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Workshop on Motor Vehicle Emmission Control, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 26-30 September 1994 : report

31 décembre 1994 Organisation mondiale de la santé

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(WP)jICPjRUDj001 Report series No.: RS/94/GE/25(MAA)

English only

REPORT

WORKSHOP ON MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSION CONTROL

Convened by: WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

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WESTERN PACIFIC REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CENTRE (EHC) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 26-30 September 1994

Not for sale Printed and distributed by: World Health Organization Western Pacific Regional Environmental Health Centre (EHC) P.O. Box 12550 50782 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia November 1994

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2 0 DEC 1994

NOTE The views expressed in this report are those of the participants in the Workshop on Motor Vehicle Emission Control and do not necessarily reflect the policies of the Organization.

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This report has been prepared by the World Health Organization Western Pacific Regional Environmental Health Centre (EHC) for governments of Member States in the Region and for those who participated in the Workshop on Motor Vehicle Emission Control, which was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from 26 to 30 September 1994.

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CONTENTS

SUMMARY 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1

... 2.

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 1 Participants........................................................................................................................ 1 Organization ..................................................................................................................... 1 Opening ceremony ........................................................................................................... 1

PROCEEDINGS ...................................................................................................................... 2

2.1 Country reports ................................................................................................................2 2.2 Summary of discussions/activities ................................................................................ 3 2.3 Evaluation........................................................................................................................20 3.

CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................................................................21 ANNEXES: ANNEX 1 - LIST OF PARTICIPANTS, OBSERVERS AND SECRETARIAT ..........................................................................................23 ANNEX 2 - WORKSHOP PROGRAMME.................................................................27 ANNEX 3 OPENING ADDRESS .............................................................................. .31

ANNEX 4 - LIST OF DOCUMENTS DISTRIBUTED DURING THE WORKSHOP .............. :................................................................................33

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ANNEX 5 - SUMMARY OF COUNTRY REPORTS ..............................................35 ANNEX 6 - RESPONSES TO THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAlRE ......... .55

Keywords:

Motor vehicle emission control/Workshop

SUMMARY

Objectives of the workshop: The objectives ofthe Workshop on Motor Vehicle Emission Control were: (1) to review recent technological developments in reducing emissions from motor vehicles;

(2) to compare motor vehicle air pollution control programmes in various countries in terms of their relative effectiveness; (3) to identify alternative approaches to prevent urban air pollution from motor vehicles; and (4) to develop approaches for advocacy of control programmes especially by the health sector when dealing with development and urban management programmes.

Summary of proceedings and conclusions: The workshop was attended by 17 participants, from China, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Singapore and Viet Nam, an observer from the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and an observer from the University of Agriculture, Malaysia. The proceedings included presentations of country problems and issues by the participants, technical papers by a WHO consultant and a staff member, "interactions" sessions by a WHO staff member, and a field trip to the Proton Assembly Plant, Shah Alam (near Kuala Lumpur).

The participants drew 10 conclusions, covering such topics as technical measures to reduce emissions from motor vehicles, alternative approaches to motor vehicle emission control, utilization of expertise within the Region through information exchange and technology transfer, the possible adoption of some economic instruments as an adjunct to command-andcontrol requirements, and ways of handling the various personal interactions that are required in this multi-faceted field. It is important that workshops of this type be held very frequently. The usual policy of not having them on a particular topic more frequently than once every five years is inappropriate. Developments in the various aspects of motor vehicle emission control are occurring rapidly, and their implementation is urgently required in several of the countries of the Region. A pool of well informed personnel, located in the appropriate government agencies, is a concomitant requirement of this. From the responses to the evaluation questionnaire, and additional verbal comments of the participants, the workshop can be considered an overwhelming success.

1. INTRODUCI10N

The Workshop on Motor Vehicle Emission Control was held at the WHO Western Pacific Regional Environmental Health Centre (EHC), on the campus of the University of Agriculture, Malaysia (Universiti Pertanian Malaysia), Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia, from 26 to 30 September 1994. 1.1 Objectives The objectives of the workshop were: to review recent technological developments in reducing emissions from motor (1) vehicles; to compare motor vehicle air pollution control programmes in various countries in (2) terms of their relative effectiveness; (3) to identify alternative approaches to prevent urban air pollution from motor vehicles; and to develop approaches for advocacy of control programmes especially by the health (4) sector when dealing with development and urban management programmes. An evaluation by the participants showed the objectives were fully met. 1.2 Participants

The workshop was attended by 17 participants, from China, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Singapore and Viet Nam, an observer from the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia-and the Pacific and an observer from the University of Agriculture, Malaysia. A list of participants, observers and the secretariat is given in Annex 1. 1.3 Organization

The workshop programme is given in Annex 2. The opening ceremony was chaired by Dr P. Guo, Director of EHC, and the remaining sessions were chaired by Mr Kevin Rolfe, Air Quality Management Specialist, EHC. Introductory briefings were made by Ms L Y. Chan, Administrative Officer, EHC, and by Mr Rolfe; the participants made presentations of country problems and issues; technical papers were presented by Mr Michael Walsh, WHO consultant, and Mr Rolfe; the "interactions" sessions were led by Mr Stephen Tamplin, Regional Adviser in Environmental Health, WHO jWPRO; and a field trip was made to the Proton Assembly Plant, Shah Alam (near Kuala Lumpur). The presentations of country problems and issues and technical papers were followed by lengthy discussion sessions, all of which had a high degree of participation. 1.4 Opening ceremony

Professor Dr Rahim Md Sail, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, University of Agriculture, Malaysia, made an address at the opening ceremony, welcoming the participants to the University campus and to Malaysia.

-2Dr S.T. Han, WHO Regional Director for the Western Pacific, delivered the opening address. He noted the rapid increase in the number of motor vehicles in some countries of.t~e Region and that the air quality is deteriorating in many urban. areas, to such an extent that It 18 becoming a significant threat to human health. As for the work of WHO, he specifically referred to the Regional Strategy on Health and Environment, which was endorsed by the Regional Committee of WHO in September 1993. Motor vehicle emission control is one of the priority activities in the Regional Strategy. Dr Han also expressed his satisfaction with the objectiVes of the workshop, and he encouraged active participation by all. He then declared the workshop open. The full text of the opening address is given in Annex 3. Also present at the opening ceremony were Dr M.S. Pillay, Director of Engineering Services Division, Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Dr B.P. Kean, Director, Drug Policy, Environmental Health and Health Technology, WHO/WPRO, and Dr LR. Verstuyft, WHO Representative for Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam and Singapore.

2. PROCEEDINGS

2.1

CountO' reports

In a significant departure from the usual WHO workshop, participants were requested to include detailed technical information in their country reports, a list of which is given in Annex 4. A large number of specific questions were asked to guide the preparation of the reports. (The guidelines are given in Annex 5.) The reason for this was that it was hoped that the presentations of the country reports would focus on particular problems and issues in the country, those that were of most interest to the other participants. The aim was, therefore, to have the country reports themselves forming only part of the background information for the Workshop. Most of the country reports followed the format requested. Reports were received from China Hong Kong Japan Philippines Republic of Korea Singapore VietNam ~ust~alia did not forward a country report and did not participate in the Workshop. MalaYSia did not prepare a country report. A summary of the country reports is given in Annex 5.

.. -3 2.2 2.2.1 Summaty of discussions/activities Presentations of country problems and issues

The following is a collation of some of the more interesting points in the presentations of country problems and issues, either from the presentations themselves or from the extensive discussions which followed each presentation. Although Malaysia did not produce a country report, they did make a presentation. (It is material from the Malaysian presentation which is referred to in Annex 4.) China

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The vehicle population of China has been growing at a rate of approximately 14.5% per year for the past decade and is expected to reach 13 million by the year 2000. In Beijing, motor vehicles are responsible for 58% of the carbon monoxide emissions, 87% of the hydrocarbons and 69% of the nitrogen oxides. In 1991, gasoline production exceeded 15 million tonnes, 56% of which was low octane (about 70 Motor Octane Number (MON)) and 44% high octane (90 Research Octane Number (RON) or better). Approximately 18% of the production was unleaded, but very little of that was sold in China. By 1995, 90% of production is expected to be high octane and by 2000 this should rise to 100%, 50% of which should be unleaded. A total of seventeen regulations have been adopted for China's motor vehicles to date under the 1989 Law on Environmental Protection.

Hong Kong Hong Kong's efforts to address motor vehicle air pollution continue to focus on diesel particulate control. This is because particulates are the most serious problem at present, and motor vehicles are estimated to be responsible for approximately 50% of the fine particulate emissions. Using methodology developed by the california Air Resources Board, officials estimate that diesel particulate causes approximately 290 premature deaths from lung cancer each year in Hong Kong. With regard to diesel. the sulphur levels is at present 0.36% by weight. In April 1995 it is to be reduced to 0.2%, and further reductions to 0.05% are planned for 1997 or 1998.

Diesel vehicle emissions standards will also be tightened in April 1995. All new passenger cars and taxis after that date must comply with either the United States 1990 standards or the European Union Step 1 standards ot Japanese standards. Similar requirements will apply to all light and medium goods vehicles and light buses. For goods vehicles and buses with a design weight of 3.5 tonnes or more, either the United States 1990 or the European Union Step 1 standards will apply. For in-use diesel vehicles, the smoke limits based on the European free acceleration test will be lowered to 50 Hartridge smoke units (HSU). For vehicle certification purposes, the limit will be 40 HSU. Hong Kong is still trying to convert all light duty diesel vehicles to gasoline. Studies are also being carried out regarding the possibility of converting some or all taxis to either natural gas or electric propulsion. The Government also remains interested in the possibility of retrofitting buses with either catalysts or diesel particulate fIlters. With regard to inspection and maintenance, Hong Kong still plans to introduce a mandatory programme by May 1996. Unleaded gasoline is now responsible for 71 % of sales. Notably, the benzene content of unleaded gasoline is only 3.44% by volume, virtually the same as for leaded gasoline.

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Japan The Japanese Government continues to move forward, albeit slowly, with ~ts re~t~on of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter from diesel vehicles. Long-term targets, identified m 1989, will be phased in over the period 1997 to 1999. For nitrogen oxides from gasoline trucks, standards will be tightened on a faster schedule, in 1994 and 1995. Japan is still working on motorcycle standard~, but ~his is not a high priority .because hydrocarbons, the primary pollutant from these vehIcles, IS not seen as a problem m Japan. Philippines Unleaded gasoline was introduced on a voluntary basis in February 1994. The price is the same as for leaded gasoline. The maximum lead content of leaded gasoline is now 0.15 grams per litre. Republic of Korea A series of recent amendments to the Air Quality Control Law will gradually tighten vehicle emissions standards in the Republic of Korea. The sulphur content of diesel was reduced to a maximum of 0.4% by weight for the period February 1991 to December 1992 and to 0.2% for the period January 1993 to December 1995, and will be reduced to 0.1% thereafter. The Government is also investigating possible improvements to its inspection and maintenance programme. Research remains active in the use of diesel particulate filters. Three types of approaches destruction of the collected particulate matter are under investigation - burner systems which are seen as prime candidates for large vehicles, electrically heated systems which are considered most appropriate for medium-sized vehicles, and Cerium fuel additive (self regeneration) systems which may be adequate for smaller vehicles in cities with adequately hilly terrains. Research is also underway on electrically heated catalysts, natural gas engines, two stroke engines and lean nitrogen oxides catalysts. Malaysia Malaysia has 7 million vehicles at present and this number continues to grow rapidly. Motor vehicles are responsible for approximately 67% of the nitrogen oxides emissions, 26% of the particulate matter, and virtually all of the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Approximately 23% of the fine particulates from motor vehicles comes from motorcycles. Smoke standards have been introduced for in-use diesel vehicles - 50 Hartridge smoke units - but at least 20% of those vehicles do not comply with that requirement. The sulphur content of diesel is 0.6% by weight. Approximately 50% of the gasoline sold is unleaded; the remainder is leaded at 0.15 grams per litre. (This level was set in January 1990.) Unleaded gasoline was previously the same price as leaded, but recently the Government changed the tax structure so that unleaded gasoline is now about 3 per cent cheaper than leaded.

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The Government has been working to develop tighter vehicle standards and is planning to introduce catalyst based requirements for new cars in 1996 or 1997. The tecluucal work for this regulation has been completed and it is now being put into a legal framework by lawyers. . (However, see also Section 2.2.4.) The stated policy is to adopt the standards of the European Union for both gasoline and diesel vehicles. to introduce low smoke oils for motorcycles, to encourage a continuation of the increasing proportion of gasoline sales which are unleaded, and to lower the sulphur content of diesel to somewhere in the range of 0.2% to 0.3% by weight.

Singapore Singapore has a comprehensive motor vehicle pollution control programme in place, and is the world's leader in traffic management and constraint. The strategy has two elements improving the emission controls provided on vehicles and fuel quality to reduce emissions, and using traffic management measures to control the growth of vehicle population and fuel consumption. Between 1981 and 1987, the lead content of leaded gasoline was gradually reduced from 0.8 grams to 0.15 grams per litre. The use of unleaded gasoline was encouraged in February 1990 through a differential tax system which made unleaded about 10 per cent cheaper than leaded. All gasoline vehicles registered for use in Singapore after July 1991 must be able to use unleaded petrol. These measures have resulted in the greater use of unleaded gasoline, accounting for about 57% of sales at the end of 1993. The sulphur content of diesel is currently 0.5% by weight, and will be reduced to 0.3% from July 1996. Emission standards for petrol vehicles have been progressively tightened since 1984, and the standards currently in force are the European Regulation No. 83 and the Japanese emission standards contained in Article 31 of the Safety Regulations for Road Vehicles. With effect from July 1994, the former were updated to those in the Consolidated Emission Directive of the European Union. Since October 1992, motorcycles and scooters have been required to comply with the United States 1980 emission standards. Since January 1991, all diesel vehicles have been required to comply with European standards before they can be registered for use in Singapore. All in-use vehicles are required to undergo periodic inspections to check their road worthiness and exhaust emissions at idle mode. Vehicles which fail the inspections are not allowed to renew their road tax. Singapore's transport policy strives to provide free-flowing traffic within the constraint of limited land. A four-part approach has been adopted to achieve this. First, the need to travel is minimized through systematic town planning. Second, an extensive and comprehensive network of roads and expressways, augmented by traffic management measures, has been built to provide quick accessibility to all parts of the country. Third, a viable and efficient public transport system, that integrates both the mass transit rail system and bus services, is promoted. Fourth, the growth and usage of vehicles are managed to prevent congestion on the road. Public transport in Singapore is widely available and includes a mass rapid transit (MRT) system, a comprehensive bus network and over 13 000 taxis The average usage of the MRT in 1993 was 613 000 passenger rides per day. Work is under way to extend the MRT, and is expected to be completed in 1996. Two public bus companies together operate 3 109 buses on 221 routes. The average usage of the bus system in 1993 was 2.8 million passenger rides per day.

·6· The expense of owning and operating a vehicle in Singapore has served as an effective: control on the growth of the vehicle population. A series of innovative, if somewhat dracoman, measures have been introduced. On initial registration, vehicle owners must pay sizable import duti~ and re~tration fees. In addition, vehicle owners pay annual road taxes based on the engm~ capaClty. The road tax of company-registered vehicles is twice the private rate. For diesel vehicles, a diesel tax which is six times the road tax of an equivalent gasoline vehicle is payable. To encourage people to replace their old vehicles with newer, more efficient models, a preferential registration fee system was introduced in 1975. Private car owners who replace their vehicles within ten years are given aedits that they can use to offset the registration fees payable when they register their new vehicles. For vehicles registered on or after November 1990, the registration fee aedits vary according to the age of the vehicle at deregistration. For vehicles registered before November 1990, a fixed fee credit is given upon deregistration based on the engine capacity. When it became clear that high duties and taxes alone would not ensure that the vehicle population grew at an acceptable rate, a vehicle quota system was introduced to achieve that objective. Since May 1990, any person who wishes to register a vehicle must first obtain a vehicle entitlement in the appropriate vehicle class, through bidding. Tenders for a specified number of vehicle entitlements are conducted monthly. Successful bidders pay the lowest successful bid price of the respective category in which they bid. A vehicle entitlement is valid for ten years from the date of registration of the vehicle. On expiration of the vehicle entitlement, if the owner wishes to continue using the vehicle, he/she needs to revalidate the entitlement for another five or ten years by paying a revalidation fee (pegged at 50% or 100% of the prevailing quota premium, respectively).

A weekend car scheme was introduced in May 1991 to allow more people to own private cars without adding to traffic congestion during peak hours. Vehicles registered under the scheme enjoy substantial tax concessions, which include a 70% reduction in road tax and a tax rebate of up to a maximum of S$15 000 (US$10 (00) on registration. Weekend vehicles are identifiable by their red licence plates, fixed in place with a tamper-evident seal. They can only be driven between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m. during the week, after 3 p.m. on Saturdays, but any time on Sundays and public holidays. Weekend vehicles can be driven outside those hours, but owners must display a special day licence. Each weekend vehicle owner is given five free day licences per year and can buy additional ones at S$20 (US$13) each. An area licensing scheme was introduced in June 1975 to reduce traffic ~estion in the city area during the peak hours. Only passenger cars were affected initially. The scheme has since been gradually modified, and now it covers all vehicles except ambulances, fire engines, police vehicles and public buses. Along with command-and-control measures (that is, improvements to vehicles and fuel quality), the use of these traffic management measures has significantly contributed to the protection of the air quality in Singapore. Although the present measures appear to be adequate, Singapore will continue to look ahead for ways to improve them further. Pilot studies of three electronic road pricing systems are being carried out and the most suitable system will be selected for implementation in 1997. VietNam Viet Nam has a very modest vehicle population at present, most of which are two stroke motorcycles. However, it is expected to grow quite rapidly over the next decade or two. The existing vehicles are highly polluting, however, due to the absence of any controls, poor maintenance and inadequate spare parts, dirty and low quality fuels. Gasoline is low octane (typically 83 RON and 76 MaN) with 0.4 grams of lead per litre. Diesel has a sulphur content

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of approximately 1% by weight. In addition, the roads are very inadequate. They are mostly unpaved and comprise only 35% of the land area, compared with 23% in a typical developed country. 2.2.2 Technical papers

A series of technical papers were presented covering all major aspects of a comprehensive motor vehicle pollution control strategy - gasoline vehicle emission control technology, diesel vehicle emission control technology, gasoline and diesel fuel quality, alternative fuels, and transportation contro1$ and traffic management. Economic and other policy instruments to encourage these strategies were also analyzed, along with implementation issues (including inspection and maintenance) and institutional requirements. These presentations served to complement the country papers and to provide background information on each topic. Throughout the workshop there was plenty of time allocated for discussions. After, and in some cases during, each of the presentations of the technical papers there was a discussion session. There was a high degree of participation in the discussions. The following is a summary of some of the main points which came out of the technical papers, either from the presentations themselves or from the discussion sessions.

Gasoline vehicle emission control t~hnology Japan, in particular, with it's very large motor vehicle industry, has been in \he forefront of developments of gasoline vehicle emission control technologies. The Republic of Korea, Singapore and Hong Kong have also illustrated the feasibility and benefits of adopting standards which require gasoline vehicles to apply those technologies: They should also be applied in the other countries of the Region. Before emission controls on gasoline vehicles were required, fumes from the engine crankcase were vented directly to the atmosphere. Crankcase emission controls simply involved closing the crankcase vent port, and were introduced on new automobiles in the early 1960s. Control of these emissions is no longer considered a significant technical issue. Evaporative emissions of hydrocarbons result from distillation of fuel in the carburettor float bowl and evaporation of fuel in the gasoline tank, and is becoming an increasingly substantial contributor to overall hydrocarbon emissions (especially as other sources of emissions are better controlled). Satisfactory. control of these emissions requires lower volatility gasoline, on-board refuelling systems, and feeding the hydrocarbons vapours back into the engine to be burned along with the rest of the fuel. When the engine is not in operation, vapours are stored, either in the engine crankcase or in charcoal canisters, to be burned off when the engine is started. By far the most technically difficult emission control problem for gasoline vehicles is the one related to vehicle exhaust emissions. Fortunately, much progress has been made during the last decade in the deVelopment of control technologies which are capable of dramatic reductions in the exhaust emissions of pollutants. These involve improvements to fuel combustion, changes in engine design and exhaust treatment devices. Certain engine design parameters are capable of inducing significant changes in emissions. Most notable among these are the air/fuel ratio and mixture preparation, ignition timing, and combustion chamber design and compression ratio. Tighter emission standards have required more specific attention to the treatment of vehicle exhaust emissions. Commonly used technologies to control exhaust emissions include recirculation of exhaust gases, electronic control of engine performance, exhaust after-

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treatment devices, and advanced combustion techniques. With the current state-of-the-art, engine modifications alone cannot reduce emissions to the same extent'as "three-way" (oxidation and reduction) catalyst systems. Many technologies which exist today and could be placed on automobiles to improve fuel economy, such as advanced air/fuel management systems, fuel injection, electronic controls of spark timing, advanced choke systems, improved transmissions, etc, can also result in significant benefits in terms of exhaust emissions. In fact, some of the advances in fuel efficiency were made as a direct result of increasingly tighter emission control requirements. Furthermore. it is likely that in the absence of tight emission requirements these advanced technologies would not have been placed on automobiles. In many cases, once these technologies have been introduced, fuel economy has been even better than when emission requirements were less stringent. As vehicle technology is pushed harder and harder to achieve low pollution levels, irrespective of where in the world the advances are applied, common elements are starting to emerge. First, in every case, the least polluting vehicles are those equipped with axidationreduction catalytic converters. Second, as catalytic converters are poisoned by lead from gasoline and by phosphorous from engine oils, their use inevitably foster the introduction of unleaded gasoline and cleaner engine oils. Third, to optimize the effectiveness of these emission control systems, better air/fuel ratio and spark management systems have evolved, leading to a much greater use of both electronics and fuel injection. These advances, in tum, increase the prospects of better fuel efficiency and lower carbon dioxide emissions. Recognizing that there is no universal consensus regarding the cost and fuel economy impacts of emission regulations, a fiUr conclusion would seem to be that technologies exist which can lower emissions from gasoline vehicles by at least an order of magnitude. at an incremental capital cost of approximately 3% to 5% of the overall cost of a vehicle with no pollution controls, and with improved fuel economy compared with an uncontrolled vehicle. . This particular conclusion is especially relevant to some of the countries in this Region, such as China, Malaysia (see Section 2.2.4), and Viet Nam. The technology to reduce emissions from gasoline vehicles continues to evolve and develop. Lower trace lead levels in unleaded gasoline and more advanced emission control equipment, particularly more durable catalysts, better air/fuel management systems, and electronic components will be key elements of future control measures. Two- and three-wheeled vehicles, such as motorcycles and motorized rickshaws constitute a large portion of vehicles in many Asian cities, and they make a substantial contribution to air pollution from mobile sources. In particular, motorcycles with two-stroke engines, running on a mixture of gasoline and lubricating oil, can be major sources of hydrocarbons in urban areas. Technologies available to control emissions from two- and three-wheeled vehicles are similar to those available for other gasoline vehicles, as described above. Reducing the content of lubricating oil in the fuel is an effective flfSt approach. Improving the relatively simple type of carburettors used on motorcycles would help to significantly reduce hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and smoke emissions. Even catalytic converters are technologically feasible for these engines, and are becoming more commonly used. Electric motorcycles are also being introduced. . Diesel vehicle emission control technology The Republic of Korea is probably the most advanced country in the Region on the development of diesel vehicle emission control technologies. It is a matter of vital interest and concern to most of the other countries, especially Hong Kong, Japan, Philippines and Malaysia. Next to, and parallel with, improvements in fuel quality, it is probably the most important technical issue in motor vehicle emission control in this Region.

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Diesel engine emissions are determined by the characteristics of the combustion process within each cylinder. Primary engine parameters affecting diesel emissions are the fuel injection system, the engine control system, the air intake port and combustion chamber design, and the air charging system. Measures to reduce lubricating oil consumption can also reduce emissions of hydrocarbons and particulate matter. Beyond the engine, exhaust treatment systems such as trap oxidizers and catalytic converters can playa significant role. Exhaust emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons from diesel vehicles are quite low compared to gasoline vehicles. Thus much of the attention on diesel exhaust emissions has focused on emissions of particulate matter and nitrogen oxides. The particulate matter from diesel exhaust consists of soot, condensed hydrocarbons, su1phur-based compounds, and other oil-derived material. Smoke represents the immediately visible portion of particulate emissions, and its opacity depends on the number and size of carbon particles present. The main cause of black smoke is poor maintenance of air filters or fuel injectors. Fuel quality can also affect smoke emissions, the main factors being fuel density, the proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons in the diesel and the volatility (distillation properties). Most of the techniques for reducing particulate matter and hydrocarbon emissions from diesel engines improve the combustion efficiency and are fuel efficient, but result in higher nitrogen oxides concentrations in the exhaust. Common approaches to emission control. therefore, require a series of diesel engine modifications, including improved fuel injection, electronic engine controls, combustion chamber modifications, better air handling arrangements, reduced oil consumption measures, turbocharging, ignition timing retardation, exhaust gas recirculation, decreasing the heat rejection from the engine, etc In order to achieve low levels of particulate matter emissions, manufacturers have also turned to the development of exhaust treatment devices. Two main types are being developed and evaluated. First, a flow-through catalytic converter designed to operate on low sulphur diesel. which could reduce the soluble organic fraction of the particulate matter by as much as 90% and maybe also the carbon portion. Second, and probably the more promising, is the trap oxidizer system. It has demonstrated particulate matter removal efficiencies of better than 90%. Existing heavy-duty diesel-powered vehicles, particularly buses and trucks operating in urban areas, pose a special problem to air quality management in those'areas. A number of development and demonstration projects involving retrofitting particulate traps and oxidation catalysts to buses and trucks are underway, and the results to date have been extremely encouraging. The fuel economy of diesel vehicles tends to suffer as a result of stringent exhaust emission requirements. Some techniques available for reducing nitrogen oxides emissions, primarily ignition timing retardation and exhaust gas recirculation, lead to poor fuel economy, but some other engine improvements, such as increased use of turbocharging and charge cooling, and better control of injection rates and timing, offset some of the fuel efficiency losses. Modifications to diesel vehicles so they can comply with more stringent exhaust emission limits are likely to increase vehicle costs, at least initially. Approximate capital cost increases for individual items include - 4% for turbocharging, 6% for charge cooling, 14% for improved high pressureiuel injection, and 4% -10% for a particulate trap. However, as with the implementation of gasoline vehicle emission control technologies, the costs will tend to go down when the equipment becomes standard. Vehicle maintenance costs are not likely to increase, except for particulate traps which have not yet been shown to be durable. Gasoline and diesel fuel quality

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Fuel quality (and/or the introduction of alternative fuels) is probably the single, most important technical issue at this time for motor vehicle emission control in several of the countries of the Region, such as China, Malaysia, Philippines and Viet Nam. This is because of

- 10the dual effects of the impact of fuel contaminants and additives on health and the environment, and the relationship between fuel quality and the performance of advan~ . emission control technologies. A few countries have made some progress on fuel modificatlons, but all seem to be interested in making additional improvements, especially with regard to diesel fuel Fuel specifications need to be comprehensive, and include maximum benzene and sulphur contents for gasoline and maximum sulphur content and minimum distillation and ignition properties for diesel. . Responding to both environmental and energy security considerations, conventional vehicle fuels have undergone substantial modification in recent decades and will likely be improved even more in the future. For gasoline, the major trend worldwide is the gradual removal of lead, both to reduce lead emissions and to facilitate the use of pollution control technologies such as catalytic converters. Additional gasoline improvements include reduced volatility, increased oxygen content, a reduced proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons, and more widespread,use of detergent additives. Such fuel modifications can, if carefully introduced, substantially improve the environmental impacts of gasoline combustion. Throughout much of the industrialized world, unleaded fuel has been the norm for more than a decade. Japan has actually been the world leader in this regard, with more than 90% of the gasoline in that country being unleaded for almost two decades. When leaded gasoline is used, the lead content should be reduced to no more than 0.15 grams per litre. There are two methods of achieving high octane gasoline without the addition of lead compounds - increased refining of the gasoline and the addition of alcohols or ethers. The former, however, tends to increase the proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzene) in the gasoline. The addition of alcohols or ethers increases emissions of aldehydes, such as formaldehyde. The improvements currently being made to gasoline are producing what is referred to as reformulated gasoline. The main differences of reformulated gasoline, compared with conventional gasoline, are a lower vapour pressure and the addition of oxygen-containing compounds, up to about 6% by volume. . Lowering the vapour pressure of gasoline is very effective in reducing evaporative emissions. The impact of oxygen-containing hydrocarbons ("oxygenates") is less clear cut. This is because the addition of oxygenates to gasoline alters the stoichiometric airjfue1 ratio compared to pure gasoline. The leaner mixture may either reduce or increase the level of pollutants in the exhaust gases, depending on the carburettor setting. The increased amounts of oxygen, provided the carburettor setting is unchanged, reduces emissions of carbon monoxide. If the mixture becomes too lean, however, the hydrocarbon emissions could increase considerably dueto misfiring. There is also a tendency towards increased evaporative emissions and more exhaust emissions of photochemically reactive aldehydes. Benzene emissions are reduced by the addition of oxygenates, primarily as a result of the dilution effect. The quality and composition of diesel fuel can have important effects on emissions from diesel vehicles. Diesel quality has been the subject of a great deal of study in the last few years, and a large amount of new information has become available. Improvements to diesel· quality are a cost-effective means of reducing emissions from existing vehicles. The two modifications which show the most promise are reductions in the sulphur content and in the fraction of aromatic hydrocarbons in the diesel. Other fuel properties may also affect emissions, but generally to a lesser extent. An . extensive study carried out in the Netherlands, however, indicates that the volatility of diesel (that is, the 85% or 90% distillation temperatures) is the most important factor followed in importance by the sulphur and aromatic hydrocarbon contents. The apparent discrepancy with

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United States findings might be the result of the lower volatility of European diesels, compared to those in the United States. The subject is currently being studied further. The use of fuel additives may also have a significant impact on emissions from diesel vehicles. In addition to a direct reduction in emissions of sulphur dioxide and sulphate particles, reducing the sulphur content of diesel reduces the formation of sulphate particles by the oxidation of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere. In some cities, with relatively high levels of photochemical oxidants, the quantities of particulate matter from the oxidation of sulphur dioxide emissions from diesel vehicles have been found to be as significant as the direct emissions of particulate matter. (That is, each tonne of sulphur dioxide emitted results in roughly an additional tonne of fine particulate matter in the atmosphere.) Sulphur dioxide conversion to particulate matter is highly dependent on local photochemical and meteorological conditions, however, and so the actual relationships could be greater or less in different cities. A reduction in the aromatic hydrocarbon content of diesel may also help to reduce emissions, especially in locations where the aromatic hydrocarbon levels are high. For existing diesel engines, a reduction in the aromatic hydrocarbon content from 35% to 20% by volume reduces emissions of particulate matter by 10% to 15%, and nitrogen oxides emissions by 5% to 10%. Hydrocarbon emissions, and possibly the mutagenic activity of the soluble organic fraction of the particulate matter, would also be reduced. Studies of the oil refining industry have shown that reductions in the aromatic hydrocarbon content of diesel of this magnitude can often be achieved through alterations in diesel fuel production and blending strategy,and without the need for major new investments in additional processing plant. A reduced aromatic hydrocarbon content of diesel has other environmental and economic benefits. It improves the ignition quality of the fuel, gives better cold starting and idling performance and reduces engine noise. The reduction in the use of catalytically cracked blending stocks should also have the beneficial effect of less deposits forming in the fuel injectors, reducing maintenance costs. On the negative side, however, the reduced aromatic hydrocarbon content might result in some impairment of cold flow properties, due to the increased paraffin content of the diesel A number of well-controlled studies have demonstrated the ability of detergent additives in diesel to prevent and remove fuel injector deposits, thus reducing smoke emissions. The reduced smoke probably results in reduced particulate emissions as well, but this has not been demonstrated as clearly, due to the expense of carrying out particulate emissions tests on in-use vehicles. Additives to improve the ignition properties of diesel (that is, to improve the Cetane number) are also likely to result in some reduction in hydrocarbon and particulate matter emissions. Alternative fuels

•

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Alternative fuels are emerging as important potential tools for reducing emissions from motor vehicles, and the current state of knowledge was summarized thoroughly during one of the technical sessions, and some interesting and informative discussions ensued. The possibility of substituting cleaner-burning alternative fuels for gasoline and diesel has drawn increasing attention during the last decade. Reasons for this include conservation of oil products and oil security, as well as reduction or elimination of pollutant emissions. Care is needed in evaluating the air quality benefits of alternative fuels, however - in many cases, the same or even greater emission reductions could be achieved with a conventional fuel and the use of a more advanced emission control system. Which approach is the more cost-effective will largely depend on the relative costs of the conventional and the alternative fuels. Alternative fuels to gasoline and diesel include methanol (made from natural gas, coal or biomass), ethanol (made from grain), vegetable oils, natural gas (predominantly composed of methane), liquefied petroleum gas (composed of propane and butane), electricity, hydrogen and synthetic liquid fuels (derived from coal or natural gas). The principal alternative fuels

- 12presently used or under consideration in industrialized countries are natural gas and me~hanol made from natural gas. Other fuels having present or potential local applications in ve~cles, particularly in developing countries, include liquefied petroleum gas and ethanol from biomass. Natural gas has many desirable qualities as an alternative fuel for motor vehicles. . Relatively clean burning, cheap and abundant in many parts of the world, it alre8:dy PI:tys a significant role in a number of countries, with more than 500 000 natural gas vehicles m operation worldwide. The major disadvantage of natural gas as a motor fuel is its gaseous form at normal temperatures. It is usually stored in a vehicle in compressed form. Nearly all of the natural gas vehicles now in operation are retrofits, converted from gasoline vehicles. The physical properties of natural gas make such a conversion relatively easy. Typical conversion costs are in the range of US$2 500 to US$4 000 per vehicle, and are due . mostly to the cost of the fuel storage system. At present fuel prices, many high-use vehicles can recover this cost in a few years, due to savings on fuel The incremental costs of new, factorybuilt light-duty natural gas vehicles (compared to gasoline vehicles) have been estimated at about US$700 to US$l 500 per vehicle, and would give even greater fuel savings, as the efficiency of a purpose-designed vehicle could be significantly greater. Plans are now underway for limited mass production of new natural gas vehicles in a number of countries. Liquefied .petroleum gas (LPG) is a mixture of several gases in varying proportions. Major constituents are propane and butane, with minor quantities of propylene and other hydrocarbon gases. As a fuel for gasoline engines, LPG has many of the same advantages as natural gas, and the additional advantage of being relatively easier to carry aboard the vehicle. It is already used as a vehicle fuel in many countries, commonly in taxis. There are with some 3.9 million LPG-powered vehicles worldwide, most of them ordinary gasoline cars converted to run on LPG without engine modifications. Emissions from existing LPG vehicles are therefore reasonably similar to those from vehicles running on gasoline. The major disadvantage of LPG is its limited supply, which would rule out any large-scale conversion to LPG fuel As with natural gas, nearly all LPG vehicles presently in operation are retrofitted gasoline vehicles. The costs of converting from gasoline to liquefied petroleum gas are considerably less than those of converting to natural gas, due primarily to the lower cost of the fuel tanks. For a light-duty vehicle, conversion costs of US$800 to US$1500 are typical As with natural gas, the cost of conversion for high-use vehicles can be recovered through lower fuel costs within a few years. Methanol can be used as a motor fuel either on its own or mixed with gasoline. It is made from natural gas, coal or biomass and can be transported in liquid form. It has several desirable combustion and emission characteristics. In view of the fact that it can be manufactured from non-petroleum sources, methanol is under serious investigation as an alternative automotive fuel As a liquid, methanol can either be burned in a gasoline engine or, with a supplementary ignition source, injected into the cylinder as in a diesel. The major air pollution issues with methanol engines are unburned fuel and formaldehyde. Methanol, and formic acid produced on combustion, exhibit a number of safety and handling problems which have led to some concerns about its possible widespread use. Formaldehyde, the first product of oxidation of methanol, is a powerful irritant and suspected carcinogen, and it displays very high photochemical reactivity. Another major drawback with methanol as a fuel is its cost, and the volatility of the pricing. Flexible fuel vehicles, capable of running on any combination of gasoline and up to 85% methanol have been developed, and a number of fleets of these vehicles are being demonstrated. The engines and emission control systems on these vehicles are similar to those for advanced-technology gasoline vehicles, and the overall energy efficiency and emissions properties are similar. The incremental cost of the flexible-fuel vehicle, compared to one designed for gasoline only, has been estimated to be about US$300 in large-scale production.

. - 13As the next highest of the alcohols in molecuJar weight, ethanol resembles methanol in most combustion and physical properties. Also, like methanol. ethanol can be produced from biomass it has considerable attraction as a potential alternative fuel. because it reduces a dependence on oil products. Technology for ethanol utilization in engines is essentially the same as for methanol.

Ethanol is produced primarily by fermentation of starch from grains or sugar from sugar cane. As a result, the production of ethanol for fuel is in direct competition with food production in most countries. The resulting high price of ethanol. almost twice as expensive as gasoline in relation to the amount of energy obtained from it, effectively rules out its use as a motor fuel for any but very specialized applications. The Brazilian Prooalcool programme, despite the availability of a large and inexpensive biomass resource, depends<ln massive government subsidies for its viability, and cannot be considered a success in any economic sense. Hydrogen gas is the alternative fuel with the best long-term potential from an environmental point of view. It can be used either directly as a fuel in an internal combustion engine or to produce electricity in a fuel cell. Hydrogen used directly as a motor fuel causes far less pollution than fossil fuels, the only waste products being water and nitrogen oxides. However, a major drawback associated with the use of hydrogen is its storage. It can be stored on board a vehicle as a gas, a liquid or in a metal hydride, and currently liquid storage is . considered the most promising option. An alternative concept for utilizing hydrogen as fuel in a passenger car could be offered

by fuel cells in combination with an electric motor. Inside the fuel cell hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water. This process produces usable electrical energy without the formation of nitrogen oxides. The conversion efficiency of hydrogen into electrical energy is between 50% and 60% and, because the efficiency of modern electric motors is very high, the fuel cellelectric motor propulsion system would have a relatively high overall efficiency. Disadvantages are high cost and heavy weight, about ten times that of a gasoline engine of the same power. If solutions to those problems can be found, the fuel cell will become a realistic alternative as a propulsion system for a passenger car. Electric vehicles are unique in that they themselves do not produce any emissions at all. It is important to remember, though, that unless the electricity is generated by a non-polluting source, the pollution problem is simply concentrated and transferred to another location - the site of, say, the coal- or oil-burning power station. The main obstacles to commercialization of electric vehicles are high costs, low battery performance and lack of infrastructure. Particularly, a breakthrough has to be accomplished in battery technology (life, energy density, charging times). The power and energy density of the battery-electric systems are currently only one third to one tenth that of gasoline systems, resulting in a serious range deficit. The major focus in electric vehicles at present is in the development of battery-powered electric passenger cars and light vans for commuter and delivery service in urban areas, where short range is not a problem. Hybrid-electric vehicles are a vehicle with an alternative power unit (generally, an internal combustion engine) used in conjunction with, or as a supplement to, the main electric battery source. This type of vehicle is offered as a near term solution to extend vehicle operation beyond the range currently provided by the batteries. Hybrid-electric vehicles may be a more promising technology than pure electric, as they would combine many of the advantages of battery-electric propulsion with much longer range. They could also be designed to have very low emissions. The motor in a hybrid electric vehicle would be designed to give least emissions and best fuel economy at one or two specific operating points, and would then always operate at these points. The motor would turn a generator, which in turn would charge batteries, which would supply the varying power needs of the vehicle over its operating cycle.

- 14Transportation controls and traffic management Singapore has the most advanced transportation con~rol and traffic ~nagc:ment . programmes in the world (see Section 2.2.1), and the technical paper and discussion on this aspect of motor vehicle emission control focused largelY on some of the key elements of that programme. Whatever success is achieved in reducing per kilometre emissions from vehicles can be eventually eroded by continued high growth rates in the number and use of vehicles. With very few exceptions, Singapore and Hong Kong being amongst them, transportation controls to reduce this growth have been a failure, not because they cannot work but rather because most countries have not seriously tried to implement them.

It is now clear that technological solutions to the motor vehicle pollution problem are increasingly offset by growth in the vehicle population. Therefore, a long-term solution to this important environmental problem is dependent on coming to grips with the overall growth issue. High growth rates have an impact on emissions in two ways - it directly increases emissions (more kilometres driven equals more pollution), and it leads to more congestion which further increases emissions. Reduction of vehicle-kilometres travelled has been shown to be an important, if not critical, means of controlling emissions, through carpooling, increased use of mass transport, parking restrictions, fuel rationing, etc. Traffic management policies are directed at inducing shifts to more efficient modes of transport, increasing the number of occupants in existing vehicles, reducing peak travel demand, and decreasing overall travel demand. Policies to induce shifts to more efficient transportation modes reduce energy consumption as well as vehicle emissions, per seat-kilometre. Examples of incentives include fare reductions and service improvements, such as extending coverage, reducing travel time, improving reliability, coordinating transfers, and construction of park-and-ride·facilities. Disincentives can also be placed, on the private automobile, in the form of increased parking charges, surcharge taxes on gasoline and diesel, and fuel rationing. The number of occupants in existing vehicles can be increased by such schemes as carpooling, dial-a-ride, shuttle bus services, etc. Policies to reduce peak travel demand decrease emissions from motor vehicles per seatkilometre by spreading traffic loads over a broader time frame. Use patterns of existing transportation capacity are thereby improved, through better vehicle operating efficiency. Examples of such policies include four-day work weeks, staggered working hourS''aIld general .,;. traffic circulation improvements, such as synchronized signals.

A reduction in overall travel demand can decrease passenger-kilometres travelled through a redistribution of urban activities. Land-use zoning policies Can be used to promote mixed land use, to increase density along transit corridors, and to coordinate new subdivision development into more efficient patterns. Technological improvements can also encourage substitution of communications for transportation flows. Although generally politically more difficult to implement than technological solutions, approaches involving transportation controls and traffic management can successfully promote fuel conservation, and can aid urban renewal They also represent the only motor vehicle emission control measures remaining once fuel and vehicle technologies have been pushed to their limits. Economic instruments

Successful economies, like some in this Region, that sustain high rates of economic growth tend to consume increasing amounts of transport services. As the level of economic activity rises, more economic transactions take place - people travel more frequently and longer

... - 15-

distances, a~d more and larger q~anti~ies of freight are transported to farther places. Likewise, car ownership levels g~ up, especially m urban areas where higher average incomes tend to con~~tr~te. The envIC~nment .bears some of the costs of this economic progress and increased mobility, m the form of mcreasmg levels of motor vehicle air pollution. In ~ome countries of the Region, certain economic instruments (such as, vehicle taxation, fuel taxation ~nd road user charges), specifically related to reducing motor vehicle air pollution, ~ay have an nnportant role to play, as an adjunct to command-and-control requirements. . Smgapore h.as already introduced some economic instruments (see Section 2.2.1), and they may also be particularly relevant to the Republic of Korea, Japan and Malaysia. Economic instruments can be an. especially useful approach to achieving the retrofitting of emission control systems on existing vehicles. Like traffic noise,road accidents and road damage, automotive air pollution is, to use economic terminology, a negative externality. It is negative because of its adverse impact on the environment and on the health and welfare of the individuals who become exposed to the higher air pollutant concentrations. It is an externality because its costs are not totally borne by those responsible for causing it - the road users. That is, road users derive private net benefits in making trips,.in that they impose costs on the rest of society they do not bear, such as increased air pollution. These externalities are examples of market failure; the absence of a market for the effects polluters have on those affected by motor vehicle air pollution. Only with government invention will road users bear the full costs associated with their travel behaviour. Economic theory suggests that governments should intervene by calculating the full damage associated with making trips and by requiring road users to pay for the damage. That is, the principle of polluter-pays should be applied in full. Despite its attractiveness and fairness, the full application of the polluter-pays principle to motor vehicle air pollution is not easy, because it requires the monitoring of each individual mobile source of emissions. Recent developments in the remote sensing of vehicle exhaust make direct monitoring of emissions more feasible, but there is still a difficulty in the evaluation of the damage costs from automotive air p0llution. Recently there has been some progress on the estimation of the social cost of air pollution (as measured by air quality monitoring) but the physical damage function for automotive air pollution is quite complex. Further work is required in this area. With these difficulties associated with the full application of polluter-pays, a more usual, partial approach is the application of economic instruments, in the form of fmancial incentives and disincentives, to assist compliance with air pollution control policies. These measures are sometimes referred to as "economic levers" or market/price mechanisms, and are designed to induce a change in the behaviour of producers and consumers. A wide variety of such mechanisms are possible - the most commonly used include subsidies, taxes/emission charges and fmes, and emission credits and quotas. Several of these economic levers can be used to promote the production and use of environmentally cleaner vehicles and fuels. These may include an environment tax on fuel, higher taxes on leaded or high sulphur fuels and tax incentives for cleaner vehicles. Such measures can be implemented at low cost and with a short lead time. Moreover, the revenues collected from these charges can be used to help finance air pollution abatement programmes. A variety of other pricing measures, some more socially acceptable than others, can be used to bolster policies to reduce air pollution from motor vehicles. For example, high purchase taxes and parking fees can be used to restrict the ownership and use of automobiles, and area licensing schemes and more precise electronic road pricing schemes may be

-. ...

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considered to impose direct or indirect congestion and environmental toll charges. Most incentive and pricing measures set up to promote the use of public transportation also serve to reduce motor vehicle air pollution. Implementation issues and institutional ref{uirements A great deal has been learned about reducing emissions.from ~oto~ vehicles, and ~ one should not conclude that higher emissions and more air pollution are m~~ble. Strat~gJ.es exist to both lower emissions per kilometre driven and to reduce actual dnvmg. Attention to both is required to ameliorate the othetwise likely major increases in urban air pollution in the future. The first priority, of course, should be directed at restraining future vehicle growth rates. Economic measures, physical restrictions and selective policies will each playa role. However, even if overall vehicle growth could be constrained to only 5% per year, much less than the current average in the Region, vehicle emissions would explode over the next 15years. In addition to restraining the growth rate, therefore, a series of additional strategies are necessary. The potential for reducing emissions and improving air quality must start with an assessment of existing vehicle emissions. Many factors affect the total inventory of motor vehicle emissions. Understanding these factors helps the determination of optimal programmes for their controL A typical breakdown of emissions for major urban areas in this Region would indicate that passenger cars predominate the carbon monoxide and lead emissions and contribute significantly to nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, motorcycles are major contributors to both hydrocarbons and organic particulate matter and significant sources of carbon monoxide and lead, and diesel vehicles are the major sources of sulphate particulate matter and a significant source of carbonaceous particulate matter. An inventory of the numbers of the different vehicle categories can be useful to focus attention on the most important· aspects of the particular motor vehicle pollution problem. Many of the potential benefits of measures to control motor vehicle air pollution will be squandered if they are not buttressed by regulatory and economic instruments which provide vehicle owners, manufacturers and fuel suppliers with sufficient certainty about the requirements, and maybe also some incentives to achieve the desired goals. A key element of a motor vehicle control strategy, therefore, must be a comprehensive compliance programme. Such a programme would include certification or type approval. assembly line testing. warranty and recall systems, and inspection and maintenance. It is important that attention to emission standards is paid at the vehicle design stage, before mass production begins. There should also be adequate quality control on-the assembly line. An enforceable warranty and recall system will deter manufacture of non-conforming vehicles. Furthermore, vehicle owners should be encouraged to carry out maintenance on emission control devices as required by the manufacturer, and the service industry regulated to perform this maintenance properly.

Inspection and maintenance programmes are the cornerstone of an effective motor vehicle compliance system. They lower emissions from existing vehicles in two ways- by lowering emissions from vehicles which fail the test and are required to be repaired, and by encouraging owners of vehicles to take proper care of them and to avoid the potential costs of repairing vehicles which have been tampered with or misfueled. It is estimated that a well run inspection and maintenance programme is capable of very significant emissions reductions, of the order of 25% for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and about 10% for nitrogen oxides. By requiring that vehicles pass a retest, inspection and maintenance impacts directly on the quantity and quality of maintenance, and also impacts on design through those warranty and recall programmes which use inspection and maintenance as a surveillance tool. The benefits of inspection and maintenance, however, are limited by the adequacy of the short test

- 17us~ the ability of the se!Vice industry to make proper repairs, and the potential tampering whIch could occur followmg the test to allow the vehicle to emit high emissions throughout the year.

~f particular relevance to such countries as China, Philippines and Viet Nam, inspection and mamtenance can improve emissions from vehicles equipped with virtually no pollution ~ntr0I:>, as well as. from the most advanced systems. Once improved fuel quality and good mspectIon and mamtenance programmes are introduced, state-of-the-art pollution control technology for vehicles should be pursued. In general, maximum effectiveness OCCUrs with centralized inspection. and maintenance systems. These programmes also usually have a much lower cost and are more convenient to the public. .

It is important to realize that today's vehicles are absolutely dependent on properly functioning emission controls to keep pollution levels low. Minor malfunctions in the emission control system can increase emissions significantly, and in some countries, the average vehicle on the road emits three to four times the new vehicle standard. Major malfunctions in the emission control system can cause emissions to skyrocket. As a result, in those countries were tight emission controls are in place, 10% to 30% of vehicles are frequently responsible for almost all of the motor vehicle pollution problem. Unfortunately, it is rarely obvious which vehicles fall into this category, as the emissions themselves may not be noticeable and emission control malfunctions do not necessarily affect vehicle driveability. Effective inspection and maintenance programmes, however, can identify these problem cars and assure their repair. While technical and policy solutions are available to dramatically lower emissions from motor vehicles, the greatest challenge is frequently to develop workable institutional arrangements which blend a variety of government agencies at the local, regional and national levels, at the same time providing adequate opportunity for input from fuel suppliers and vehicle manufacturers, on the one hand, and non-governmental organizations on the other.

There can be no set formula, as a practical arrangement must utilize the existing legal and governmental structure and shape it to address the problems. Key ingredients in any arrangement, however, would seem to be clear lines of authority and responsibility, and a public decision-making process which provides opportunity for public input. Frequently national authorities will assume the responsibility for setting appropriate air pollution targets or goals based on local studies, as well as information available from WHO among others. The Environment or Public Health Ministries are the appropriate organizations to perform this role. In addition, national authorities will usually adopt minimum emissions standards for new vehicles and fuel qUality. Again the Environment Ministry could do this, although in many countries the vehicle standard setting is left to Transportation Ministry (with policy input from Environment Ministry)and the fuel quality is defined by the Energy Ministry.

Local governments usually have the authority to go beyond the national requirements depending on the air pollution levels in a given city. Parts of the programme, such as inspection and maintenance and clean fuels, are especially well suited to a.local focus. Transportation planning and land use control usually best lend themselves to regional approaches.

2.2.3

"Interactions" sessions

At the end of each day an "interactions" session was held focusing on a specific problem/issue of common interest. The purpose of these sessions was to encourage and facilitate interaction among those attending the workshop, using more participative formats such as role playing and "talk show· approaches. The issues covered in these sessions were:

(1) Health sector involvement in motor vehicle emissions control programme development and implementation.

(2) Negotiations between health/environment officials and foreign motor vehicle manufacturers in the context of socio-economic development decision-making.

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(3) The importance of national fuel policy; fuel pr9<i,!ction (~ially quality) and fuel distribution to successful programme development and unplementation. (4) Dealing with socio-economic development decision-makers.

These sessions were well-received and successful in achieving the main objective of promoting more dynamic exchanges among the participants. There was a great deal of enthusiasm for this approach. The "talk show" session on health sector involvement indicated that most of the participants had little positive experience in their working interactions with other departments/sectors (with the notable exception of Singapore). While there was a theoretical appreciation for the need to hav:e mutually supportive information, there. was a general feeling that the other departments (whether health, environment, or transportation) were usually focused on their own agendas and, therefore, non-responsive. In spite of these iititial feelings/impressions, however, the session ended on the positive note that "where we want to be" is in a situation of common agreement and mutual support among health, environment and transportation departments to maximize their influence over socio-economic development decision-making related to motor vehicle emissions control (and, by inference, to all health and environment issues). The question is how to get from where we are to where we want to be? The role playing session on negotiations with foreign motor vehicle manufacturers focused on the difficulties faced by countries with rapidly developing industrial economies in harmonizing economic development and health and environment interests. The session served to highlight the fact that health and environment officials should be fully informed on the economic development implications of a particular situation before entering into negotiations. Correspondingly, motor vehicle manufacturers should better understand and be prepared to address (in concrete, economic terms) some of the health and environment implications of their joint venture proposals. Both parties, in addition to focusing on their own concerns, must learn to approach such negotiations with more lateral, long-term thinking that looks for mutually supportive solutions to problems. The third interaction session also involved the role playing approach, and centred on some of the problems encountered in implementing an improved-fuel-quality strategy as part of an overall air pollution control programme. The meeting among health and environment officials, economic development staff. fuel regulatory personnel, and the petroleum company was intended to develop consensus on a timetable for introducing fuel of improved quality in the country. The exercise illustrated the importance of establishing well thought"out, agreed upon government positions before entering into negotiations. It also highlightectthe need for flexibility and an open-minded attitude in looking for alternative solutions to environmental problems which have a number of complex dimensions. The fmal interaction session combined a plan development exercise with the role playing approach. The participants were asked to develop a motor vehicle emissions control strategy for a large metropolitan area (Hanoi) in a fast developing Asian country (Viet Nam) and present/sell the strategy to the Prime Minister and other key decision-makers. The idea was to take a realistic problem situation and apply the lessons of the week in an integrated manner. All of the participants were assigned government and private sector roles to support preparation and presentation of the strategy. All of the participants showed a great deal of ~thusiasm in taking part in this session. The exercise demonstrated the importance of good ~tersectoral coordination, and the necessity for appreciating the larger transportation mfrastructure development context in which motor vehicle pollutant emissions control programmes are developed and implemented. This turned out to be a very effective way of synthesizing the information presented throughout the workshop.

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- 192.2.4 Field trip

On the Wednesday morning of the workshop a visit was made to the Proton Assembly Plant at Shah Alam (near Kuala Lumpur). Although arrangements had been made in advance to inspect an assembly line, a telephone call on the day before the field trip cancelled that plan, because of a production run on a new model car (which was being kept secret from the public). The field trip therefore consisted of only three promotional videos about the company and its products, and a question-and-answer session with a technical representative. Excellent refreshments were served. Malaysia is justifiably proud of the success of the Proton Company (Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional Berhad). In the eleven years since incorporation it has developed from a facility which initially produced little more than clones of Mitsubishi models, to what it is now a well-respected maker of a range of high quality, quite distinctive cars. The local content of the cars has increased from less than 30% at the time of launch in 1985 to almost 80% now. The Company is involved in a joint venture project with United States Electricar Incorporated on the development of an electric car. With assistance through preferential sale taxation, Proton dominates the local market. It is frequently referred to as Malaysia's first national car (there is now a second), and it has about 70% of new car sales.

.. ..

Proton is also well established in the export market, with about 90 000 cars exported since 1986. Seventy four thousand of those were to the United Kingdom and Eire, where it is reputed to be the fastest growing make of car. Singapore is also an expanding market, with sales of Proton cars currently representing 9.3% of new car sales. Malaysia is unique amongst those countries in the Region which manufacture its own cars, in that the vehicles sold on the local market have less emission control systems than the models exported, in this case to the United Kingdom and (near neighbour) Singapore. The situation can be compared with Japan and the Republic of Korea, where the export models have the same or less (depending on the requirements of the importing government) emission ' ' control systems p r o v i d e d . , Despite the widespread availability of unleaded gasoline, the sales of which (encouraged by a recent tax adjustment to make it approximately 3% cheaper than leaded gasoline) are approaching 50% of the total gasoline sold in Malaysia, the Government has not set emission standards which require the use of advanced emission control systems on new cars. There has been much talk of that since 1991, but little action. (A similar situation exists with the requirements regarding diesel vehicles. The diesel fuel sold in Malaysia is relatively dirty and, despite large quantities of natural gas and a developed distribution infrastructure, no incentives are provided to encourage the replacement of diesel with natural gas.) The fundamental point that Malaysia's first national car could be sold in its home country with technologies which lower emissions by at least an order of magnitude, at an incremental capital cost of less than 3% of the retail cost of the models presently sold, and with improved fuel economy compared with the current, essentially uncontrolled vehicles is not widely appreciated. (For example, the tax-free price of an oxidation-reduction catalytic converter system is about RM700 (US$300), for a model which retails at about RM55 000 (US$22 000). In answer to a question, the technical representative did acknowledge that for a short time one of the previous export models (the Proton Saga Iswara Cars) was sold on the local market. He could not explain why it had been removed from the local market. He also confirmed that it would make production scheduling and parts supply much easier if only one type of each model was produced.

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Although the field trip was informative, it would have been much more usefll;l if it had included inspections of assembly and tes~ facilities: The. participant~ expressed theIr disappointment about that in the evaluation questionnaIre (see Section 2.3). 2.3 Evaluation

Sixteen of the participants and one of the observers (from ESCAP) returne<! the evaluation questionnaire. The exception amongst the participants was the MalaysIan delegate. The questionnaire is given in Annex 6, along with a more detailed outline of the responses. The responses are also summarized in two tables in Annex 6. An overwhelming majority of the respondents recorded that the objectives of the workshop were fully met, that they learned new skills or concepts, that the skills can be applied in their work and country, and that there were sufficient opportunities to exchange knowledge and experience with other participants. Most were also satisfied with the working papers.

A few of the participants suggested topics, not on the agenda, which they would have liked included, such as reviews of regulations and standards in various countries, design of health effect studies and city planning. Most felt they had enough time to study the working papers. The vast majority found the methods of introduction and presentation satisfactory or very satisfactory. All of topics covered were mentioned as being the most relevant to the work of the participants, including fuel quality, emission control technologies and implementation and institutional issues. Most were satisfied with the discussions. The widest range of responses was to the question regarding the field trip. The predominant explanation given for the large number of responses of low scores to this question was the (last minute) inability of Proton to allow an inspection of the assembly and test facilities. A large majority was satisfied with the duration and scheduling of different activities and with the organization or administrative arrangements. All of the participants felt that the recommendations/conclusions reflected the consensus, all felt that such an activity should be held regularly, most felt their attendance was worthwhile to them personally, and all felt their participation was worthwhile to their country. Most felt there was no better way to achieve the objectives. Some of the suggestions of better ways were to include more countries (Australia, Thailand, Taiwan), to hold the workshop at a location where more direct experience and practical demonstrations could be provided, and to allow more time for the "interactions" sessions. (This fmal comment was probably corrected by the longer time given for the fmal "interactions" session, held after the questionnaire was completed.) : With regard to follow-up activities by national governments, most participants focused on the need to apply the information to their own situation and to hasten the passage of appropriate requirements (especially inspection and maintenance programmes). Other interesting suggestions for national governments included the integration of environment and public health agencies in a single Ministry, and the need for information exchange between countries. The main suggestion regarding follow-up activities by WHO was that workshops such as this should be held very frequently. Other suggested roles for WHO were to assess and make known the health effects of motor vehicle air pollution, and to influence oil companies to produce and market the use of unleaded gasoline. The only suggestion made regarding followup activities by other agencies was for interagency workshops to be held. The final question asked for further comments/suggestions. Some responded, with highly complementary comments about the workshop.

.. - 21 3. CONCLUSIONS

(1) The prevention and control of air pollution from motor vehicles is a multi-faceted sUbject. It requires a combination of approaches, including the introduction of advanced emission control technologies, fuel quality improvements, alternative fuels and transportation and traffic management systems. Economic instruments can be useful tools to encourage the introduction of technological advances. Institutional arrangements, including inspection and maintenance programmes, are also important. (2) The motor vehicle emissions control situation in the Western Pacific Region is changing rapidly. Expanding national economies and associated growth in major urban areas of the Region are seriously aggravating motor vehicle-related health and environment problems. To resolve these problems requires cooperative/collaborative action among health and environment officials; transportation officials; socio-economic development decision-makers; and the private sector. (3) With respect to interactions with motor vehicle manufactures (especially foreign manufacturers proposing joint ventures) health and environment officials should be fully informed before entering into negotiations. Correspondingly, motor vehicle manufacturers should better understand and be prepared to address (in concrete, economic terms) some of the health and environment implications of their joint venture proposals. Both parties, in addition to focusing on their own concerns, must learn to approach such negotiations with more lateral, long-term thinking that looks for mutually supportive solutions to problems. (4) Health, environment and transportation departments/officials can best maximize their influence over socio-economic development decision-making on the basis of common agreement and mutual support. Although this is not "where we are now", it is "where we want to be." For several of the Countries of the Region, fuel quality (and/or the introduction of (5) alternative fuels) is probably the single, most important issue for motor vehicle emission control. This is because of the dual effects of the impact of fuel contaminants and additives on health and the environment, and the relationship between fuel quality and the performance of advanced emission control technologies. Fuel specifications need to be comprehensive, and include maximum benzene and sulphur contents for gasoline and maximum sulphur content and minimum distillation and ignition properties for diesel. (6) The introduction and use of unleaded gasoline are still issues in this Region. The economic benefits of unleaded gasoline, including lesser maintenance costs for vehicle owners, are poorly understood. Apart from the health benefits of removing lead from gasoline, decision-makers should be informed of how it also permits the introduction of advanced emission control systems for carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. The experience in those countries of the Region which now only have unleaded gasoline is that its use in older vehicles has caused no particular problems. For most of the newly industrializing countries of the Region, a vehicle (7) certification system which requires new vehicles from a certain date (after the fuel quality has been improved to a sufficient level) to comply with the emission standards of the country of design origin for the vehicle, may be an appropriate motor vehicle emission control measure. This should be coupled with an inspection and maintenance programme, to assure maximum benefits from the emission controls which are introduced.

- 22-

(8) In some of the rapidly expanding economies of the Region, the use of certain economic instruments (such as, vehicle taxation, fuel taxation and road user charges), specifically related to reducing motor vehicle air pollution, may have an important role to play. Such approaches may be particularly useful in achieving the retrofitting of emission control systems on existing vehicles. (9) There is within the Region considerable expertise on many aspects of motor vehicle emission control (gasoline vehicle emission control technologies in Japan, diesel particulate collection and destruction systems in the Republic of Korea, transportation and traffic management measures in Singapore, etc). Information exchange, and maybe even technology transfer, between countries would be extremely beneficial. (10) It is important that workshops of this type be held very frequently. The usual policy of not having them on a particular topic more frequently than once every five years is totally inappropriate. Developments in the various aspects of motor vehicle emission control are occurring rapidly, and their implementation is urgently required in several of the countries of the Region. A pool of well informed personnel, located in the appropriate government agencies, is a concomitant requirement of this.

- 23-

ANNEX 1

LIST OF PARTICIPANfS, OBSERVERS AND SECRETARIAT

Participants 1. Dr Zhu Baoduo

Designation and address Chief of General Division Department of Health Inspection Ministry of Public Health Beijing 100725 People's Republic of China Tel: 861-4014341 Fax: 861-4014341 Deputy Director Institute of Environmental Health Monitoring Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine 7 Pan Jia Yuan, Chao Yang District Beijing 100021 People's Republic of China Tel: 861-7719390 Fax: 861-7719392 Engineer Division of Air Pollution Control Department of Pollution Control National Environmental Protection Agency 115 Xizhimennei Nanxiaojie Beijing 100035 People's Republic of China Tel: 861-8329911 Fax: 861-8327710 Acting Principal Environmental Protection Officer Environmental Protection Department 33/F, Revenue Tower 5 Gloucester Road WanChai Hong Kong Tel: 852-5946300 Fax: 852-8278040 Senior Environmental Protection Officer Environmental Protection Department 33/F, Revenue Tower 5 Gloucester Road Wan Chai Hong Kong 852-5946414 Tel: Fax: 852-8278040

DrOin Yuhui

MsLi Pei

Mr Ng Kwok-ying

MrHaKong

- 24Annex 1

Designation and address Exhaust Gas Section Chief Automotive Pollution Control Division Air Quality Bureau Environmental Agency 1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku 100 Tokyo Japan Tel: 813-35802167 Fax: 813-35931049 Medical Specialist Health and Welfare Office Planning Division Environmental Health Department Planning and Coordination Bureau Environmental Agency 1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku 100 Tokyo Japan Tel: 813-35813081 Fax: 813-35802963 Director, Control Division Department of Environment Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment 12th Floor, Wisma Sime Darby Jalan Raja Laut 50662 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Tel: 603-2947844 Fax: 603-2937655 Medical Specialist II Occupational Health Division Non-Communicable Disease Control Service Department of Health San Lazaro Compound Rizal Avenue, Sta. Cruz Manila Philippines Tel: 632-7116297 Chief Transportation Regulation Officer Land Transportation Office North Motor Vehicle Inspection Station East Avenue Quezon City Philippines Tel: 632-9229061

Participants 6.

Mr Kenji Fujita

Dr Yuji Inoue

Hj Rosnani Ibarahim

Dr Mark B. T. Laxamana

10.

Mr Joel A. Donato

-. - 25-

Annex 1

Participants 11.

Desiwation and address Director Automotive Pollution Control Division Ministry of Environment 1 Joongang-dong, Kwacheon-City Keyunggi-do Republic of Korea 427-760 Tel: 822-5049249 Fax: 822-5049208 Director Engine R&D Department Korea Institute of Machinery and Metals P.O. Box 101 Yusung-ku, Daejeon Republic of Korea 305-600 Tel: 8242-8687312 Fax: 8242-8687355 . Researcher Motor Vehicle Emissions Laboratory National Institute of Environmental Research 280-17 Bul Kwang-Dong, Eun Pyung-ku Seoul Republic of Korea 122-041 Tel: 822-3896711 Fax: 822-3881829 Technical Officer Registrar of Vehicles Sin Ming Drive Singapore 2057 65-4505268 Tel: Fax: 65-4505329 Senior Engineer Ministry of Environment Strategic Planning and Research Department 40 Scotts Road, 11th Storey Singapore 0922 65-7327733 Tel: Fax: 65-7319922 Director Health Department Ministry of Transport 73 Yen Ninh Street Hanoi Socialist Republic of Viet Nam 844-253251 Tel: 844-233054 Fax:

Mr Shon Heui Man

12.

Mr Jeong Young-ll

13.

Mr Hong You-Deog

14. MrEuAiMing

15.

Mr Ho Cheng Hoon

16.

Dr Tran Thu Thuy

- 26Annex 1

Participants 17. Ms Pham Thi Giang

Desienation and address Senior Medical Officer (in charge of Environmental Health) Department of Hygiene and Environment Ministry of Health 138A Giangvo Hanoi Socialist Republic of Viet Nam Tel: 844-256255

Observers 1. Mr Jan Van Den Akker Associate Expert Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Building Rajadamnern Avenue Bangkok 10200 Thailand Tel: 662-2881543 Fax: 662-2881000 Lecturer Department of Environmental Science Faculty of Science & Environmental Studies University of Agriculture, Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia Tel: 603-9486101 Telex: UNlPER MA37454

Mr Azman Zainal Abidin

Secretariat 1. DrP.Guo Mr Stephen Tamplin Mr Kevin Rolfe Director, EHC Regional Adviser, WPRO Air Quality Management Specialist, EHC

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Mr Michael Walsh MsL.Y. Chan MsY.MTan Ms M. Pieris

WHO Consultant Administrative Officer, EHC Special Assistant, EHC Secretary, EHC

- 27ANNEX 2

WO~HOPPROGRAMME

Monday. 26 September 1994 0900 - 0930 Introductory remarks Dr P. Guo, Director, EHC

Welcome address Professor Dr Rahim Md Sail, Deputy ViceChancellor, Student Affairs, University of Agriculture, Malaysia Opening address

... 0930 - 1015 1015 - 1020

Dr S.T. Han, Regional Director, WPRO Group photograph and coffee/tea Administrative briefing Ms L.Y. Chan, Administrative Officer, EHC 1020 - 1030 1030 - 1100 Self introduction of consultants, participants, representatives and observers Introduction to workshop Me KA. Rolfe, Air Quality Management Specialist, EHC

...

1100 - 1230

Country problems and issues Australia China Hong Kong

1230 -"1430 1430 - 1530

Lunch Country problems and issues Japan Malaysia Philippines

- 28Annex 2

1530 - 1600 1600 - 1700

Coffee/tea Interactions 1: Health sector involvement Mr SA. Tamplin, Regional Adviser in Environmental Health, WPRO

Tuesday, 27 September 1994 0900 - 1000 Country problems and issues Republic of Korea Singapore 1000 - 1030 1030 - 1100 Coffee/tea Country problems and issues VietNam 1100 - 1200 Gasoline-vehicle .emission control technologies Mr M.P. Walsh, WHO Consultant 1200 - 1230 1230 - 1400 1400 -1500 Discussion Lunch Diesel-vehicle emission control technologies M.P. Walsh 1500 - 1530 1530 - 1600 1600 - 1700 Discussion Coffee/tea Interactions 2: Automobile manufacturers SA. Tamplin

Wednesday, 28 September 1994 0900 - 1230 1230 - 1400 1400 - 1500 Visit to Proton Assembly Plant, Shah Alam Lunch Gasoline fuel quality M.P. Walsh

·29 Annex 2

1500 ·1530 1530 ·1600 1600 - 1700

Discussion Coffee/tea Interactions 3: Oil Companies S.A. Tamplin

.. ...

Thursday, 29 September 1994 0900 ·1000 Diesel fuel quality M.P. Walsh 1000·1030 1030·1100 Discussion Coffee/tea Alternative Fuels K.A. Rolfe

1100·1200

1200 ·1230 1230·1400 1400·1500

Discussion Lunch Transportation controls and traffic management M.P. Walsh

...

1500·1530 1530·1600 1600·1700

Discussion Coffee/tea Interactions 4: Transportation interest groups S.A. Tamplin

.... Friday. 30 September 1994 0900·1000

Economic Instruments KA. Rolfe

1000·1030 1030·1100 1100 - 1200

Discussion Coffee/tea Implementation issues and institutional requirements M.P. Walsh

....

- 30Annex 2

1200 -1230 1230 - 1400 1400 -1500

Discussion Lunch Interactions 5: Economic decision-makers

SA Tamplin 1500 - 1520 Summary and evaluation

K.A. Rolfe 1520 - 1530 Closing remarks

P.Guo 1530-1600 Coffee/tea

... - 31 -

ANNEX 3

OPENING ADDRESS

OPENING ADDRESS BY DR S.T. HAN, WHO REGIONAL DIRECTOR FOR TIlE WESTERN PACIFIC AT TIlE WORKSHOP ON MOTOR VElDCLE EMISSION CONTROL, KUAlA LUMPUR, MAlAYSIA, 26-30 SEPTEMBER 1994 Professor Dr Rahim Muhamad Sail, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, University of Agriculture, Malaysia, Dr M.S. Pillay, Director of Engineering Services Division, MinistIy of Health, Malaysia, Participants, Colleagues, Ladies and Gentlemen, I am very pleased to welcome you to this five-day Workshop on Motor Vehicle Emission Control. As someone who lives in Manila, and through my travels to certain countries of the Region, I am very much aware that the air quality is deteriorating in many urban areas and becoming a significant threat to human health. Motor vehicle numbers are increasing very rapidly in some countries in the Region. For example, in the Republic of Korea the annual growth is about 30%, and in People's Republic of China it is about 20%. These statistics can be compared with annual increases in the United States of 2% and in the United Kingdom of 3%. Traffic congestion is becoming a serious problem in many cities. Projections for the newly industrializing countries of the Region indicate that the ,!olume of emissions from motor vehicles will double or more in the period 1980 to 2000. It is likely that motor vehicle-related air pollution in many large cities will exceed the WHO air quality guidelines. The risk of exposure to dangerous levels of air pollutants in these cities will also be high, because of the dense concentration of the urban population and the outdoor lifestyles that are prevalent. Supporting and promoting the attainment of health and well-being of people in an environment conducive to sustained development for present and future generations is an important part of WHO's work. In the Western Pacific Region, we have prepared a Regional Strategy on Health and Environment. This was endorsed by the Regional Committee, our Governing body, in September 1993. Motor vehicle emissions control is one of the priority activities in the Regional Strategy. I am pleased to note that one of the objectives of this workshop is to develop approaches for advocacy by the health sector in dealing with development and urban planning programmes. This is very much in line with the philosophy of our Regional Strategy on Health and Environment. It was also a matter which featured strongly in a report on WHO's cooperation in the field of health and sustainable development - environmental health, prepared by a SubCommittee of the Regional Committee on Programmes and Technical Cooperation, which was presented at the forty-flfth session of the Regional Committee held in Kuala Lumpur just last week.

- 32-

Annex 3

Other objectives of the workshop include: to review recent technological developments in reducing pollutants in the emissions from motor vehicles; to compare motor vehicle air pollution control programmes in terms of their relative effectiveness; and to identify alternative approaches to prevent urban air pollution from motor vehicles. Information exchange on these topics is extremely important. The technology of controlling emissions from motor vehicles is becoming well-defined, and this is assisted by the increasingly global nature of the oil and motor vehicle industries and the associated marketing of their products. Nevertheless, the application of adequate control measures in some countries is lacking. I hope this workshop will focus on the variouS technical, economic, political and social dimensions of this complex environmental health problem. I trust in your active participation in this workshop. I wish you a fruitful week of discussions, and a pleasant stay in Malaysia. I am pleased to declare open this workshop on motor vehicle emission control.

- 33-

LIST OF DOCUMENTS DISTRIBUTED DURING THE WORKSHOP Workshop papers WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94.2

ANNEX 4

GASOLINE-VEHICLE EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES By Mr M.P. Walsh DIESEL-VEHICLE EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES By Mr M.P. Walsh GASOLINE FUEL QUALITY By Mr M.P. Walsh DIESEL FUEL QUALITY By Mr M.P. Walsh ALTERNATIVE FUELS By Mr KA. Rolfe TRANSPORTATION CONTROLS AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT By Mr M.P. Walsh ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS By Mr KA. Rolfe IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES AND INSTITUTIONAL REQUIREMENTS By Mr M.P. Walsh

WPR/RUD /EHC(2)/94.3

WPR/RUD /EHC(2)/94.4

WPR/RUD /EHC(2)/94.5 WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94.6 WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94.7

WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94.8 WPR/RUD /EHC(2)/94.9

Country reports WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94/INF./l People's Republic of China By Drs Zhu Boaduo and Qin Yuhui & MsLiPei Hong Kong By Messrs Ng Kwok-ying & Ha Kong Japan Mr Kenji Fujita & Dr Yuji Inoue WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94/INF./4 Malaysia Hajah Rosnani Ibarahirn

WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94/INF./2 WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94/INF./3

-34 Annex 4

WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94/INF./5

Philippines Dr Mark Bernard T. Laxamana & Me Joel A. Donato Republic of Korea Messrs Shon Heui Man, Jeong Young-ll & Hong You-Deog Singapore By Messrs Eu Ai Ming & Ho Cheng Hoon Socialist Republic of Viet Nam By Dr Tran Thu Thuy & Ms Pham Thi Giang

WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94/INF./6

WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94/INF./7 WPR/RUD/EHC(2)/94/INF./8

Hand-outs 1.

Estimating health effects of air pollution a methodology with an application to Jakarta, Dr Bart Ostro, March 1994. Contact people regarding motorcycles in Taiwan and diesel inspection and maintenance testing in Germany

·35· ANNEX 5

SUMMARY OF COUNTRY REPORTS

In a significant departure from the usual WHO workshop, participants were requested to include detailed technical information in their country reports. A large number of specific questions were asked to guide the preparation of the reports. (The Guidelines are given on the next three pages.) .

The reason for this was that it was hoped that the presentations of the country reports would focus on particular problems and issues in the country, those that were of most interest to the other participants. The aim was, therefore, to have the Country Reports themselves forming only part of the background information for the Workshop. Most of the Country Reports followed the format requested. RePorts were received from

China

Hong Kong Japan Philippines Republic of Korea Singapore VietNam Australia did not forward a country report and did not participate in the meeting. Malaysia did not prepare a country report.

A summary of the country reports is attached.

- 36Annex 5 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION WESTERN PACIFIC REGION ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CENTRE (EHC)

ORGANISA TlON MONDIALE DE LA SANTE REGION DU PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL

Tel.: 9480311 ·9480311· 94801161

WORKSHOP ON MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSION CONTROL Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 26-30 September 1994

.ICP/RUD/OO1-PROG.171 23 June 1994 ENGUSHONLY

GUIDELINES TO PARTICIPANTS FOR PREPARATION OF COUNTRY REPORT Each participant is requested to prepare a report which assesses the programmes and activities related to motor vehicle emission control in his/her country. The following statements and questions indicate the types of topics to be covered in the report. However. should you wish to include addirional information pertinent to the subject of the workshop, you are encouraged to do so. 1.

General country profile

Provide a description of the geography of your country, including the area, population, climate, economic indicators, etc. The socioeconomic statistics you give should be those for recent years and include projections for the n~ few years. 2. Relative priority of air pollution problems

Where do you place air pollution among the range of social, health and environmental problems in your country, and what relative priority is given to air pollution pr~ems? 3. Assessment of urban air pollution

Are measurements being made of air pollutant concentrations in the large urban areas of your country? If so, which pollutants are being measured, at what frequency and using which methods? What have been typical concentrations of air pollutants during the last few years, their trends and the expected trends for the next few years? 4. Relative contribution of motor vehicles to urban air Dollution

What are the approximate relative contributions of stationary air pollution emission sources (industry, commercial business, domestic heating) and mobile sources (motor vehicles) to the overall air pollution levels in the urban areas of your country? 5. Health-effects studies

Have any specific studies been made of the health effects of air pollution in your country? If so, describe the studies, in particular the epidemiological methods used, the related air quality monitoring, the results and the conclusions. ... /

-37 -

Annex 5 6. Vehicle p9J>ulations and expected trends

What is the total number of motor vehicles in your country; what are the numbers of passenger cars, trucks and buses, and motorcycles and three wheelers; and what proportions of each category are gasoline powered, diesel powered, or powered by another fuel (such as liquefied petroleum gas)? What are the age structures of the vehicle popUlations (preferably by category) and what are the predicted rates at which the vehicles (again. preferably by category) will be replaced? Are your vehicles imported (either preassembled or locally assembled) or locally constructed? 7. Vehicles manufactured for export

Does your country manufacture or plan to manufacture motor vehicles for export? If so, please briefly describe the types and quantities of vehicles manufactured for export, and indicate to which countries they are exported. Do these exported vehicles have the same types of air pollutant emission controls that are required in your country or are they different? Please describe any differences. 8. Fuel quality and expected trends

.....

What are the qualities of gasoline, diesel and other motor vehicle fuels used in your country and what are the expected trends of those qualities in the near future (next 5 years or so)? Specifications of physical properties, chemical composition and combustion parameters should be related to standard methods of analysis. 9. Environmental legislation

.....

Provide information on the environmental legislation in your country, its philosophies and principles. Is air pollution control covered by separate law, or is it part of an all encompassing statute? What are the provisions for controlling emissions from motor vehicles? What agencies are involved in the administration of those provisions? How effectively is the legislation enforced? . 10. Emission standards and expected trends

What are the current emission standards for motor vehicles in your country and what are the expected trends of those standards in the near future (next 5 years or so)? The emission standards should include information on the test methods used and model years they relate to, where the measurements are made (roadside or testing station) and which agencies are involved in the testing programme. 11. Inspection and maintenance programmes

Does your country have an inspection and maintenance programme for in-use vehicles? If so, provide information on that programme, including the test procedures, the agencies (or private sector) involved, quality control procedures, any linkage with vehicle registration, and any requirements for on-board diagnostic systems. Give an assessment of the general level of vehicle maintenance and repair. What type of training do mechanics generally receive (i.e. formal education courses, on-the-job, manufacturers' training courses, etc.)? Also, provide details of any vehicle replacement and emission equipment retrofit programmes in your country.

... /

- 38Annex 5 12. Economic and social impacts of motor vehicle emission control pro~amme

Have any specific studies of the cost benefit (or cost effectiveness) and social impacts of the motor vehicle emission control programme been carried out in your country? If so, describe the studies, the results and the conclusions. What is the general public attitudes in your country to the tightening requirements on the control of motor vehicle emissions and the impact of those on fuel economy, etc.? Is there any education programme about motor vehicle emission control? 13. Participation hY sectoral eroups in motor vehicle-emission control pro~amme

Is there strong participation by interest groups, such as non-governmental organizations, environmental pressure groups, etc., in the motor vehicle emission control programme in your country? What, if any, advocacy role does the health sector play? 14. Transportation controls and traffic management

What is the current motor vehicle traffic situation in the urban areas of your country? Are there measures to improve traffic flow, roading systems, traffic management, urban_ planning and land use, and provision and use of public transport? If so, describe these. Have any policies to restrict the use of the motor car met with public or political opposition? How important do you regard this type of constraint to be in your country? 15. Motor vehicle-related research programmes

Are there any motor vehicle-related research programmes carried out in your country? If so, provide information on those programmes. Such research could include motor vehicle engine technology, emission control systems and alternative fuels. What are your views on the transfer of motor vehicle emission control technology between countries? The country report should preferably not exceed fIfteen pages of typed text. It should reach The Director, WHO/EHC, P.O. Box 12550,50782 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Fax No.: 60-3-9482349) not later than 15 August 1994. Please bring to the meeting a copy of major reports, legislation, etc. you refer to in the country report. Each participant will be requested to orally present his/her report at the workshop. Thirty minutes will be allocated for the presentation, including discussion. You are encouraged to use visual aids in your presentation. Please prepare and bring these with you to the workshop_ Note: Where more than one participant is invited from a country, it is requested that a joint report be prepared and a joint presentation be made.

)

Australia L Relative priority of air pollution problems

China no information given

Hong Kong no information given

•

(did not produce a country report and did not participate' in the Workshop)

2. Assessment of urban air pollution

(did not produce a country report and did not participate in t~e Workshop)

China has an extensive network of air Quality monitors. Specific mention is made of GEMSI Air monitoring for suspended particulate matter and sulphur dioxide in five cities.

A network of 11 monitoring stations. measuring suspended particulates (total and respirable), NOx• S02. 03 and CO .. Suspended particulates and NO x are the pollutants of most concern. Vehicular emissions are responsible for about 90% of the fine particulates and'75% of the NO x measured. Chemical analysis of fine particulates suggest diesel exhaust' is main contributor.

W \0

3. Relative contribution of motor vehicles to urban air pollution

(did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

Some values for Beijing are given - automobiles are responsible for 58% of the carbon monoxide emissions. 87% of the hydrocarbons and 69% of the nitrogen oxides.

Japan l. Relative priority of air

Malaysia (did not produce a country report)

Philippines Increased public awareness of air quality problems, but political response to concerns has been somewhat slow. For example, a Clean Air Bill has not been given a high priority in Congress. .

~ VI

pollution problems

Environmental degradation in the 1960s produced public concern about pollution problems. This led to the establishment, or the strengthening, of law to deal with air pollution.

2. Assessment of urban air pollution

1600 residential and 380 roadside monitoring stations for SOl, N02, CO, PM 10, and oxidants. N02, PM 10 close to roadways and oxidants in some urban areas are the pollutants of most concern.

(did not produce a country report)

Previous network of monitors in Metro Manila for CO, HC, NO x, Ox, S02 and TSP (incl Pb) has almost ground to a halt. Recent monitoring has been part of specific studies. Very high TSP, PMlO and Pb. Motor vehicles are the major sources .of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, whereas diesel vehicles are significant sources of sulphur oxides and fine particulate matter.

o" "'

3. Relative contribution of motor vehicles to urban air pollution

(did not produce a country The transport sector is responsible for 40% of the NO x report) emissions (50-70% in some urban areas), 20-40% of the PM 10 (from diesel vehicles), and 23% of the SOx emissions.

)

Republic of Korea 1. Relative priority of air pollution problems

Singapore Singapore places a high priority on environmental management, and has achieved impressive successes despite an increase in industrialization and urbanization.

VietNam no information given

no information given

.. 2. Assessment of urban air pollution

no information given

A network of 15 monitoring stations, measuring S02, CO, NOx, 03, hydrocarbons and suspended particulates. A telemetric system is used. Concentrations are generally low.

Monitoring is reported for CO, N02, S02, suspended particulates and dust deposition in Hanoi. Some elevated concentrations (inc\. Ph content of particulates) especially near roadways. Estimates are given for emissions of CO, C02, NO x• HC, aldehydes, Pb, SOx and salt from motor vehicles. 10 fold increases for each are expected over the next 7 years.

3. Relative contribution of motor vehicles to urban air pollution

Motor vehicles in Korea are responsible for 59% of the CO, 66% of the hydrocarbons, 49% of the NOX, 5% of the SOX, and 16% of the particulates. For Seoul these contributions are greater.

Motor vehicles are the major sources of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and lead, and hence the formation of photochemical smog. They also contribute to suspended particulates levels.

( I,

Australia 4. Health-effects studies

China No specific studies are reported.

Hong Kong No specific studies are reported. Using US data, it is estimated that there were 280 lung cancer cases from diesel exhaust in 1992, rising to 590 in 2011 ifleft unchecked.

1::1

(did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

5. Vehicle populations and expected trends

(did not produce a country report and did not participate in t~e Workshop)

The number of motor vehicles locally produced was 1,180,000 in 1993, and is increasing at 12% per annum. The production of motor cycles in 1993 was 3,000,000, increasing at 30% per annum. not applicable

430,000 vehicles registered at end of 1993. 66% of vehicles gasoline fuelled, consuming33% offuel. Taxis, buses and most trucks are diesel fuelled. Predict a doubling of distance travelled over next 20 years. not applicable

6. Vehicles manufactured for export

(did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

II )

, )

)

Japan 4. Health-effects studie s

Malaysia

Philippines Recent studies of groups exposed to motor vehicle emissions found a high incidence of respiratory tract diseases and seriously elevated blood lead and carboxyhemoglobin levels.

A "surveillance system on (did not produce a country environmental health" 'is being report) tested as a feasibility study this year. It is based on the health check-ups of three year old children, and comparisons with air monitoring data. 64 'million vehicles at the end of (did not produce a country 1992, 98% locally manufactured. report) The number is increasing by about 3% per year. 82% are gasoline or LPG fueUed; the diesel proportion is increasing.

5. Vehicle popul ations and expected trends

2.1 million vehicles registered in 1993, 42% in Metro Manila. 70% of the vehicles are gasoline fuelled, 40% are cars and 40010 utility vehicles (including about 100,000 of the ubiquitous Jeepneys).

6. Vehicles manuf acture d for export

Approximately 5.6 million vehicles are exported each year. It is stated that the emission controls provided depend upon the legislation of the country to which the vehicles are exported.

(did not prodl1ce a country report)

not applicable

.~ ::s VI

Republic of Korea 4. Health-effects studies no information given .

Singapore A study of respiratory illness of school children, carried out in 1983, found that cultural and socio-economic factors were probably more important. An asthma study is currently underway. 580,000 vehicles in December 1992, increasing at less than 2% per year. 50% of the vehicles are passenger cars, 20% goods vehicles (gasoline and diesel) and 20% motorcycles. 85% gasoline fuelled. Taxis use diesel.

VietNam none reported

15::I Ill> ~

5. Vehicle populations and expected trends

7 million vehicles as at August 1994, increasing at 13.2% per year. 69% are passenger cars, 23% are trucks and 8% buses. 49% of the vehicles are in.Seoul. It is estimated there will be 13 million vehicles by 2000.

In 1993, 600,000 motorcycles, 11,500 sidecars, 47,500 cars, 42,000 buses and 91,800 trucks. Estimate more than 1 million vehicles by 2000. Joint ventures being set up for local market.

6. Vehicles manufactured for export

In 1993, 638,000 vehicles were not applicable exported, mainly to USA, Europe, Asia and Middle East. Emission control systems are as required by the country of import, which for USA and Europe means the same as for the local market.

not applicable

II ) .

)

Australia 7. Fuel quality and expected trends (did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

China no information given

Hong Kong Both leaded (0.17 gPb/l) and unleaded gasoline and, with a higher tax on former, 68% of sales are unleaded. Diesel S content typically 0.4% and Cetane No. above 50; more stringent from 1995 and 1997. Various ordinances and regulations have been enacted. These include introduction of unleaded gasoline in 1991 and the mandatory use of unleaded by new vehicles from 1992.

.s.

Environmental legislation

(did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

Basic law on environmental protection was enacted in 1989. National standards for motor vehicle emissions have been published, covering gasoline and diesel vehicles and motor cycles

9. Emission standards and expected trends

(did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

no information given

Currently only gasoline vehicles under 2.5t must comply with US, Japanese and Europe (93/59IECE) standards. A more comprehensive package to be introduced in April 1995. I~ ,0 IUt

Japan

Malaysia (did not produce a country report)

Philippines Premium and regular leaded gasoline contains 0.15 gil. Unleaded premium introduced at 30 stations in Metro Manila. Diesel sulphur content is 0.7%, planned to be reduced to 0.5% by 1996.

7. Fuel quality and expected trends

Regular gasoline made lead-free in 1975, and premium gasoline in 1987. The sulphur content of diesel is currently 0.2%, and is expected tp decrease to 0.05% in 1997.

(

8. Environmental legislation

Air quality standards for S02, N02, CO, PM 10 and oxidants have been set, as have regulations to control emissions from'various sources. The focus is now on NO x, especially from trucks. The permissible limits for motor vehicle emissions have been made progressively more stringent. Recent changes are a 10-15 mode cycle for light duty vehicles and 13 mode cycles for heavy duty vehicles.

(did not produce a country report)

Basic law of 1964, amended in 1976. Rules set in 1978; air quality part amended in 1993. Rules for motor vehicles set in 1980. Poor enforcement by central and local agencies. Draft Clean Air Bill since 1993. For gasoline, up to 1981 CO and HC at idle and from 1981 CO and HC per km test cycle, similar to ECE requirements of 1975-79. For diesel, smoke density limits, including a "anti-smoke belching" campaign. .

, .j>.

0\ I

9. Emission standards and expected trends

(did not produce a country report)

)

Republic of Korea 7. Fuel quality and expected trends In 1991, fuel consump!ion was 27% gasoline, 61% diesel and 12% LPG (cf. vehicle' numbers) .. The diesel price is only 40% that of gasoline: No information is given on fuel properties.

Singapore Leaded gasoline, 98 RON, has O.IS gPb/l. Two grades of unleaded - 92 and 98 RON. New vehicles since Jul 91 use unleaded. Diesel S content of O.S% (0.3% from Jul 96). Lowsmoke 2:.stroke oil available. Clean Air Act and Regulations administered by Ministry of the Environment. Road Traffic Act and Regulations administered by Traffic Police and Registry of Vehicles. Very high level of enforcement. For gasoline vehicles, from 1986 ECE RlS.04, from Jul1992 ECE R83 or Japan Art. 31, and from Jul94 ECE CED 91/441. Diesel, EC'E R24.03 since 1991. Motorcycles, US Fed. 86.410-80 since Oct 91.

VietNam Two grades of gasoline, A76 artd A92, with sales currently 308,000 tonnes per annum, and one grade of diesel, currently 286,000 . tonnes per annum. Ten-fold increase in both expected by. 2000. Environmental Protection Law promulgated in December 1993. Some local air quality standards have been issued.

8. Environmental legislation

Motor vehicle emission control is part of the Air Quality Control Law, which has had gradually more stringent requiremertts over the years. The useful life of vehicles is set at 80,000 km or S years. Emission standards are set for new vehicles. For gasoline and LPG, the aim is meet US 1996 requirements by 2000. Diesel passenger car and light duty are following USA (method FTP-7S) and heavy duty ECE (13-mode)

~ -..j

9. Emission standards and expected trends

None established.

I~ ::s ~ .VI

Australia 10. Inspection and maintenance programmes

China no information given

Hong Kong Random checking of smoke emissions at I public and 19 private testing centres. A comprehensive 11M programme is under consideration, with testing linked to licence renewal.

.~ ~ \.II

(did not produce a cou~try report and did not participate in the Workshop)

11. Economic and social impacts of motor vehicle emission control programme

(did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

no information given

The effectiveness of the smoke testing programme has been assessed. One matter of concern is that, although 80% pass the test, only 113 of those vehicles are acceptable 12 months after the test. All emission control proposals must be endorsed by an Advisory Committee, with representatives from environmental and business groups. Interest groups are also consulted. :

12. Participation by sectoral groups in motor vehicle emission control programme

(did not produce a.country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

no infomation given

II ) )

)

Japan 10. Inspection and maintenance programmes

Malaysia

Philippines 4 motor vehicle inspection facilities (incl. CO, HC and smoke testing) have been built, but their use is restricted to mainly for-hire vehicles. 26 field smoke units have been purchased for Metro Manila. Economic impacts of various motor vehicle emission control options have been studied on behalf of ADB. Benefits were found to outweigh costs. However, these options have not yet been implemented. A highly effective public education campaign has been launched. A "Clean Air Pact" between the President and the oil industry was also signed. There is a strong involvement by NGOs in the Philippines.

Initial, continuation (w.hen the (did not produce a country initial certificate expires) and report) modification inspections are made by the Lllnd Transport Office, under safety legislation. Vehicles without certificates are not permitted to operate. There have been a few economic studies. Improved fuel efficiency has been achieved in parallel with more advanced t!mission (;ontrols, negating previous concerns about competitiveness. (did not produce a country report)

11. Economic and social impacts of motor vehicle emission control programme

12. Participation by sectoral groups in motor vehicle emission control programme

Particularly since the occurrence of some incidents of severe environmentaC degradation, local citizen groups and Parliament have become more active on pollution problems.

(did not produce a country report)

i~ ::;I ,VI

Republic of Korea 10. Inspection and maintenance programmes Periodic (every 6 months to 2 years, depending on type and age) and roadside inspections. For gasoline and LPG, CO of 1.2% 4.5% and ~C of220 - 1200 ppm. Diesel smoke 50% .. Recall system introduced in 1990. no information given

Singapore

Viet Nam

I~ ,~ ::I 1II

Periodic and random inspections. Annual safety checks for cars, Diesel smoke density at free buses and trucks carried out by acceleration of 50 Hartridge units. traffic police. Gasoline CO at idle of 4.5% (6% for pre-Oct 86). High stimdard of maintenance and repair.

11. Economic and social impacts of motor vehicle emission control programme

no information given

12. Participation by sectoral groups in motor vehicle emission control programme

no information given

)

Austr alia 13. Transportation controls and tnlffic management (did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

China no information given

Hong Kong It is indicated that greater emphasis on transportation and land use planning is required for the future, including an expansion of the mass transit system .

14. Motor vehicle-related research programmes

. (did not produce a country report and did not participate in the Workshop)

no information given

Are-evaluation of the motor . vehicle emission control strategy led to 3 new options - gasoline for taxis and light buses, enhanced 11M and more stringent emission and fuel standards.

VI .....

( ~ VI

IS'-

Japa'n 13, Transportation controls and traffic management

Malaysia (did not produce a country report)

Philippines Congestion is acknowledged to be serious in Metro Manila, and various measures (including bylaws) have been implemented to try to relieve it. An expanded mass transport system is urgently required. The various economic and social dimensions of fuel switching, particulary from diesel to gasoline . by Jeepneys and other utility vehicles, are being studied.

I~ 'VI

There has been a major shift to ro~d transport over the past 20 years, although travel by public transport is still similar to private cars. Road capacity is inadequate, and a five-year road plan has been prepared. Research and development of emission control technology is mainly done by the motor vehicle companies. Some fundamental research is done by national institutes and universities.

14. Motor vehicle-related research programmes

(did not produce a country report)

)

Republic Of Korea 13. Transportation controls and traffic management

Singapore Comprehensive transport policy, including efficient public transport (MRT and buses), restriction on importation of used cars, area licensing scheme, weekend car scheme and vehicle quota system.

Viet Nam Congestion is recognized as a problem and master plans have been developed for Hanoi, including an upgraded bus system. An underground mass transit system is also betng considered.

In Seoul, buses account for 39% of total passenger transport and the subway 19% (4.6 million passengers per day). Two further phases of the subway are to be completed in 1996 and 1999, increasing subway share to 75%. Considerable research is being carried out on diesel particulate control. It is expected tllat development of a particulate filter trap will be completed in 4-5 years. Alternative fuels are also under study.

14. Motor vehicle-related research programmes

no information given

Technical alternatives to control emissions from diesel vehicles appear to be under study, including adjustments to engines, alternative fuels and various socio-economic measures.

VI W

I~ ,::I ,~ VI

- 55ANNEX 6

RESPONSES TO THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE Sixteen of the participants and one of the observers (from ESCAP) returnee! the evaluation questionnaire. The exception amongst the participants was the MalaYSian delegate. The questionnaire is given on the next six pages.

The two tables attached summarize the responses. An overwhelming majority of the respondents recorded that the objectives of the workshop were fully met, especially the first three, (a) to (c). An explanation for a '2' response to question l(d) was that the workshop focused mainly on (a) to (c) and there was no time for (d). However, a longer period for the final "interactions" session, which was held after the questionnaire was completed, redressed that situation, according to a verbal response at the Summary and Evaluation session from the particular participant concerned.

A large majority of the participants felt they learned new skills or concepts (question 2), that the skills can be applied in their work and country (question 3) and that there were sufficient opportunities to exchange knowledge and experience with other participants (question 4). Most were satisfied with the working papers (question 5). The explanation given for the '1' response was that the methodology to determine ambient standards for certain air pollutants, based on health effects, should have been covered.

...

In question 6 the participants were asked to indicate other topics, not on the agenda, which they would have liked included. A few responses were received, including reviews of regulations and standards in various countries, design of health effect studies and city planning.

More than three quarters felt they had enough time to study the working papers (question 7). There was some indication that a significant reason for those who answered "no" was that they did not receive the papers sufficiently in advance. The vast majority found the methods of introduction and presentation satisfactory or very satisfactory (question 8). All of topics covered were mentioned as being the most relevant to the work of the . participants (question 9), including fuel quality, emission control technologies and implementation and institutional issues. Most were satisfied with the discussions (question 10). The explanation given for the '2' response was some difficulty with English on the part of the participant.

... ...

The widest range of responses was to question 11, regarding the field trip. The predominant explanation given for the large number of responses of'l' and '2' was the (last minute) refusal of Pro~on to allow us to inspect the assembly and test facilities. A large majority was satisfied with the duration and scheduling of different activities (question 12) and with the organization or administrative arrangements (question 13). All of the participants felt that the recommendations/conclusions reflected the consensus 14(a», all felt that such an activity should be held regularly (question 14(b», most felt therr attendance was worthwhile to them personally (question 14(c» and all felt their participation was worthwhile to their country (question 14(d» . (qu~tion

- 56Annex 6 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION WESTERN PACIFIC REGION ENVIRONMENTAL HEALll I CENTRE (F.HC)

ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE REGION DO PACIFIQUE OCCIDENTAL

Tel.: 9480311 - 9480312 - 9480~61

WORKSHOP ON MOTOR VEIDCLE EMISSION CONTROL EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 26-30 September 1994

This questionnaire is a means for WHO to obtain your opinion of how the group educational activity was conducted. It will help us to improve future activities. Please answer the following questions by circling the number you believe is most appropriate. Note the five-point scale from negative to positive. There is room at the end for any additional comments you may wish to make.

1. (a)

Were the following activity objectives met? to review recent teclnological develcprents in reducing emi ssiaJs fran notor vehicles;

not

at all 2

adequate

very much

(b)

CClq)aI'e

1IOtca:- vehicle a:ir po1J..uticn CO'ltrol in various coontries in terms of their

progt'aIIIle5

relative effectivereBSi (c) to identify alternative ~

to prevent Ul.'1:en

a:ir polluticn fran notor vehiclesj arxi

(d)

to develg? approaches for advocacy of COltrol pt'Cl9:alll1e5

especially by the health sectca:- when dealing !JKl$Calllle5.

with develqnent arxi mtan planning

If your answer is 1 Or 2, please explain:

- 57Annex 6 not at all adequate 2 very much 4

Have you learned new.skills or concepts as a result of this activity? If your answer is 1 or 2, please explain:

....

.... not at all adequate 2 very much

....

Can these skills and concepts be applied in your work and country? If your answer is 1 or 2, please explain:

....

... 4. Were there sufficient opportunities to exchange knowledge and experience,with otlier participants? " If your answer is 1 or 2, please explain:

not at all 1

adequate .2

very much

...

... not at all adequate 2 very much 4

...

Were you satisfied with all working papers provided? If your answer is 1 or 2, please explain for specific paper(s):

...

· - 58Annex 6 6. Other topics, not in the agenda, which you would have liked to be included:

Yes

Did you have enough time to study the working papers?

If J1Q, did you receive the working papers sufficiently in advance? not at all

adequate 2 3 4

very much 5

Were methods of introduction and presentation of different topics satisfactory? If your answer is 1 or 2, please exp~in:

Which topics did you find most relevant to your work?

10.

Were you satisfied with discussions -

not at all 1 2

adequate 3 4

very much 5

If your answer is 1 or 2, please explain:

.... - 59Annex 6 not at all adequate 2

very much

11.

Was the field trip useful to meet the objectives? 1

.5.

If your answer is 1 or 2, please explain: -.

not at all 12. Were the duration and scheduling of different activities - lectures, discussions, field trip, etc. - satisfactory? If your answer is 1 1

adequate 2 3

very much

or 2, please explain:

...

not at all

adequate 2 3 4

very much 5

13.

Were organization or administrative arrangements for trave~ accommodation, payment of per diem, venue facilities and secretariat support satisfactory?

If your answer is 1 or 2, please explain:

14.

Do you feel thatThe recommendations/conclusions reflected the participants' consensus? Such activity should be held regularly? Your attendance was worthwhile to you personally? Your participation was worthwhile to your country?

(a)

...

(b) (c) (d)

- 60-

Annex 6 Comments (if any):

15.

Is there better way to achieve the activity's objectives? If yes, please describe briefly:

16.

What follow-up activities, if any, would you recommend: (a) by national government-

- 61-

Annex 6

(b)

by WHO -

(e)

by other agencies (specify type)-

.... 17. Any further comments/suggestions?

Signature (optional)

- 62Annex 6

Most felt there was no better way to achieve the objectives (question 15). Of those who felt there were better ways; some of the suggestions were to include more countries (Australia, Thailand, Taiwan), to hold the workshop at a location where more direct experience and practical demonstrations could be provided, and to allow more time for the "interactions" sessions. Again, this final comment was probably corrected by the longer time given for the final "interactions" session, held after the questionnaire was completed. With regard to follow-up activities by national governments (question 16(a», most participants focused on the need to apply the information to their own situation; to hasten the passage of appropriate requirements (especially inspection and maintenance programmes) was also frequently mentioned. Other interesting suggestions for national governments included the integration of environment and public health agencies in a single Ministry, and the need for information exchange between countries. The main suggestion regarding follow-up activities by WHO (question 16(b» was that workshops such as this should be held very frequently. Other suggested roles for WHO were to assess and make known the health effects of motor vehicle air pollution, and to influence oil companies to produce and market the use of unleaded gasoline. The only suggestion made regarding follow-up activities by other agencies (question 16(d» was for interagency workshops to be held. Question 17 asked for further comments/suggestions. Some responded, with highly complementary comments about the workshop.

- 63-

RESPONSES TO EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE not at all Question 1 a b

Annex 6

adequate 2 3

very much 4 7 (41%) 9 (53%) 11 (65%) 7 (41%) 10 (59%) . 9 (53%) 5 (29%) 8 (47%) 5 10 (59%) 8 (47%) 3 (18%) 2 (12%) 5 (29%) 3 (18%) 9 (53%) 6 (35%)

c d

o (0%) o (0%) o (0%) o (0%) o (0%) o (0%) o (0%) 1 (6%)

o (0%) o (0%) 0(0%) 2 (12%)

o (0%) o (0%) 3 (18%) 6 (35%) 2 (12%) 5 (29%) 3 (18%) 2 (12%)

2 3 4 5

o (0%) o (0%) o (0%) o (0%)

....

(see next chart for responses to question 7) 8 10 11

1 (6%)

o (0%) 1 (6%) 9 (53%)

3 (18%) 5 (29%) 5 (29%) 7 (41%) 1 (6%)

11 (65%) 9 (53%) 1 (6%) 8 (47%) 7 (41%)

2 (12%) 2 (12%) 1 (6%) 2 (12%) 9 (53%)

....

o (0%) 1 (6%)

12 13

o (0%) o (0%)

o (0%)

(see next chart for responses to questions 14 &. 15)

- 64Annex 6

RESPONSES TO EVAL UATI ON QUES TION NAIR E (continued)

Questi on

yes

13 (77%)

4 (23%)

14 a b

17 (100%) 17 (100%) 15 (88%) 17 (100%)

o (0%) o (0%) 2 (12%)

c d

o (0%) 12 (71%)

5 (29%)

Informations clés

Organisation Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS)

Type de document Technical Documents

Date d'adoption 31 décembre 1994

Source Organisation mondiale de la santé