INDIA REPORT E0026 NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN Environment Action Programme December 1993 This report is property of MDIA * E NYI RONMUNT ACtIOiN PROGRAMME INDIA Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of India 1993 ENIARONMENT ACTI ON PROGRAMME Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of India 1993 qqfq(,Ji i ER VTW MINISTER ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS INDIA PREFACE A year and a half after the historic Earth Summit on Environment and Development and the formulation of India's National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, we have nowdrawn upan EnvironmentAction Programme,the firstdocument of its kind. Itattempts te integrate ourconcemsforconservation, sustainable development and human welfare with our quest for a dynamic economy exemplified in the on-going process of economic reforms. This complex document is thie product of an equally detailed and complex preparatory process. The task of drawing up a blueprint for incorporating environmental considerations into our rapidly expanding development programmes involved wide-ranging intra-govemmental discussions, spirited public debates and deep introspection and self- assessment. As the document mentions. the task of the Action Programme is to provide quality environmental services to the citizens of India, particularly those struggling to come above the poverty level. The document identifies popular participation as the means for giving a sharper and discemible focus to our existing programmes in the areas of conservation and environmental protection. The process of drawing up the Environment Action Programme was itself participatory and transparent. At the same time this document does not lay claim to being a final product, either infallible or immutable. The Environment Action Programme is a dynamic document which will evolve with time. As India moves into a trajectory of high economic growth, the task of protecting the country's environment would be increasingly facilitated by local and regional level actions and interventions. It is my firm belief that the document will serve to intemalise sustainable development practices through enlightened policy and decision making and positive local and regional level interventions to conserve India's rich natural heritage. (KAMAL NATH) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Environment Action Programmne project has been undertaken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests wfththe financial assistance received from the United Natlons DevelopomeL Programme (UNDP). The document owes as much to Inter-Ministerial perspectives as much as to the professional expertise of several national research institutes within the country namely, the Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. Madras Institute of Development Studies, Madras. Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering. Indian Insttte of Technology. Bombay. Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research. Bombay. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute. Nagpur. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay. Indian Institute of Forest Management. Bhopal and the Tata Energy Research Institute. New Delhi. A numberof experts and non-govemmental organisations have also contributed to the developmentofthisdocument.Theircontributions are gratefullyacknowledged. rm com MrE as 1 INTRODUCTION 1 -19 2 STATUS OF THE ENViRONMENT 20 - 28 3 NATURAL RESOURCES 29 - 42 4 INDIA'S LEGAL AND ORGANISATIONAL 43 - 54 FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 5 CURRENT PROGRAMMES 55-89 6 DIAGNOSIS 90-116 7 PRIORITIES 117- 127 8 SlRATEGY 128 141 9 PROGRAMMES 142 - 160 FIGURES AND TABLES 161 - 181 APPENDIX I INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND 182 -184 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 11 CLEANER TECHNOLOGIES IN INDUSTRIAL 185 - 189 PRODUCTION III MANAGEMENT OF WATER OUALITY 190 - 191 IV NATURAL RESOURCES ACCOUNTING 192 -194 V CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS 195-197 VI FORESTRY 198- 199 VII ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATiON 200 - 202 Vill URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 203 - 207 IX ALTERNATIVE ENERGY ACT:ON PLAN 208 - 209 X CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERN OF 210 - 212 ENERGY IN INDIA XI ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN INDIA 213 - 214 XII ORGANISATION CHART OF THE MINISTRY OF 215 ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS ACRONYMS 216 - 218 REFERENCES 219 - 220 BOXES FIGURES AND TABLES BOXES - PEOPLE'S INVOLVEMENT IN REGENERATION OF DEGRADED FOREST LANDS - INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL PROJECT OF INDIA - NATIONAL RIVER ACTION PLAN - AFFORESTATION PROGRAMMES: APPRAISAL OF PROGRESS IN SEVENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN - NATIONAL FORESTRY ACTION PROGRAMME - SUSTAINABLE CMES PROGRAMME - PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRICITY UTILMES IN INDIA AND PRIORITIES IN THE EIGHTH FIVE YEAR PLAN - DROUGHT PROOFING - POLLUTION ABATEMENT PROGRAMMES IN INDIA - PRESENT EFFORTS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS - ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION - ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT IN INDIA FIGURES 1 STATUS OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSMVE INDUSTRIES. 2 STATUS OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITVE INDUSTRIES. 3 PROGRESS OF POLLUTION CONTROL IN 17 CATEGORIESOF INDUSTRIES. TABLES 1 STATE OF AMBIENT AIR OUALITY IN 15 MAJOR CMES OF INDIA sN 1989; INFORMATION ON NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING STATIONS 2 STATEWISE POSMON OFWATER SUPPLYWASTEWATERGENERATION. COLLECTIONAND TREATMENT IN CLASS II TOWNS 3 LIST OF POLLUTED RIVER STRETCHES 4 LIST OF NAAQM LOCATIONS IN DESCENDING ORDER OF CONCENTRATIONS (ug/cubm) BASED ON 1990 DATA FOR 16 OR MORE HOURS MONITORED DAYS 5 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STATUS IN 32 RESIDENTIAL AREAS OF MONITORED CmES DURING 1990 I . | INTRODUCTION INTRODUA10N 1.01 Environmental protection and the conservation of natural resources emerged as key national priorities in India in the wake of the 1972 Stockholm Conference on Human Environment. Between the Stockholm Conference and the Rio Summit, India has been able to develop a stable organisational structure for environment protection in the country. Legislation, policies and programmes also evolved during the same period, geared to the task of protection of the environment Despite these achievements, there has been for some time, a felt need to clearly establish our priorities in the environment and forest sectors and design a programme of action for sustainable management of the environment in the country. This need has arisen on account of the changing economic structure of India on the one hand, and the national, if not, universal consensus forintegrating environmental considerations into development programmes and projects, for harmonising environment and development for a sustainable development route to progress. Sustainable development, which has evolved as the goal for human welfare in the aftermath of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, is however, rooted in covntry - specific programmes of action for channelling investment resources (both domestic and external) into ecologically compatible projects and programmes. People's participation at the grass-root, local and regional levels holds the key tothe success of such a concrete programme of action. The objectives of the Environment Action Programme for India have been conceived against the backdrop of these aspects. Objectives of the Environment Action Programme (EAP) 1.02 The goal of the Environment Action Programme are to improve the provisioning of environmental serv:ces in india and to facilitate integration of environmental considerations into development programmes. Keeping in view these goals, the following objectives of the Environment Action Programme (EAP) are laid down which are as under a. assess the environment scene in India against the backdrop of the changing economic policies and programmes; b. review the current policies and programmes which address the various environmental problems of the country; c. identify the future direction and thrust of these policies and programmes to establish priorities and outline a strategy for the implementation of those priorities;. d. identify program mes and projects for a sustained flow of investment resources for improved provisioning of environmental services for targetted to ensure their realisation of these concerns. Environmental issues which have been for a long time part of IndIan thought and social processes are reflected in the Constitution of the Republic of India adopted in 1950. The Directive Principles of State Policy, an integral and significant element of our democratic order contain provisions which reflectthe commitment of the State to protectthe environment with regard to forests and wildlife. The Directive Principles of State Policy enjoin upon the citizens of India, the special responsibility to protect and improve the environment. The roots of the growing trend towards popular participation in our conservation and natural resource development programme lie in this constitutional requirement. The foundations of the present day organisational framework for environmental programmes in India, go back to the 1970s with the establishment of the National Committee of Environmental Planning and Coordination by Smt. Indira Gandhi, former Prime Minister almost immediately after the historic Stockholm Conference on Environment held in 1972. The Committee was graduallly to evolve into a Department of Environment in 1980 and five years later to a fulfledged Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) of the Government of India (GOI). The State Governments also followed this example by establishing their own Departments of Environment to address the rapidly increasing policy initiatives and programmes in the environment and forests sectors. 1.05 The Ministry of Environment and Forests, India has wide ranging responsibilities as the apex body within the Government responsible for the subjects of environment, forests and wildlife. Apart from addressing the issues of natural resources degradation induced by the growing phenomenon of land, water and air pollution, the Ministry also undertakes activities in the realm of conservation of natural resources through programmes for the conservation and survey,of flora and fauna, afforestation and regenerationofdegraded areas, impactassessment, forest conservation, and research and environmental education and information. The organisation chart at Appendix XII provides details of the structure of this apex Ministry. Policy Initiatives In Environment: 1.06 The Government has enunciated its policy in the form of pqlicy statements on Forestry, on Abatement of Pollution, and also through the comprehensive National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Conservation and Development. In addition, there are laws for the protection of environment, the most well-known being the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Significant amendments have bean made in 1991 to the Wild Life (Protection) Act, which include a provision by which hunting of all species of wildlife for commerce or for pleasure has been banned. 1.07 The Environment (Protection) Act sets out the parameters under which the Ministry operates to formulate and carry out environment policy at the national level. Underlying the policy statements is the recognition of the prnciple that sffective management and control of natural resources requires the support and participation of the local people. 1.08 The National Forest Policy, 1988, emphasizes the need to restore the ecological balance and the conservation of the country's natural heritage by preserving the remaining natural forests. This objective is sought to be achieved through the prevention of soil erosion and denudation in the catchment areas, the restriction of the growth of desert areas, and the evolution of a system to meet the requirements of fuelwood, fodder, nonwood forest products and small timber of the rural and tribal population. The mandate of the National Afforestation and Ecodevelopment Board for restoring green cover for ecological security and provisioning of fuel and fodder resources, is a major programme designed to achieve the aforesaid objective of the National Forest Policy. 1.09 The network of sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves [D1 and other protected areas has been extended to cover about 4% of the total land area of the country. The National Wildlife Action Plan lays down the strategy and action programmes for wildlife conservation. Further, the application of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, ensures that the diversion of forest land for non-forest use is subject to the strictest scrutiny. 1.10 The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement of Environment and Development, adopted in June, 1992, provides the basis for the integration and internalisation of environmental considerations in the policies and programmes of different sectors. It also emphasises sustainable life styles and the proper management and conservation of resources. 1.11 The Policy Statement of the Abatement of Pollution, 1992, states the Government's commitment to prevent further deterioration of the environment. The policy elements seek to shift the emphasis trom defining the objectives for each problem area towards the actual implementation, and the focus is on the long term. The Statement recognizes that pollution particularly affects the poor, the complexities are considerable given the number of industries, organisations and government bodies involved. To achieve the objectives, maximum use would be made of a mix of instruments including legislation and regulation, fiscal incentives, voluntary agreements, educational programmes and information campaigns. 1.12 The Government's National Housing Policy, 1988, the National Water Policy, 1987 and the National Landuse Policy, 1988, recognise the importance of maintaining the ecological balance. The Ministry of Urban Development have approved 52 recommendations for an Urban Water Supply & Sanitation Programme. These policy recommendations underline, the principle of sustainability of water use and investments for development of water resources. The prevalence of such perspectives rooted in the concept of sustainable development in other wings of the - Government is important to be taken note of. The Eighth Five Year Plan and Sustainable Development:- 1.13 It is significant that the Eighth Five Year Plan was launched in 1992, the year which witnessed the historic Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro. The goal of sustainable development is implicit in the Eighth Plan Document which underlines the significance of ensuring coordinated and integrated Governmental action for conserving nature and ensuring sustainable use of natural resources through a participatory process. The actual task of sustainable development hinges on the evolving economic structure of India. 1.14 Unlike its predecessors, the Eighth Five Year Plan of India has been framed against the back-drop ot the economic problems induced by fiscal imbalances and balance of payment difficulties. A structural adjustment process has been under way to correct the fiscal distortions and to bring down the balance of payment deficit on the current account. All the same, the Eighth Five Year Plan has the benefit of the positive outcome of the Sixth and Seventh Five Year Plans which took the average GNP growth rate from 3.5 % per annum to 5.5 % per annum, with growing agricultural incomes, rising pe. capita consumption of food grains and other essential commodities and declining capital-output ratios and of populations under the poverty line. Taking a cue from these positive features, the Eighth Five Year Plan has adopted an approach of setting free the forces of growth and modemisation by judiciously harnessing market mechanisms and limiting public investment to socially critical areas. Accordingly, a process of economic liberalisation has been initiated in the last two years. Industrial licencing has been abolished except fora select group of 18 industries, the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act (MRTPA) has been amended to relax entry control on large industries, the scope of foreign equity participation has been increased, a new trade policy with accent on a liberalised trade regime based on negative list of imnports/exports is in place, the stock markets 9i have also been galvanised mainly by a relaxed capital issues regime and tinally a programme of financial sector reforms is also under way to de- regulate the banking and financial services sector for effective service, improved profitability and capital adequacy. 1.15 These changes in industrial and trade policies have fundamental implications on the environment. The Eighth Five Year Plan lays emphasis on the manufacturing sector as the fulcrum of industrial growth. The process of industrial/trade de-regulation initiated in the plan period is bound to promote rapid growth of infrastructure and industries such as power and coal, and services like transport and communications besides other capital goods and consumer based industrial units, having high market linkage - domestic or overseas. The impact on pollution and generation of wastes would be considerable as the process of industrialisation accelerates. Another facet of the new economic policy is the growing significance of exports for the Indian economy in the coming decade. Engineering goods, leather, textiles and select group of chemical industries are bound to assume significance on account of their strong export linkage. At the same time, the ability of these industries to penetrate the developed export markets of the General Currency Area (GCA) will depend upon the quality standards prescribed for these markets under ISO 9000, etc. Quality standards on merchandise are closely related to environmental factors, since products imported by these markets ought to be environmentally friendly both in terms of processes and end use. Therefore, environmental programmes would necessitate qualitatively different interventions for pollution control and prevention. 1.16 While the market forces are being encouraged through such a programme of economic liberalisation, the focus of Government programmes and public investments would entirely be in the social sector with human development as the ultimate goal. A mass movement to contain population growth is to be generated. Simultaneously, in order to give further impetus to the poverty alleviation programme, the Eighth Five Year Plan proposes to undertake a substantial employment generation effort through programmes and projects for diversification of agriculture, wasteland development, forestry, rural non-farm sector, rural infrastructure and housing and services. It is apparent that the Eighth Plan strategy of employment generation is based predominantly on natural resource development programmes and herein lies the environmental significance of this strategy for poverty alleviation. 1.17 While the Eighth Five Year Plan seeks to increase irrigation and power facilities in the country and promote agriculture on a commercial EDlI basis, by extending the coverage of high yielding varieties of cash and food crops, the paucity of public investment resources necessitates measures for energy conservation and irrigation efficiency. This would mean that conservation programmes in the sectors of soil and water need further emphasis. The proposed National Health Programme to be undertaken in the Eighth Five Year Plan has significant spinoffs. A programme of health care delivery based on popular participation with focus on disease prevention and health promotion is envisaged, in order to realise the overall goal of THealth for All by 2000 A.D. A concomitant of this strategy is the provision of clean drinking water and sanitation facilities under the Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission which is to be strengthened further to cover the no source problem villages numbering 2824 and the partially covered villages/hamlets. This programme for providing clean drinking water cannot be successful without complementary elforts to conserve moisture through watershed development, catchment area treatment, and integrated schemes for wasteland development including afforestation etc. The other facet of the National Health Programme namely, the emphasis on traditional systems of preventive medicine in the National Health Plan makes it all the more necessary to focus attention on conservation of fragile and critical ecosystem including forests, mangroves, wetlands, coral reefs and El mountain ecosystems which have been sites of unique biodiversity and have been supply sources of traditional biomaterials used for medicinal purposes. 1.18 The preventive strategy for health which is the third plank of the National Health Programme necessitates tackling urban environmental issues on a war-footing and remediation and safe disposal of hazardous wastes which are injurious to human health. The social priorities envisaged in the eighth Five Year Plan have a different implication on our environmental programmes. The fact that the Eighth Five Year Plan proposes people's involvement in the process of nation building and a participatory planning framework and a decentralised approach to planni ng through a system of Panchayati Raj and Nagar-Palika (local self- Governments of urban cities/towns) institutions given national priority in the wake of the recent 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India necessitates a systematic effort for developing human resources at the grassroot level in the direction of sustainable development. 1.19 It is against the backdrop of the situation described above that the following top priority areas are being focussed upon in the Environment Action Programme:- a. conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity in selected eco-systems including forests, mangroves, wetlands, coral reefs, mountain ecosystems; b. afforestation, waste lands development and conservation of soil and moisture and ensuring that water sources are not polluted; C. control of industrial and related pollution with an accent on the reduction andlor management of wastes, particularly hazardous wastes; d. improving access to clean technologies; e. tackling urban environmental issues; f. strengthening scientific understanding of environmental issues, as well as structures.for training at different levels, orientation and creating environmental awareness, resources assessment, water management problems etc.; and 9. an alternative energy plan. Participation and ownership of India's Environment Action Programme (EAP) 1.20 In line with the Government of India's thinking on the issue of popular participation for conservation and sustainable development, the 14 Environment Action Programme process adopted a decentralised system of generating information and perspectives. Consistent with the open approach of the EAP. the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the nodal agency for conducting the EAP exercise, constituted an EAP Implementation Committee comprising the Ministries and Departments of the Govemment of India concerned with the different sectoral issues to be addressed in the proposed Environment Action Programme. The task of drawing up sectoral reports was also decentralised and assigned to non-governmental institutes of academic excellence. The research institutions involved and the topics assigned to them are as under Name of Institute Sector Bombay Natural History - Conservation of Society. Bombay wetands. coral rets. mangroves. Indian Institute of Forest - Forestry. Managowent. Bhopal. Indian Institute of Public - InstitutIonal Structures for Administration. New Delhi. Environmentai Management - Environment Education - BlodivertlrylWldllfe Conservation. Indian Institute of - Environment Impact Technology. Bombay. Assessment Indira Gandhi Institute of - Natural Resources Development Research. Accounting. Bombay. !Aadras Institute of Develop- - Urban Environmental ment Studias, Madras. Nanagementn - Strategy for Improvement of Tank Irrigation. National Environmental - Clean Technologies. Engineering Research Institute. Nagpur. - Water Ouality. Tata Energy Research - Alternaive Energy InstiMne. New DelhL Action Plan. 1.21 In the meetings of the EAP Implementation Committee, these research institutions were also invited to participate, in order to sensitise them to policies and programmes of the Government of India in the various sectors. The terms of reference for conducting various sectoral studies were also drawn up on a mutually agreed basis. Based on the first phase of sectoral reports, prepared by these institutions, a draft interim EAP document was prepared in May, 1992, circulated to the different Ministries of the Govemment of India (GOI) and others and finalised by November, 1992. The interim document gave an overview of the Environmental Policies and Programmes and briefly summed up the critical issues in the areas of Environment Impact Assessment, Natural Resources Accounting, Cleaner Technologies for Industrial Production, Energy Action Plan, Management of Water Quality, Human Resource Development, Environmental Education, Forestry besides the specific concerns of urban enviro-mental management and conservation of wetlands. 1.22 Further processes were on, to refine the sectoral reports and clearly prioritise areas for intensive focus in the coming decade. Discussions with the concerned sectoral Ministries and the research institutions involved in the exercise resulted in the identification of the seven critical areas mentioned at the outset. A National Workshop on Environment Action Programme was convened in New Delhi on 28-29 September, 1993 to discuss the EAP process in India in the light of the exercises already conducted. .This Workshop was attended by nearly 35 non-governmental voluntary organisations and experts whose views have now been considered and incorporated in this document. It is noteworthy that the seven broad priority areas have been endorsed by the participants of this Workshop, though, some of them had recorded their views on the manner in which these priority areas have to be addressed. A draft Environment Action Programme (EAP) document was subsequently drawn up and submitted for Inter-Ministerial discussions. This document has been finalised also after incorporating inter-ministerial suggestions and modifications. 1.23 -The EAP is a continuing process. Hence, the areas identified in this document are not final or comprehensive. It does not take care of all the forward and backward linkages in many developmental sectors, including the socio-economic networks which result in poverty alleviation and better human resources development as these are better covered in the Eighth Five Year Plan Document itself. As the programmes identified in this document get underway, newer and more complex problems may arise which require attention. The global environmental issues of climate change, biodiversity, desertification, international waters and the protection of the ozone layer will also be systematically incorporated as E the present set of priority areas get implemented. With the growing emphasis on participatory systems of natural resources management, structures for decentralised management of natural resources wDuld be operationalised drawing strength from the 73rd and 74th Amendment to the Indian Constitution for establishing Panchayati Raj and Nagar Palika Institutions as also the successful initiative of the Ministry of Environment and Forests for establishing Joint Forest Management Structures for conservation, development and management of forest lands in various States and Union Territories of India. Future Course of Development 1.24 The Environment Action Programme being a dynamic process would necessitate careful and concerted direction and continuing investigations and research into sectoral areas which have been prioritised or require to be so. The national institutes which were commissioned to do sectoral studies as mentioned earlier, have offered valuable insights on the nature of problems in the sectoral areas. However these insights need to be extended and refined further as the EAP process evolves.. Appendices I to IX and Xl, which are extracts of the sectoral studies conducted by these institutes, provide a glimpse of the various problems in different sectors which need further analysis and consideration from 18 the point of view of the seven priority areas identified in this document. The EAP Implementation Committee already set up for drawing up the programme will continue to operate though for new functions of guiding further studies by the institutes mentioned and for monitoring and direction of programmes and projects. The identified institutes would continue with their research with special focus on improving upon the existing data base, natural resource accounting system, and structures for strengthening environment impact assessment and information. This will be in addition to providing evaluation reports on the progress of the EAP. The EAP being coterminus with the Eighth Five Year Plan of India would be comprehensively reviewed both on a Governmental and Non- Governmental fora in 1996, a year before the Eighth Five Year Plan concludes. The perspectives/results of these review would be significant. for internalising the Environment Action Programme in the forthcoming and future Five Year Plans. STATUS OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2 STATUS 0f THE ENVIRONMENT 2.01 The establishment of a diversified. industrial structure, based on a unique combination of heavy and small-scale industries and the growing urban and rural population in India has produced its pressures on air, water and land resources. These pressures are reflected in the growing incidence of air and water pollution. The fact that the Factories Act of 1948 with its accent on occupational and civic safety had to be supplemented by the more specialised Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution Act (1981) and much later the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 is an unmistakable sign of the impact of pollution on air and water resources. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 in September, 1974 has inventorised the pollution sources, and assessed the air and water pollution potential on terms of industries, river basins and geographical areas. 2.02 Coming to the scenario of air and water quality in India it is seen that the pollution load in respect of air is of a relatively high order in the metropolitan cities of Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. The CPCB which conducted ambient air quality monitoring of Delhi has observed E!i relatively high frequency of suspended particulate matter, SO2, NO2 and heavy metals in particulate matter in the air in Delhi. The CPCB studies also indicate that the periods of April to June and from mid-October to March are environmentally critical for Delhi from the point of view of air pollution. The state of ambient air quality in the 15 major cities of India including Delhi during the year 1990, is summed up in Table 1. 2.03 In non-metropolitan areas, the CPCB has identified 22 problem zones in India which are most prone to industrial pollution in the country. These are Korba in Madhya Pradesh, Talcher in Orissa, Visakapatanam in Andhra Pradesh, Manali in Tamil Nadu, Udyogamandalam in Kerala, Chembur in Maharashtra and Najafgarh in De;hi, Dhanbad in Bihar and Durgapur in West Bengal. 2.04 The pollution problems of small towns in India basically relate to water. A survey undertaken by the CPCB in respect of 241 Class II Towns in 17 States of India indicates that on an average, 90% of the water supplied is polluted. Only 1.6% of the 'polluted', wastewater gets treated.Table 2 sums up the salient findings in this regard. 2.05 Rivers in India are also faced with increasing water quality deterioration. The details of the grossly polluted stretches of six major rivers in India have been captured on Table 3 along with the sources, INDUSTRIES-AIR POLLUTION PESTICIDES RUNOFF nature and load pollution. It is howeverworthy of note from Table 3 that while the Godavari, Krishna and Indus rivers owe their pollution load predominantly to industrial activities, the other rivers have both municipal/ domestic and industrial wastes as pollution sources. Indeed, according to the study of water pollution in the Ganga basin (which forms the focus of the major Ganga Action Plan of India) it is estimated that 3/4th by volume of the waste water generated is from Municipal sources, 88% of the municipal sewage being from Class I cities. 2.06 In respect of different industries, air and water pollution problems are critical in respect of fertilisers, paper and pulp, sugar and thermal power plants/industries. The status of air and water pollution by selected highly polluting categories of Industries in India in 1989-90 are depicted in Fig 1 and 2 respectively. As can be seen, while the fertilizer industries were defaulters in meeting air pollution standards, sugar and pulp and paper formed the major defaulters in the matter of non-compliance with minimum in water/liquid effluent standards. This picture is changing with the enforcement of standards and increasing adoption of pollution control technologies by industrial units coming under the critically poliuting categories 2.07 The incidencp of noise pollution has been on the rise especially in Il big cities of India such as Delhi. Ambient noise levels in 25 different locations comprising sensitive, residential, commercial, and traffic areas of Delhi during May-June, 1989 were far in excess of the permissible standards laid down for noise levels. The noise levels for industrial units were well below the standards of 75 dB. 2.08 The rapid growth of chemical, petro-chemicals, fertilizer and engineering industries in India from the Second Five Year Plan has increased the incidence of use of toxic, flammable and explosive chemicals in India. The Bhopal Gas tragedy has brought out the significance of scientific safe and regulated manufacture, storage and import of hazardous/toxic chemicals. The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 notified in 1989 cover 18 types of hazardous wastes while the Manufacture, storage and import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989 list 434 toxic flammable and explosive chemicals for careful regulation. Yetthere have been instances of industrial accidents such as the explosion atthe IPCL Nagathone gas cracker. Of the 21 petrochemicals (other than polymers and synthetic fibres) identified for vigorous growth by 2000 A.D. Ethylene Oxide, Phenol, Acetone, Benzene and Toluene are listed as hazardous chemicals in Part II of Schedule I of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989. The task of regulating these chemicals is formidable. There is also bound to be a spurt in the use of Hydrogen Cyanide, Carbon di Sulphide, Thionyl Chloride, Phosgene, Ammonia, Chlorine, Oleum and Hydrogen Fluoride. 2.09 Flyash, phospho-gypsum, andiron and steel slags are the principal forms of solid wastes generated in India. It is estimated that 35 to 40 million tonnes of flyash is generated annually by India's thermal power plants of which only 2% to 3% is now being utilized. The growing capacity of the fertilizer, iron and steel industries has also progressively increased the output of phospo-gypsum and slag wastes. 2.10 The description of the various forms and sources of air and water pollution and solid waste generation all indicate the somewhat precarious environmental health of the country not conforming with ambient air/ noise and water quality standards. There are also effects on land and soil due to the increase in inorganic compounds and leaching and which also has effects on ground water resources. In general the following observations emerge regarding fresh water, coastal water and air quality in India: Fresh Water Quality In Rivers 2.11 An analysis of the data collected from the 450 surface and groundwater quality sampling locations during the year 1990 were analysed. Observations emerging from the analyses are as follows j water quality data monitored under the Ganga Action Plan denotes total coliform as the critical parameter at all of the four locations in West Bengal. In Bihar, the same observation held for Patna and Buxar. In Uttar Pradesh, total coliform was observed to be critical at Kannauj, Kanpur, Allahabad and at Rasulabad and Varanasi; Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) was observed to be critical at the Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi stretches of the Ganga river; total coliform was found to be critical in select segments of the Narmada, Mahi and Tapti rivers; total coliform was found to be critical at all locations of the Subarnarekha, Tambiraparani and Damanganga rivers; high levels of BOD were observed at Ludhiana and Jalandhar in Satluj (Punjab), downstream of Panposh in Brahmani, downstream of Nasik in Godavari. and at Sirumugai in Cauvery. However, DO at all locations was above 4 mg/1; and there is an increased concentration of nitrate ,n the ground water in the vicinity of urban centres which renders it unfit for drinking. Also because of over pumping of ground water,the water levels i. the sub-soil have diminished. Coastal Water Quality 2.12 Coastal and estuarine water resources in india depict the following quality characterstics:- an exceptionally high concentration of lead and cadmium, 820 ug/ 1 and 336 ugJ1 respectively, were observed in Thane creek of Bombay coast, while the mercury concentration is 0778 ug/1. The high levels of pollution particularly in Thane creek and Mahim creek are caused by the discharge of huge quantities domestic and industrial wastes. A major portion of the waste is released in Ulhas river and Bassein creek also. Sediment along the creeks and near- the-shore stations showed significant concentration of lead; the Cochin region of the Kerala coast (South West Coastal Zones of India) is found to be most affected by petroleum hydrocarbons. During the pre-monsoon period, a concentration of 162 ug'1 was recorded in the estuarine area, while in the coastal area, the concentration recorded was 49 ug/1. This has been mainly due to the operation of oil tankers as well as the movement of mechanised fishing vessels. Further, it was also observel that the concentrat.on of nutrients is high in the estuarine part! afid that in the coastal & offshore regions, being in descending orcer except for a few observktions; and -TFbi along the coasts of West Be ngal & Orissa, the coastal water quality remains almost stable. However, the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was found near critical level in some localised area. Lead, cadmium and mercury were found in very low concentrations in the ambient water. The sediment samples were rich in metals, particularly lead. Air Quality Data Analysis 2.13 Statistical analyses of air quality data Dertaining to 1990 for various cities/towns covered bythe National Ambient AirQuality Monitoring Stations (NAAQM) as presented in Tables 4 & 5 and the following are the major observations: except forthe NAAQM location at Naskarpara Pump House, Howrah, the sulphur dioxide concentration at all other locations were within the stipulated air quality standards; except for the NAAQM location at Veterinary Hospital, Kota, the nitrogen dioxide concentration at all other locations were within the stipulated air quality standard; for sulphus dioxide, at 1 1 NAAQM locations in Ahmedabad, Bombay, Madras, Gajraula and !Howrah, the violations over the 24-hourly average standards were in the range of 5 percent. At locations in Madras, Calcutta and Howrah, the range of violations were 5-10 percent. Only Naskarpara Pump House in Howrah is the location where Sulphur Dioxide (19%) violated the 24-hourly average standard by more than 10%; and the air component of the environmenit is degraded in very few locations. In metropoliton cities, exhaust from automobiles cause pollution in high-traffic density areas. To counter this problem, it is considered that strict standards for exhausts need to be laid down. Accordingly, such standards for 1995 and 2000 AD have been evolved. Emissions from industries are sought to becountered in a manner similar to wastewater discharge. Viewed in relative terms, there has been a qualitative improvement in water quality in the River Ganga, particularly in certain stretches. There are also reasons to suppose that the present status of air and water quality represents an improvement compared to the situation two years ago. For instance, the pollution control status of firms drawn f rom 17 categories of industries in 21 States and Union Territories indicate that for all categories there has been a discernible rise in the number of units complying with the MINAS (Minimum National Standards) for water/air pollution, December, 1 991 and February, 1993 mainly due to effective implementation of the existing regulatory and fiscal regimes (Fig. 3). NATURAL RESOURCES 3 NATURAk RESOURCES 3.01 With a geographical area, spanning 329 million hectares, India is the seventh largest country in the world in terms of landmass. The systems and types of land use have been conditioned by climatic conditions, primarily expressed in terms of precipitation/rainfall received in various parts of the country. Rainfall in India is unequally distributed in space. The mean annual rainfall ranges from less than 100 mm in parts of the Rajasthan desert to more than 4000 mm in the Western Ghats portions of South West India and the North eastern parts of the country. The intra-annual distribution of precipitation is also uncertain and seasonally skewed. The bulk of rainfall is received during the South-west monsoon season (from June to September). However, even durng this season there are periodic dry spells/droughts which are frequent in the arid and semi-arid zones of the country covering the States of Rajasthan, Gujarat, portions of Madhya Pradesh and the States of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh located in the Deccan area. Consequently, the crop yields of the rainfed sorghum-millet belt of arid and semi-arid India are subjected to periodic fluctuations. 3.02 The spatial diference in availability of precipitation is reflected in Ui the relative differences in the amounts of unit area runoffs from the various river basins of India both in intra and inter annual terms. The Central Water Commission (1988) places the average annual natural runoff available to India at 1880 billion cubic metres. The water storage structures created or under construction are able to store only 13.5% of the mean annual runnoff. Coming to groundwater resources, the estimate is that the replenishable groundwater resource in India( excluding the North-East) is 420 8CM/year of which 35-7 BCM/year is utilisable for irrigation against actual utilisation of only 106 BCM/year. 3.03 The Unequal distribution of precipitation and water resources have conditioned agricultural cropping systems and systems of farming, though 'irrigation' has successfully transformed the water-short areas of Punjab, Haryana and Westem Uttar Pradesh into the food bowls of India.. Indeed there are sufficient indications that the agriculture frontier has stopped expanding. This is evident from the fact of net areas sown having increasedfrom 119 million ha. in 1950-51 to 140 million ha. andstabilised at that level. (Table 6) In any case, an expanding agricultural frontier was not essentially environmentally conducive, since extension of cultivation to marginal lands had produced in its wake, problems of soil and water erosion. When this fact is related to the increase that has occured in the agricultural area subjected -to double/multiple cropping ( the area of agricultural land sown more than once Increased from 25,524000 ha.in 1971 to 36,770000 ha. in 1986-87), and the Increase in food grain production by nearly 42 million tonnes in the period 1970-71 to 1985-86, it can be concluded that agriculture production in India Is now based on the intensive margin i.e. modern technologies of production initiated during the Green Revolution of the late 1 960s. But the spatial width oi the intensive agricul;iral operations is narrow since, the Green Revolution has been evident rnainly in the north-western portions of India and portions of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in south India. 3.04 India is also endowed with large areas of non-agricultural/non- forest land. These include common grass lands and pastures, lands occupied by inland water regimes and fallow lands. These lands have been the sources of fuelwood and fodder for the large population of people and livestock in India. Forests 3.05 India has a very diverse forest vegetation ranging from the temperate vegetation in the Himalayas to the moist Evergreen forests in North East, the Western Coast and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The forest cover of the country, as perthe lastest assessment of the Forest Survey of India is 63.591 m.ha. comprising 19.44 % of India's geographical area. However, the areas recorded as forests are higher and stand at 75.18 m. ha. The forests of Indiacan be divided Into 16 majorgroups comprising 221 types. tropical deciduous forests form the major percentage of forest cover in India (37% o.f total forest cover) followed by tropical dry deciduous forest (28.6%). The unique tropical wet evergreen forests comprise only 8% of the total forest cover. Of the total area of 63.91 million ha., dense forests ( crown density above 40%) account.for only 38.50 m. ha. There is no tree cover over 11.27 m.ha. officially recorded as forest areas, while another 25.4 mha of forests are understocked. About 52.8% of forests do not have adequate regeneration. The percapitaforestarea hasdecreased from 0.20 ha. in 1951 to 0.1 1 ha. in 1981. India's forest wealth as with the case of other natural resources varies both in quantitative and qualitative forms. 3.06 Apart from natural forests, man-made forests are aiso expanding due to the afforestation programmes initiatnd by the Government. The land areas afforested increased from 0.52 lakh ha. in the First Five Year Plan to 177.77 lakh ha. in 1970-71. Despite this progress in afforestation, the target of attaining 33 % land area under forest cover as laid down in the National Forest Policy 1988, appears to be a remote goal at the moment. The reasons are the tendency towards the deforestation and diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes,the rising demands for luelwood and fodder, the increasing incidence of illicit felling, and forest fires. According to an estimate, the total fuelwood removal from forest, both authorised, and unauthorised is more than 235 million cu. ms. as againstthe sustainable level of production of only 48 million cu.m., which is incidentally placed as the annual fuelwood demand in India. Similarly, the incidence of grazing in forests for meeting the fodder needs of the large livestock population in India is another crucial problem. According to the Forest Survey of India, forest area affected by fire range from 33% in West Bengal to 99% in Manipur. Only 14 States have been covered in these estimates. 3.07 On the positive side had the regulatory regime and legal framework forforest conservation in India not been in place, the trend of deforestation would have been more severe by now. With the passage of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, the annual rate of diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes has come down to 16000 ha. annually as compared to 0.15 m.ha. in the pre-1980 period. On the other hand the increase in tree cover through development of forest plantations and natural regeneration programmes under wasteland development schemes in the last decade, has increased the green cover roughly at about 1.8 million hectares per annum, a process which needs to be accelerated. i Blodiversity 3.08 India is uniquely rich in all aspects of bio-diversity including ecosystem, species and genetic bio-diversity. For any one country in the world, it has perhaps the largest array of environmental situations by virtue of its tropical location, varied-physical features and climatic types. India has the widest variety of biomes, an attribute further enhanced by the meeting of three major biogeographic realms, namely Indo-Malaya (the richest in the world), the Eurasian and the Afro-tropical. India owes its unique biodiversity to this unmatched interspersion of biogeographic and environmental values. It is estimated that over 75,000 species of fauna and 45,000 of flora are found in India. 3.09 According to a recent classification done by the Wildlife Institute of India, the country has 10 biogeographic zones i.e. Trans-Himalayan; Himalayan; Indian Desert; Semi-arid; Westem Ghats; Deccan Peninsula; Gangetic Plain; North-east India; Islands; Coasts. 3.10 The trans-himalayan region with its sparse vegetation has the richest wild sheep and goat community in the world. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is found here, as is the migratory Blacknecked Crane (Grus nigricollis). The Himalaya, the highest mountain range in the world, is located at the boundary of many biogeographical regions and is therefore one of the richest areas of India in terms of habitat and species diversity. In the north-west isthe desert region with extensive grasslands. The Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), a highly endangered bird, is found here. Adjoining the desert is the semi-arid region, a transitional zone between the desert and the denser forests of the Western Ghats. Beyond the Ghats is the Deccan plateau, which is also a semi-arid region lying in the rain shadow: of the Western Ghats. 3.11 In the north is the Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan foothills. North-east India is one of the richest regions of biodiversity in the country. It has several species of orchids, bamboos, ferns and other plants. This region is also one of the early centres of domestication of cultivated plants such as banana, mango, citrus and jute. 3.12 India has two majorgroups of islands, Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have some of the best-preserved evergreen forests of India. Several species of plants and animals are endemic to these Islands. India has a very long coastline extending over 5,500 kms. Mangrove vegetation is characteristic of the estuarine tracts along the coast which sustain rich biological diversity. The total area of mangroves in India is approximately 6700 sq. kms. which comprises about 7% of the world's total mangrove area and harbours 59 species of 41 general belonging to different countries. India Is also rich In coral reefs. Major reef formations In Indian seas occur at the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kutch, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep. With the exception of the Lakshadweep reefs which are atolls, others are of the fringing type. Submerged banks with coral growth are also known from the Arabian sea. The threat to mangroves and coral reefs assume the form of biotic pressures such as fishing, landuse changes in surrounding areas and pollution of waters etc. 3.13 Indian wetlands which represent various geographical regions dot the cold arid zones of Ladakh, warm arid zones of Rajasthan, tropical monsoonic Central !ndia, wet north eastem region, wet southern Peninsula and the coastal wetlands. There are around 17 million hectares of wetlands in the country excluding paddy fields. In India the area under natural wetlands is 1450871 ha. and under man-made wetlands is around 2589266 ha. which is increasing every year. According to estimates, only 28% of the area of 93 important wetlands in India is undertotal protection which amounts to 53 sites out oi the 93 sites. This number does not include a vast number of small, scattered aquatic habitats throughout the country. These include city tanks, rural irrigation water bodies, lagoons, .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . SIBERIANCRANE FEEDING IN BHARATPURWETLAND THESUNDERBANSMANGROVES coastline habitats and other sensitive wetland habitats of blodiversity importance. Out of the 85 wetland sites of International importance in the country, 45% are subjected to moderate or high threat. 3.14 The problems faced by Indian wetlands relate to weed Infestation, siltation, pressures of agriculture and encroachments ot wetlands, chemical and organic pollution and eutrophication besides, conversion of wetlands for industrialisation, urbanisation and habitation. Species Diversity 3.15 The Zoological Survey of India, the Botanical Survey of India and the Forest Survey of India study and document the plant and animal diversity of the country. Of the estimated 45,000 plant species, about 15,000 species of flowering plants have been described. Estimates of other plant taxa include 5,000 species of algae, 1,600 of lichens, 20,000 of fungi, 2,700 of bryophytes and 600 of pteridophytes. There are about 75,000 species of animals including 50,000 insects, 4,000 molluscs, 2,000 fishes, 140 amphibians, 420 reptiles, 1,200 birds and 340 mammals, and other invertebrates. A very large number of the species described are endemic to India. Among the larger animals 79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and three of amphibians are threatened. Nearly 1,500 plant species are considered endangered. 3.16 The main strategy for the conservation of species is the protection of viable habitats in representative ecosystems. In addition, specific measures have been taken to prevent poaching and trade in wildlife products. Special steps to check illegal trade In ivory, rhino ,sorns, lurs, srins, musk and peacock feathers have also been taken: India is also a signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES). 3.17 Certain species have been identified as needing a concerted and specifically directed protection effort. Projects have been initiated such as. Project Tiger, 'Save the Barasingha' campaign, and more recently a project on the Asiatic Elephant. A citrus sanctuary has been set up in Meghalaya. These programmes, though focussed on single species, have a wider impact as they conserve habitats and a variety of other species. 3.18 Ex situ conservation is another thrust in con,servation efforts. The Indian Botanical Garden in Howrah (West Bengal) is over 200 years old. Other important botanical gardens include those in Bangalore and Lucknow. Whereas zoological parks have been looked upon essentially as centres for education 2nd recreation, they have also played an important role in the conservation of species such as the Manipur Thamin Deer (Cerus eldi eldi) and the Whitewinged Wood Duck (Cairina scutulata). Notable THEINDIANONEHORNED RHINO examples of successful captive breeding are those of Gangetic Gharian (Gavialis gangeticus), turtles and the white tiger. Genetic Diversity 3.19 A great amount of research needs to be undertaken on the conservation of genetic diversity in India. Sanctuaries and national parks have isolated populations of wild animals thereby decreasing chances of one group breeding with another. Experiments are underway in creating corridors between parks and integrating different parks into larger protected zones in order to broaden the genetic base. 3.20 India has a long tradition of breeding domestic animals for specific qualities. These include cattle, goats, pigs and sheep, as well as horses and pigeons for sport. With the focus on increasing milk yields though cross-breeding, some of the original cattle breeds are in danger of becoming extinct. Efforts for the maintenance of pure breeds of native animals needs to be considerably strengthened. A good deal of attention has been paid to the genetic conservation of domesticated plants. Both in situ and ex situ conservation methods have been put into practice. However, as in the case of cattle, hybrid varieties of crops are rapidly replacing the lanid races. Out of an estimated 50,000 varieties of rice in India, the country may be dependent on just 300 in the next decade. 3.21 Numerous locally adapted varieties which performed well under low or no Input conditions are being replaced by a few high yielding strains dependent on large quantities of inputs. Such replacement, in large contiguous areas, presents the danger of the spread of serious diseases which can wipe out entire crops. 3.22 Ex situ collection and preservation of genetic resources is done through the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, for wild relatives of crop plants, the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources at Karnal in Haryana, for domesticated animals, and the National Bureau ot Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow. The NBPGR is the nodal agency fcr.providing germplasm on request to scientific and research insitutions both within and outside India. India is also a signatory to the Global convention for conservation of bio-diversity. There isa needto intensify in-situ and ex-situconservation of biodiversity and for codifying ethnoknowledge. Degraded Lands 3.23 One of the major problems confronting India is the problem of land degradation which has affected 174 m.ha. comprising agricultural, non- agricultural lands and forests. Since the establishment of the National Wastelands Development Board in 1985, it has been possible to ensure I . - . i~~~4 -~wa ..--: ROYALBENGALTIGER WILDASS treatment for 40 m.ha of degraded lands in the country affected by water logging (8.53 m.ha.) ravine and guilled lands (3.97 m.ha.) saline and sodic lands (9 m.ha.). Marine Resources 3.24 The country is rich in marine food resources including fish. It is estimated that the continental shelf alone has an area of 0.44 m.sq.kms. with an estimated production potential of 4.5 m. tonnes of marine produce per year. The present harvest of marine resources from depths up to 40 fathoms is around 1.75 m. tonnes. Minerals and Energy Resources 3.25 India is rich in both renewable and non-renewable mineral resources and there have been sustained effortsfortheirdiscovery and exploration. From an economic point of view iron ore, copper, lead, zinc and gold are the principal minerals. Iron Ore is a major foreign exchange earner for India. also India has gradually evolved as an exporter of aluminium and has achieved near self-sufficiency in zinc. The entire requirement of nickel is presently being imported. There are certain constraints with regard to mineral resources in India - such as low quality copperdeposits. The present production of coal in India is 229 million tonnes (1 991-92). A target of 308 m.tonnes has been fixed for 1996-97. Indian coal also suffers from quality problems mainly because of the high ash content of coking coal (22% as against a stipulated 17% for steel plants), oversized coal and presence of extraneous matter in supplies to power plants and inadequate availability of high grade coal for industries. 3.26 In respect of energy sources, hydra carbons have developed a major energy source in recent years. India has about 0.04% of the world's proven resources of hydro carbons. However, the established geological reserves amount to 5.32 billion tonnes only. With the current level of oil production which fell from a peak level of 34.09 million tone in 1990 to 28.46 m. tones in 1992-93, India's efforts for attaining self sufficiency in hydro carbons suffered a set back. Though our natural gas potential was 59.65 billion cu. mt. during the 7th Five Year Plan, actual utilisation was only 40.41 billion cu. mt. due to the balance being flared. It is estimated that the lossto the economy on account of flaring of natural gas is Rupees 1500 crores per year. INDIA'S LEGAL AND ORGANISATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT NDI AIS LIEGAL AN D ORGANISNIONAI FR AEWORK FOR ENVIRONMEMT MtIAGEMENiT 4.01 The Directive Principles of State Policy of the Indian Constitution, provides in clear and unambigous terms, the State's commitment to protect the environment. Article 48-A of the Directive Principles states: OThe State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country." 4.02 Environmental protection is also enshrined as a Fundamental Duty of the Citizen of India. Article 51-A (g) mentions that it shall be the duty of every citizen of India "to protect and improve the natural environment, includirfg, forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures:" The Constitution 73rd Amendment Act of 1992 on Panchayats which adds a Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution has 8 entries (viz. 2,3,6,7,11,12,15 & 29) which are linked to environmental protection and conservation. The functions assigned to Panchayats include soil conservation, water management, watershed development, social and farm forestry, drinking water, fuel and fodder, non-conventional energy sources and maintenance of community assets which are significant from the environmental inanagement point of view. Entry 8 of the 12th Schedule added to the Constitution by the 74th Amendment Act, 1992 for constitution of Urban Local-Bodies assigns the function of "Protection of Environment and Promotion of Ecological Eftects" to urban local bodies. 4.03 These Constitutional provisions have been given effect through the "regulatory' environmental protection laws in India exemplified in the umbrella Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and the more specific Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 to specifically regulate the problem of air and water pollution. Among the specific natural resources protection acts are the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and Wildlife (Prevention) Act, 1972 extended to cover Biosphere Resourcces and the Hazardous Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 1989, Manufacture, Storage & Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989, Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro-Organisms and Genetically Engineered Organism or Cell Rules, 1989 to regulate storage, use, trade, transport and disposal of hazardous wastes. 4.04 A fairly detailed "promotional", policy framework is in place. The policy framework comprises the National Forest Policy, 1988, the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, 1992 and the Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992. These policy statements complement the National Water Policy, the Factory Act, 194B and other related legislation having a bearing on natural resources and economic activities. The contours of the legal and policy framework have already been brought out in the Foreword. 4.05 The *promotional" framework of policies has impingned India's environment scene economically and institutionally. The numerous schemes of financial assistance and fiscal incentives inr the area of forestry, wildlife and pollution control will be detailed in the subsequent Chapter. The institutional impact of the policy framework lie in the scheme of deceniralised community-based management systems for management of degraded forests, initiated by the Government of India through a Government circular of June, 1990 for decentralised management of forests and sharing of usufructs. As on date, 13 State Governments in India have issued usufruct sharing orders in respect of forest lands. People's Involvment in Regeneration of Degraded Forest Lands TheNationalForestPolicy. 1g88envisagespeople'sinvolvementinthedevelopmentand protection of forests. The requirements of fuelwood, fodder and small timber such as house- building material, of the tribals and other villagers living in and near the forests, are to be treated as first charge on forest produce. The Policy document envisages it as one of the essentials of forest management that the forest cownunities should be motivated to identify themselves with the development and potection of forests from which they denve benefis. CommitXtedvoluntaryagenciesVNGOs. with proven track record may prove particularly well suited for motivating and organising village communities for protection, afforestation and development of degraded forest land, especially in the vicinity of habitations. The State Forest l * - -~~~~~~~.. DeparmentsmSocal Forestry Organisations ought to take full advantage of their expertise and erxence in this espec for buiding up meaningful people's partkcapion in protection and devebpment of degraded forest lands. 7he voluntary agerciesNGOs may be assocated as nerface between State Forest Departments and the local village communities for revival, restoration and devopment of degraded forests in the manner suggested below: (i) The pogramme should be inplmented under an affangement between te Voluntary AgencyiNGO, the willage community (bneficianes) and the State Forest Departnent. (ii) Noownershp or lease rghts overthe forest land shouldbe given to the beneficaries or to the Voluntary Agency/NGO. Nor should the fbrest land be assigned in contravention of the provisions contained hi the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. (iii) The beneficiares should be antitled to a share in usufnucts to the extent and subject to theconditionsprscrbedbytheStateGovernmentin thisbehalf. The VoluntaryAgencyl NGO should not be entitled to usufnructory benefits. (iV) AcceSS to forest land and usufnctory benefits should be only to the beneficiaies who get organisedinto a vllage institution, specifically for forest regeneration andprotection. This could be the Panchayat or the Cooperative of the village, with no restrction on membership. It could also be Villae Forest Cxnnmm.4tee. In no case a:ould any access or tree pattas be given to individuals. (v) Thebenefciaesshouldbegiven usufructs likegrasses, lops and tops of branches, and minorforestproduce. Iftheysuccessfullyprotectthe forests, they maybegivenaportion of the proceeds from the sale of trees when they mature. (The Government of West Bengal has issued orders to given 25% cf the sale proceeds to the Village Forest Protection Commitees. Similar norms may be adopted by other States). (vi) Areas tobemlectedfortheprogramme shouldbe freeom the claims (incuding existing rights,privieges, concessions) ofanyperson who is notabeneficiay underthe scheme. Altematively, fora given site the selecfton of bereficiares should be done in such a way that any one who has a claim to any forest produce from the seleced site is not left out without being given full opportunity of pining. (vii) The selcted site should be worked in accordance with a Working Scheme, d ly approvedby the State overment. Such scheme may remain in operation fora per 3d of 10 years and revised/renewed after that. The Working Scheme should be prepared in consultation with the beneficiaries. Apart from protection of the site, the said Scheme may prewribe requisite operations, eg. inducement to natural regeneration of existng rootstock, .;eeding,gap filing, and wherevernecessary, intensiveplanting, soil-moisture conservatian measures etc The Working Scheme should also prescrbe other opera- tions eg. fire-protection, maintenance of boundaries weeding, tending, cleaning, thinning etc. (viii) For raising nurseres, preparing land forplanting andprotecting the trees afterplanting, thebeneficiaies shouldbepaidbytheForestDepartmentfrom the funds underthesocial forestry programme. However, the village commnunity may obtain funds from other Govemment agencies and sources for undertaking these activities. (ix) tshouldbeensuredthat thereisnograzingatallintheforestlandprotectedbythe vilage gum ... . - . . - . - . * . * t_"- - - , - - - - ;E- ,, * _ MEMBERS OF THE VILLAGE PROTECTION COMMNTrEE AT COTA BHANTABHABRA RANGE -JHABUAFORESTDIVISIONDISCUSSINGWITH THEFORESTOFFICIALS community. Permission to cut and carry grass free of cost should be given so that stall feeding is promoted. (x) No agriculture should be pemrmited on the forest land. (xi) Along with trees for fuel, fodder and timber, the village community may be permiitted to plant such fruit ftees as would fit in with the overall scheme of affomrstation, such as aonla, Imli, mango, mahua etc. as wel as shrubs, Jegumes andgrasss which wvuld meet local needs, help sil and water consevadon, and ennch the. degraded soils] land. Even indigenous medicinalplants may be grown according to the requirement and preference of beneficiaries. (xii) Cutting of trees should not be permitted before they are rpe for harvesting. The orest department aLso should not cut the trees on the forest land being procted bythe village communities except in the manner prescibed in the Working Scheme. In case of emergency needs, the village communities should be taken into confidence. (xiii) The benefit of people's paticpation should go to the village communities and not to commercial or other interests which may try to derive benefit in their names. The selection of beneficianes should therefore, be done from only those families which are wiling to paticipate through their personal efforts. (xiv) The Forest Department should losely supervise the works. If the beneficaries and/or the VoluntaryAgencyANGO failorneglect toprotectfthe area fromgrazing, encoacent or do not perfom the operations prescnbed in the Working Scheme in a satsfactory manner, the usufuctorybenefits shouldbe withdrawn withoutpaying coIr ion to anyone for any work that might have been done pnor to it. Suitable provisions in the Memorandum of Understanding for this purpose should be incorporated. TextoffheJune 1, 1990guidelines oftheMinistryofEnironmnent& Forests, Govemmetofindia Organisational structure for Environment Management In India 4.06 Based on the recommendations of the Reports of the Comm;ttee for Recommending Legislative Measures and Administrative Machinery for Ensuring Environmental Protection, a Department of Environment was set up, in 1980, within the Government of India. Over the years this has e.panded into a full fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests. The Ministry has four divisions:- a. Environment - with the field formation being the CPCB for exercise of promotional and regulatory functions underthe Water Air and Environment Protection Acts; b. Forests and Wildlife - the field for-mations are the Wildlife Preservation Offices located in different parts of the country for implementing the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and the Regional Offices of the Ministry of Environment and Forests for implementing the provisions of the Forest ( Conservation) Act, 1980; C. Ganga Proiect Directorate - the project is administered by a Steering Committee headed by the Secretary (Environment and Forests), Government of India. The nodal departments in States are the departments of Urban Development in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal and the Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam and the Bihar Rajya Jal Parishad, and Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority. This Directorate will supervise the National River Action Plan as and when it is finalised; and d. National Afforestation and Ecodevelopment Board - Six Regional Centres have been established under the National Social Forestry Project to provide support for project preparation/formulation and for interaction with Government. 4.07 In addition, there are various institutes and bodies under or working with the Ministry of Environment and Forests, which are categorised in terms of their broad functions below:- Research & Development: a) Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun, and its constituent institutions i.e. the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun; the Institute for Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore; the Institute of Forest Genetics, Coimbatore; the Institute of Deciduous Forest, Jabalpur; the Institute of Rain Forest, Jorhat; and the Institute of Arid Zone Forestry Research Institute, Jodhpur. b. Indian Plywood Industries Research Institute, Bangalore; c. Centre for Mining Environment, Dhanbad. d. Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy, Dehradun e. GB Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora, with its constituent units at Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Garhwal and North East. f. Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad. g. Ecological Research & Training Centre, Bangalore. h. C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Madras. i. Salim All Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore. j. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. k. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta I. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun. m. National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi. n. Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal. O. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. 4.08 In addition to these institutes, the Ministry works through several Committees and Councils which dealing with specific research problems, carrying capacity studies, clean technologies, waste management, impact assessment, etc. A review of the activities of the Ministry and its institutions and bodies suggests that: a. Adequate organisational infrastructure exist for the following tasks and strategies: the conservation and regeneration of forests; conservation of wildlife and genetic diversity; environment Impact Assessment; ecodevelopment and Joint Forest Management; research and development in Forestry and Wild Life; monitoring of pollution and of forest canopy cover; waste management; training in forestry and wildlife conservation; and the prevention and control of air and water pollution. b. Some, though inadequate, organisational infrastructure exists for the remaining tasks and strategies, except for : conservation of rangelands; protection of diverse and traditional ecological cultures and systems of knowledge; and development and absorption of cleaner technologies. Other Ministries and Departments of the Government of India 4.09 A large proportion of the environmental tasks and strategies involve Ministries and Departments otherthan the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF). In fact, in some cases, the major responsibility rests with agencies other than the MOEF. 4.10 A look at the schemes and structures of other concerned Departments suggests that adequate administrative structures seem to exist for:- a. regeneration of biomass outside recorded forest areas - within the Ministry of Rural Development; b. energy conservation and development of alternative sources - ,.,,5 within the Ministry of Power, Ministry of Industry and Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources; c. monitoring of water quality - within the Ministry of Water Resources; d. EIA for water resource projects - within the Ministry of Water Resources; e. watershed management - within the Ministry of Water Resources and the Ministry of Agriculture; f. soil conservation - within the Ministry of Agriculture; 9g protection of forests through control of shifting cultivation - within the Ministry of Agriculture; h. conservation of domesticated biodiversity - within the Ministry of Agriculture; i. technical support for ex-situ conservation and bio-safety - the Department of Bio--echnology; j. technology for environment protection - CSIR and its laboratories, industrial R&D laboratories; and k. solid waste collection and disposal in urban areas - Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. -E 4.11 Forthe othertasks and strategies, partial administrative structures do exist. Provincial Structures 4.12 All the States and Union Territories have Departments looking after environment and forests, collectively or singly. In addition, most of the States have State Pollution Control Boards. Some of the States also have specialised institutes like the Kerala Forest Research Institute, Kerala, the Madhya Pradesh Forest Research Institute,the Environmental Protection and Co-ordination Agency (EPCO), Madhya Pradesh, Environment Protection and Training Institute, Andhra Pradesh or the State Wastelands Development Board, Maharashtra. The State Pollution Control Boards have a significant role to play in environmental monitoring and pollution control. 4.13 A preliminary assessment of the administrative structures in the States suggest that though adequate structures exist forthe conservation and regeneration of forests and wildlife, and for the prevention and control of air and water pollution, almost all other tasks and strategies have none or very inadequate administrative structures. Though specific States have administrative structures in position for one or another of the remaining tasks and strategies, there is no uniformity about this. International Agreements 4.14 India is signatory to the six important Conventions that have a direct bearing on environment protection and conservation. These are the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar Convention), the Convention on Climate Change, the Convention for Conservation of Biological Resources and the Vienna Conyentionf Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. In addition, India was a party to the 6Rio Declaration on Environment and Development" and the Agenda 21, the operational programme for sustainable development also adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio de Janeiro in June, 1992. CURRENT PROGRAMMES 5_CURRtET PROGRAMMES 5.01 India's programmes and achievements in the sphere of environment * can be broadly categorised into two parts (a) programmes for environmental protection and conservation of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry and (b) programmes having significance for natural resources conservation and protection initiated by other sectoral Ministries/ Department at the Central Government. 5.02 The projects initiated under these programmes can be public investment based (financed by the CentrallState Governments) or implemented with assistance from multilateral and bilateral donor agencies. In terms of their basic characteristics current projects in India can be divided into two categories (a) those which are designed for organisational building or strengthening for research, conservation and environmental protection and (b) those which are non-organisational or are operational in nature. 5.03 The main programmes being undertaken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests are as below: a. survey of natural resources including flora, fauna and survey of forest cover and resources; b. conservation of natural resources. This Includes biosphere resources, wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs, forests and wildlife, besides botanical gardens; c. environmental impact assessment - assesu-ment and regulation for management; d. monitoring, control and prevention of pollution; e. management of hazardous substances; f. regeneration and development including the Ganga Action Plan and afforestation and eco-development; g. research on natural resources and ecosystems; h. education and information in forestry, wildlife and for environmental awareness; i. legislation and organisational support for environmental management, which has already been discussed; and j. international cooperation for seeking bilateral and multilateral assistance and for addressing 'the global environmental issues." 5.04 The projects undertaken underthese programmes are summed up as below. Survey of Natural Resources 5.05 Organisatlonal : Establishment of Environmental Information System, Centre on Animal Ecology in the Zoological Survey of India. 5.06 Non-Organlsatlonal: Floral/faunal surveys by the Botanical Survey of India/Zoological Survey of India respectively in various parts of India for identifying, cataloguing classifying and critically assessing the characteristics of the species surveyed. Environment Impact Assessment Studies on ecology and wildlife by the two organisations; and survey by the Forest Survey of India for assessing forest cover in India and drawing up forest resources inventory for various parts of the country. Conservation of Natural Resources 5.07 Organisational - establishment of a Central Zoo Authority to support, oversee, monitor and coordinate, management of Zoos in the country; assistance to State Governments for initiating monitoring and evaluation of Tiger Reserves by independent agencies; and - assistance for establishing nature interpretation centres at Wildlife national parks and sanctuaries. 5.08 Non-Organisational: designation of wetlands underthe Ramsar Convention on wetlands; formulation and approval to management action plans for different wetlands/mangroves and coral reefs in the different parts of India; assistance to botanical gardens for augmenting their activities in conservation and protection of plant genetic resources; drawing up of an integrated perspective programme fordevelopment of forestry sector at national and provincial level under the UNDP/ FAO assisted National Forestry Action Programme; assistance to State Governments for supply of modern fire-fighting equipments underthe 'Modern Forest Fire Control Project' originally assisted by the UNDP/FAO; constitution/enlargement strengthening of protected areas in India, already comprising of 75 National Parks, 421 Wildlife Sanctuaries with an area of 1,40,675.46 sq. kms; enlargi ng and strengthening the area underuproject/Tigeri network, monitoring the implementation of management plans in tiger reserves; and assistance to zoological parks. Environmental Impact Assessment: 5.09 Organisatlonal - training in EIA of the planners, decision makers, bureaucrats and professionals. IE 5.1 0 Non-Organisatlonal - project appraisal for the grant of environmental clearances; issue of notifications to regulate developmental activities in fragile ecosystems and areas which are vulnerable to environmental deterioration; supporting studies on carrying capacity in environmentally fragile or problematic areas; and - imonitoring the performance of stipulated EIA conditions Industrial Pollution Control ProJect of India To give teeth to our corprehensive anmnmentalpotcton lgision and in orderto operationalsendia's Poiy Statement forAbatementof Pokition an Industrial Pollution Control Project was initiated with a World Bank ine of credit of US$ 155.6 milion and counte,part fnds of UJS$ 108 milion (o be providedbythe Gomvment of india/Sta GovernmentsWeveAppmn Financial Institutes) with the fbolwing objectives: - to strengthen the monitoring and enforrementabilities of the Polknto Control Boads of the heavly industWized States in the countiy, viz Gujarat Maharashtra, Tamnl Nadu and UtLtar Pradesh. - to get individual units install appropriate pollbion control devices. - to assist the establishment of Common Effluent Treatment Plants for Xt combnd treatment of effluents from dusters of small scale units. - to introduce dean technolgies which would have a minumum generation of wastes through d ion prects and studies. - to support a training programme of the staff ofthe Pdoltion Control Boads and of the financial instiutions iwvolved in the Prqect ThethreebradcomponentsaoftheIndustrialPolution ConrbdProectare:(i) InstitIonal Develpment Component which wouJd finance the acquisition of equipment and obtr faciities r~ ~ ~ ~~. by the State Pollution Control Boards concemed besides providing training to theirpersonnel. (ii) the investment component which wouid finance sub-loans to industral units of the large and medium scale for installation of pollution control faciities and provide sub-lans/subgrants for setting up common effluent treatment plants for cluster of industral units and blishment of demonstration project on deaner technologies of industria production. As on 30th Apl, 1992, under the Investment Component the Deveopment Finance Institutes viz. the Industrial Develpment Bank of India (IDBI) and the Industnal Credit a Investment Coiporationofindia had sanctioned loans to the tune of US$25.805 million forpaper & pup,. chemicaLs. phammaceutcals, dye anddye-intermediate. fethlizer, stel ndustnriaunts and refineres. An amount ofRupees 85. 789a khss adsdis been sanctionedforiinstallation of Comwon Effluent Treatment Plants during 1993-94. t is envisaged to diversify The Industnal Polluion Control Project both in terms of its geographical and sectoral sprad. Monitoring/Preventlon and Control of Pollution 5.11 Organisatlonal - Swedish assistance for strengthening the 'Environmental Protection, Training and Research Institute', Hyderabad and the Pollution Control Research Institute, Hardwar, (Uttar Pradesh) ior providing training to policy makers and technmcians in environmental management; ' organisation strengthening of Central and State Pollution Control Boards underthe World Bank assisted Industrial Pollution Control and Prevention Projects; and technical assistance to the Ministry of Environment and Forests for evaluating environmental problems and financial assistance for undertaking feasibility studies for the pollution control. - E~~~Li 5.1 2 Non-Organlsatlonal monitoring of air and water quality for selected oheavily polluting units and landlaquatic/river zones of the country; - measures for controlling non-stationary sources of pollution such as vehicular pollution; preparation of action plans for the abatement of pollution In highly polluting industries; - notifying environmental standards for various industries; implementation of World Bank assisted $155.6 million, Industrial Pollution Control Project and the proposed Industrial Pollution Prevention Projects in the States of Gujarat , Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh; scheme for labelling of environmentally friendly products for household and consumer products; and scheme on *Adoption of clean technology to the Small Scale Industries and to extend 1echnical Supportr to encourage modernisation of Small Scale Units In India. pilot project for blomonitoring of river Yamuna with assistance of the Netherlands fordeveloping a water quality Index which Is being tested in other basins of Tungabhadra and Challyar rivers In South India; and operation of automatic water quality stations with Dutch (The Netherlands) assistance in the River Ganga for continous monitoring of water quality. Mansgement of Hazardous Substances 5.13 Organisatlonal - financial assistance for research projects to develop technologies for the scientific handling and treatment of hazardous wastes; - training programmes for various categories of personnel in the management of chemical accidents; - training programmes on household disposal of wastes and environmental sanitation for urban slum dwellers; and - financial assistance to State Pollution Control Boards for setting up infrastructure for regulating management of hazardous substances. 5.14 Non-Organisatlonal - financial assistance to States for conducting EIA studies for identification of sites for disposal of hazardous substances. , 1 A.' - 77 -77~'~ 4 ~~~~~~ < -'-S.-.- OXIDATIONPOND,GANGAACTIONPLAN,WESTBENGAL HARIDWAR, RIVER GANGA, ONE OFTHE FOCUS POINTS OFTHE GANGA ACTION PLAN Ganga (River) Action Plan 5.15 Orgenisatlonal * - public awareness and education programmes involving NGOs, youth, pilgrims and school students. 5.16 Non-Organisational a. setting up of infrastructure forinterception, diversion andtreatment of domestic/industrial sewage in 25 Class I towns along the river Ganga; b. monitoring of 68 grossly polluting industries discharging effluents into the Ganga river and its tributaries; C. epidemiological studies for study of the Ganga Action Plan on human health diseases; d. pollution abatement schemes for the Yamuna and Gomti rivers as the Ganga Action Plan Phase II project at a total cost of Rs.421 crores. The project is to be undertaken in 15 towns along the Yamuna river and 3 towns along the Gomti river. e. a National River Action Plan to support pollution abatement works in other polluted stretches of major rivers in India. The National River Action Plan Vanous scientific studies carred out from the early 1950s to 1970s had revealed the declining trend in water quality of thr river Ganga. The Ganga Action Plan was formulated and launched priarily to arrest this degradation by a comprehensive programme of interceptron, diversion and treatment of dompestic sewage and prevention of toxic and industnal chemical wastes from identifiedgrosslypolluting indusdialunits entering into the rver. The evolution of the Gsnga Action Plan since its inception in 1986 has had many rnteresting lessons to offer both in the matterofnverbasin management andprjectimplementation. FurthertheGngpa Action Plan has also persuaded government to fook into the growing prob/em of pollution and deteriorating waterquality in the othernversinthecountry. The NationalRiverAction Plan has been conceived as a larger plan to carry out pollution abatement works in fourteen grossly poJlted stretches in nine of 17 rvers in India and fouteen less polluted stretches in the remaining eight rvers. About folty fourtowns wouldbecoveredbythe National RiverAction Plan in the first instance fortackling the problem of pollution load in their ver stretches. The States covered are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat. Himachal Pradesh, Kamataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tanil Nadu and Littar Pradesh. An amount of Rs.900 crores is estimated as the cost of treatment of 1650 milion litres of wastewater per day likely to be generated by the forty four towns. The State Govemmentsconcernedhaveshowngreatenthusiasm frtheprogramme, whosetechnicaland administrative structure is under finalisation. Afforestatlon and Eco-Development Board 5.17 Organisational - support to seven regional centres to support State Governments preparation of projects for afforestation and eco-development with people's participation; - assistance to the eco-task force to assist and utilise ex-army personnel for the restoration of wastelands and environmentally degraded areas, in UttarPradesh,Jammu & Kashmirand Rajasthan. 5.18 Non-Organisational a. scheme for conservation of non wood forest produce including medicinal plants; b. development of forest and pasture seeds; c. scheme for aerial seeding (100% Centrally Sponsored); d. centrally sponsored Integrated Wastelands Development Project Scheme. This includes the World Bank assisted National Social Forestry Project launched in the States of Rajasthan, Utar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Gujarat and Kerala and the Swedish International Development Agency - assisted social forestry proj.... in Tamil Nadu, the European Community - assisted "Greening of Aravallis in Haryana, the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF - Japan) assisted projects relating to Afforestation and Pasture Development along the Indira Gandhi Canal and the Afforestation project for Aravalli Hills in Rajasthan; e. fuelwood and fodder projects scheme (50% Centrally Sponsored); f. seed development scheme (100% Centrally Sponsored); g. grants-in-aid to voluntary agencies for afforestation and wasteland development assisted by OECF (Japan); h. administration of the National Fund for Afforestation; i. mapping of wastelands and geographical information systemrs; and j. forest development projects in the Western Ghats with ODA assistance. A forestatlon Programmes : Appralsia of progress In Seventh Five Year Plan In the Seventh Plan there was considerabl Increase in the total area brought under afforestation programme. Bbck plantations, strip plantations and farm forestry were canied out. Plan funds were made available through Forest Department in the States. These were futther supplemented in 15 States with new projects which received sxternal assistance. While the total afforestation dunng the Sixth Plan period was only 4.65 million ha, the coverage in the Seventh Plan, was 8.87 million ha. Tobrngaboutqualitativechangesinthisprogramme, aNationalWastelandsDevebpment Board (NWDB) was set up in June 1985, with the principal aim of reclaiming wastelands through a massive programme of afforestation with people's participation. An independentevaluation of Rural FuelvoodPlantation (RFP) scheme was caniedout by the National Council for Applied Economic Research at the behest of National Wastelands DevelopmentBoard(NWDB). Thestudyhasrevealedcertaindeficenciesin thescheme namely, low survival of plantation (between 40 to 50 percent) and poor health of the surviving plants; inadequato consolidation of effort and discontinuity; poor maintenance and after care of . hnstStates, ambiioustargets andbadadvance planning leading to poor choice of planting matenal and lack of people's involvement. A numberofprogrammesofafforestation weretaker up tosecurepeoplesparfiipation. Under this scheme, priority was given to i) establishment of decentralised nurseries and school nurseries; ai) bbck plantation specially on community land and lands of Schedule Cast & Schedule Tribes and people living belw the poverty line; iii) pasture development through people's institutions and involvement; and iv) assistance in the implementation of the Tree Patta Schemes. The scheme of decentralised people's nursenies was initiated in 1986-87 to encourage seedling production by farmers, especially small and marginal farmers to establish small, dispersed nurseries to cater to local needs of planting material and provide income generating activities to the beneficiaries. Soci.al forestry projects which were ini^ated in 1981-82 for periods ranging from five to eight years continued in the Seventh Plan. They envisaged tree planting and afforestatian of 19,84,600 ha. of wastelands with a total investment of Rs.911.73 crores. These projects were assisted by several extemal agencies, including the World Bank, United States Agency for Intemational Development and Overseas Development Agency of United Kingdom. Seeds for the ongoing prngrammes of afforestation were mostly collected without determning their quality. For development of quality seeds, a centrafly sponsored scheme was introduced by the National Wastelands Developrnent Board (NWDB) in 1988-89. To en.sureanarea-specircapproachonfuelwoodandfodder, anewcentrallysponsored UU~~~ U scheme was initiated from 1988-89. This scheme was to cover the watersheds in the districts includedundertheNationalWatershedDevelopmentProgrammeoftheDepatmentofAgriculture, so as to ensure integrated development of wastelands in the identified watersheds. The scheme was to be implemened initially, in 52 districts of 11 States. Aeral seeding holds the potential to cover vast tracts quickly in a cost effective manner, especially in remote, inaccessible areas like ravines and hills A Centrally-Sponsored Scheme for Aerfial Seeding was initiated by the National Wastelands Development Board from 1988-89 to assist a few selected states in systematically carrying out aerial seeding in remote areas and to develop and standardise the steps involved in aerial seeding techniques. To encourage fbw of instftutional finance for socially beneficial afforestation and watershed development projects and to encourage afforestation through people's active participation, a margin moneyscheme was initiatedbyNWDBin 1987-88. This is a CentralSector Scheme where 25% of theproeoct cost isgiven asgrant, providedan equalmatchingcontribution is given by the eligible Institution/State and at least 50% of the total project cost is financed by a financial institution. Under the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)s and Rural Landless Employment (NREP) and RuralLandless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) camied out by the Department of Rural Devebpment, 25% of the funds were specifically earmarked for the social forestry component, during the first fouryears of the Seventh Plan. The afforestation component under these programmes was implemented by the State Forest Developments mainly on Govemment and community lands, road sides and canal embankments. Since the availability of community lands was limited, aforestation was also carred out on degraded forest lands. Bulk of the funds forthe forest rysector came from the Rural Employment Schemes under the socialforestrycomponent. However, an evaluation caedoutby the Programme Evaluation Organisation of the Plannintj Commission has irdcated the people's participation under this prgramme has been very limited and the trees planted were of species which met the requirement of wood forurban markets rather than the subsistence needs offueland fodderof the rural poor. An appraisal of the various afforestation schemes undertaken above reveal some deficiences. They have no specfc plan of action formeeting fuel wood and fodder requirements except for the continuance of the scheme for rural fuel wood plantation, which does not directly address these issues. Fostering of people's movements forafforestation has been done largely through increasing people's interest on farm forestry. Under the social forestiy prgramme. the efforts have largely been departmental. The ruralpoor and tribals, who depend mostly on public and forest lands for their living, have at best, given restricted access to the areas taken up for development The existing wastelanddevelpmentschemesgenerallyare notbasedon mtegrating the control of run.-off rain-water for reducing erosion, soil and water conservation and water harvesting. In propagating this technology, there is a need to identify and demonstrate such approaches which have low cost and are less dependant on capital and extemal inputs. Eighth Five Year Plan. .9.2-97wr Vol It, Planning Commission, Govemment of India. Environmental/Forestry Research/Education and Tralning 5.19 Organisational financial support for institutes coming under the Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) which Include the Institute of Tree Breeding and Genetics, Coimbatore, the Institute of Wood Sciences and Technologies, Bangalore, and the Institute for Arid Zone Research, Jodhpur; strengthening of the Ecological Research and Training Centre, Bangalore for research on the Western Ghats eco-systems; assistance to the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, for research on ecological and socio-economic issues; strengthening wildlife research through the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun, and the Salim Ali Centre for Conservation of Nature (SACON), Coimbatore; strengthening of institutes for training forestry personnel in India by assistance to the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy, Dehra Dun, and State Forest Service Colleges located at Dehradun, Burnihat and Coimbatore; strengthening research on mountain development and ecology by establishment of the G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora, Uttar Pradesh; strengthening the Indian Institute of Forest Management fortraining and higher education in Forest Management, with Swedish assistance; assistance ior "Paryavaran Vahinin (volunteer environmental task force) to involve students, youth and general public in activities related to environmental conservation and protection in 100 environmentally critical districts of India; and a scheme of assistance to State Pollution Control Boards for strengthening manpower and procurement of equipment. National Forestry Action Programme The Governmentof India, appreciating the spirit of the global Tropical Forestry Action Programme, has decided to prepare its own national Forestry Action Programme (NFAP) in consonance with its National Forest Policy of 1988. The exercise, to be implemented with technical cooperation of FAO will result in: NI) a forestry sector review paper covering critical issues affecting forestry development in the country. (iiJ a perspective action progra mme for the long and mid term for development of forestry sector at National and State level, together with a short term priority action programme for the next five years. (iii) integration of approaches based on localinitiatives, including projects supported by external donors. While the focus of the NFAP would be the increase in and sustainable managementof forests and tree resources contributing to bio-diversity and conservational and climatic needs, this will be harmonised with the national development goals. *- Apart from the Government of India's contribution of Rs.65 lakhs (US$ 200000) to the scheme, USS 716000 are beingprovided as UNDP assistance. Project Document has been signed on 21.6.1993 and the formulation of NFAP has become operational from 1. 7.1993. The project pefiod is two years. 5.20 Non-Organisational - financial support for research projects underthe Man and Biosphere Programmes, Environmental Research Scheme and the Integrated action-oriented research demonstration and extension programme on the Eastern and Western Ghats; financial support for research projects for conservation and management of wetlands, mangroves and Biosphere Reserves; and financial support for research on plywood/wood-based substitution. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND AWARENESS 5.21 Organlsational - assistance for CPR Environmental Education Centre, Madras and Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad and the National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi for environmental education and creating popular awareness amongst school children and villages and teachers; and 70 assistance to several organisations comprising of NGOs, schools. colleges, universities, research organisations, women and youth organisations from all States for environmental awareness under the annually organised mNational Environment Awareness Campaign." INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 5.22 Organisational - Coordination Committee of the Ministry of Environment & Forests to review externally aided projects in the environment & forest sectors; Ozone cell for the implementation of the Montreal Protocol on Substanced depleting the Ozone Layer, 1987; and - Inter-Ministerial Cell for screening and selecting projects for assistance under Global Environmental Facility. 5.23 Non Organisatlonal - monitoring of bilateral/multilateral assisted projects in environment & forests; Project formulation for external assistance; global environmental issues, viz. ozone depletion, climate change, bio-diversity conservation and trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes; FE Agenda 21, Capacity 21 and Global Environmental Facility multilateral cooperation through SAARC/SACEP; and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu. 5.24 In terms of physical and financial aspects, Table 7 to 9 gives an indication of the types of externally-aided projects and their progress/ achievements. Litigation and relatively poor re-imbursements explain the poor progress of expenditure for certain externally-aided projects, expecially those coming under the Ganga Action Plan. However, the Ganga Action Plan has its positive features, as epidemiological and water quality studies indicate. With the exception of Kanpur, the DO and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) meet the permissible limits for bathing. The epidemiological studies also indicate a lessening incidence of bronchial, skin and water-borne diseases in the non-Kanpur segment, of the River Ganga. But problems remain in the form of bacteriological pollution which is on account of discharges from sewage treatment plants in bigger towns and also on account of unhygienic practices of bank side river use such as for defecation, cattle wallowing, cloth washing, carcass and solid waste dumping. To bring down the coliform organisms in the river water, possibility of utilising advanced technologies such as ultra violet irradiation etc. is under examination. As far as general pollution 72 control is concerned, compliance to air and water standards which was lagging behind appears to have picked up since 1991. The number of firms complying with the pollution control standards have considerably increased in the 17 categories of critically polluting industries in India (Fig. 3). Similarly while the physical and financial progress of afforestation projects is satisfactory, more efforts needed to be devoted in the area of quality seed nurseries and sustained protection to the afforested areas. Developme. - rogrammes for Natural Resources Conservation and Protection: 5.25 Development programmes focussing on water and soil conservation, cleaner industrial production processes, energy efficiency and alternative energy, have afundamental environmental purpose. While irrigation and drinking water programmes in urban and rural areas form the water development programmes of environmental concern, watershed development and soil conservation programmes form development projects for integrated conservation of soil and water. Application of biotechnology, waste utilisation production processes and waste reduction resulting in cleaner production, go a long way in reducing the problem of pollution of air and water. Energy efficiency and cleaner and alternative sources of energy are also oi significant in maintaining air and water quality. The programme and projects undertaken by the Ministries of Agriculture, Rural Development, Urban Development, Industrial Development and Power (including Non-Conventional Energy Sources) having a bearing on the five areas are briefly summed up below. Ministry of Agriculture: 5.26 Organisatlonal a. Agro-climatic Regional Planning Approach (ACRP) initiated by the Planning Commission in 1988 to formulate Integrated Developmt : plans for agriculture and allied sectors according to agro-climatic conditions. During the eighth Plan, emphasis is on development of resources and their optimum utilisation in an integrated and sustainable manner for 15 broad agro-climatic zones in the country; b. Strengthening for Agricultural Research and Education This also covers areas such as biotechnology and remote sensing for management of natural resources and agro-metereology; c. Support for Fisheries Research not only to impiove yields but also to study reservoir ecology and management, particularly from the angle of fish diseases to increase fish production to the desired levels; d. Assistance to Agricultural Collegrs and Educational InStitutinfor strengthening and upgrading existing organisational capacity for educatior in fisheries, watershed management, pulses and fodder development; e. Small Farmers Agri-Business Consortium which will focus on training programmes in environmentally sound management practices for farmers and fishermen to take up economically efficient programme of agri-business in the areas of agro-forestry besides agriculture; f. State Land-use Boards: for handling the subject of land resources conservation including environmental and ecological aspects; and g. Association of Women in Agriculture: whereby special emphasis has been placed for association of women in watershed projects, integrated pest management and agricultural extension. 5.27 Non-Organisational a. Watershed Development Programmefor integrated and sustainable approach for development of natural resources in rainfed and dry land zones of India with 100% finance from Central Government; b. Rain-fed Agriculture in National Watershed Develonment Project: for evolving an integrated approach for adoption of low cost rain waterconservation measuressuch as planting of vegetative barriers on contour lines, contour ploughing, contour cropping etc., are already being promoted In the arable lands. In the non-arable lands various conservation and production measures like pasture development, afforestation, etc., are being adopted. The emphasis is also being given on use of bio-fertilizers and integrated pest management; c. Western Ghats Development Programme: This aims to undertake activities such as soil conservation, animal husbandry, horticulture and plantations in Western Ghats watersheds; d. Inteorated Pest Managemen: aiming at promoting non-chemical methods of pest management through manipulation of cultural practices, conservation and augmentation of bio-control agents, adoption of mechanical methods and minimum and need based use of chemical pesticides based on the economic threshold levels of pests; and e. Balanced and integrated use of nutrients and Promotion of bio- frtilizers : to control adverse effects of the use of chemical fertilizers on soil and ground water and also for ensuring balanced nutrition to crops by employing organic manures, green manures and biological fertilizers. Field demonstrations through a network of national and regional centres and financial assistance to State Governments, Agro-industries Corporations and Fertilizer and Seed Companies form the strategy for popularising bio-fertilizers in the country. Ministry of Water Resources 5.28 Organisatlonal a. Strengthening People's Participation in Water Use in Irrigation: This includes the successfully implemented Schemes of Lower Bhavani Project and the Mohini Cooperative System. b. ,Organiational Strengthening for Research & Development in Water Resources Planning which is funded through the Scientific and Technological Component in the Irrigation Sectorforwhich the seventh Plan had provided an amount of Rs.1 10 crores. 5.29 Non-Organisatlonal a. Command Area Development Programmes which commenced in 1974-75 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme for execution of works for ensuring equitable and timely supply of water to agricultural H J holdings falling within the Command Area of Irrigation Projects. The focus of the CADP Is being re-oriented for land improvement and development of drainage facilities in the command areas; b. National Water ManaU mfnt Project for modernisation and rehabilitation of seiected old water structures. Presently this Project cover systems with a Com mand Area of 0.54 million hectares in different parts of the country; and C. Flood Control Programmes in Rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra. MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT 5.30 OrganisatUonal - constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions; and - TRYSEM. 5.31 Non-Organisational a. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana for employment generation in rural areas which also covers soil and water conservation, wasteland development and Social Forestry projects besides rural roads and rural housing; b. The Drought Prone Aiea Programme (DPAP) launched in 1973 in arid and semi-arid areas, with poor natural resource endownments. EEl] The focus of the DPAP Is on undertaking landshaping and soil conservation, afforestation and pasture development, water resources development and Livestock Development In 615 Blocks of 91 Districts in 13 States. During the seventh Plan an allocation of Rs.46276 lakhs was made out of which an expenditure of Rs.46185.91 lakhs was incurred on land development, water resources and forestry projects in DPAP areas; c. lntegrated Rural Energy Programme for energy development in rural areas with funding provided through Central and State Plans. The focus of this Plan is decentralised Integrated Rural Energy Planning with a least cost mix of various energy options, conventional as well as renewable and non-conventional energy sources at the Block level. During the Seventh Plan around 250 Blocks were covered under the Programme. d. Raiiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission for Rural Water Supply: The objective of the Mission is to provide safe drinking water to rural population in villages at the rate of 40 litres of safe drinking water per capita per day for human beings and 30 litres of water on a per capita daily basis for cattle in the desert districts of India within a distance of 1.6 kms. in the plains and 100 metres in hilly areas. By safe drinking water is meant water, safe from biological contamination (guinea worm, cholera, typhoid, etc.) and chemical contamination (excess fluoride, brackishness, excess iron, arsenic, nitrates, etc.). During the seventh Plan as against a target of 23922 problem villages 251431 villages were covered which indicates an 112% achievement; and e. programmes for wasteland development in non-forest areas administered by the National Wastelands Development Board. These include the following non-organisational projects: a. The Integrated Wastelands Development Scheme - The basic objective of the scheme is to start pilot projects aimed at integrated land management based on village/micro level watershed plans prepared after taking into account land capability, site conditions and local needs of the people. The scheme also aims at enhancing the content of people's participation in wastelands development programmes. b. The Investment Promotional Scheme - The principal objectives of the scheme is to facilitate/attract investment from financial institutes, corporate bodies, other agencies and entrepreneurs for the development of wastelands in non-forest areas. c. Technology Development and Extension Scheme - The main objectives of the scheme are establishing technical database and providing assistance to projects which are required for filling the gaps in available technologies. d. Support to Non-govemment Organisations - The scheme specifically aims at supporting non-government organisations for taking-up wastelands development projects. e. Scheme for Promotional and Critical Support - The scheme aims at buiiding database on wastelands and establishing a network for dissemination of information regarding wastelands development and providing 'Escort Service' to prospective agencies and entrepreneurs interested in development of wastelands f. Wastelands Development Task Force - Under the scheme, non- forest wastelands in inaccessible and inhospitable terrains like deserts, mountains, ravines, mined areas, etc will be developed for sustainable use by enlisting the services of a dedicated ex- servicemen. HE MINISTRY OF INDUSTRIES 5.32 Non-Organisatlonal a. Modernisation of Indian Steel Industry in the public and private sectors for the upgradation of technology and reduction of high energy consumption. The steel plants which are-covered include Durgapur, Rourkela and the Tata Iron and Steel Plants; b. National Materials Policy Project for updating technology information, forecasting and assessment to make Indian industries globally competitive; C. UNDP Assisted Pesticides Deveiopment Programme - for developing new formulations of pesticides and upgrading personnel engaged in quality control and hazard management in pesticide irndustries; and d. Research & Development Programme for Coir lndustry for finding new uses of coir in improving soil stabilisation and erosion control and for cooling buildings. MINISTRY OF LABOUR 5.33 Organisatlonal - Rural Workers Education Programme which cover landless labourers, agricultural workers, marginal farmers, fisheries labour, tribal labour, forest labour and rural artisans on industrial health, safety and environment. MINISTRY OF ENERGYICOAL 5.34 Non-Organisational a. s.BI assisted credit scheme for financing Energy Conservation Schemes in Industrial Undertakings; b. Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency-assisted scheme for financing of renewable energy development; c. assistance for research & development for new and renewable Sources of Energy (NRSE); d. national project on Bio-gas Development, Improved Chullahs, Solar Photo Voltaics, Wind Energy, Solar Thermal Energy and Micro Hydels; e. Coal Washing/Benefeciation Programmes; f. assistance for research & development programme for energy plantation and development of agricultural wastes and non-woody based gasifiers for power production; g. assistance for research and development and commercialisation of incineration and other waste disposal technologies; h. assistance for research & development for improving performance of battery powered vehicles; i. solar energy centre including National Testing Facility for Testing and Calibration of Solar Photo Voltaic Components and other Solar Thermal Devices; and j. training facilities forenvironmental management of power projects, including manpower development for rigorous safety standard for nuclear projects and promotion of use of fly-ash. MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE 5.35 Organisational - development of a Centre for Epidemiological Health Intelligence in Eighth Plan. 5.36 Non-Organisational - clinical research on drugs of various systems and collection, cultivation and propagation of medicinal plants. I Sustainable Cities Progranme Thepnncpalgoalof SCP is to provide cities with an fiipovedenvironmental manage- ment and planning capacity wtich is seff sustaining once the prgramme's support ends. 7he SCP is designed to asist munk4pal authorites to identy enironmena issues at the cty lvel, to establish prrities among these issues andtoprovide them with tools to address these is. Theprgramme wi facirnateabetterunderstanding of the costs andben ets involvedandof the economic costs of environmental negAcL The aim is also to create greater awareness of good pradice inplanning andmanagement ofthe uthan environmentas wellas ofthepotentialmpacts of aty growth on the natural resource base of the sumrunding region. The SCP Wl71 also helo to build a deveoping county constituency for establishing and updaing utban environmental date bases as the creatin and updating of such information bases is essential for the management of the urban environment forpolicy formulaton, progranm iplementation and for monitorin progress. Madras is one of threa cties in Asia seectd by United Nation Commission on HIuman Settlement (UNCHS) fora city level project of the Sustanable Cities Programme. The Ministry of Urban Developmenthas reoentay cleared theproject. Theproject budget is US$515,000. ' UNCHS, Sustainable Cities Programme-City Level Project. Prject Fomuilation Framewoi*, December, 1991. MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT 5.37 Organisatlonal a. Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) to provide platform for technology transfer and application in the shelter sector and promoting commercial production of innovative materials, using fly-ash, red mud, phospho-gypsum and agricultural wastes and for appropriate design of houses both in urban and rural areas; and b. Low Cost Sanitation and Small Towns Water Supply Schemes for Pogulation Less Than 20.000 In order to provide facilities to the poor and the economically weaker sections of the society, centrally assisted programme for construction of individual and sommunity latrines has been taken up alongwith the water supply schemes in small towns. 5.38 Non-Organisamtonal a. Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums introduced in 1974 and which benefitted 10 million slum dwellers during the seventh Plan period; b. Centrally Sponsored Scheme for Urban Basic Services introduced in 1986 for enhancing survival and development of women and children in low income urban families; C. Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns to provide infrastructural support. During the Seventh Plan period, 145 towns were covered; d. National Capital Region for Delhi aimed at providing infrastructural support to priority towns and for the Region as a whole; and e. Nehru Rozgar Yojana for Employment for Urban Population living below poverty line. MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 5.39 Organisatlonal a. establishment of a separate Department of Bio-Technology in 1986 i.e. during the Seventh Plan; [Ri b. establishment of Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC); c. scientific inputs for National Technology/Societal Missions in the areas of vaccination and immunization of vulnerable populations, drinking water supplies to the villages, wasteland development and livestock upgradation using embryo transfer technologies; d. establishment .of a National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting for development of Agro-metereological services; e. establishment of a joint sector unit i.e. the Indian Vaccine Corporation Limited (IVCOL) in Gurgaon District in Haryana to produce vaccines for rabies, measles, polio, etc.; f. establishment of Bic Technology Consortium India Limited (BCIL) with industries and financial institutions collaboration for commercialisation of bio technology in India; g. human resource development and manpower training to provide skilled manpower for biotechnology programmes. h. establishment of 11 National infrastructural facilities in various scientific institutions in the country for germ plasm collection, Animal House facilities. i. the technologies absorption and adoptation scheme for interaction of R&D by companies which have imported the technology and will take advantage of the existing infrastructure; and j. the transfer and trading in technology scheme which provides for suitable avenues for commercially viable technologies produced indigenously for marketing to other countries. SPECIAL AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 5.40 Non-Organisational a. Hill Area Development Programme: This programme is in operation in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Mizoram, Assam, Darjeeling District of West Bengal, the Nilgiri District of Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh hills and Western Ghats areas. The project has been launched to over-come the problems of deforestation, soil erosion, drying up of water sources, flash floods and consequenctial problems of poverty and food shortage; and b. Desert Development Programme: This was initiated in 1977-78 to cover the desert region of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana, besides the cold deserts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The objective of the programme is to control the desertification, mitigate the - E8-si1~ effects of drought and restore ecological balance in the affected areas through land development, water resources development, afforestation etc. 5.41 A general review of the aforementioned development programmes implemented by the respective sectoral Ministries indicate that development programmes which have fundamental implications on environment and environmental considerations are being addressed as a part of the development programmes and projects. In future, it may be desirable to allocate a greater portion of investment resources on these programmes for tangible environmental benefits. DIAGNOSIS .. 6 DIAGNOSIS 6.01 If one were- to consider the criteria mentioned in the World Development Report, 1992 on Environment and Development, environmental problems in the developing world can be categoried as: those arising due to lack of the development and those which arise on account of development. Environmental problems of inadequate sanitation, clean and safe drinking water, land degradation and local pollution arising from the phenomenon of poverty come in the first category. Development related environmental problems include industrial pollution, energy related pollution, hazardous substances, commercial agriculture and over use of natural resources for industrial activities. For a country like India which has been forthe last five decades, endeavouring for economic growth and development, it is logical to accord primacy to environmental issues arising from the lack of economic development, to ensure that the pursuit for environmental well-being is symbiotically linked to the development process. This priority, in turn, would mean that the issues of population growth, poverty and unemployment are considered in an integrated manner, to assess their impacts on environment and for devising appropriate programme for remediation. At the same time, it would also be necessary to assess the impact of development related environmental problems on poverty and adopt programmes for mitigating adverse effects, if any. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ARISING FROM NON-DEVELOPMENT: POPULATION PRESSURE ON NATURAL RESOURCES AND POVERTY 6.02 India is the second largest country in the world in terms of human population. On 2.4% of the world's land area India supports 16% population. The population of India which was 361.1 million in 1951 went upto 846.3 million in 1991.The population of Indiais increasing by about 17 million every year. The growth in India's population gathered momentum in the last few decades. The average annual exponential growth rate during the decade 1941-51 was only 1.25 per cent. It started showing steadily increasing trends from 1951 onwards reaching a level of 2.22 per cent during the decade 1971-81. The average annual exponential growth rate in the decade 1981-91 came down to 2.14 per cent. The latest available Sample Registration System (SRS) data indicate an annual natural growth rate of 1.9 per cent in 1992. With a death rate of 10 and birth rate of 29 (1992), India is currently in the third stage of demographic transition. Though the decline in birth rate is significant it is not fast enough to offset the decline in death rate. The death rate declined from [E7 22.8 in 1951-61 to 10 In 1992. The IMR, at 79 per thousand live births in 1992, is still high, though it has declined significantly from 110 in 1981. 6.03 Life expectancy at birth has shown a remarkable increase from 32 years during 1941-51 to 58.6 years during 1986-91. The CBR declined trom 41.7 in 1951-61 to 29.0 in 1992. The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is 3.8 (1990 SRS) children per women as against 5.97 in 1951-61. 37 per cent of India's population is in the age group 0-14 years. However, the proportion of children below 15 years of age has fallen from 42 per cent in 1971 to 37 per cent in 1991. The population of India is expected to cross the one billion mark by 2001 as per the projections made by the Standing Committee of Experts on Population Projections. The Committee also estimated that the population of the country would be about 1082 million in 2006. 6.04 The serious implications of the 'number effect' of India's human population has been underlined by the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, 1992. The following projections of the 2000 A.D. scenario which re-inforce this point as follows: a. it is estimated that to feed a human population of one billion by 2000 AD, India would need to produce 240 million tones of food -E. grains and provide for 225 million cubic metres. of fuel (Report of the Working Group on Soil and Water Conservation including Watershed Development for the Formulation of the Eighth Five Year Plan, 1989); b. similarly, according to the National Land Use Policy Outline, (1986), of the Government of India, the per capita availability of land would deteriorate from 0.89 ha. per head to 0.33 ha. per head while the per capita availability of land for the animal population of the country would decline from 0.51 ha. per head to 0.24 ha. per head. This includes forest lands as well. The link between these tendencies of a declining ratio of natural resource to human and the phefiomenon of poverty, must be considered from the point of view of the distribution of land and the differential access to natural resources enjoyed by the various segments of India's population. 6.05 The distribution of land resources is skewed. Only a small percentage of India's population own land whether it is agricultural, non- agricultural and/or urban lands. This fact is coupled with the high rate of unemployment in both the rural and urban areas. According to the National Sample Survey (32nd and 38th rounds ), in the year 1983, 78.57% of the labour force (in persons) in India was in urban areas while 21.43% was in urban areas. A large proportion of this population is unemployed, although there are regional variations. The problem of under-employment is also high. It is estimated that the rural sector contributed to 70% of the unemployment in India during 1983 on account of a larger proportion of labour force living in these areas. However, the absolute level of unemployment has been increasing in urban areas partly also to increasing migration of labour force from rural to the urban sector. 6.06 Although, the problems of population growth, landlessness and unemployment do not hold a direct and linear relationship with the phenomenon of poverty, it is well established that there is a positive association between poverty, population growth and the two forms of deprivation mentioned despite differences of opinion regarding a positive statistical association amongst these variables. Poverty in India is distributed both in rural and urban areas. There are 200 million people who live under poverty conditions in rural India. About 41.8 million people are under the poverty line in the urban areas according to the 43rd round of the National Sample Survey of 1987-88. The phenomenon of poverty is reflected in the quality of human population in India, particularly in the matter of infant mortality and life expectancy, while the magnitude of the poverty problem is also contributed by rapid growth of population in India. Though, the rate of population growth and the percentage of population under poverty line have shown a decline since 1970s, the magnitude of the problems in terms of absolute numbers continued to be formidable. 6.07 Rural and urban poverty in India has environmental effects. This is reflected in the inadequate supply of drinking water and non-availability of sanitation facilities for the people living under the poverty line. Table shows that in 1990, nearly 16% of the urban population in India did not have access to safe drinking water, while the percentage of rural population not having access to this resource was 26%. The problem of adequate sanitation services is even more acute since in 1988, 54% of the urban population and 97% of the rural population did not have the benefit of sanitation services. The inadequate coverage of these basic services is responsible for the growing incidence of water/vector borne diseases such as Malaria, Kala-Azar, Encephalitis, Tuberculosis, Guinea Worm disease and Diarrhoea in various urban and rural zones of the country. These diseases by disabling the rural and urban poor (the most vulnerable group) increase the incidence of unemployment, aggravating their poverty conditions. In addition, mention also needs to be made of the growing incidence of respiratory diseases among the urban and rural poor due to the use of agro-based fuels such as crop residues, high cellulose fuelwood and cow dung fordomestic cooking. It is estimated by the Integrattd Rural Energy Planning Report of the Planning Commission that the average annual per capita use of non-commercial fuels range from 129 kgs.(in the upper Gangetic zone) to 710 kgs.(in the Western Himalayan Zone) in respect of firewood, 11.17 kgs. (in the Western dry regions) to 238.40 kgs. (in the middle Gangetic zone) in respect of crop residues and from 47.031 kgs. (in East-Coast Plains and Hills) to 238.92 kgs.( in the Trans-Gangetic Olains) in respect of cow-dung. All these categories of fuels are by nature, polluting ones and cause respiratory disorders. 6.08 The relatively high consumption of health affecting, low efficient non-commercial fuels reflect the magnitude of poverty in India. At the same time, the use of these non-commercial fuels also underlines the pressure that the phenomenon of poverty can bring upon our common lands forests, waterand othersensitive ecosystems with high biodiversity potential viz. coral reefs, mangroves, wetlands, and our National Parks, Sanctuaries and other protected areas. The absence of gainful employment oppurtunities and viable cultivation opportunities force the urban and the rural poor to depend upon the forests, National Parks and Sanctuaries for appropriating fuelwood, fodder and small timber not only =i for their self consumption needs but also for livelihood means. According to an estimate of the Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM), the total fuelwood removal from forests is estimated to be more than 235 million cubic metres. It is also estimated by the IIFM that the minimum requirement of green fodder for livestock in India is 882 million tonnes per year of which harvestable green fodder from pastures, agricultural lands and forests is 434 million tonnes, the substantial remaining gap to be taken up by forests. 6.09 The coral reefs, mangroves and wetlands have also borne the pressures of the subsistence needs oi ihe poor. This is reflected in the growing phenomenon of encroachment of wetlands, over-fishing in mangrove zones and coral reefs. Coming to agriculture, the near poverty conditions of the subsistence farmers of India in the dryland belt of the country (covering States of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra) also explain to a very larga extent the growing incidence of soil and water erosion affecting agricultural and non-agricultural lands. Similarly, the problems faced by the mountain regions of the country is also considerable by way of soil erosion. The extension of cultivation of marginal lands in the Himalayan region combined with the loss of forest cover in the area has accelerated the erosion of top soil and the trend towards land-slides. Both in the dry-land belts and the mountain regions of the country, the tendency towards increasing soil and water erosion results in low-recharge of aquifers and consequent scarcity of drinking water in the arid districts of Rajasthan. As per the present assessment, 44 Blocks in 11 districts in Rajasthan fall in the category of over exploitation i.e. where the stage of development is more than estimated repenishable ground water resources. Similar instances of over-draft of ground water are reported for 180 Blocks in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Over-exploitation of ground water resources and the consequent difficulty in accessing this resource has led to the utilisation of traditional non- drinking surface- water structures such as Nadis in Rajasthan fo r meeting drinking water requirements of human beings (instead of for livestocks as was the traditional practice) resulting in health hazards primarily in the form of water borne diseases. The eastern zone States of West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa have also been faced with the problems of soil erosion. It is estimated that the total area affected by land-degradation is 14.20 lakh ha. in Bihar, 49.02 lakh ha. in Madhya Pradesh, 45.78 lakh ha. in Orissa and 10.33 lakh ha. in West Bengal. The erosion has resulted in sedimentation of reservoirs in these States such as Maithon, Panchet, Mayurakshi, Hirakud etc. 6.10 Apart from the fact that soil and water erosion have resulted in scarcity of both surface and ground water resources in the various regions of the country, there is also the related problem of declining water quality in various parts of India, particularly along river stretches, water courses and canals. Of the various sources of water pollution,special mention must be made of the pollution of water courses, streams and river stretches due to absence of adequate sanitation facilities. This is mainly reflected in the high coliform presence in river water as would be seen from in Table 3. Biological contamination of water is also a common problem mainly due to the presence of guinea-worm, cholera, and typhoid bacilli in drinking water. The problem of guinea worm is prevalent in the rcral areas of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan, with Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh having the maximum problem. DEVELOPMENT RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 6.11 Development oriented programmes produce adverse environmental effects. Industrial pollution, mining, commercial agriculture and large scale irrigation system have also contributed to natural resource degradation and depletion. Pollution of river/canal waters is another major issue. Environmental Problems of Commercial Agriculture 6.12 The problems of commercial agriculture on the environment is manifest in the forms of increased non-point sources of pollution of water. chemical contamination of drinking water, over exploitation of ground water aquifers, neglect of surface irrigation structures such as tanks, canals and major reservoirs and unbalanced utilisation of irrigation water in the command areas reflected in the growing incidence of water-logging and salinity both of which contribute to soil degradation. 6.13 The principal environmentalproblemswhich arisefromcommercial agriculture and irrigation are numerous. Chemical contamination of drinking water on account of excess flouride, brackishness, iron, arsenic, nitrates, animal wastes and pesticides/fertiliser residues is a reflection of the growing trend of both point (industrial pollution) and non-point sources (fertiliser/pesticide application in commercial agriculture) on surface and ground water resources, which are also used for drinking purposes by human beings and livestock. Water quality assessment studies indicate the incidence of high nitrates in drinking water in rural areas in the States of Bihar, Orissa, Kamataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Haryana- Excess fluoride in drinking water is prevalent in the rural areas of 15 States and Delhi, while excess iron which causes corrosion of tube-wells, water supply installations and encourages growth of iron bacteria, are also prevalent in the rural areas of 14 States, and the Union Territory of Pondicherry. 6.14 The development of irrigation in India since Independence has also displayed shifts. The total net irrigated area rose from 20.9 million ha. in 1950-51 to 45.144 million ha. in 1989-90. However this increase was mainly contributed to by the spurt in well irrigation the command area of which rose from 11.8 million ha. in 1970-71 to 19.90 million ha. by 1 989-90. This increase clearly testifies to the growing intensity of ground water exploitation for irrigation purposes. Tube-wells along with other wells (open/dug-wells) account for nearly 50% of the net area irrigated in the country. A related iact is that of the declining contribution of tanks in the net area irrigated which fell from 3.6 million ha. in 1950-51 to 3.2 million ha. by 1989-90 which indicatesthe relative neglect of this traditional irrigation source. Although canal irrigation continues to be the single largest source of irrigation (accounting for 16.3 million ha. out of a total of 45.14 m. ha. in 1989-90), water seepage from unlined canals has reduced the irrigation potential of this source considerably. Siltation of reservoirs, tanks and other surface irrigation sources, have not only reduced irrigation potential but also contributed to lessening of the ground water recharge potential of these surface water sources. Distribution deficiencies and irrational systems of water use and cropping patterns have caused the canal/reservoiritank commands to be affected by salinity and water logging. Most of the aforesaid problems have risen due to the inadequate attention paid to operations and maintenance (O&M), and from commercial cropping pattems and increased use of chemicals in the form of fertilisers and pesticides. Urban Environmental Problems 6.15 The environmental situation in urban areas needs to be carefully assessed on account of the growing urban population in India. According to the 1991 All India Census, 217 million out of the total population of 844 million live in urban areas. It is estimated that by 2000 AD, the urban population will increase to 300 million. Urbanisation has mainly occurred due to the structural transformation of Indian economy from an agricultural one to an industriallservice based one. The in situ birth rates in urban areas do not, therefore, account for the large urban population in India since migration from rural areas is considered a major contributorto rural population growth. However, given the decennial rate of growth of popuiation in urban areas, it has declined from 46.1% in 1971-81 to 36.2% in 1981-91. There are 23 cities in India with a population of more 102 than a million of which the mega-cities of Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras havr populations exceeding 5 million. The number of million plus cities in India has increased dramatically from 12 in 1981 to 23 in 1991 and it is projected to increase to 40 by 2001 AD. The pressure of the increasing urban population (notwithstanding the decreasing growth rate) is bound to increase the gap between demand and supply of infrastructural services such as energy, housing, transport, communication, education and institutions, water supply and sewerage and recreation amenities. The result is the growing trend in the deterioration of air and water quality, the proliferation of slums, illegal constructions and undesirable land-use changes, all of which contribute to urban poverty. 6.16 More specificallythe urban ervironmental problemscan be summed up as follows a. high levels of water pollution because of poor waste disposal, inadequate sewerage and drainage and improper disposal of industrial effluents; b. high levels of air pollution resulting from congested streets, poorly - maintained vehicles, fuel burning, and industrial activities; c. toxic or hazardous industrial and commercial wastes disposed in water bodies and land sites without proper treatment; d. dumping of solid waste (refuse) in low-lying areas contributing to land and ground water pollution; e. high levels of noise pollution due to loudspeakers, construction, traffic, industrial operations and aircraft; f. congested and insanitary dwellings, particularly in slums; g. loss of fragile ecosystems, such as wetlands, mangroves, agricultural land, and vegetation; h. congestion along roads and transport corridors due to rapid expansion of transport services in urban cities; L. growth of slums in and around metropolitan cities of India with its attendant problems of over-crowding, poor sanitary environment and respiratory and water borne diseases such as tuberculosis, meningitis, intestinal parasitic infection, cholera, malaria, bronchitis, dengue and typhoid; generation of solid wastes in urban cities which include domestic solid wastes from households, restaurants, commercial and industrial solid wastes of non-hazardous nature, and hazardous wastes from industries, hospitals, research laboratories etc. Most of the solid wastes get dumped in low-line areas which create conditions for run-off and as breeding ground for pests and other disease vector insects; k. it is estimated that 47% of urban households utilised firewood and coal for cooking while for another 40% of households gas and kerosene are the primary sources. These forms of fuels also serve to breed respiratory diseases particularly among the urban poor who live in slums; and I. risks arising out of industrial accidents. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION 6.17 Industrial pollution needs a separate and detailed consideration mainly because industrial activity in India is getting to be regionally diversified, instead of being concentrated in urban centres. Also industrial capacity is fragmented over a number of small units (informal sector). The increase in the letters of intent and industrial permits to industrially backward areas in the country during the period from 1982-1991 serves to underline this fact. It is apparent that industrial pollution will not be confined to urban centres or to large and medium scale industrial units. This automatically necessitates a more diversified and decentralised strategy for industrial pollution control in the country. 6.18 The nature of industrial pollution in India can be gauged from the following facts. Industrial pollution has resulted In the relatively high values of carbon mono-oxide nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and suspended particulate matter in air both in cities as well as in Towns, details of which have been provided in Tables 4 and 5. The low DO (dissolved oxygen), high BOD (bio-chemical oxygen demand), Ammonia and heavy metals along the principal river stretches of India including the Ganga, has already been discussed in Chapter 2. The protection afforded to industry and the emphasis on decentralisation of industrial development, has resulted in the pulp and paper, sugar and distilleries, leather tanning and chemical industry, mostly belonging to the small scale sector, resorting to pollution based and energy guzzling technologies. The conventional end-of-pipe control technologies have not been able to curb pollution to the desired effect, nor able to achieve reduction in energy utilisation per unit of output. The absence of ecological zoning and industrial siting norms has also led to air and water pollution in certain industrial zones exceeding the limits imposed by the carrying capacity. The present pattern of industrial activity has also involved the use and generation of hazardous substances and the generation of non-hazardous EI solid wastes such as fly-ash. The storage, dumping and treatment of these solid wastes is emerging as a major problem In industrial areas in the country in addition to contributing to pollution and environmental risks. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF COMMERCIAL ENERGY, 6.19 Commercial energy sources create environmental problems in two ways - at the stage of extraction/mining and later during utilisation in industries. In the eastern region of India, covered by the States of Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa, considered to be the energy reservoir of the country, open cast mining of coal, limestone and iron-ore over an area of 0.37 million ha. has contributed to the degradation of soil and run-off of water and soil. Environmental problems resulting from the utilisation of commercial sources of energy in industries, agriculture and the services sector are reflected in the increase in use of these sources of energy. Thus, the total energy supply in India both commercial and non- commercial, increased from 82.7 MT.OE in 1950-51 to about 291 MT.OE in 1990-91. This increase was achieved through a substantial increase in the use of commercial fuels, the share of which increased from 26% in 1950-51 to 59% in 1990-91. Within the commercial fuels category, the share of oil and gas has increased during the same period. It has already been noted that Indian coal suffers from quality problems arising from the high ash content which not only contributes to lower industrial productivity, but also creates pollution problems as the thermal power plants in India denote. The increased use of petroleum as feedstock in Indian industry, has also added to the pollution problems In the country, primarily by way of the emissions of sulfur di-oxide, carbon mono oxde, etc. produced by both stationary (industries, power plants) and non-stationary (public and private transport) sources of pollution. The problem with hydel power projects on the other hand lies in its natural resources depleting effects particularly in bio-diverse areas. Performance of Electricity Utilities In India and priorities in the Eighth Five Year Plan .The financial health of electricity utilities is crucial for the successful implementation of the power development programme during the Eighth Plan. "Under the provisions of the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948, the State Electricity Boards are required to earn a minimum rate of return of not less than 3% on their fixed assets after fully meeting the fixed and operating costs and interest and tax liabilities. However, most of the SEBs have not been able to comply with this statutory requirement. Many of them have large operating deficits. Apart from operational deficiencies, the tariff structure of many SEBs continues to be irrational involving heavy subsidies which promote inefficient use of electricity. In the case of some State Electricity Boards, despite tnei'good operationalperformance, their financialperformance has deteriorated in recent years as a resuft of the irrational tariff structure adopted by them. 'it is imperative that the utilities generate adequate resources intemally to be able to fully cover the fixed and operating costs including interest and other liabilities and have adequate surplus tor funding their future expansion programmes. Source: Eighth Five Year Plan 1992-97. Volume II, p. 191 6.20 Given the significance of natural resources in urban/rural environmental management, it is imperative that these (natural resources) are properly accounted for, given their intrinsic value and a legal-cum- programatic framework be formulated. As noted earlier, the legal framework for sustainable management is basically governed by the Environment Protection Act, the Water Act, Air Act, the National Forest Policy, National Conservation Act etc. Though, this framework appears to. have been comprehensive, it is also noted that the following tasks and strategies have separate legislations: Conservation/protection of rangelands, watersheds, ozone layer, climate, culture and systems of knowledge. 6.21 Also, strategies such as environmental impact assessment, integrated planning, fiscal and economic measures, efficient use and recycling of resources, use of alternatives, monitoring, people's participation and environmental awareness, have at present no legal sanction though they have been given full recognition and attention. INTER-RELATIONSHIP OF ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS 6.22 The foregoing discussion on the different forms and types of environmental problems in India, suggests that while it useful to distinguish development related environmental problems from non-development related environmental problems, it would be equally significant to understand the linkages between these two sets of environmental problems. While the environmental problems of non-availability of safe drinking water, sanitation, good quality agricultural lands andthe depletion of forests, mangroves and other biodiversity regimes are the off-shoot of the central problem of poverty in India, it is equally important to notice that continuing non-availability of these resources can perpetuate, if not, increase the problem of poverty in India, through adverse effects of human health and subsistence. Similarly, the phenomenon of poverty can ( through adverse health effects and subsistence conditions) be accentuated by industrial pollution, commercial agriculture, imbalanced urbanisation and increased utilisation of polluting sources of energy. 6.23 Itis obvious thatdevelopment related environmentalproblems are essentially inter-related with environmental problems arising from non- development. Urban and rural poverty are not merely economic phenomena arising from low levels of per capita income/nutrition. Poverty is as much induced by environmental factors and is ultimately linked to the larger question of rural and urban environmental problems in India. 6.24 It is against this background and diagnosis of the physical aspects of the problem that the organisational and financial constraints should be assessed. EE ORGANISATIONAL GAPS AND FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS 6.25 The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, 1992 has stressed the need to strengthen existing institutions, review and evaluate existing laws and develop enforcement mechanisms to implement the aims and objectives of the Envionmental Policy for sustainable development. The constitutional,legal and organisational framework for tackling environmental problems in India have been already detailed. Though the two sets of environmental issues have been addressed within this framework and through the multiple programmes and projects listed in Chapter 5, there have been certain constraints and organisational gaps. There is no separate legislation forconservation and protection of lands and the environmentally critical ecosystems of wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, range lands, watersheds, Irrigation command areas. Though, there is a National Water Policy, legislations for regulating exploitations of surface and ground water resources are still to be formulated. The issues of global environmental issues of ozone layer and climate change are also not addressed in terms of concrete legislation. Presently the omnibus Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, addresses these issues within the broad provisions of environmental protection. Although, the policy M statements are comprehensive in their coverage of natural resources, there are four notable exceptions. These are for (a) the conservation/ protection of fossil fuels, (b) conservation of mangrqves, and coral reefs, (c) wetlands and other non-forests natural ecosystems, and (d) policies for protection of animal rights. The organisational framework for addressing policy aspects and research in connection with environmenta: issues, though, comprehensive, needs to be extended in two directions viz. conservation of range lands and protection of diwerse and traditional ecological cultures and systems of knowledge or, in short, ethno-ecology. This situation is the same for the State Governments. 6.26 When looking at the organisational structures for programme implementation, it is observed that Panchayats and urban local bodies have not been formally assigned the crucial tasks of conservation and environment protection. However, following the Circular of the Ministry of Environment and Forests in June, 1990, participatory management systems have been established by various State Governments for managing degraded forest lands. There now remains the larger task of integrating these participatory systems to the panchayats/urban local bodies at the local levels, in addition to extending the ambit of popular participation to other natural resources such as mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, common grazing lands and community sacred groves etc. The - EH National River Action Plan to be shortly launched in India will also necessitate evolving novel local participatory structures for managing river water quality and maintaining rivers in environmentally sound conditions. The Constitutional status recently accorded to the rural and urban local self Governments have underlined the urgency of these priorities. 6.27 The task of decision making has also been cumbersome particularly on environmental issues. Although, detailedguidelinesforenvironmental impact assessment have been framed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests for various categories of natural resources and development projects, the actual process of decision making has been constrained not only because of perceptions of need for quick development but also for want of environmental data on resources availability, systems of traditional use and values for different categories of natural resources including land, water, biodiversity, marine resources, forests and air. Accounting for the intrinsic value of natural resources is still a process in its infancy. Human resources formations for the scientific management of environmental problems have also been constrained because of inadequate research and developmient infrastructure, the absence of organisations, which are capable of imparting technical skills for environmental management (such as environment impact assessment) at ES the local and regional levels, the limitations of environmental education at higher secondary,university and non-formal levels in generating public awareness, and the insufficient spread of training in environmental sciences/management for policy makers, administrators ,trainers, educators,students, local self-Governments authorities and grassroot voluntary/activist individuals and organisations. 6.28 The process of fiscal consolidation which is taking place in India, has, and already mentioned at the outset, has constricted large scale publc investment even in the critical infrastructure sectors such as energy and transport. The task of incorporating environmental considerations in development projects requires even larger levels of investment resources. The scope of public investment being rather limited, there is a need to attract private and external sources of financing for carrying out the crucial tasks of ensuring conservation and sustainable development. 6.29 Programme deficiencies reflected in weak tardy programme implementation is an issue which requires special attention. It should also be noted that environment impact assessment of urban and rural environmental management is constrained by information/data deficiencies which arise because of non-accounting of natural resources and environmental quality parameters. A further problem comes from the inadequacy of funding of environment activities and the lack of a variety of fiscal instruments to tackle environmental problems. At present, the fiscal tool for environmental protection is the Cess Act and certain fiscal concessions for use of pollution control equipment. There are also deficiencies of nigh quality human resources and organisations to undertake the task of environment protection at the local and regional levels. This is caused by the lack of an environmental education network in the country. Skilled human resources for tackling the problems of industrial pollution, hazardous substances management and for implementing technologies for wastelands management, have to be developed and nurtured. 6.30 The gains from a reduction in the rate of population growth, infant mortality and birth rates can be sustained only if greater efforts are directed to the eradication of the existing scale poverty in the country by ensuring ..lat the poorer sections have better access to land resources and/or employment opportunities. A more effective delivery of social services such as drinking water, sanitation, health facilities and education for the large urban and rural populations in the country will serve to upgrade the quality of life of India's human popuiation. These services wi!l reduce the incidence of diseases and mortality and-thereby create FES social conditions which would ultimately bring down human fertility rates to the level of replacement. In addition, development has produced its adverse effects on the poor by causing their natural resource base to be eroded or removed, and also affected the poor in rural and urban areas in terms of their health and ability to work. EE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ PRIORITIES / ~~~~PRIOkRNIES 7.01 The task of integrating environmental concerns in India's quest for economic development is not as complicated as may appear at first sight. Eradication of poverty, stabilisation of the population growth rate and greater employment opportunities by themselves would serve to qualitatively improve India's environment. Access of the urban and rural poor to basic civic amenities such as housing, sanitation and safe drinking water can not be a reality unless they are endowed with sufficient purchasing power on a sustained basis. There is clearly a strong case, as has been made out in the Eighth Five Year Plan Document for further strengthening India's direct intervention programmes for poverty alleviation exemplified in the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), the Rural Landless EmploymentGeneration Programme (RLEGP) andtheTRYSEM Programme. There is an equally compelling need to further streamline our health care and family welfare schemes to ensure eradication of water/air borne communicable diseases, better health delivery services to the poorto enable them perform labourfor a livelihood. The Eighth Five Year Plan also stresses the need to extend the Urban and Rural Drinking , EH and allied activities, development of biotechnology industries in India, low cost indigenous systems of medicine and treatment hignhig hted in the Eighth Five Year Plan and the National Health Policy and finally for the preservation of the traditional lifestyles of tribal population in the country. The All-India Coordinated Research Project on Ethnobiology of the Ministry of Envimnment and Forests has surveyed and inventorised more than 1000 plant and animal species used by the tribal population in India for medicinal and other consumptive purposes which need carefully conservation. The ongoing programmes of conservation and survey implemented by the Ministry of Environment and Forests need further strenghtening to facilitate tapping of the 'option valuen of the biodiversity contained in the country's natural forests, protected areas, wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs. B. Afforestation, Wasteland Development Conservation of Soil and Moisture and ensuring that water sources are not polluted. 7.04 Focus on this area would reverse the trends of deforestation and over-grazing imposed by subsistence and industral pressures on forests, ensure sustainable agricultural and water harvesting practices by small and marginal farmers, in the semi-arid, arid and humid regions of India. The major thrust of area based poverty alleviation programmes such as Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Desert Development Programme (DDP) and the Afforestation Programmes of the National Afforestation and Ecodevelopment Board and the National Wastelands Development Board, the National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed Agriculture, the All India Coordinated Project on Rainfedi Agriculture, Ravine Reclamation Programmes, Command Area Development Programme, Soil Conservation in Catchments of River Valley Projects Programmes and the Centrally Sponsored Operations 'Soil Watch' Programmes in the Himalayas being on soil and water conservation. these programmes would receive special attention and tine tuning. Drought Proofing Measures The drought of 1987 caused by the failure of south-west monsoon over large parts of the country was one of the worst in the century. However, the measures adopted by the Government to tackle the drought were commendable in terms of a number of innovative measures to provide relief to the drought affected areas. Employment generation, provision of drinking water, fodder availability, supplv of essential commodities and drought proofing were identified by the Government of India forproviding relief to drought effected areas. It is significant to note that special stress was laid down by the Government to ensure that employment generation works result in drought proofing. With this purpose in mind the Government of India laid down the following order of priority for selection of works for drought proofing viz., provision of tube-wells, rehabilitation/restoration/digging of ponds, repairing field channels, promoting soil conservation and water harvesting works and laying of roads where road links did not exist. (The Drought of 1987 - Response and Management, (/ntroductica), Volume I, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India - [1989J) 7.05 The stress on soil and water conservation in the En:ironment Action Programme needs also to be evaluated in its signilicance to drought proofing and management of natural disasters. Water Missions to the remaining 3000 'no-source', 'hard-core' villages and small towns with population upto 20,000. Drinking water availability in the part;ally covered villages, also need to be further upgraded. The proposed thrust In the Eighth Plan on total environmental sanitation In rural and urban areas and on effective and scientific mechanisms for the collection, transportation and disposal of solid wastes in metropolitan cities, is also a welcome direction from the environmental point of view. 7.02 While these programmes would be helpful in creating effective demand for and an increase in the supply of basic services for poverty alleviation, the seven priority areas listed in the 'Introductory Chapter' also need to be addressed to (a) improve the efficacy of anti-poverty and other related basic service programmes in the Eighth Five Year Plan and (b) mitigate in the interim, the adverse environmental effects of poverty in rural and urban areas. The raison d'etre for choosing these priority areas are enumerated below:- A. Conservation of and sustainable utilization of blodiversity In selected eco-systems Including forests, mangroves, wetlands, coral reefs, mountain ecosystems. 7.03 This is a priority area from the angles of the conservation of genetic, species and ecosystem diversity, for the sustainable agriculture 7.06 Mention also needs to be made of the ongoing schemes for eco restoration of wetlands through Management Action Plans, such as the proposed initiative for rehabilitation of 14 lakes in the country under the National Lakes Conservation Plan and the European Community assisted Tank Modernisation Programme in Tamil Nadu.Besides their ecological and economic significance,these projects also aid in the re-charge of ground water aquifers. Further, a streamlined programme for soil and water conservation can also ensure that beneficiary based poverty alleviation programmes such as the IRDP (particularly livestock based assistance projects) also acquire effectiveness in terms of lower Incremental Capital- Output Ratios (ICOR). The final output would be more biomassforfuel and fodder needs, safe drinking water, augmentation of depleting ground water resources and substantial employment- opportunities for the rural and urban poor. C. Control of Industrial and related pollution with an accent on the reduction and/or management of wastes, particularly hazardous wastes. 7.06 Pollution control strategies through waste minimisation would be a qualitative improvement and would complement the on-going effort for achieving air and water pollution control through better emission/effluent LIJ treatment systems. The World Bank-assisted Industrial Pollution Control and Pollution Prevention Projects need to be suitably extended to cover all the critically polluting industrial sectors in India by covering more regions/States. Utilisation of solid wastes is a top priority in India given the multiplier effects such utilisation processes can ensure in the form of industrial activities and employment. A case in point is fly-ash, which as has been noted, offers potential for self-employment and would provide a major tillip to our housing industry and the ambitious National Housing Plan. Pollution abatement programme In India - Present efforts & future directions It is not enough for the Government to notify laws which are to be compried with. A positive attitude on the part of everyone in society is essential for the prevention of pollution and wiae consultation has been held with those who wl ultimately inplement the pocy. A comprehensive approach is taken to integrate environental and economc aspects M; ;~ u - >we;b;,;;;-c >;5;u< W*;ntand promotion of techndobgical inputs to reduce industrial pollutants; and through relance upon public cooperation in secunng a cdean environment to respond to the coming challanges. The obfective is to integrate environmental considerations into decision making at all level To achieve this, steps have to be taken to: - prevent polktn at source; - encourage, develop and apply the best availabe practicable technical solutions; - ensure that the polkter pays for the polluion and controdaanents; - kous protection on heaviy polluted areas and river stretches; and - iwolve the publc in decisn making. 'ndia - Polcy Statement for Abatement of Pollution - 1992: Government of India, Ministy of Enironment B Forests. D. Improving Access to Clean Technologies. 7.07 Pollution prevention is evolving as a top priority both on account of the growing scarcity of raw materials, and the need to adhere to global environmental norms on products and processes. The growing phenomenon of energy shortages has also impelled a greater accent on clean technologies which are also energy conserving in nature. E. Tackling urban environmental Issues. 7.08 In India ,the urban sector contributed 47% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)in 1980-81 and is likely to increase to 60% by 2001 A.D, hence the significance of addressing urban environmental issues. The growing urban population in the country,its concentration in Class 1 and metropolitan cities of the country, the increasing phenomenon of urban poverty, air and water pollution and the rapidly deteriorating urban infrastructure such astransport, electricity, sanitation, health and housing necessitate a broad-based strategy based on multiple policy instruments,including the economic ones of taxation and pricing. New policies for institutionalising citizen participation in environmental protection measures have also to be conceived against the background of the Constitutional establishment of Urban Local Bodies and the increasing interventions for tackling of urban environmental issues. The ongoing World Bank assisted Metropolitan Environment Improvement Programmes in Madras and Bombay need to be extended to other metropolitan Cities. Special attention also needs to be paid to Class I & Class 11 Towns, particularly those on the verge of rapid industrialisation. Conserving the vestiges of wetlands, mangroves and other unique habitats in India's cities and upcoming towns is also crucial. Also considering the enormous strain on the available natural resources of water in the country, it is necessary to protect the existing water resources from pollution so that the quality parameters of the natural resources are maintained for the coming generation to the desired degree of its usage. F. Strengthening scientific understanding of environmental Issues, as well as structures for training at different levels, orientation and creating environmental awareness, resources assessment, water management problems etc. 7.09 The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 as revised in 1992 stipulates that "There is a paramount need to create a consciousness of the environment. It must permeate all ages and all sections of society, beginning with the child. Environmental consciousness should inform teaching in schools and colleges. This aspect will be integrated in the entire educational process". In a recent judgement the Supreme Court of India has also ordered that every State Government and Education Board should take immediate steps to enforce compulsory education on environment in a gradual way. In keeping with the NPE and the Court order, the National Commission for Education Research & Training (NCERT) and almost all of the State Governments/Boards of Secondary Education have modified and updated theirtextbooks to include topics on the environment at different levels. The University Grants Commission (UGC) is also examining the possibility of making environment education an integral part of the undergraduate courses as well as starting new courses on environment. 7.10 Apart from environmental education, for sustainable development to be institutionalised, there is a need to develop a strong, legal, administrative, organisational, technical, and popular framework. This would necessitate overcoming the present gaps by nurturing and developing human resources at the scientific, technical, policy/decision making, programme implementation and public levels. The broad programme for human resource development would involve environmental education for awareness amongst the public, environmental training for the policy/decision makers and administrators, imparting of skills in the areas of environmental management and impact assessment to develop technical personnel in these areas in various parts of the country, and the establishment of research and development, Infrastructure lor the collection of scientific/statistical data on natural/environmental resources. G. Alternative Energy Plan 7.11 Commercial fuels such as coal, oil and lignite, suffer from quality deficiencies and also cause air water and other types of pollution. Further, commercial fuels notably oil (hydro-carbons) impose a huge burden in terms of foreign exchange requirements. The agricultural based non-commercial fuels are not energy efficient and firther create health problems amongst its users, i.e. the urban and rural poor. The overriding priority for protecting forests also rule out the use of wood fuels on a large scale. There is also the priority programme for reduction of emissions from the non-stationary transport sector, arising from use of leaded petrol. The increasing inefficiency of energy utilisation in the agricultural sector expressed in the form of wasteful use of high-speed diesel and electricity in irrigation operations is another major problem. On the other hand, the inability to cap the flaring of natural gas which is a clean source of fuel is a glaring deficiency which needs to be attended to alongwith programmes for utilisation of alternative energy sources such as improved cooking stoves, coal washing and beneficiation and the utilisation of solar, wind-power and bio-gas. This would be in addition to E2R the on-going efforts for better and Improved utilisation of existing commercial sources of energy such as coal and oil and efforts being made to reduce transmission and distribution losses in our electricity supply systems. H=j a STRATEGY 8 ST RATEGY 8.01 It is necessary to lay down an integrated strategy based on economic policies, institutional development and efficient norms of project implementation to ensure that the priority areas identified previously get properly implemented. Economic policies for implementing sustainable development programmes will determine the trajectory of sustainable development. Accordingly, in identifying an economic strategy for implementing the Environmental Action Programme, it will be necessary to assess the economic instruments available under the prevailing macro-economic regime and also delineate the tasks of sustainable development thrown up by the regime. 8.02 The on-going process of economic reforms in India has fundamental implications on the strategy to be adopted for implementing the Environment Action Programme, prioritised in terms of the seven areas mentioned in the previous Chapters. As noted at the outset, the process of industrial deregulation initiated in recent years is bound to accelerate the process of industrialisation, both in the conventional industrial zones of the country, as well as new zones, categorised as industrially backward areas. This fact coupled with the significance accorded to exports in India's economic reforms, may impact on environment basically in the following manner: a. the pollution load in air, water and land is bound to increase in the absence of firm pollution control measures; b. the pressure on forests and other biomes will also intensify in terms of diversion of these eco-systems for industrial projects and infrastructural facilities, such as power plants, mines, etc.; c. the relatively slow pace at which the power and the oil sectors are expanding, is bound to create demand pressures on energy resources; and d. environmental standards laid down on exports from India will necessitate that our traditional export industries, such as leather and textiles shift to higher quality and environmentally friendly processes and products. 8.03 It is apparent that the impact of the evolving macro-economic framework will be mixed insofar as our environmental priorities are concerned. The accent should be to ensure that the potential adverse environmental effects of the new economic policy regime are minimised E,i This can be achieved through the intensification of industrial and non- industrial pollution control measures, while'at the same time facilitating a process of switch over by our small scale industries to cleaner production processes and technologies at the least social cost. The use of concessional lines of credit for waste minimisation and for adoption of cleaner production processes as is being done through the World Bank assisted Industrial Pollution Control and Pollution Prevention Projects is another complementary approach. 8.04 The Tax Reform Committee set up by the Government of India has underlined the significance of India's tax system having a broader tax base and a lower tax rate. The present commitment of the Government of India to progressively reduce the rate of corporate tax for the different categories of industries is based on this recommendation. There are already fiscal incentives for environmental protection in the form of an exemption from the corporate tax for undertaking programmes of conservation on natural resources,wood substitution, accelerated depreciation norms for industrial units which have installed devices and systems for minimnising environmental pollution and conservation of natural resources. In fact, the Union Budget for the year 1992-93 had provided 100% depreciation for energy saving devices and renewable energy devices. The reductton of customs duties is also designed to facilitate technology upgradation in export oriented industries, including leatherwhich is an environmentally sensitive industry. As the programme for tax reforms and customs duty reduction are to be implemented over a period of 3 - 4 years from now, it is expected that the process of providing fiscal incentives for environmental protection will be further strengthened to facilitate accessing and absorption of clean technologies in industries. A number of other steps initiated to reduce current expenditure have the potential for positive environmental benefits. 8.05 The use of the tax base for environmental protection in India has to evolve further. Charges are the main source of revenue for environmental protection. The Cess levied on the consumption of water by industries and other local authorities is the best example. The Water Cess which is levied underthe Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, provides for the levy and collection of a Cess on water consumed by certain industries and other local authorities. The rates of the Cess vary depending on the purpose for which water is consumed. The Water Cess is basically intended to augment the resources of the Central and State Pollution Control Boards which have been constituted for environmental protection In India under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Cess Act also provides for rebates to any industry/authority which installs any plant for the treatment of sewage or trade effluent. During the year 1991-92, the actual collection of Cess by the 31 State Governments/Union Territories of India was Rs.7.63 crores. The rate structure for the various categories of water use have also been revised upwards.The future strategy will be to (a) improve the rate of Cess collection from all categories of industrial units, rather than confine collections to thermal power stations, integrated steel plants, fertilizer plants, petroleum refineries, etc., and (b) extend the ambit of the Cess to cover more sectors in the rural areas including agriculture aftercarefully assessing the implications. A broad-based and streamlined system of water charges will complement the programmes to be strengthened or launched under the EAP in the areas of conservation of soil and water resources and water quality. In order to encourage the investments from the community in water supply and sanitation sector, the principle of self-sustainability of the investment has been propagated and with regard to the natural water resources, the principle of sustainability of its quality has been recognised. In this regard, removal of pollution caused by the urban areas require due attention. Economk Instruments for Environmental Proectin While regulatory measures remain essential for the effectiveness of the policy, new approaches for considering market choices will be introduced. The aim is to give industries and consumers clear signals about the cost of using environmental and natural resources. The expectation is that market-orientedprice mechanisms will influerce beha viourtoavoid excessive use of natural resources. There are at present several fiscal incentives for installation of pollution control equipment and forshifting polluting industnes from congested areas. The items for which excise and customs rebate are allowed will be reviewed. This wil stimnulate the advancement of abatement technolbgies and create increased demands for the products. Economic instruments wili be investigated to encourage the shift from curative to preventive measu.ss intemalise the costs of pollution and conserve ressirces, patficulady water. A diract sconomic signal:s offeted by an effluentcharge based on Mhe nature and volume of releases to the environment The level will be based on the cost of treatmenr and the flow discharged, in orderto provide an incentive to set-up treatrmnt plants. The scope of the charges will also be extended to emissions and so/id waste. Charges provide a contiuing incentive towards opnimal releases. These instrnments wiU also have a distributive effect as the revenues will be used for enforcement, collectie treatment, faciNties, research and prototing new investment. Theprecise choice of economic instruments adopted wilbe determinedby the ease with which releases can be measured, as well as prospective changes in technology and market strudures. To deal with the range of pollution probkms a ma of regulatory and economic mfieasures will be adopted. Policy Statenent on Abatement of Pollution, Government of India 8.06 As the process of institutionalising sustainable development gets underway consequent to the EAP process, it would be possible to develop atax base forenvironmental protection in the country. While the endeavour to broad base revenue sources and increase revenue collections would be taken up in the manner described, there would also be a simultaneous effort to ensure that conservation and natural resources development programmes as prioritised in the previous chapter are achieved even in terms of reduced investment resources targetting of such resources to management systems and user groups which can ensure better delivery of benefits and/or ensure sustainable consumption norms. As already noted, the task of institutionalising sustainable development is a major one since It would mean attending to the gaps and infirmities in the existing legal, administrative, organisational, technical and popular framework forthe development and environmental protection in the country. Setting up more scientific research and development institutions and technical institutes forstudies in environmental sciences can substantially raise the volume of human capital having capabilities in environmental impact assessment and management. Training programmes for administrators, policy makers, trainers and scientists can also strengthen environmental management and decision making. Streamlined programmes for environmental awareness could lead to better programme implementation at the local level, in addition to contributing to a better information base on local inventory of natural resources and systems of use, both of which are important for physical and non-market valuation of natural resources. All these programmes for organisational development would entail standardisation of information on environmental matters, including guidelines on environment impact assessment and other technical parameters. 8.07 In otherwords, the institutional strategyforsustainable development under this Environment Action Programme has as its chief objective, strengthening the environment impact assessment process by creating the base for drawing up 'Regional' Environmental Impact Assessment profiles based on studies of carrying capacity and regional/local siting plans through a process of popular participation. Environmental statistics and a scientific system of natural resource accounting is likely to become the wherewithal for the regional and local systems of EIA. The broad programme for human resource development would involve environmental research, education and training for developing technical, administrative and practical skills for a regional and local systems of Environment Impact Assessment in the country based on a scientific system of statistical data collection. Since industrial projects are being located in the traditional no-industrial zones, there is also a necessity for compiling information for careful risk analysis and hazard identification through a well identified, decentralised systems of information, collection and generation at the site level. 8.08 Environment Impact Assessment and Natural Resources Accounting would form the underlying foci for the seven priority areas identified in this Action Programme. All programmes of conservation and development which have been identified in this Document for the seven priority areas will be evaluated and monitored in terms of a comprehensive EIA framework and a scientific system of Natural Resources Accounting. The performance of the Environment Action Programme (a dynamic process) itself would be assessed, amongst other factors, (such as the success of the different projects and programmes as identified here) in terms of its success in transforming the Environment Impact Assessment into a basic tool of decision making at the national, regional and local levels and in the establishment of systems of Natural Resource Accounting and developing Environmental Statistics for the seven priority areas. 8.09 Trade-related strategies: Apart from considering the environmental issues arising from India's on-going economic reforms, it is imperative to look at the possible fall-out of the impact of global environmental agreements and conventions and national environmental policies on India's exports. A number of countries have adopted trade related environmental measures with implications on productprocess standards, packaging and labelling of export merchandise. These measures which have the impact of non-tariff barriers need to be tackled through improved product/process quality. The accent given to clean technologies in the Environment Action Programme and the emphasis given on modernising India's export industries such as leather and textiles stems also from this priority. Focus is necessary on the aspect of development of natural dyes, the existing programmes for phasing out toxic pesticides and pesticide formulations and the modernisation programmes of the integrated steel plants in India. It would be also important to initiate research and studies in India for evaluating the impact of global environmental agreements, trade related environmental measures and packaging and labelling requirements of developed export markets on India. These measures are significant to ensure the success of the reformed trade policies touched upon at the introductory chapter. 8.10 Refashioned economic instruments and legal, organisational and popular structures combined with effective programme implementation would ensure the realisation of the two fundamental goals of the Environment Action Programme, viz. improved provisioning of environmental services and integration of environmental considerations into the programmes for economic development. Efficient norms for programme implementation would form the basic strategy of the Environment Action Programme. 8.11 In line with the diagnostic exercise which identified the existing sectoral infrastructure both-organisational and non-organisational, the treatment of the subject wiMl be in the strategy through capacity building and strengthening of all the organisations both old and new, and also through a programmatic approach to monitoring and execution of projects for the conservation of natural resources and environment protection. This process has been initiated from the time when the Departmental/ Ministry for environment and forests was established. A great deal of progress was achieved especially in the last two Five Year Plans periods in building up capacities in scientific institutes and In improving environmental awareness. A substantial amount of investment has also gone into efforts to vegetate areas, protect forests and other eco- systems, check industrial pollution, and study the impact of investments on conservation in these areas. The process continues with greater vigour in the context of the developing thinking on sustainable development. This has resulted in greater interest in such schemes on the international scene. The adoption of Agenda 21 in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and parallel developments in the Conventions of Biodiversity, Transboundary Boundary of Hazardous Wastes,Forests,Climate Change,the Montreal Protocol on Substances Depleting the Ozone Layer are parts of this effort. This has led to the evolution of schemes in the Government of India both on organisational and non-organisational aspects. A sample of this is in the 29 projects posed for GEF and Capacity 21 of UNDP, which are outlined in the following paragraphs: ;~~~~~~~~ Ei70L 8.12 Global Environmental Facility a. cost effective technologies for limiting Green House Gas (GHG) emissions; b. demonstration of sustainable alternatives to shifting cultivation; C. developing of bio energy from industrial municipal and agricultural wastes; d. mini-hydel development projects for hilly regions; e. eco-development projects in national parks, sanitations and protected areas; f. special pilot activity in the field of Environment Education; g. establishing an Internationa! Ocean Institute in India; i. development of Least cost GHG Emission reduction Plan in Asia. j. Marine Pollution in Sea around India; and k. Oil Spill Combatment Training Centre in Institute of Petroleum Study and Environment Management. 8.13 Capacity 21 Potential projects which have been submitted for possible capacity 21 support include: a. strengthening of Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad; b. strengthening of M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Madras.; c. strengthening of Uttara Khand Sewa Nidhi, Almora; d. strengthening of Indira Gandhi lIstitute of Development Research (IGIDR), Bombay; e. strengthening of Auroville Foundation, Pondicherry; f. Centre for Environmental Law, World Wide Fund (WWF) India; g. strengthening of G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Katarmal, Almora, Uttar Pradesh; h. strengthening of Centre for Environment Management at the Indian Institute of Management. Calcutta, West Bengal; i. proposal for the Integrated Forestry and Agricultural Development in Nagaland; j. strengthening of Animal Welfare Board, Madras, Tamil Nadu: k. strengthening of Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu; 1. strengthening of Natural History Society (BNHS), Bombay, Maharashtra; m. establishment of a Centre for Integrated Environmental epidemiological Studies; n. establishment of a Centre for Training in the Preparation of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) reports: 0. strengthening of Capacity in the Forest Sector; p. strengthening of Bharatiya Adijati Sewak Sangh; q. strengthening of VIKSAT, Ahmedabad, Gujarat; and r. strengthening of the Environmental Information System (ENVIS), and the developing of a National Economic - Ecologic Database (NEED). 8.14 While the above strategy and programmes will be followed within our planning framework and keeping in view resources available from the sections. the seven priorities mentioned in the document will be unchanged in the short-term. 7_7 Rs PROGRAMMES 9 PROGRAMMES 9.01 The priority action programmes under the Environment Action Programme include not only the programmes and projects listed in Chapter 5, but also certain new thrust items and projects both of organisational and non-organisational nature. Thest new items and projects, listed below, fall within the framework of the Eighth Five Year Plan. 9.02 In the Alternative Energy Plan area; the priority programmes will be as follows:- Energyv a. In the Coal Sector - projects for coal beneficiation; - coal bed methane; - projects for coal gasification; and - project to tackle coal mine fires. b. Power Sector reduction of transmission and distribution losses in power sector; * -ER~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ demonstration projects on energy efficient lighting; evaluation studies on performance of pollution control measures in Thermal Power Stations; and assessment studies of ongoing R&M, uprating and life extension schemes. c. Transport Sector: programmes for shifting from road to rail in freight movement; - promotion of mass rapid transport systems; conversion of two-stroke to four-stroke engines in 2 wheeler and 3-wheeler vehicles; and introduction of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in the transport sector. d. Industrial Sector programmes for promotion of energy conservation in industries; capacity building for EIA for thermal and hydel power plants'; and building natural resources accounting system for commercial fuels. 143 e. Alternative Energy Sector strengthening programmes for rapid diffussion, demonstration research and monitoring of new and alternative sources of energy (for reasons adduced in Appendix-X); research on the design of energy-efficient electric and diesel pumpsets; programme of ccnverting agricultuie waste to fertilizer; integrated pest arrangement; formulating policy measures and incentives to facilitate wind power generation; organisation strengthening for wind power generation; research for indigenisation of wind electric generation system; development of power capacity from small hydel projects; capacity building fordesigning and managing decentralised energy plans*; formulation of alternative strategy for biogas implementation; designing effective Biogas Technology delivery systems; evolving design criteria for improved Cookstoves. -capacity building for EIA of energy use in rural areas; - product development and market research for solar hot water systems ; and resource accounting systems for non-commercial energy sources in rural areas. Urban Environmental Programmes 9.03 The priority programmes foraddressing urban environmental issues are : - strengthening of 'Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council' to provide a platform for technology transfer and application in the shelter sector. and promoting commercial production of innovative materials, using fly-ash, red mud, phospho-gypsum and agricultural wastes, and for appropriate design of houses both in urban and rural areas-; strategies for bringing down the solid waste generation in cities with focus on those which are di'ficult to dispose of such as tube lights,used battery cells etc.; designing fiscal instruments 'cr waste minimisation in respect of non-biodegradable and non-recyclable packaging materials used for packaging of food products, medicines, soft driAks,-machine parts, oils, breakables, etc.; development projects for developing biodegradable packaging materials through the Eco-Mark scheme and through fiscal incentives; design innovations for improving the refuse vehicles; formulation of plans for assessing space requirements for solid waste treatment; rehabilitation of ragpickers; protection of natural water sources - surface/sub-surface to meet the needs of its water users/usages; health services with focus on health education, awareness and health risk assessment; managing storm drains in cities; progammes for energy efficiency in street lighting; alternative energy programmes and energy efficiency in urban areas; - 4: formulation of pricing policies for promoting energy conservation; policies to promote public transport through; introducing innovative fiscal instruments to finance the public transport projects to charge the entire range of beneficiaries rather than only the direct-users;. improving the financial performance of the State Road Transport Corporations; reviewing the provisions in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 under which the fare revisions require legislative approvals each time which leads to delays and political; improving public distribution system fc. kerosene; increasing the use of coal in urban areas through introduction of methods such as fluidised bed processing or pelletisation for smoke reduction and improving the thermal properties. This programme could be successfully linked to the proposed programme of improved cookstoves; preparation of energy audits for each city; road pricing practices for overcoming congestion; - ~~EE framing enabling housing policy; setting up monitoring system for air pollution control; protection of urban amenities such as public parks, beaches and wetlands; erection and strengthening of urban forests; formulation of city level environmental management plans; organisation strengthening for NGO participation in urban environmental management'; and organisation strengthening for human resource development and capacity building for pollution control, waste management, natural resource accounting, risk assessment and environment impact assessment in urban areas*. Conservation and sustainable development of blo-diversity In selected eco-systems Including forests, mangroves, wetlands, coral reefs and mountain ecosystems. 9.04 The priority programmes and actions in these areas include:- - research to evaluate ecological importance, biotic potential, conservation value of Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs; survey of protected wetlands (existing and proposed); afforestatlon and wasteland development; programmes forsustainable management of man-made waterbodies such as reservoirs, urban tanks and village ponds, percolation and irrigation tanks, etc.; conservation education on wetlands, mangroves and coral-reefs; natural resources accounting studies for coral reefs, forests, mangroves , wetlands, protected areas and biodiversity; demand management development projects to improve protection of newly afforested areas/areas undergoing natural regeneration; research and development on bio-energy programmes i.e. high- density energy plantations and efficient fuel-wood use systems by organisational strengthening of Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehra Dun; development programmes for pasture regeneration; wildlife projects particularly Project Elephant and Project Rhino; extension support projects for agro-forestry; networking of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSIy and Botanical Survey of India(BSI) with universities and other non-governmental organisatlons; developing a comprehensive national listing of all phyla, genus, species and sub-species with their location, distribution, description and status; develop a detailed listing of fauna of ecologically important locations including protected areas; research on cultivation of commercially valuable wild plants; - establishment of farms for medicinal and other commercially valuable plants; research on various species of domesticated animals for conservation of traditional domesticated species, many of which are being replaced by hybrid, modern, breeds; and support for ex-situ consumed in zoological and botanical gardens. Control of Industrial and related pollution with accent on reduction and/or management of wastes, particularly hazardous wastes 9.05 The priority actions and programme will be modernisation for cleaner production in respect of leather, textiles, paper and pulp industries; organisation strengthening for research on natural dyes-; development of techniques for quantification of pollutants from non-point sources viz. runoff from agricultural fields, waste disposal sites, leaky septic tanks systems, mining and logging activities and construction sites; development of physical methodsfor ascertaining the role hydrology plays in influencing pollutant behaviour; relating landuse to pollutant transport and effects on water bodies; addressing spatial (single catchment, multiple catchments) and temporal (annual, event, based, continuous) variability in pollutant generation, transport and delivery; and relating contaminant concentrations to management practices; development of decision-oriented methods to help make reliable and cost effective decision about nonpoint sources of pollution control methods and their cost and relating contaminant concentration to management practices; development of technologies for control of non-point pollution as a result of past land use practices; EE7C development and demonstration of cost-effective water treatment technologies particularly for removal of nitrates, pesticides and heavy metals from drinking water, desalination of brackish water and providing solution to taste and odour problems; demonstration and dissemination of wastewate rtreatment recycling and reuse technologies for water conservation; and projects for least hazardous methods of mining, control of erosion in mining areas, proper storage of minerals, and proper disposal of mineral wastes in mined areas, prevention and control of pollution from roads in mining areas, prevention and control of pollution in post-mining period, water diversion to prevent contamination of water and environmental rehabilitation of mined areas. Environmental Statement for Environmental Audit in India A gazette notification on environmental audit had been issued by the Ministry of Environment 8 Forests on 3th March, 1992 (amended vide notification GSR 386 (E) dated 22 April, 1993). This notification applies to every person carrying on an industry, operation or process requiring consent to operate under Section 25 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) or under section 211 of the Air(Prevention and Controlof Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981), orboth, or, authorization under the Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989, issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986). The notification requires that an Environmental Statement for the financialyear ending the 31st March be submitted to the concerned State Pollution Control Board, on or before the 30th September of the same year. In the Environmental Statement, every industry will provide informnation on the water and raw material consumption, pollution generated, information on hazardous wastes and solid wastes along with the disposal practices. The industries are also 152 required to specify the impact of pollution control measures on conservation of natural resources. This information will assist the industry in determining the cost of production and additional investment forenvironmentalprotection includingabatementofpollution. To maintain confidentiality of certain inputs, a provision for coding has been made. 'India: Environmental Statement (As part of Fnvironmental Audit) Government of India, 1993. Access to Clean Technologies 9.06 In order to increase access to clean technologies, the following programmes would be given priority :- organisation strengthening for research and technology development under the National Materials Initiatives under Industrial development programme for raw material upgradation, performance improvement in conventional materials, energy substitution and conservation and environmental sustainability under the Science & Technology Programme under the Industrial Sector*; launching of a Technology Mission on Cleaner Production to coordinate activities for promoting cleaner technologies in India through government policies, strengthening of R&D Institutions, industry associations, financial institutions and regulatory agencies. - ~ER formulation of industry specific task forces for selection of demonstration and development projects; identification of cleaner technologies developed in research laboratories/industrial units in India and abroad and facilitating transfer and adaptation of such technologies in India; establishing centres for cleaner technologies in various parts of the country for developing a centralised data base and providing information to industries*; capacity building for environmental audit for pollution prevention*. capacity building for developing indigenous design engineering capability for absorption, adaptation and improvement of imported technology*; formulation of standards in terms of waste discharge per unit quantity of raw material; formulation of legal and economic measures to ensure absorption of clean technologies; and capacity building for assessment of environment impact of clean technologies'. Environmental Impact Assessment 9.07 Action would be taken to: - establish of a National Centre for Long term Training in EIA-; and evolve a network of Regional Centres in various Institutes for training in the preparation of EIA reports, including Disaster Management Plans*. Strengthening Scientific Understanding of environmental Issues as also structures fortraining at different levels, orientation and creating environmental awareness, resources assessment,etc. 9.08 Priority programmes in the area are as follows evolve structures to strengthen the training, research and education activities through existing government and non-government organisations and institutions at different levels, and strengthen arid support them*; assistance to NGOs to set up district and village training centres and provide funds for them; programme for training of trainers at all levels needs to be taken up urgently. The Government can identify agencies and institutions which could take up this work; a scheme to allow practitioners, activitists, professionals, civil servants and others to participate in regeneration activities; training facilities for civil servants, especially those belonging to the Central and All India Services, through the environmental training activities of their induction institutions, which also require significant strengthening; environmental training programmes for students and the general public, especially in townships located in or around areas of special ecological significance; regular and sustained environment education (EE) programmes for professionals, decision-makers and local-self government authorities in EIA; environment-related subjects should be infused with larger social concerns; new environmental courses, interdisciplinary in nature and accessible to student of all backgrounds, should be initiated; development of a wide range of EE materials for mass distribution including modules and workbooks for teachers, low-cost environmental kits for students and audio-visual materials; environmental education programmes for the newly constituted Paryavaran Vahini (voluntary environmental task forces); capacity building for collection and analysis of environmental statistics for Natural Resource Accounting; and renvironmental education of local policy makers, voluntary agencies, technical departments of State Governments and local body authorities in urban environmental issues. Conservation of soll and moisture and ensuring that water sources do not get polluted 9.09 The programmes which would be given priority in this area are as follows:- - programmes for rehabilitation and catchment area treatment for major and medium irrigation works; formulation of water management plan based on detailed soil surveys and landuse capability for major and medium irrigation works; . organisation strengthening for encouraging user participation in major and medium irrigation projects from the planning stage onwards*; - ER- -~~~15 developing networking with Governme,.t Departments with Research Institutions and experts for research, design and evaluation of irrigation projects; developing data base for post evaluation studies for periodic monitoring of actual crop patterns, water use pattern and productivity in all irrigation commands; review of command area development programmes in each State for streamlining the programme for better returns 1rom irrigated agriculture and for optimum use of water; rehabilitation o. system and non-system irrigation tanks; framing of legislative measures, fiscal measures and credit delivery schemes for ensuring proper exploitation of ground water; promotion of programmes and projects for conjunctive use of surface and ground water resources; rehabilitation and utilisation of public tubewells; organisation strengthening for better O&M systems for irrigation works*; projects for small surface water storage structures in rainfall short areas; dissemination and extension of low-cost rainfed, agronomic and soil conservation technologies to small and marginal farmers in rainfed cultivation zones; a mission mode project on development, demonstration and promotion of bio-fertilizers, which is under the consideration of the Ministry of Agriculture: survey for information generation on water-logging, saline solis, flood hazards, etc.; capacity building for formulation of Flood Control Master Plans for major river basins and for undertaking post-facto evaluation of flood control works'; capacity building through organisational strengthening of State Land Use Boards for the tasks of soil and water conservation; capacity building for developing natural resource/agricultural statistics in respect of dry-land agriculture. irrigation and hydrological data for better crop planning, optimum application of water and flood mapping, and Environment Impact Assessesment for river valley and agricultural development projects*; schemes to involve women for implementation of national programmes in agriculture including watershed devolopment and soil conservation schemes; and formulation of a regicn-wise water pricing policy. * Organisation strengthening projects. FIGURES AND TABLES Fig. 1 Status of Air Pollution Control in Environmentally Sensitive Industries. Defauler Partial ETP I] EquipmentunderPlanningDesign(Constuction I EquipmentinOparation-MeetingtheStandards Uniks cbsed us 108 ,w 94 80 2 68 o 68 i6] i.602 40 6 4 Z 20. 12 z Cement Thermat Fertilizer Oil Refinery Powser Plant Type of Industries Source: Central Pollution Control Board - 1990-91 -- ~EJ Fig. 2: Status of Water Pollution Control in Environmentally Sensitive Industries Defaulter I] Partial ETP 0 1 ETPunderConstnjctlnlDesign * Equipment in Operation-Meetingthe Standards 363 f90 * Unks closed 07 | 7<Includes units having infli-cient processes 0 0 4 units partially complying DOD of 1OO mg/i * * 5 units partially complying Zn of 5 mgll 178 .S 15D S 3
Группа Всемирного банка · Environmental Action Plan
India - Environment action programme
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