made by Mr Abdel Rassul Etemad Fard and Mr Firouz Kabiree . The daily quantity of solid waste generated is 39, 000 tons, the main component of which is organic materials (85. 6\) ; other components, such as paper, plastics, metals, glass, and building materials, are also present, but in smaller percentages. A recent rural solid waste survey indicated that 1001 families were interested in their waste collection, but only 2 11 were willing to pay for such services. The major waste component in the rural solid waste is also organic materials (77\) . The concept of solid waste composting, because of the highly organic nature of the solid waste, is being considered seriously by the Government.
Special wastes from hospitals, in most cases, were being incinerated . To minimize air pollution problems, especially in Teheran, hospital wastes are also removed to outside the city and disposed of through sanitary land filling. Solid waste is one of the most important national problems requiring immediate attention for its management, as well as development of implementation criteria, legislation and policies .
4 . 3 .I.n!.g
Eng. Naamet Hassan Mahmood and Miss Kifah Abdul Hussein made a j oint presentation on the solid waste management situation in Iraq. They presented an overview of the country's population, geography, the structure of the Ministry of Health, the system of governorates and municipalities and agencies responsible for the management of solid waste and sludge. The daily waste generation rates in Iraq varied from 0.5 in 1978 to 0.78 kg/person in 1990 and are expected to rise to 1. 1 kg/person in 2000 . The annual rate of solid waste increase is 3. 5\. The major portion of the municipal solid waste comprises of food waste (63\) , while leather, glass, cans, plastics and others are present in smaller percentages.
A review of the various sizes and types of waste collection vehicles, and the frequency of collection service/week, was presented. While all of the MSW and non-clinical wastes are disposed in sanitary landfill sites, clinical waste is, usually, incinerated in special hospital incinerators . Industrial wastes are transported to the specially designated sites, but some of them also go to MSW landfill sites.
The presentation included operation and maintenance problems, as well as the segregation for recovery of MSW components for recycling and reuse.
The legislative bodies include the Ministry of Health, the High Council of Environmental Protection, the Environmental Protection Centre and other related agencies. The related regulations are the Sanitary Landfill Regulation (1980) and the Environmental Protection and Improvement Act (76 of 1986) .
4 . 4 Jordan
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Mr Salah Al-Hiari and Mr Khalil Dabbas indicated that solid waste management was one of the urgent and pressing problem needing immediate attention from the agencies concerned. They explained that even though solid waste management is under the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs and Environment, yet the Ministry of Health still has the final say in deciding the health-related problems associated with solid waste.
The daily residential waste generation rate in Am.man is 0.4 kg/person/day, while the wastes from hospitals range from 4 to 6
kg/patient/day. The major waste components are food (61.3\) , paper (15. 6%) and cardboard (8 . 31) , while other components present in smaller percentages are plastics, leather, wood, glass, tins and cans, and garden trimmings. Waste collection is carried out once a day, twice a day or irregularly in residential, commercial and rural areas respectively . Various sizes and types of collection vehicles, such as flat bed, compactor, satellite and other types are being utilized in different cities, but the most common is the compactor vehicle. The daily collection cost is 10 Jordanian Dinars per ton.
The most common method of solid waste disposal is sanitary landfilling. Some sites, such as Rusaifa, are well designed and properly operated, while others, such as Al-Akaider, are causing environmental and health problems. The cities of Amman , Salt and Taibe have such waste disposal systems. Special wastes, such as clinical waste, have special incinerators, while a special site, 90 km from Amman, has been designed for hazardous and toxic wastes, by the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, and Environment. The related standards and legislation are Standards Number 2 (1971) ; Number 202 (1981) ; and Number 18 (1988) .
The main problems facing solid waste management are financial, administrative, social, technical and lack of trained staff.
4 . 5 Morocco
Mr Mohamed Jad and Mr Abdelaziz Khantache presented jointly the country's environmental and health situation. They indicated that while drinking-water quality, water conservation and reuse and food safety were the major priorities, solid waste problem is beginning to be realized as one of the major health hazards and a threat to the residents in major urban centres. Limited facilities are available for solid waste collection and disposal. Community participation, mass education in raising Environmental Health awareness, regular training programmes for workers handling solid waste; government incentives for recovery, recycle and reuse of waste components: and locally sustainable technologies are essential for the proper management of the country's solid waste.
4 . 6 Oman
A country paper Abdullah Al Saj wani covered an overview
was presented jointly by Mr Sadiq Abdul Hussain and Mr Saleh Ben Salim Al Farsy. The paper of the country's population, climate, geography
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and the facilities available to the citizens. It was explained that the local municipalities are responsible for the collection, transportation and disposal of the solid waste , while the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment (MOR..�E) , Muscat Municipality and the Office of the Minister of State and the Governor of Dhofar (i . e. Dhofar Municipality) are charged with the responsibility of solid waste collection and disposal practices in their respective regions and areas. MORME is also responsible for the conservation of the environment, prevention of pollution in all forms and sources, dealing with the effects of pollution and the implementation of the Law of conservation of the Environment and the Prevention of Pollution , covered by Royal Decree 10/82 . Regulations have been issued under the above-mentioned Royal Decree for such matters as the Disposal of Liquid Industrial Waste (Decision 8/8 4 ) and for Wastewater Reuse and Discharge (Decision 5/86) . These decisions provide regulations supplementary to Royal Decree 10/82 for specific purposes and establish precise specifications for waste content. The Ministry has already prepared Regulations for Solid (Non-Hazardous and Hazardous) Wastes and the Law of Pesticides. These are in the final drafting and approval stage.
The major components of solid waste generated in Muscat are food (40%) , paper (21%) , plastics (12%) , metal (11% ) , glass (5% ) , textile (6% ) and other components in small percentages . The citizens collect their waste in small plastic bags and deposit them in containers provided by the municipality placed at specified locations. Waste collection vehicles of various sizes (1 to 12 ton capacity) carry the waste to disposal sites . Special incinerators are used for a major portion of clinical wastes . The Government awards annually prizes (cash and certificates) to the communities and municipalities, judged by a committee appointed for the purpose as "outstanding in cleanliness" by using pre-determined criteria. While efforts towards improved solid waste management are underway, so�e communities continue to dump solid waste and burn it in the open due to inadequacy of presently available collection services .
It was explained that due solid waste, composting seems However, the compost plant in results.
4.7 Pakistan
to the high organic content of the to be an appropriate solution.
Oman is not producing satisfactory
Mr Jehanzeb and Mr Hafiz Mohammad Ehsanul-Haq reviewed the environmental , housing and solid waste problems of Pakistan . Solid waste, which is a major environmental and health problem in large urban centres such as Karachi, Islamabad and Lahore, is not receiving the proper attention, importance and focus it needs. At present municipal facilities are available only to 25% of the total population (about 110 million) .
The solid waste generation rates in Lahore, Peshawar, Hyderabad, Islamabad and Karachi are 0 . 65, 0. 72, 0. 3 3, o.51 and 0.50 (kg/person/day) respectively. The maj or components in the waste in Islamabad are food (58\) , paper (10%) , plastics (3% ) , · garden trimmings (20%) and textile (5%) , while the other components, in small percentages, are metals, tins, glass and others.
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Islamabad has relatively better storage, collection, transportation and disposal (open dumping) systems, as compared to other cities. Various sizes and types of storage containers and collection vehicles are being utilized.
The main constraints in providing or maintaining such collection services to urban residents are the lack of resources (financial, equipment) : social and environmental awareness and education; affordable, sustainable and appropriate technologies and their management; skilled human resources; incentives for recycling and reuse; adequate national standards and legislation, coupled with high population and its growth rate.
The present system of waste storage (steel or masonary) and the transportation of waste is not adequate and proper: therefore, for an effective solid waste management system it is very important to improve storage facilities, provide more vehicles, select better sites for disposal, improve public usage of storage containers, increase revenue and upgrade disposal techniques.
The collection of solid waste is being managed both by private as well as government agencies in various major cities.
4.B Sudan
The country paper was jointly presented by Mr Awad Ahmad Mukhtar and Mr Horgpani Mohamed Abdalla. Sudan, with a population of 25 million, an area of 2.506 million sq. km and nine federal states, has a diversity of life, climate and topography in various regions . However, many socioeconomic projects have been successfully implemented at the community level due to the strong and successful participation of the communities concerned .
In large urban areas and towns, municipalities are responsible for collection, storage, transport and final disposal of solid waste, by law and local orders of municipal councils . and under the supervision of the senior public health inspector and his assistants employed by the council. Waste is collected from houses in dustbins and containers which are not designed appropriately. It is then transported by trucks to final disposal areas which are about 16-24 km away. Landfilling, burning and dumping are the means of final disposal where there is no recycling or reuse.
Communities organize campaigns and work collectively. In spite of community participation in all activities of solid waste management, there are major problems and difficulties, such as shortage of vehicles, fuel and operators due to economic problems. As people consider this job a dirty one, there is a shortage of operators. Municipalities therefore pick up only about SOI of the garbage to take to final disposal areas. The remaining wastes, which accumulate due to lack of trucks and staff, are collected during Fridays and holidays by men, women and students and the council provides them with vehicles only.
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As the municipalities cannot transport all solid waste to final disposal areas, some councils embarked on the application of schemes based on tenders for contractors to collect and transfer solid wastes, mainly in large towns, but this experience has failed completely and added new problems to the already complicated problem of garbage and refuse collection, transportation and disposal, because the system was imposed without the consultation of the community.
The Ministry of Health lays down the policy and the municipalities execute the work. Disposal sites are selected by public health inspectors, sometimes with the help of the council engineer . Residents are encouraged to clean the streets every Friday.
4. 9 Syrian Arab Republic
Mr Manzer El-Masri and Mr Hinen Haddad presented the physical set up of 14 governorates and various municipalities in each governorate. Solid waste collection service is provided free of charge to the residents, but commercial and industrial establishments are charged nominal fees according to an user-charge system. The municipalities in each governorate are responsible for solid waste collection, transportation and disposal at a site designated for each governorate. The collection services are available mostly to major urban centres, while rural areas do not have such services. At present, solid waste from industrial and residential sources is disposed of together.
Due to lack of community participation , and shortage of funds, and of trained and skilled personnel , the problem of solid waste and its associated health risks and health hazards continue to be a major threat.
4. 10 Tunisia
Dr Saadi Mohamed Mounir presented an overview of the solid waste management situation in Tunisia. He indicated that the daily solid waste generation rates for various cities varied from 0. 4 to 0. 6 (kg/person/day) , and the major components in the waste are food (60% to 80%) , paper (7-10%) , textiles (2-4 % ) , and metals (1-3%) , while other components such as glass, plastics, etc . are present in smaller percentages.
While local governments are responsible for the collection and disposal of wastes at the disposal sites, a central agency, the National Liquid and Solid Waste Disposal Agency, manages the major and more critical landfill sites. In all the major urban areas, public health agencies and services monitor the health hazards related to collection and disposal practices , and systems as well as the sanitary conditions of the disposal sites. The recently established Environmental Protection Agency has been entrusted with the designing and enforcing a new policy for pollution control and environmental protection, as well as developing a plan of action , which includes solid waste management practices and systems to be adopted by municipalities as well as industries.
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4 .11 Republic of Yemen
The country paper was presented jointly by Mr Abdulla Sunbol and Eng. Farouk Zaid. The present population of Yemen is about 13.5 million , majority of whom still reside in rural areas. In urban areas, residential waste stored in small but various sizes and types of containers is picked up by manual or mechanical means for disposal at open-dump sites located 20-30 kms outside the city limits. Commercial and industrial wastes, stored in large containers , are either co-disposed with residential waste or incinerated in some cases.
They described in details the Sana'a city waste management system. The daily waste generation rate for Sana' a varies from 0.5 to 0.65 kg/person/day and the maj or waste components are food or organic matter (55t) , paper (14 t ) , plastics (13%) , textiles (2.5%) , metals (2%) and glass (1.5% ) . About half of the city' s waste (650 tons) is collected by compactor and hoist trucks and disposed of at a disposal site 30 km outside the city, while the other 50% is transferred by small collection vehicles to a transfer station for final transportation by trailer-trucks to the disposal site.
Solid wastes, wastes. frequent resources community
waste from non-residential sources, such as hazardous slaughter house wastes, are co-disposed with residential
It was suggested that measures such as user-charge system, solid waste surveys, more training facilities for human
development, more involvement of public as well as participation, be adopted at various levels.
The Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning delegates activities and responsibilities to governorates, capital offices, and provincial town offices for collecting and disposing the solid waste with the approval and close coordination of the Environmental Health Department in the Ministry of Health. The recently established Environmental Protection council Coordinates various environmental and health protection activities amongst various national agencies.
5 . EVALUATION
An assessment of the course was made through an "Evaluation Questionnaire" which has been completed by the participants ; and the participants indicated that they found the course very useful and relevant to their present work. The scope, level and coverage of various topics in the course was appropriate, but the duration of the course itself was somewhat lengthy. Visits to solid waste disposal and handling sites , practical and visual demonstration of operation and maintenance of equipment and related facilities, and the use of HABITAT computer programme strengthened their present knowledge and experience. The suggestions and observations of the participants, after discussions, were finalized as Conclusions and Recommendations.
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6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMM:ENDATIONS
The participants reviewed the EH situation in the light of rapid urbanization, as well as compounding environmental problems. The following were the major observations :
1 . Solid waste management (SWM) Environmental Health problems attention in the coming decade.
is one needing
of the most pressing immediate and urgent
2. Basic information and data about the SWH problem, health risks, appropriate local technologies and EH needs are not available for Member States in EMR.
3. Adequate rules and regulations, policies, strategies and plans of action for the management of solid waste do not exist in most of the Member States.
4. There is a great shortage in the Member States of trained personnel in SWM and its associated health risks.
5. Sanitary landfilling can still offer a good and practical solution to the disposal of municipal solid waste. ·-
The following recommendations were developed during the course and agreed to in the final session . The recommendations are presented in the order of importance, and regional priorities.
6. 1 Community Participation. Education and Awareness
During the discussions, it was concluded that the successful operation of any SWM system depends mainly on the involvement and participation of the public. The level of cooperation, participation and improvement in collection services, especially neighbourhood cleanliness, can be increased through the strengthening of EH awareness through the mass media and specifically designed community education programmes. Following actions, at the national level were recommended :
1. Use of the mass media (television, radio, press, etc. ) to emphasize the need and role of public participation in the efforts related to SW collection, storage and its implications on health and economics.
2. Simple teaching materials, in national languages, should be
J.
prepared for schools. School children are to be encouraged to participate in environmental health improvement proj ects.
Member Countries should seek the assistance setting up and planning public awareness facilities and their implementation.
of EMRO/CEHA in programmes and
4 . Central governments should develop well-researched and forceful public education programmes, in close cooperation and consultation with local municipalities or executing agencies.
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5. Academic institutions, EH institutions and agencies and non governmental organizations or groups should encourage and sponsor the preparation of promotional and demonstration projects to increase community participation and develop new approaches.
6. Government and local authorities should hold education and public awareness programmes in rural areas.
6.2 Training of Environmental Health Personnel in Solid Waste Management
The participants recognized the importance of shortage of trained personnel in solid waste management and recommended training efforts by Member States, at three levels:
7. Education and training of engineers and managers in the concepts of waste management planning;
a . Education and training of engineers and technicians in the operation, maintenance and overall management :
9. Education and training of supervisors and operators to assist them in the training of manual workers in health and safety requirements and good working practices.
EMRO/CEHA may assist and cooperate with Member States in the preparation of relevant teaching and learning material at various levels and their translation into local languages .
6.3 Appropriate Solid Waste Management Technologies and Options
10. It was agreed that sanitary landfill is a suitable option for disposal of solid wastes. Municipalities, environmental engineering schools and United Nation agencies should provide support for the preparation of appropriate guidelines and training courses for the design and operation of sanitary landfill sites. crude dumps and open burning sites should be replaced by sanitary landfill or land-raising s ites.
11. The success of composting plants in the Region , and the need for soil for organic material, such as compost, were noted. It was recommended that more plants be built in places where there is a market for compost, and that information on operating and managing compost plants be shared freely in the Region.
12. For economic and environmental reasons, it was agreed that clinical and medical wastes be disposed of by small specialized incinerators or by proper, secured sanitary landfilling.
13. It was recommended that storage should, as much as possible, be being manufactured locally, and manufacture to overcome problems overseas.
bins and collection vehicles of a type that is suitable for preference be given to local
of obtaining spare parts from
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14. The selection and specification of collection vehicles should be based on local data and conditions. More attention should be focused on measuring work rates and estimating running costs so that economical systems are selected.
15. Recycling and resource recovery should be promoted with proper consideration to environment and health. Separation of municipal solid waste components at source and reuse and recycle of materials by the industry should be encouraged.
16. Proper schemes should be developed for the handling of hazardous wastes at the source.
6. 4 Legislation and Institutional Set Up
Some legislation exists in most countries to control waste management. However, it was felt by the participants that the existing legislation in all countries needs to be reviewed and updated to reflect current waste management issues, particularly to regulate industrial and hazardous wastes. The enforcement of waste management legislation needs to be considerably strengthened with sufficient human and financial resources. In some countries this has already been addressed by the establishment of environmental protection agencies whose responsibilities include waste management, but they have not yet been in operation long enough to assess their effectiveness.
17. Appropriate solid waste services to socioeconomic
funding should be made available by Member states for management schemes in each city to provide equal
all the sectors, regardless of income or levels.
18. EMRO/CEHA should assist Member States in developing EH policies, legislation and regulations related to the management of solid waste in an "environmentally sound and health-friendly" manner. Assistance is also needed by Member States in developing regional EH intervention levels related to solid waste management.
19. All Member States should have national policies regarding equipment and fleets for refuse collection and disposal with a back-up policy for replacing and upgrading such fleets.
20 . EMRO/CEHA should assist Member States solid waste management research and strengthening and EH personnel needs.
in identifying, through surveys, institutional
21. National EH regulations must call for monitoring the safety of the health of all workers involved in SWK schemes .
22. EMRO may assist Member states to carry out research related to EH aspects of solid waste management.
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6. 5 National Strategies. Goals and Plans of Action
Each Member State municipality for the management plans.
must set preparation
up time-bound targets for each and implementation of sol id waste
National plans must include an assessment of current and future EH personnel, equipment and financial needs. Exchange of sol id waste management information, (on a regional basis) through CEHANET should be encouraged. The action plans may include the following:
23. Provision for community participation, EH awareness and highlighting of the health risks associated with SWM schemes.
2 4. Identification of priority needs.
25. Development of systems and technologies that are affordable, robust and appropriate to local conditions for storage, collection, resource recovery and disposal .
26. Encouraging the development of sol id waste management schemes based on community participation.
27. Training of human resources at all levels.
28. Specific management clinical wastes.
procedures for hazardous, special and
29. Quantities and characteristics of industrial wastes of all types.
30. Provision for exchange of information, knowledge and experiences on national, regional and inter-regional levels .
31. Arranging annual "Environmental for communities, with financial acknowledgement system.
Health" and " Cleanliness" days incentives and appreciation/
3 2 . research with other
Inclusion of l andfill sites, and venting and experiences.
on operation and design of sanitary emphasis on odour control, gas collection
problems, based on national and regional
33. Inclusion of strategies, incentives and encouragement for sol id waste source separation, resource recovery, recycle and reuse of solid waste components.
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 25
Annex 1
AGENDA
1 . Environmental health implications in solid waste management .
2. Solid waste surveys: quantities, sources and composition
3. Legislation , finance and responsibil ity in control of solid waste
4. Solid waste storage, collection , transfer, transport and disposal facilities
5 . Role and use of computers in solid waste management
6 . Environmental health impact assessment o f solid waste management systems
7. Leachate, landfills
gas movement and environmental considerations of
8 . Waste separation, recycling, recovery and reuse , composting
9. Selection and optimum use of solid waste equipment
10. Disposal of special (medical and hazardous, etc. ) wastes
11. Development of methods and procedures for evaluating existing landfill facilities
12 . Case-studies and problem solving
13. Visits to disposal sites, vehicle and equipment maintenance facilities
WHO-EM/CEHA/54 -E Page 2 6
Annex 2
PROGRAMME
Wednesday. 19 August 1992
08 : 00 - 08 : 30
08 : 30 - 09: 30
10 : 00 - 11 : 00
11 : 00 - 12 : 00
12 : 30 - 13: 30
13: 30 - 14 : 3 0
14 : 3 0 - 15: 30
Registration
Opening Ceremony
- Address by Dr Hussein A. Gezairy , Regional Director for WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region
- Inaugural address by H. E. the Minister of Health , Jordan
- Introduction of participants - Announcements - Adoption of agenda - Scheduling of country discussions
Environmental health implications in solid waste management, by Dr G. K . Anderson
Local government responsibilities , legislative framework and finance in control of solid wastes by Mr M . Bani Hani
Solid waste surveys: quantities, sources and composition, by Dr F. Rayyan
Country presentations
Thursday. 2 0 August 1992
08 : 30 - 09: 30
09: 30 - 10 : 30
11 : 00 - 12 : 30
12 : 30 - 13: 30
14 : 00 - 15: 0 0
Waste preparation for collection, by Or Anderson
Waste collection, transfer and transportation, by Dr Rayyan
Sanitary landfill planning and design, by Dr Rayyan
Sanitary landfill operation and management, by Mr Bani Hani
Landfill gas and leachate control, by Dr Anderson
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 27
Saturday. 22 August 1992
08: 30 - 09 : 3 0
09 : J O - 10 : 3 0
11: 00 - 12: 00
12 : 00 - 14 : 3 0
Selection, optimum use and maintenance of waste equipment, by Mr Bani Hani
Composting (waste, sludge and agriculture manure) and its feasibility in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, by Dr Anderson
Composting ( waste, sludge and agriculture manure) and its feasibility in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, by Dr Anderson
Manpower organization and management, by Mr Bani Hani
Sunday, 2 3 August 1992
08: 30 - 10: 30
11: 00 - 12 : 00
12 : 00 - 13: 00
13: 30 - 15 : 00
Waste recycling and resource and energy recovery, by Mr D. J. Elliott
Introduction to hazardous waste, by Dr Anderson
Storage and transportation of hazardous wastes, by Dr Anderson
Case-studies presentations, by Dr Rayyan/Dr Anderson/Mr Bani Hani
Monday . 24 August 1992
08: 30 - 09: 30
09 : 3 0 - 1 0 : 3 0
10: 30 - 11: 00
11 : 30 - 12 : 3 0
12 : 3 0 - 13: 30
14 : 00 - 15 : 0 0
Management of special wastes (medical, tyres, radioactive) , by Dr Anderson
Disposal of clinical wastes, by Mr Elliot
World Health Organization (WHO) and its Environmental Health programme and services to Member States in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, by Dr Sheikh
Municipal incineration, by Dr Rayyan
Practical problems in controlling hazardous wastes, by Or Anderson
Development of checklists/methods for evaluating disposal sites, by Dr Rayyan/Mr Bani Hani
WHO/EM/CEHA/54-E Page 28
Tuesday. 2 5 August 1992
08: 3 0 - 15 : 00 Site visits to Rusaifa (Greater Amman), Mafraq, and Al Akaider sites to discuss, observe and formulate procedures for running disposal sites, Dr Rayyan/Mr Bani Hani
Wednesday. 26 August 1992
08: 3 0 - 0 9 : 3 0
09 : 3 0 - 1 0 : 3 0
11 : 00 - 1 3 : 00
13 : 3 0 - 15 : 0 0
Enviromnental health impact assessment (EHIA) of solid waste management systems, by Mr Elliott
Review of environmental health regulations and standards, by Mr Bani Hani
Solid waste collection and planning, by Dr Rayyan
Solid waste management and EH conditions in Gaza strip refugee camps, by Mr A. K.M . Jouda
Thursday. 27 August 1992
08 : 3 0 - 09 : 3 0
0 9 : 3 0 - 1 0 : 3 0
1 1 : 00 - 13 : 00
13 : J O - 15 : 0 0
Evaluation of existing landfill disposal practices and their environmental health impacts, by Dr Anderson
Solid waste surveys for proper planning of collection and disposal or resource recovery, by Mr Elliott
Development of simplified methods for controlling operations of disposal methods (composting, landfilling and incineration), by Dr Rayyan
Selection and use of appropriate waste collection equipment and manpower, by Mr Elliott
Saturday. 29 August 1992
08: 30 - 1 0 : 3 0
1 1 : 00 - 13 : 00
1 3 : 30 - 15 : 00
Role and use of computers in solid waste management, by Mr Elliot
Use and application of HABITAT programme, using local or country data, by Mr Elliott
Case-studies discussion, by Mr Elliott/Dr Anderson
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 29
Sunday . 3 0 August 1992
08 : 3 0 - 13 : 3 0
1 3 : 3 0 - 15 : 00
HABITAT computer programme , by Mr Elliott
Country discussions/case-studies, by Mr Elliott
Monday. 31 August 1992
08: 3 0 - 10 : 3 0
1 0 : 3 0 - 11 : 00
1 1 : 3 0 - 13 : 00
13 : 3 0 - 15 : 00
Practical Tutorial for problem-solving , by Mr Elliott/Or Anderson
Solid waste management problems and Environmental Health conditions in some EHR countries , by Dr M. z . Khan
Practical tutorial for problem-solving by Mr Elliott/Dr Anderson
case-studies/country discussion , by Dr Rayyan/Mr Bani Hani
Tµesday, 1 September 1992
08: 00 - 09 : 00
0 9 : 0 0 - 14 : 3 0
Role of on-site storage facilities in preventing environmental health problems, by Mr Elliott
Site visit to solid waste storage facilities (small, large residential, commercial , institutional) maintenance operation and problems, Baqa' a refugee camps , Abu-Nusair City, Jordan University (University Hospital incinerator), Tla ' Al Ali District (container maintenance workshop) , in Amman Dr Rayyan/Mr Bani Hani
Wednesday. 2 September 1992
08: 00 - 09 : 00
09 : 0 0 - 15 : 00
Initial review and assessment of course
Site visit to factories for paper and carton, and agricultural plastic recycling operations, Dr Rayyan/Mr Bani Hani
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 30
Thursday. 3 September 1992
09: 00 - 14 : 3 0 Site visit to waste collection vehicle storage and maintenance workshop (scheduling, routing, computer monitoring, personnel allocation, problems) , Dr Rayyan/Mr Bani Han!
Saturday. 5 September 1992
09: 00 - 14: 30 site visit to Madaba, and Humra disposal sites to discuss, observe and formulate procedures for running the disposal sites, Dr Rayyan/Mr Bani Hani
Sunday . 6 September 1992
08 : 30 - 15: 00 Evaluation, presentation and discussion of waste storage, collection, transportation and disposal alternates, by each participant Dr Rayyan/Mr Bani Hani
Monday . 7 September 1992
08: 30 - 09: 30
09: 30 - 10: 30
10: 30 - 1 1: 00
CEHA' s role and services in environmental health (EH) in EMR, by Dr H. El-Baroudi/Dr N. Al-Shorbaji
Tour of CEHA by participants
Closing ceremony in the presence of H. E. the Minister of Health
Remarks by country participants, course Adviser/CEHA Coordinator
summary of course evaluation and assesment, by course secretary
Closing of the course by H.E. the Minister of Health
CEHA staff meeting with H . E . the Minister of Health and tour of CEHA
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 3 1
Annex 3
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
AFGHANISTAN
Eng . Naj ibullah Masumyar Head Department of Environmental Health
Engineering Ministry of Public Health Kabul
EGYPT
Mr Maged Mahmoud Kamel Khalil Chief Administrator for Cleanliness General Organization of Cleanliness
and Beautification of Cairo Cairo
Eng. Mohamed Ahmed Abdullah Marzouk Manager Fertilizer Factory Alexandria
ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN
Mr Abdel Rassul Etemad Fard Expert , Environmental Health Environmental Health Department Ministry of Health and Medical Education Teheran
Mr Firouz Kabiree Expert , Environmental Health Deputy Health of Gilan Provincial Health centre Ministry of Health and Medical Education Teheran
IRAQ
Miss Kifah Abdul Hussein Ministry of Health Baghdad
Eng . Naamet Hassan Mahmood Directorate of Baghdad Protection Sector Baghdad Health Office Baghdad
JORDAN
Mr Khalil Oabbas Ministry of Health Amman
Mr Salah Al-Hiari Ministry of Health Amman
MOROCCO
Mr Mohamed Jad Ministry of Health Rabat
Mr Abdelaziz Khantache Ministry of Health Rabat
OMAN
WHO/EM/CEHA/54-E Page 32
Mr Saleh Ben Salem Al Farsy Inspector Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment P. o. Box 323 Muscat
Mr Sadiq Abdul Hussain Abdullah Al Saj wani Head of Wastes Section Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment P . o . Box 323 Muscat
PAKISTAN
Mr Jehanzeb Director Maintenance Capital Development Authority (CDA) Islamabad
Mr Hafiz Mohammad Ehsanul-Haq Assistant Director, CDA Islamabad
SUDAN
Mr Awad Ahmed Mukhtar
WHO-EM/CEGA-54-E Page 33
Senior Public Health Inspector Kordofan State El Obecd
Mr Morgpani Mohamed Abdalla Senior Public Health Inspector Khartoum North Municipality Khartoum
SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC
Mr Menzer El-Masri Ministry of Housing and Utilities Damascus
Mr Hinen Haddad Ministry of Housing and Utilities Damascus
TUNISIA
Dr Saadi Mohamed Mounir Chef de Service de l'Hygiene du
Milieu et de l 'Assainissement Ministere de la Sante Publique Sousse
REPUBLIC OF YEMEN
Mr Abdulla Sunbol Director capital Cleaning Project Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning Sana'a
Eng. Farouk Zaid Director Aden Cleaning Project Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning Aden
Eng. Maysoon Bsaiso Ministry of Health Amman, Jordan
Eng. Ahmad Arafat Ministry of Health Amman
Eng. Shourouk Hamarneh Ministry of Health Amman
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 34
Observers
United Nations Relief and Works Agency tor the Palestine Refugees in the Near East {UNRWA)
Mr Nazih Shalabk Amman
Mr A. Karim Jouda Gaza
Mr Tawfiq Za'atreh Amman
Mr Suleiman Fadayel West Bank
Mr Hassan Mohamed Arid Lebanon
Dr Hussein A. Gezairy Regional Director EMRO
Or M. I. Sheikh
WHO Secretariat
Director, Division of Environmental Health EMRO
Dr H. El-Baroudi WHO Coordinator Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities (CEHA) Amman
Dr M . z . Khan Training and Research Adviser CEHA
Dr G. K. Anderson WHO Temporary Adviser
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 3 5
Department of Civil Engineering University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, U. K.
Mr D. J. Elliott WHO Temporary Adviser Department of civil Engineering University of Newcastle Upon Tyne Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, u . K.
Dr Fawzi Rayyan WHO Temporary Adviser Civil Engineering Department University of Jordan Amman, Jordan
Engineer Mohammed Bani Hani WHO Temporary Adviser Cleaning Department Greater Amman Municipality Amman, Jordan
a) Site
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 36
Annex 4
CHECKLISTS/METHODS FOR EVALUATING DISPOSAL SITES
Distance from refuse generation area High ways or main roads Fence and entrance Trees around the site Administration offices Communications Furniture Filing Sanitation facility Supervision
b) Main Services
Electric supply Water supply Maintenance workshop Maintenance tools and access Fire fighting Machinery and equipment
c) Quantity
Types and models Technical conditions Standby (M . and E) Maintenance programme Filing
d) Environmental and Engineering Designs:
Lining Inside roads Gas vents Underground water monitoring Leachate monitoring The life of the site
WHO-EM/CEHA/54-E Page 37
e) Receiving Trucks and Refuse Unloading
Traffic control (Directions) Truck inspection (Load inspection) Weighing Inside road condition Daily refuse quantity Number of coming trucks (daily) Soil available Spreading and lowpack Leachate appearance Smell - from covered refuse
- from coming refuse Gas vents Sorting (Scavengers) Paper, sacks, • • around the site
inside outside
f) Landfill Operations Check list
Site accessibility Water quality Air quality Vectors Asthetics Cover material Compaction Safety Records Wastes handling
Water resources Site distance Climate Future utilization Cost Total areas needed Site topography Public acceptance
WHo-EM/CEHA/54 -E Page 3 8
PRINCIPLES I N CHOOSING DOMESTIC SOLID WASTE LANDFILL
Scoring Points
4 0 10 10
5 15 10
5 5
1 0 0