Mozambique - Roads and Bridges Management and Maintenance Program Project - environmental assessment (Vol. 2 of 2) : Appendices

E442 Vol. 2 APPENDIX A-DESCRIPTION OF THE SERVICES 1 SCOPE OF WORKS 1.1 Environmental Scoping The Consultant will describe and evaluate the current environmental situation of the country, including: a) an overview of national environmental policy, legislation and directives relevant to the ROADS3 sector programme b) integaration within the overall road sector strategy for Mozambique; c) review of specific environmental guidelines for the roads sector developed under the ROCS programmes d) overview of biophysical and socio-economic aspects including areas of high priority for conservation of natural habitats, formally protected areas such as national parks, fragile ecosystems, demographics, ethnicity, gender aspects, HIV/AIDS etc. The Consultant will identify distinct biophysical/socio-economic zones within Mozambique that would be impacted on. e) review of institutional capacity within ANE, other government institutions and the private sector to monitor and enforce environmental guidelines and to undertake EIAs on sub-projects. 1.2 EIA's for Phase 1: Investment programme The Consultant will identify typical environmental impacts that will result from road works in the distinct biophysical/socio-economic zones identified during the environmental scoping exercise and especially with regard to the roads program of Phase 1 of the Investment programme. The Consultant will propose environmental guidelines to be used in the individual road sub-projects to mitigate negative impacts. Existing EIA material used by the Ministry of the Environment (MICOA) will be used where available and the recommendation should be based on the existing ANE Environmental Guidelines. Special recommendations with respect to collaboration with MICOA on screening of sub-projects and undertaking EIAs should be provided. The guidelines will cover: a) environmental screening of sub-projects, with reference to the specific characteristics of the distinct ecological, demographic, ethnic and socio-economic environments in Mozambique. The screening guidelines should conform with the overall FILE COPY requirements of MICOA  b) carry out the full comprehensive EIA on specific Phase 1 Investment programme, sub-projects as defined within ANE known and approved (Road Sector Strategy study) works. These studies should also include the requirements for EIA standards adopted by MICOA c) comprehensive formulation of required mitigation measures, cost impacts and assessments with related recommendations c) proposed modifications to existing Conditions of Contract and works specifications to incorporate environmental requirements. These EIA's should reflect regional and international experience and environmental guidelines published by the Word Bank and other donor agencies 1.3 Monitoring and Enforcement The Consultants will make recommendations for strengthening existing institutions and building capacity to manage the environmental requirements for sub-projects. This will include: a) recommendations for strengthening ANE's in-house environmental capacity to manage, assess, monitor and control the environmental impacts of the ROADS3 sub-projects including: position of the environmental unit within ANE; organisational structure; manpower resources and training requirements; equipment needs and availability; budget estimate for the unit; and monitoring and implementation procedures (ie checklists, environmental performance indicators etc) b) assessment of local private sector consulting capacity for undertaking EIAs and routine environmental monitoring of site works c) recommendations for allocating specific responsibility for monitoring contractor performance at site level within the ANE environmental unit, consultant supervision teams and the provincial road agencies (DEPs). 1.4 Training Needs The Consultant will identify needs for environmental training within ANE, government institutions and private sector contractors and consultants. Outline proposals for training programs for each group of stakeholders will be prepared. An estimate of the cost must be made and a financing plan proposed.  1.5 Public Consultation Public consultation is an integral part of the EA process. Initial public consultation will be undertaken with local communities, national and international NGOs, scientific experts, relevant government agencies (at national, provincial and district level) and the private sector. The draft recommendations of the study will be discussed with key stakeholders at workshops to be held in Maputo, Beira and Nampula. Feed-back from the workshops will be incorporated in the Final Report. 1.6 Environmental Management Plan The overall mitigation plan will recommend feasible and cost effective measures to prevent or reduce significant negative impacts to acceptable levels. The Consultant will estimate the impacts and costs of these measures, and of the institutional and training requirements to implement them. Compensation to affected parties for impacts which cannot be mitigated should be considered. The Consultant should prepare a short and concise management plan including proposed work programs, budget estimates, schedules, staffing and training requirements, and other necessary support services to implement the mitigating measures. 1.7 Reporting The draft EA report should focus on findings of the environmental scoping exercise and preliminary conclusions and recommendations. The comprehensive reporting of the EIA's for Phase 1: Investment programme should be accommodated as a priority deliverable of the EA. The requirements within 3.2 should thus be allocated as a major component of the EA but must furthermore be provided within the strict time scales defined below. The final reporting should also include alternative recommendations for the environmental management system for presentation to the stakeholders.   IMPACTO TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION ............................... 1-1 1.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................... 1-1 1.2 ADMINISTRATION .......................................... 1-1 1.3 POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT .......................................... 1-1 1.4 TRADITIONAL ADMINISTRATION .......................................... 1-3 2 POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS ................................... 2-1 2.1 POPULATION .......................................... 2-1 2.2 ETHNICITY .......................................... 2-2 2.3 GENDER .......................................... 2-2 3 ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS ................................... 3-1 3.1 ECONOMY .......................................... 3-1 3.2 POVERTY .......................................... 3-3 4 SERVICES ................................... 4-1 4.1 ACCESS TO SERVICES .......................................... 4-1 4.2 EDUCATION .......................................... 4-2 4.3 HEALTH .......................................... 4-3 5 LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES ................................... 5-1 5.1 AGRICULTURE .......................................... 5-1 5.2 OTHER LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES .......................................... 5-2 6 ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL SITES ........................ 6-1   IMPACTO I INTRODUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION 1.1 INTRODUCTION This document describes the socio-economic context of Mozambique for the purposes of the environmental assessment of the ROADS3 Program. Information is provided to describe population trends, the macro economy, and political context. More specific information is provided in terms of overall access to services such as education and health and crop production. 1.2 ADMINISTRATION Mozambique is a large country with a land area of 784,090 square kilometres (kmi2) located in south-east Africa sharing borders with Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. The Indian Ocean coastline of Mozambique is in excess of 2,700 kilometres. The country is divided and administered into ten Provinces (See Map 1). Each Province is divided into Districts of which 129 exist in Mozambique. Each District is sub-divided for administrative purposes into Administrative Posts and further sub-divided into Localities. The country is also divided into three broad regions: North, Central and South. Northern Region consists of Cabo Degado, Niassa, Nampula and Zambezia Provinces. Central Region consists of Tete, Manica, and Sofala Provinces. Southern Region consists of Maputo, Gaza, and Inhambane Provinces. Regional categorisation is used more for the calculation and presentation of broad indices such as agricultural production or to describe climatic conditions. Each province is administered through a Governor selected by the Mozambican President. At the provincial level there exists the extensions of the departments of government such as Ministries of agriculture, education, and health. Policy is made at the central government level to be implemented by the various provincial ministries. The Governor perforns the function of co-ordinator of the various ministries. The Governor does not have the authority to select or replace a provincial head of a ministry. This authority is vested in the respective Ministers of government. These administrative and organisational structures are undergoing a period of change as described in more detail in the political section below. 1.3 POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT The second multi-party election was completed successfully in December 1999. There was a high voter turnout of 64 percent. This was almost the same as the turnout for the first elections in 1994. The ruling party, Frente de Libera,ao de Mo,ambique (FRELIMO), and its president Joaquim Chissano were re-elected with 52.3 percent of the vote. The margin of majority over the opposition, the Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana (RENAMO) leader Alfonso Dhlakama, was reduced compared to 1994. FRELIMO, however, increased its parliamentary majority, from 129 of 250 seats to 133 of 250 seats. The first-ever local elections in Mozambique took place in the largest 33 cities and towns in 1998, and the new municipal assemblies began work in 1999. Although local elections were boycotted by RENAMO and suffered from a low turnout, candidates from citizens' lists and 58602 Annexure B February 2001 1-1  IMPA(C'lU Map 1: MOZAMBIQUE WITH PROVINCES AND AREA (kM2) N TAN~~~~~~~~~zANIA \ ( : 003000 000 0 0 0bo0Degad^ ZAMBIA ....,,. 1 ,t<W0000000000tS00~ i 4 . B<''t'''ivNam'ula souYat X .... i i AP'RICA mIB8E SsrL 58602H4 Aneue erur 00 -  IMPACTO opposition parties were elected in six cities and have formed vocal oppositions within the local assemblies. These elections marked the first step in an extensive process of decentralisation, in which the new municipalities are progressively taking on powers over local services, basic health and education, and local economic development. Mozambique was a one-party State from independence in 1975 until 1990, when a new constitution was adopted, creating a multiparty system with a separation of powers. The system has a strong President who appoints the Government, a Parliament that must approve the annual budget and plan as well as all legislation, and an independent court system. A revised draft constitution, which would have shifted powers from the President to Parliament, has been deferred to the new legislature, since consensus could not be reached on the final version. The changing political process runs much more deeply than simply elected bodies. A vibrant civil society of pressure groups, associations of business people, women, peasants, trade unions and churches is growing and becoming more active. An independent press is now well established, ensuring that a broad spectrum of political views and interest groups is heard. This political growth and vibrancy is particularly remarkable considering the national context: a country only recently emerging from a long and bitter period of conflict, low levels of literacy and widespread poverty, and all of this in a large country with poor communications. The new land law marks the most direct interaction between the new democracy and economic development issues. The law was approved in 1997 and regulations to enforce it came into effect in 1999. This involved four years of consultation and debate, with frequent redrafting, in one of the most open and democratic processes seen in Mozambique. Active campaigning and lobbying by civil society and intervention by Parliament led to the approval of firm occupancy rights for peasants and other landholders and the rejection of international pressure to allow land sales and mortgages. Other provisions saw women's rights increased, traditional leaders given a greater role, and the creation of a form of collective tenure. In addition, the powers of the Council of Ministers to reallocate land were restricted. The law confirmed the overriding rights of present occupants, and required that all outstanding applications for land for development projects be resubmitted. Fewer than 10 percent of these were, ending fears that widespread land grabbing would displace peasants. New and renewed applications would only be considered if local people had been consulted. Pressure groups and peasant associations launched massive publicity campaigns in 1999 to inform people of their rights, to good effect. 1.4 TRADITIONAL ADMINISTRATION Traditional administrative structures still exist in Mozambique based upon the concept of a Chief or headperson of a community or ethnic group. This traditional structure exists, to lesser or greater extent, in most localities side-by-side with the more modern administrative apparatus of the State and political parties. In general terms the first government of an independent Mozambique from 1975 attempted to replace the inherited colonial and traditional systems with a centralised system based upon the political doctrines of socialism. With political and economic reforrn since the mid-1980's the intention of the Government has been to replace a highly centralised system by devolving increasing amounts of decision making authority to provincial and district levels. This process is dynamic and subject to political influences. 58602 Annexure B February 2001 1-3   IMPACTO 2 POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS 2.1 POPULATION The population of Mozambique according to the 1997 national census was 15.3 million. The actual population recorded by the 1997 census was below expectations. Before the census the population estimates were about 17 million and this is why documents often state the population of Mozambique as over 17 million. The population growth rate is 2.2 percent per annum. This will result in a Mozambican population in 2004 of about 18 million inhabitants. Approximately 35 percent of Mozambican's are under the age of 30 years of age. The age structure is as follows. 0-14 years constituting 46% of the population (male 4,141,915 and female 4,115,191), 15-64 years constituting 51% of the population (male 4,324,102 and 4,868,518 female, and 65 years and over 3% of the population (male 184,606 and 243,595 female). Household sizes are large at 5.5 members, and the ratio between economically active and passive members (less than 15 years or more than 60 years) of the population is high with a dependency ratio of 1:1. These figures are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Household size, composition, and dependency ratios Rural Urban Mozambique Average household size 4.6 5.4 4.8 (persons) Average dependency ration 55.5 53.7 55.2 Source: Understanding Poverty and Well-Being in Mozambique (December 1998) Mozambique is a relatively sparsely populated country with an average population density of 19 persons per kM2. Some Provinces such as Niassa have population densities below 10 persons per km2. The most populous Provinces are Nampula with 2,977,233 inhabitants and Zambezia with 2,891,809 inhabitants. The greatest population concentration is to be found in Maputo Province in the contiguous urban areas of Maputo City and Matola City where approximately 10 percent of Mozambique's population live. Most Mozambicans, over 80 percent, live in rural areas. Table 2: Population size by Province Province Population Maputo * 806,179 Gaza 1,062,380 Inhambane 1,123,079 Sofala 1,289,390 Manica 974,208 Tete 1,144,604 Zambezia 2,891,809 Nampula 2,977,233 Niassa 756,287 Cabo Delgado 1,287,814 * Excludes Maputo City Source: Census 1997 58602 Annexure B February 2001 2-1  IMPACTO The urban population has been increasing in all areas of Mozambique. At the beginning of the 1980's, 13 percent of the population were located in urban centres. By the mid-1990's, 27 percent of the population were living in urban areas. Despite a generally rapid rise in the rate of urbanisation, no single city in Mozambique has a population greater than one million inhabitants. Maputo City combined with the City of Matola has a population of almost 1.5 million. The first eleven cities in Mozambique ranked by population size are as described in Table 3. Table 3: Main Cities of Mozambique by population size City Province Population Maputo City Maputo 966,800 Matola Maputo 527,000 Inhambane Inhambane 470,000 Beira Sofala 397,368 Nampula Nampula 304,043 Chimoio Manica 176,000 Ch6kwe Gaza 163,000 Quelimane Zambezi 150,166 Tete Tete 120,166 Lichinga Niassa 85,759 Pemba Cabo Delgado 66,000 2.2 ETHNICITY The largest ethnic group in Mozambique is Macua-Lomwe who mainly live north of the Zambezi River. This group accounts for around 40 percent of the total population. The other main ethnic groups are the Tsonga in the southern lowlands, the Chopi and Tonga along the coast and around Inhambane, the Shona in the central areas and the Makonde in the province of Cabo Delgado. Mozambicans have been mixing with different cultures for centuries and have absorbed many different characteristics and customs. Arabs had been trading and living along the coast for hundreds of years before the arrival of the Portuguese, and when the new colonisers arrived they quickly settled and intermarried, creating a rich cultural mix. Mozambicans today reflect that melding of races. The diversity of population is reflected in the variety of languages spoken. Approximately 60 languages and dialects are spoken. The official language is Portuguese although only about 10 percent of Mozambicans speak it as their first language. The main local languages are Macua (38%), Tsonga (24%), and Sena (10%). 2.3 GENDER Most Mozambican ethnic groups are patrilineal. Although most ethnic groups are patrilineal, the prevalence of male migration necessitates that in many rural areas particularly in the southern region of Mozambique, women run their families and livings. In Zambezia Province the introduction of the prazos, the semi-feudal system for administration for several hundred years of Portuguese dominance, was based on inheritance through the female line. FRELIMO as part of the liberation struggle promoted concepts related to the equality of women. With independence in 1975 these progressive attitudes towards the role of women continued 58602 Annexure B February 2001 2-2  IMPACTO including the introduction of new laws, which attempted to enshrine protection of rights for women. Despite the advancement of the rights of women under independent administration, Mozambican girls and women do less well than boys and men. Maternal mortality rate is high at 1,100 per 100,000 births. Access to health services directed specifically at women is generally very poor. Literacy rates for women are much lower than for men. Family law in Mozambique still discriminates against women. A married woman has limited rights to make independent economic decisions or enjoy full ownership of assets. A widow's rights to inheritance are secondary to males in the family. Girls in rural areas in general marry young, often as soon as they reach puberty. 58602 Annexure B February 2001 2-3   IMPACTO 3 ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS 3.1 ECONOMY Mozambique made significant economic and social progress in the years immediately following independence in 1975 particularly in terms of rapidly rising literacy rates. Unfortunately the on-set of armed conflict rapidly eroded any gains made and ultimately resulted to the collapse of the economy and civil society in general. The eventual establishment of the peace accords of October 1992 left Mozambique with devastating physical, social, and economic damage. Economic damages were estimated at more than $20 billion (10 times the annual GDP in 1992). Mozambique has undergone a period of significant economic recovery since the signing of the peace accord in 1992. The annual growth rate, as defined by gross domestic product (GDP), in the past three years has been calculated at 8.8, 9.7 and 7.3 percent, respectively. Annual inflation has fallen from a level of almost 50 percent in 1996 to a current level of below 6 percent. Despite the progress made, post-war reconstruction has still not been completed. Infrastructure remains generally poor. Floods, such as those that occurred in southern Mozambique in February 2000, set farmers, fishermen and other small businesses back many years. Many believe Mozambique will continue to need high levels of international assistance to complete reconstruction and to build a more robust base for the kind of development that is essential to ending acute poverty. A major privatisation programme was begun in 1990 and, by the end of the decade, 1,200 firms had been privatised. Most large companies, including those in the banking, brewing and cement production sectors, were taken over by foreign firms. Many smaller companies were, however, sold to local entrepreneurs. Private management of core state services is another aspect of the ongoing structural reform programme as well as seeking foreign management support. Examples include the assistance given to Mozambique customs, foreign management of the urban water supply and the State Telephone Company. Private management of ports and railways is now being organised but also in a way that maintains some Mozambican interest. Foreign investment has grown rapidly. In the seven years 1993-1999, $4.2 billion in foreign investments were approved, $1.2 billion in foreign direct investment and $3 billion in loans. Implementation has been slower with only $294 million actually spent in 1998 ($213 million in investment and $81 million in private sector credit). In 1999, work started on the $1.3 billion Mozal aluminium smelter, by far Mozambique's largest investment project. The project was commissioned in September 2000. In large part due to Mozal, 1999 saw $348 million in actual foreign direct investment and $495 million in foreign loans to the private sector. Mozal alone is believed to account for more than 2 percent of the 7.3 percent per capita GDP growth rate for 1999, leading to fears that growth is increasingly being generated by large projects. 58602 Annexure B February 2001 3-1  IMPACTO Neighbouring South Africa accounts for nearly one half of the foreign investment, either directly or via British-based companies. South African investment is split between large projects like Mozal, privatisation of the breweries and small tourism and industry projects. France and Portugal are the other two large investors. Concern is growing inside Mozambique about the increasing dominance of foreign investors and contractors, which are stronger, better capitalised and more experienced than domestic firms are. There is an acknowledged need for support to the emerging indigenous private sector. Traditional exports, notably prawns, cashew nuts and cotton, have remained steady over the past three years, at $230 million per year. The Cahora Bassa dam located in Tete Province began exporting power to South Africa and Zimbabwe in 1998 and electricity export earnings jumped to $52 million in 1999. Service income from transport and tourism also stabilised at $130 million a year. Exports of goods and services cover only one half of imports, excluding capital imports for the big projects. Aid remains absolutely essential to the Mozambican economy, and development assistance levels are falling more slowly than had been predicted. Grants and loans to Mozambique declined from $1,141 million in 1995 to $835 million in 1998 and are believed to have fallen to $800 million in 1999. With the near total phasing-out of emergency assistance, food aid and resettlement assistance, there has been a shift towards longer-term development goals. Of assistance provided in 1998, $593 million (71 percent) was grants, of which $448 million was bilateral, $93 million from the European Union and $52 million from the United Nations system. The remaining $238 million comprised loans, of which $133 million came from the World Bank. One third of donations and all loans are for investment projects; nearly one third of grants is direct balance-of-payment support to the Government. Mozambique remains one of the most aid-dependent countries in the world, but declining levels and the recalculation of GDP means that aid in 1999 was only 19 percent of GDP, compared to 49 percent in 1995. This is still well above the average for sub-Saharan Africa (7 percent in 1997) and for low human development countries (10 percent in 1997). Debt relief under the first phase of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative was granted in mid-1999. More debt relief was granted than had been proposed in 1998 because the international financial institutions had overestimated Mozambique's export growth; roughly one half of Mozambique's public and publicly guaranteed debt was cancelled. In 1998, Mozambique had been scheduled to pay $344 million in debt service (interest and principal repayments) but paid only $104 million. After HIPC debt relief, the debt service payments in 2000 will be $76 million, a real gain of $28 million, although not enough to cover the fall in aid. Mozambique is expected to have a further amount of debt cancelled in 2000 under the modified Cologne terms of HIPC, which could bring debt-service payments in 2001 down to $57 million. The banking system, although now privatised, remains concentrated at Maputo. It has so far proved unable to mobilise national savings or to lend effectively to entrepreneurs and small businesses in rural areas, which will be key to development. Interest rates remain prohibitively high (22 percent compared to inflation of under 6 percent). In general the business sector in Mozambique remains weak, having not recovered from skill deficits and the decapitalization caused by the war. 58602 Annexure B February 2001 3-2  IMPACTO Tax revenues remain at about 11.5 percent of GDP. Government current expenditure rose from 9.5 percent of GDP in 1997 to 10.6 percent in 1999, and the levels are rising slowly. There was substantial growth in 1999 because of an increase in the minimum wage and an increase in civil service salaries. The Mozambican Human Rights League identified prevailing low wages as the main cause of growing petty corruption. Health and education spending have risen rapidly, while military spending has been falling since the end of the war. In 1999, the Government expected to spend $96 million on recurrent education costs (such as teachers' salaries), $89 million on defence and security, $86 million on debt service (after having been granted HIPC debt relief) and $57 million on recurrent health costs. 3.2 POVERTY Poverty in Mozambique has been defined as the inability of individuals to ensure for themselves and their dependents a set of minimum basic conditions for their subsistence (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, (1998), Programmea Nacional de Desenvolvimento Agrario (PROAGRI): Vol. I,II,e III). Although Mozambique's economy grew rapidly during the last six years, poverty levels remain some of the highest in the world. Average monthly consumption was estimated to be Mtl60,780 or about $170 per capita per year in 1998. In accordance with the overall economic growth per capita income in Mozambique in 1999 had risen to $230. Mozambique was ranked 169 of 174 countries in the human development index for 1997. Increasing life expectancy, higher enrolment rates and rising GDP are beginning to push up the human development index at an increasing rate, with improvements of more than 3.5 percent expected for both 1998 and 1999. Mozambique is well below the sub-Saharan average for most development indicators. Approximately two-thirds (69%) of the population fall into the category of poor (live on an income of less than US$1 a day), one-third of the population is considered to be very poor, which translated into monetary terms means they live on less than 40 US cents a day. Table 4: Average consumption and estimates of poverty and destitution by province Province Proportion of the Average consumption Poor Very poor population (%) (Mt/person/month) head count head count index* index Niassa 4.85 147,841 70.64 40.48 Cabo Delgado 8.16 194,448 57.40 23.10 Nampula 19.47 161,668 68.92 37.10 Zambezia 20.34 154,832 68.10 34.35 Tete 7.30 117,049 82.27 53.60 Manica 6.19 191,608 62.60 26.96 Sofala 8.77 97,906 87.92 65.19 Inhambane 7.06 128,219 82.60 53.73 Gaza 6.57 183,233 64.66 26.54 Maputo 5.14 177,774 65.60 35.37 Maputo City 6.14 253,102 47.84 17.03 * equivalent to % of population Source: Ministry of Planning and Finance 1998 58602 Annexure B February 2001 3-3  IMPACTO The First National Poverty and Well-being Assessment, published in 1999, showed that 69 percent of all Mozambicans live in poverty, with poverty higher in rural areas (71 percent) than in urban areas (62 percent). There are considerable variations in poverty rates across Mozambique. The Central Region has the highest poverty rate (74 percent). The poorest Provinces in Mozambique are Sofala (92 percent), Tete (82 percent), and Inhambane (82 percent). These figures are approximately the same as those published for 1997. There is a strong relationship between education and poverty. There is a particularly strong correlation between the education of the household head and the poverty of the household: families whose head has a better education tend to be less poor. The Government of Mozambique has set a target to reduce poverty by the year 2010 by about 30%. In order to achieve this reduction Action Guidelines have been produced which include: u Maintain rapid and sustainable economic growth u Priority to human capital u Increase agricultural production particularly in the family-sector o Develop infrastructure in the rural areas n Protect the most vulnerable groups of society through social security and assistance programmes o_ Promote employment u Improve technical and administrative capacity to monitor poverty 58602 Annexure B February 2001 3-4  IMPACTO 4 SERVICES 4.1 ACCESS TO SERVICES Table 5 summarises access to a range of services. Access to basic communications services, such as a post office or public telephone, is extremely limited, with only three percent of rural households living in villages with such services. The most commonly available services are markets and transportation services. Distances to medical services other than traditional healers are long, averaging 20 to 30 kilometres, and reaching an average of 45 kilometres to a doctor. Below twenty percent of rural households live in villages with a nurse, midwife, health post, or health centre and only two percent of households live in a village with a doctor. There are differences across the country with the Central Region having the poorest access to health services and the Southern region the best. Table 5: Percentage of rural population with specified service in their villages and mean distance in kilometres to specified services in rural areas Service Percent of Villages Mean distance with service to service in available kilometres Doctor 2.1 45.5 Traditional 93.7 1.5 Healer Nurse 16.8 19.5 Midwife 19.7 20.6 Health Post 19.1 18.6 Health Centre 5.1 28.7 Pharmacy 4.6 27.7 Primary 68 4.5 School Secondary 2.0 65.5 School Post office 2.7 45.5 Bank 2.6 71.1 Public 3.2 47.8 telephone Market 22.9 16.3 Public 23.2 16.3 transport Agricultural 18.3 31.0 extension officer Source: Understanding Poverty and Well-Being in Mozambique (December 1998) 58602 Annexure B Februaty 2001 4-1  IMPACTO Access to clean drinking water for most Mozambicans is a major problem. Currently only 12 percent of the rural population have access to a piped water supply and 31 percent have a latrine in their home, compared to 66 and 68 percent, respectively, in urban areas. 4.2 EDUCATION Mozambique's education system is divided into pre-primary school and educational schools. Schools consist of general, technical or professional, and higher education. General education consists of two levels, primary and secondary. Primary education consists of seven years of schooling divided into two levels. Level 1 up to grade 5 (EPI) and level two from grade 6 to 7 (EP2). Secondary education consists of five years divided into two cycles, first cycle secondary from grade 8 to 10 (ESGI) and second cycle from grade 11 to 12 (ESG2). Approximately two-thirds (68%) of households live in villages with a primary school. In contrast, only two percent of households live in villages with a secondary school as shown in Table 6. Table 6: Access to schools among rural household (percent) All rural areas (%) Primary school in village 68 Primary school within 1 hour's travel time 30 Secondary school in village 2 Source: Understanding Poverty and Well-Being in Mozambique (December 1998) Table 7 shows that for adults aged between 18 to 65 the national literacy rate is 40 percent, but much lower for females at 23.6 percent. The group with the lowest level literacy rates is females in rural areas where only 15.7 percent are literate. Enrolment rates for children between 7-11 years are shown in Table 8. 49.2 of this group are enrolled in schools with lower rates (44.7%) for girls. Table 7: Adult (18-65 years) literacy rates by age group % Rural Urban Mozambique All 32.0 71.0 40.0 Male 52.3 85.1 59.3 Female 15.7 57.6 23.6 Source: Understanding Poverty and Well-Being in Mozambique (December 1998) Table 8: Children's enrolment rate by age group (%lo) for age group 7-11 years Rural Urban Mozambique All 43.8 70.7 49.2 Male 49.1 73.5 53.9 Female 39.0 68.0 44.7 Source: Understanding Poverty and Well-Being in Mozambique (December 1998) 58602 Annexure B Februar,y 2001 4-2  IMPACTO 4.3 HEALTH Mozambican life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 42 years. Infant mortality per 1,000 live births is 134. Malaria, measles, diarrhoea, and acute respiratory infections are the biggest killers of children. Nutritional status is low with national estimates of stunted growth high at 10.8 percent of infants indicating excessive levels of malnutrition. One of every six children born in Mozambique has a low birth weight, defined as less than 2.5 kilograms. Low birth weight typically reflects poor health or nutritional status of the mother during pregnancy. The war cut Mozambique off from the neighbouring States, and delayed the arrival of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, although the return of refugees and the new opening to trade led to rapid change. Malaria remains a bigger killer, and adult HIV infection rates are about 15 percent, significantly less than in some neighbouring States (South Africa 25%, Zimbabwe 26% and Malawi 23%). Mozambique, however, proved unable to make the maximum use of the extra window of opportunity, and HIV/AIDS gained real prominence as an issue only in 1999. One reason was the rising death rate, at present over 60,000 per year, and the recent acknowledgement of AIDS as the cause of death in the obituaries of prominent people. The national strategic plan to combat sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS was approved in 1999, and aims to keep HIV/AIDS levels at 17 percent of the adult population. Even so, the impact of the rising incidence of HIV/AIDS on the country will be dramatic. In the absence of effective and timely measures to curb the spread of the virus, new projections suggest that by 2005 there will be 150,000 adult deaths and 20,000 child deaths each year. This will actually reduce life expectancy in Mozambique from the present 42 years to 37 years, and will halve the rate of population growth. The number of orphans caused by AIDS will exceed 700,000 by 2005. The economic impact is expected to be significant; peasant-farming families (the majority of the population) will have fewer workers and more dependants, while industry and the state apparatus will lose skilled people. The focus of the new strategy is to target people who have casual sexual relations (an estimated 1.6 million in 1999) and those living with HIV/AIDS (approximately 15% or 2.6 million of the population) and to ensure access to essential and high-quality prevention methods. This involves more work with vulnerable groups, high-risk groups, such as the young and highly mobile people, and more inter-ministerial co-operation to involve sectors such as education, agriculture, youth and others as part of setting up channels to reach all target groups. Promotion of condom use, sex education, treatment for sexually transmitted diseases, counselling and voluntary testing and strengthening the negotiating power of women and girls are seen as essential. The aims of the national strategy seem modest, for example, to have one third of adults using condoms during casual sexual relationships. 58602 Annexure B February 2001 4-3   IMPACTO 5 LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES 5.1 AGRICULTURE An estimated 80 percent of Mozambicans live in rural areas. Of this group, 98.5 percent have at least some land and 90 percent gain most of their living through subsistence agriculture. Most farmers have only a hoe as their main farming implement and fewer than 10 percent use fertiliser or incorporate irrigation practices. Raising the productivity of peasant farmers is considered critical to combating poverty, and securing their land occupancy rights is seen as the essential first step. Table 9 summarises farm details. Table 9: Percentage of population with agricultural land and mean area per household (Ha) Rural Urban Mozambique Have agricultural land (%) 98.5 54.4 89.5 Do not have agricultural land (%) 1.5 45.6 10.5 Households with one plot (%) 26.0 30.7 26.9 Households with more than one plot (%) 72.5 30.7 26.9 Mean area per household (Ha) 2.4 1.9 2.4 Source: Understanding Poverty and Well-Being in Mozambique (December 1998) Maize is the most commonly grown crop, grown by approximately 75 percent of households who produce crops. Cassava is grown by 60 percent of households who have agricultural land. Just over 50 percent of households who have land grow beans. About 25 to 30 percent of households in rural areas produce horticultural crops. Table 10 summarises the average yield of important crops across the country. Table 10: Average yield by province and crop (tonnes/ha) Tons/hectare Maize Rice Cassava Beans Niassa 0.3 0.3 2.7 0.1 Cabo Delgado 0.9 0.3 2.1 0.2 Nampula 0.6 0.4 1.8 0.3 Zambezia 0.5 0.3 2.1 0.2 Tete 0.6 0.2 2.7 0.2 Manica 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.1 Sofala 0.5 0.4 3.0 0.2 Inhambane 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.2 Gaza 0.2 1.5 0.6 0.2 Maputo 0.2 - 0.6 0.1 Total 0.5 0.4 1.8 0.2 Source: Understanding Poverty and Well-Being in Mozambique (December 1998) 58602 Annexure B February 2001 5-1  IMPACTO The food security and nutritional status of inhabitants in the Northern Region of Mozambique are the highest in the country due to the occurrence of relatively fertile soils and good rain conditions. The Central and Southern Regions are characterised by lower food security and nutritional status due to poor soils and lower rainfall amounts. Farm sizes in the Northern region on average are greater (greater than 2 ha) than the Central and Southern regions (less than I ha). Poor agricultural production over large areas of the country has resulted in the dynamic that 98 percent of crop production is subsistence and small holder based with only 16 percent of households having a surplus stock of produce to sell commercially. Table 11 summarises the national figures for areas cultivated by crop and total production for the growing season 1999 to 2000. The most important crop in terms of total area cultivated is maize followed by cassava but cassava is more important in terms of yield than maize. Table 11: National Total Cultivated Area (Ha) by Crop and Total Production (Tons/metric) for 1999/2000 CROP CULTIVATED AREA TOTAL PRODUCTION l ______________ l(ha) (tonnes) Maize 1,084,153 1,019,033 Sorghum 435,413 252,461 Millet 83,325 48,854 Rice 154,226 151,388 Beans 356,096 146,437 GroundNuts 248,255 114,517 Cassava 925,902 5,361,974 Source: System National de Avis Provo August 2000 Livestock production occurs to a much greater extent in the Southern region where over 60 percent of the cattle populations occur. Limited livestock numbers and poor agricultural productivity has resulted in a population that has developed livelihood strategies that rely on natural resources. Such dependency is high with 85 percent of the energy and between 30 percent and 70 percent of the protein requirements of rural communities being derived from the natural resource base. The utilisation and trade of wildmeat constitutes a significant input to many rural household economies. During the early 1990's it was estimated that about five million people in Mozambique were dependent upon wildlife for meat protein, with rural communities deriving between 40 percent and 80 percent of their protein requirements from bushmeat. 5.2 OTHER LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES Historically migration of a male member of a family has been a major livelihood strategy for families particularly living in the Southern Region of Mozambique. During the second half of the 1900's Mozambicans began labour migration to the South Africa mines. At its peak, between 1950 and 1970, Mozambican migrant labour in South Africa was around 800,000 workers while the total number of migrants was over one million workers. Since the end of the 1980s the number of mine workers has fallen dramatically as the South African mining industry has restructured. Currently there are probably only about ten thousand Mozambican miners in South Africa. Although the numbers of Mozambican miners working in South Africa is small in comparison to historical peaks, the social and cultural impacts upon families 58602 Annexure B February 2001 5-2  IMPACTO is still considerable. These impacts are reflected in the desire of rural Mozambicans, in particular young men, to migrate to South Africa as soon as possible. With the reduction of opportunities in the mining sector, Mozambicans have moved into other sectors of the South African economy. As with the sectors of the South African economy Mozambicans have moved into, the patterns and duration of migration have also changed. The major changes are the duration of migration periods, which tend to be far shorter, and the increasing evidence of more female migration. The economic and social impacts of labour migration are dramatic, but perhaps still underestimated and under researched. For example, the current devastation caused by the rapidly rising rate of HIV/AIDS infection it is suggested can be attributed in part to the negative impacts of labour migration. 58602 Annexure B February 2001 5-3   IMPACTO 6 ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL SITES Mozambique has a rich archaeological and cultural heritage. Formalisation of archaeological and cultural sites is however generally low. Indigenous archaeological and cultural sites are numerous and correspond to the history of Mozambique's many different ethnic groups. Most ethnic groups have sacred burial sites normally used for Chief's and often located in well wooded or forest areas. In the higher areas of Mozambique particularly in more mountainous Provinces such as Manica sacred cave sites have been identified. Many ethnic groups identify sacred forests, usually the venue for a variety of spiritual ceremonies by spirit mediums, chiefs and selected elders from the difference clans. Any new road construction programme has to identify such sites with local populations to avoid possible damage to local archaeological and cultural sites. Sites such as forts exist up and down the coastline of Mozambique as testaments mainly to the colonisation by the Portuguese from the 15th Century. Along the main rivers such as the Zambezi there is also the remnants of forts and Portuguese colonial buildings. The only internationally recognised cultural heritage site is Mozambique Island off the coast of Nampula Province in the Northern Region of Mozambique. 58602 Annexure B February 2001 6-1  -'w' SMIEC Annexure C BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT OVERVIEW  IMPACTO Lda *SMEC I VEGETATION AND FLORA ........................................ I 1.1 VEGETATION TYPE IDENTIFICATION .............................................1 1.2 DESCRIPTION OF VEGETATION TYPES .........................................3 1.2 FOREST COVER ............................................... 15 1.3 PLANT CONSERVATION STATUS ............................................... 17 2 FAUNA ........................................ 18 2.1 BACKGROUND ............................................... 18 2.2 TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS ............................................... 18 2.3 BIRDS ............................................... 20 2.3 REPTILES ............................................... 22 2.4 AMPHIBIA ............................................... 23 2.5 RIVERINE FISH FAUNA ............................................... 23 3 PROTECTED AREAS ........................................ 24 3.1 GAZETTED PROTECTED AREAS ............................................... 24 3.2 TRANSFRONTIER CONSERVATION AREAS (TFCAS) .................. 27 4 AREAS OF OUTSTANDING VALUE ........................................ 30 4.1 GORONGOSA MOUNTAIN- RIFT VALLEY COMPLEX . .................. 30 4.2 THE CHERINGOMA PLATEAU ............................................... 32 4.3 ZAMBEZI DELTA GRASSLANDS AND SWAMPS . .......................... 32 4.4 THE GREAT INSELBERG ARCHIPELAGO .......................... ........... 33 4.5 CHIMANIMANI MASSIF MOZAMBIQUE-ZIMBABWE FRONTIER ESCARPMENT REGION ..35 4.6 THE MAPUTALAND CENTRE OF ENDEMISM (MC) .36 4.7 COASTAL BARRIER LAKES .37 4.8 PEBANE EVERGREEN COASTAL FORESTS .38 58602 Annexure C December2000 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  IMPACTO Lda ;SMEC 1 VEGETATION AND FLORA 1.1 VEGETATION TYPE IDENTIFICATION At a broad level of mapping 22 broad vegetation/habitat types can be distinguished in Mozambique (Figure 1). The vegetation map and description of flora is based on mapping units defined by Wild and Barbosa (1967). At a more detailed level of mapping many other sub-habitats may be distinguished within these broad vegetation types. In Mozambique the main vegetation type, in terms of structure, is savanna woodland. The savanna experiences a distinct cooler and drier season (April to October) alternating with a hotter and wetter season (November to March). The most common woodland type (based on species composition) is miombo woodland. Miombo is the term used to describe woodland types dominated by members of the genus Brachystegia and/or closely related genera such as Julbernardia. Miombo covers most of Zimbabwe and Zambia, is dominant in Malawi, Tanzania, Angola and Mozambique and occurs in Botswana and Congo. In Mozambique miombo covers much of Niassa, Cabo Delgado, Nampula, Zambezia, Sofala, Manica and Inhambane Provinces. There are several miombo woodland type. The second most extensive woodland type is mopane woodland occurring in the Limpopo-Save area and in the mid-Zambezi Valley. Mopane woodland is dominated by the tree species Colophospermum mopane. The typical mopane tree savanna is more or less open and occurs on variable but generally calcareous soils. Other woodland types include Acacia woodland (in drier southern and central areas) and sub- littoral coastal woodland in southern coastal Mozambique. Non-woodland vegetation types include: o small "islands" of Afromontane habitats (forests and heaths) along the eastern border with Zimbabwe and Malawi where the Mozambican plains rise up sharply to the western rim of the great southern African plateau and other isolated montane areas; o inland halophytic communities in the valley of the Changane River, a tributary of the Limpopo River; o freshwater swamps/sudd occur on the Mozambique-Malawi border the largest being associated with Lake Chilwa; o vegetation formations on alluvial plains are predominant in the Zambezi, Limpopo and Nkomati valleys; o parabolic dune forests along the southern sector of the Mozambican coast; and o mangroves in sheltered bays, estuaries and deltas. Because of their small extent mangroves are not shown in Figure 1. Mangrove distribution is presented separately in Figures 3a, 3b and 3c. 58602 Annexure C December2000 1 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  IMPACTO Lda 4,QSMEC | _ ~~~~~~~~~~Mocimboa j daPraia s 2 . - NFP~~~~~EMaA emba LChiha= \ ' < r . . < ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ogincual Zumbobo_ _ ;~~~* - _ = E vi | _An~~~~~goche t _ lSQ~~~~UELIMANE CTaily D Mibomb os Wood land & ShTubland CH g~ AcacT a Woodland t I ~~~~~~~~~~Subililtoral Forest & Woodland N(Sourthearn Mozambique) ) rjit^B^ BEIRA Mopane Woodland J , _ * ~~~~~~Palm Savanna Semi-DryMDeciduous M iombo * E ~~~~~Nova Mambone * Deciduous Miombo - h ^ ^ ~~~~~~ ~ ~~TardIl DecdosMob (Lowland Type) _ ~~~~~~~ > ~~~~~Norlh-Easlern Median Altitude - - | L ~~~~~~~~Semi-Moist deciduous Miombo (Median Altitude * High Rainfall moist Miombo Deciduous l2asement complex) woodland (PIerocarpus-Combretum-Perieopsis-Acacia) Mixed Boabab INHAMBANE Moist Forest Woodland Mosaic *Pteleopsis-ErythroDhJeum-Brachystegia) ChdIM& % 14 -N frime - Moist Semi-deciduous forest Littoral Thickets and Forest of Recent Dunes | . -XAI XAI * Dry Conrier Forest (Montane) aMoist Evergreen Forest Moam /MAPUTO (Mar ntheS lhaya, Aphloia, Macaran2a) i.Matuluine * Vegetation on Saline Soils (Rio Changane) ; Matutuine fl Vegetation on alluviums - SuddiSwamp Figure 1. Main VegetationlRabitat Types 58602 Annexure C December2000 2 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Dratt  IMPACTO Lda *SMRc 1.2 DESCRIPTION OF VEGETATION TYPES i Libombos Woodland/Shrubland This vegetation type occurs at moderate altitude between 350 and 800m on the Libombo and Pequenos Libombos. Mountains on the border with Swaziland and South Africa. Annual rainfall is 600-1200mm. The tree and shrubs of this type are generally secondary and include Pterocarpus rotundifolius, Bauhinia galpinii, Peltophorum africanum, Acacia nigrescens, A. swazica, A. caffra, Maerua rosmarinoides, etc. Olea africana is sometimes common on slopes. There is a rich herbaceous flora. Monospecific patches of Androstachysjohnsonii (the Libombo ironwood or "simbirre") occur on rhyolitic soils near Goba within this vegetation type. ii Acacia Woodland There are two extensive areas of Acacia woodland in Mozambique viz.: A southern formation (in the area of Moamba, Magude and Guija) where Acacia nilotica subsp. kraussiana, A. senegalense and A. nigrecens, are the main Acacia species. A second large area occurs in central Mozambique running approximately in a north-east direction through Manica and Sofala Provinces comprising communities of scattered trees and shrubs where Acacia nigrescens is the dominant in the tree/shrub layer. iii Sublittoral Woodland and Forest An Albizia-Afzelia-Sclerocarya mainly open woodland occurs between Maputo and Macia in the sublittoral zone of Mozambique south of the R. Limpopo. Much of the natural woodland has been replaced by small-scale farms especially adjacent to the ENI. Only wild species and introduced tree species with edible fruits are left in the farming areas. Treeless secondary regenerating vegetation is common on sandy soils and often Helichrysum kraussii is dominant. In the south-eastern sublittoral region on Quatemary and Recent sand dunes (Bela Vista, Salamanga and Zitundo) the Albizia-Afzelia-Sclerocarya formations are replaced by Syzygium- Garcinia-Dialium formations. Patches of swamp forest occur scattered in the area south of the Maputo Elephant Reserve. Swamp forests were never extensive and many have been drained and cleared for agriculture. The remaining relicts rate top priority for conservation. True swamp forest canopy tree are Ficus trichopoda, Syzygium cordatum, Voacanga thouarsii and Rauvolfla caffra. iv Mopane Woodland Colophospermum mopane woodland, after miombo woodland, is the second most important woodland type in Mozambique. Extensive mopane formations occur in two main areas, the Zambezi valley and the area between the Limpopo and Save Rivers 58602 Annexure C December2000 3 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  IMPA CTO Lda 40SMEC In the Zambezi valley the Colophospermum mopane woodland is usually medium or tall (10- 1 5m), almost pure but with some Adansonia digitata (baobob). The soils are brownish, clayey, compact, with some calcareous material, relatively deep and mainly derived from Karroo formations. In pans and depressions with calcareous soils grassland with Setaria species is dominant. In shallow, stony and also calcareous soils Acacia nigrescens (subdominant), Dalbergia melanoxylon, Acacia nilotica, Combretum ghasalense, Dalbergia boehmii, Adansonia digitata, (basbob) Albizia harveyi, Terminalia prunioides, T stuhlmannii, Ziziphus mucronata (ma,anica), Combretum apiculatum, Afzelia quanzensis (chanfuta), etc. accompany the still dominant mopane. On the banks of the Zambezi River the mopane is often replaced by Ziziphus mauritiana, Diospyros mespiliformis and sometimes Berchemia discolor. The mopane woodland between the Limpopo (including it's tributary the Elefantes River) and Save River basins occur on mainly on Quaternary calcareous soils. Annual rainfall is irregular and light, being less than 400mm and decreasing inland. The typical mopane tree savanna is more or less open. Accompanying species are Ximenia americana, Salvadora angustifolia var australis, Azima tetracantha, Adenium obesum var. multiflorum, Boscia albitrunca, Pachypodium saundersii, Dombeya kirkii, Sansevieria spp., Euphorbia spp., Courbonia glauca, etc. Within the main mopane savanna patches of other associations occur. These are too small to be mapped and include: o Tree savanna with Guibourtia conjugata frequent on in light sandy soils. o Patches of dry Androstachysjohnsonii (ironwood) woodland on reddish brown sandy soils. o Julbernardia globiflora woodland with Brachystegia glaucescens on shallow soils on stony slopes and outcrops. o Patches of tree-shrub Acacia woodland Acacia goetzei or A. nigrescens, or A. senegal communities. o In drier alluvial areas on the valley floors of the large rivers are formations containing Acacia nigrescens. These are very tall in the alluvium of the Elefantes River. v Lowland Palm Savanna This vegetation occurs in coastal areas of Nampula, Sofala and Inhambane Province. It occupies badly drained lowland, sublittoral zones with an abundance of palm and grading usually into savanna woodlands. Palm species include: Phoenix reclinata, Hyphaene crinita and Borassus aethiopum. In pools and swamps occurs Phragmites communis, Hydrocotyle sp., Nymphaeae capensis, Cyperus, etc. 58602 Annexure C December2000 4 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  IMPACTO Lda SMEC vi Deciduous Miombo Woodland Several types of deciduous miombo woodland are found in Mozambique distinguished by species composition. Deciduous miombo Woodland occurs on Sul do Save Sands (Brachystegia spiciformis). This formation is found on sandy sub-littoral soils between Xai-Xai and Nova Mambone and may become very dense. A mosaic Berlinia orientalis, Brachystegia spiciformis-Pteleopsis occupies the sub-littoral zone of Northern Mozambique between Macomia-Mipande and Palma-Pundanhar at low altitudes, generally below 200m. A mosaic Adansonia, Sterculia, Pteleopsis, Millettia-Brachystegia spp., Julbernardia globiflora type occurs in the north-east of Mozambique in a belt between the sublittoral lowlands and the beginning of the mesoplanaltic zone between Matibane (Nacala) and Macomia. There is also a small patch in the extreme north-east between Pundanhar and Quionga, near the Rovuma River, at altitude between 50 and 250m. A Julbernardia, Brachystegia, Ostryoderris, Sclerocarya, Pterocarpus, Albizia, etc. deciduous miombo is confined to the sublittoral zone from Nova Sofala to Mambone between the Buzi River. vii Dry Deciduous Miombo Dry deciduous miombo (Southern Sub-littoral Urrongas) comprising Brachystegia spiciformis - Julbernardia globiflora in a mosaic with deciduous forest of Afzelia - Sideroxylon - Balanites occurs on the mottled red or reddish-brown soils of the Urrongas region between Inhambane and Mambone. This vegetation type occupies much of the centre of Inhambane and occurs inland from the Deciduous Miombo described above. It consists of species such as Julbernardia globiflora, Pterocarpus angolensis, Burkea africana, Albizia versicolor, Afzelia quanzensis, Sclerocarya birrea, Strychnos spp., Strophanthus spp., and Securidaca longipedunculata A Julbernardia type occurs in the Provinces of Manica and Sofala, Tete and Zambezia In Manica and Sofala Provinces it occupies the northern slope of the valley of the R. Save. A Brachystegia boehmii, B. allenii, Julbernardia-Adansonia mosaic formation covers the lower valleys of the rivers of the northern portion of Mozambique northwards from the R. Lurio and the subplanaltic areas between 150 and 700m. viii Tardily Deciduous Miombo - Lowland Type There are various types of Lowland Tardily Deciduous Miombo. Brachystegia spiciformis, B. boehmiii, Julbernardia globiflora type. This type occurs in Zambezia Province, i.e., in Baixa Zambezia from Derre to Ligonha and the Moma region between elevations of 100 and 200m. Brachystegia boehmii, Julbernardia, Hirtella-Parinari, Protea, Philippia type. 58602 Annexure C December2000 5 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  IMPACTO Lda 4jSMEC The miombo element consists of Brachystegia boehmii, Julbernardia globiflora, Hirtella zanguebarica and a poorly drained tree/shrub savanna of Parinari, Protea, Philippia, etc. This type is found in the sublittoral zones north of Maganja da Costa and Namacurra to Moma. Brachystegia spiciformis, B. boehmii-Adansonia, Sterculia type This type covers the sub-planaltic zone between 50 and 500m. especially in the sub-littoral areas from Angoche to Namapa in soils which are generally red to grey and derived from granite, gneiss. Annual rainfall is about 1000mm. ix Tardily Deciduous Miombo (North-Eastern Median Altitude) (Brachystegia utilis, B. boehmii, B. spiciformis and Brachystegia spp.). This type covers the large meso-planaltic areas above 500m in the north of Mozambique i.e in the regions of Alto Lugenda, Maua, Marrupa, Nungo and along the slopes to Balama and Alto Mesalo as well as along the mountain ridge to the Macondes plateau. Annual rainfall is between 900-1400mm. x Semi-Moist Deciduous Miombo (Median Altitude) Brachystegia spiciformis-Julbernardia globiflora savanna woodland is very important on the plateaux of Manica and Sofala Provinces; it covers a great part of Zambezia Province and stretches over extensive areas north of the Ligonha River. xi High Rainfall Moist Miombo Woodland This type of Brachystegia spiciformis woodland merges with the mesoplanaltic semi- deciduous forests of Pteleopsis, Erythrophleum and Newtonia. It occurs in the Chimoio plateau and on the higher parts of the Zambezia Province. xii Deciduous (Basement Complex) Woodland (Pteleopsis-Combretum-Pericopsis-Acacia) There are two important areas of this type represented in Figure 1. One is found north of Molumbo near the Malawi border in the Amaramba slopes facing the Lake Chilwa depression and the other in a similar region near the Lugenda River extending from Malawi. xiii Mixed Baobab Woodland This woodland type occurs along a zone of medium altitude (about 500 - 600 m.) between the southern margin of the Zambezi Valley and the Barue plateau north of Mungari on formations derived from granites and gneisses or from post-Karroo lava. It comprises Adansonia digitata, Sterculia africana, Kirkia acuminata, Cordyla africana, Sterculia apendiculata, Milletia stuhlmanni, Lonchocarpus capassa, Otryoderris stuhlmanni,Sclerocarya birrea etc. 58602 Annexure C December2000 6 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  IMPACTO Lda wpSMEC This formation grades into (eastwards) a dry deciduous tree or shrub savanna (sub-planaltic) comprising Adansonia, Sterculia-Acacia nigrescens, Pterocarpus brenanii-Diplorhynchus. xiv Moist Forest/Woodland (Pteleopsis myrtifolia-Erythrophleum suavelons- Brachystegia) Mixed formations of dense semi-deciduous tall forest, at low altitudes, of Pteleopsis myrtifolia-Erythrophleum suavelons with Hirtella zanguebarica; forming a mosaic with the catena facies of Brachystegia spiciformis-Julbernardia globiflora occupy the sublittoral central zone in two belts to the north and south of the Zambezi delta, e.g., in the south from Beira (Cheringoma) to Inhaminga and Marromeu, and in the north in the areas of Nicuadala, Namacurra and Maganja da Costa. The forests on the Cheringoma plateau represent the best hardwood production forests in Moambique. xv Moist Semi-Deciduous Forests of the Mesoplanaltic Slopes and Lowlands of Eastern Mozambique - (Pteleopsis myrtifolia, Erythrophleum, Newtonia or Millettia). In this group are included two subtypes as follows: Pteleopsis myrtifolia, Erithrophleum suaveolens forests with an abundance of Newtonia buchananii are typical of the subplanaltic slopes of Manica and Sofala. Similar forests but with Newtonia buchananii rare or absent are typical of the slopes of the Macondes plateau in Cabo Delagado Province. xvi Littoral Thicket and Forest of Recent Dunes This vegetation type occurs on recent dunes formed from sands of aeolian origin. The most extensive formation of this type occurs along the parabolic dune coast between Ponto do Ouro and Bazaruto Island. Some of the highest vegetated dunes in the world are reported to occur along this stretch of coast. Dominant tree species include Diospyros rotundifolia, Euclea natalensis, Mimusops caffra, and Apodytes dimidiata. Figure 2 shows a typical dune vegetation transect . 58602 Annexure C December2000 7 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  A'%SMFEC IMPACTO Lda Cm. Cypws mwlh, D.r. DiOpye rohuNfoii AAd. Apo4<s diNWtI S.L SId.exyfw. dnwm O.b. Ocftm bwrbow S.P. SC&oW. phum.nri S.L Sophor. om.,o C.r. C. n Figure 2. Typical Transect Across the Dunes, Southern Coastal Mozambique xvii Dry Conifer Montane Forests (Widdringtonia, Podocarpus or Juniperus). In Mozambique this type is restricted. It is found the Chimanimani and Tsetsera Mountains (Manica Province) between 1500 and 2000m where Podocarpus milanjianus is frequent. Widdringtonia cupressoides is found in the same areas as well as at Rotanda and Mavita. Both species also inhabit the southeast slope of the Gorongosa Mountain. Podocarpus milanjianus also occurs on the slopes of Gurue Mt. in Zambezia Province and on Domue Mt. at 1850m. near Metengo-Balama, Angonia, Tete Province. xviii Moist Evergreen Forest (Maranthes polyandra, Khaya, Aphloia, Macaranga). Relict areas of this type exist mainly below the dry conifer montane forests on the slopes of the Chimanimani, Inyanga and Gorongosa Mountains. Some of the principal tree species include Erythrophleum suaveolens, Blighia ungugata, Zanha golungensis, Melanodiscus oblongus. Similar forest patches are found on the slopes and gullies of the mountains at medium altitudes between 1200 and 1600m where annual rainfall is about 1700 to 2000mm. Examples occur in Zambezia, especially in Gurue, Milange, Tacuane, Metolola-Chiperone and in smaller patches at Namarr6i, Morrumbala, etc. xix Vegetation on Saline Soils A large expanse this inland halophytic type is found in the valley of the Changane River, a tributary of the Limpopo. Annual rainfall is about 500mm. The soils are known locally as 58602 Annexure C December2000 8 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  IMPACTO Lda *SMEC "tonga". These areas are arid and uninhabited. In areas of high salinity trees are virtually absent. The flora is strongly halophytic with succulent, creeping plants of Arthrocnemum sp. Chenolea and Salicornia and scattered bushes of Atriplex, Suaeda, etc. xx Vegetation on Alluviums The largest extent of this vegetation type occurs in the lower Zambezia River/Delta system. In the higher and better drained zones the alluviums may support a tree/shrub savanna (mainly Acacia spp.). Grasses mainly belong to the Paniceae. In badly drained areas trees such as Ficus spp., Kigelia and Pandanus may be present. In swampy depressions or around lagoons are palm communities with Borassus aethiopum, Hyphaene crinita, H. coriacea or Phoenix reclinata. Extensive moist grasslands occur in low-lying badly drained areas with Setaria spp. dominant and Ischaemum afrum very common. In the Zambezi delta, in very wet localities, elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is common. Aquatic flora of swamps and lagoons comprise floating species such as Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Trapa natalensis (the least common). The zone with plants having submerged or growing at lagoon edges are Phragmites spp, Cyperus papyrus, Nymphaea spp, Typha latipholia subsp. capensis, Cyperus esculentus, C. rotundus, Marsilea, Scirpus spp, Ludwigia spp, and Paspalidium platyrachis. The lower Limpopo and Nkomati riverine systems are characterized by a fringing riverine forest comprising Ficus spp. (usually dominant), Trichilia emetica, Kigelia africana, Lannea stuhlmanii and Xanthocerra zambeziaca. Behind this fringe extensive grasslands with scattered trees occur periodically flooded, badly drained alluviums. Tree species include: Acacia albida, Diospyros mespiliformis, Ficus sycomorus, Ficus glumosa, Lonchocarpus capassa and Cordyla africana. A seasonally-inundated lowland formation (the Gorongosa "tandos") links the Zambezi Valley with the Pungue system in the south via the Urema trough (Rift Valley). Tree species include Acacia spp. and Hyphaene sp. xxi Swamp/Sudd Sudd is well developed on the shores of Lake Chilwa (bordering with Malawi) and consists of Cyperus papyrus, other Cyperus spp., and Phragmites reed beds. xxii Mangroves Mangrove forests are floristically well developed in the northem and central sectors of the coast and less so along the southem sector. Estimates made in 1992 based on satellite imagery indicated that the mangroves cover 396,080 ha in Mozambique. This represents a reduction of 3.9% since 1972 (Saket and Matusse, 1994). The distribution of mangroves along the Mozambican coast is shown on Figures 3a, 3b and 3c. 58602 Annexure C December2000 9 Mozambique Road Sector Programme Draft  IMPACTO Lda E$SMEW C Three main coastal types can be distinguished in Mozambique viz. the northern coral coastline, the central swamp and delta coastline and the southern parabolic dune coastline. The mangroves associated with each of these coastlines are described below: (a) Northern Sector: c. 770km between Rovuma River in the north to the Primeiro/Segundo Archipelago in the south (17