India - Tamil Nadu Water Resources Consolidation Project : environmental assessment

i ff~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~w "~ ~~ n l n a a' LausWater iRescurces r iQ.' ons.rolcl aton Project En2vironi-nenltal Assessrmernt K It VS 'Report E' X 28"53 it; k'h Noveimnaber 19 93 Rescurc I i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ?'t o 'E U~~ 4" IS -mEL - lw4It4l4S7wN --Y -  - Tamilnadu Water Resources j Consolidation Project Environmental Assessment i 3 | Report EX 2853 November 1993 I HR Wallingjford .egbatcred Otficc: HR Wallitihgrird l,id. IHowbcry I'irk. Wnllingford. Oxfordshire. OXID 8BA. UK Te1qtonic: 0491 835381 ItiicromtlionIal + 44 491 835381 Tclcx: 848552 HRSWAL G. 5 Facsiimi: 0491 832233 I:ileritialioial + 44 491 83233 Regisicrcd in England No. 2562099 HR Wallingford Lid is a wholly owned sulsidiary or IIR Wallingford Group Ltd. EX 2853 2v9t t91  * Contract This report describes work commissioned in May 1993 by the World Bank for completion In November 1993. The HR Job Numbers were TOR 1478 and I TVR 1557. This work was carried out by Dr P Bolton and Mr A W Hall, Section Managers, Overseas Development Unit and Dr B B Sunderesen, environmental consultant. Prepared by d...... (narne) (Jo~~~~~~~~~~~b litle) Approved by ................ | Date .2 . ! HR Wallingford Limited 1993 e p EX2853 W1 1/9:3  Summary Tamilnadu Water Resources Consolidation Project - Environmental Assessment Report EX 2853 November 1993 This environmental assessment has been prepared by HR Wallingford and Dr B B Sunderesan in collaboration with the Public Works Department of the Government of Tamilnadu. Field studies were undertaken between May and July 1993 and the report completed in November 1993. The environmental * assessment gives an overview of the water resources sector of the state o; Tamilnadu. 1t forms an integral part of the Water Resources Consolidation Project and in some respects covers issues beyond the scope of that project. A separate Executive Summary has been prepared for the World Bank. Water resources are of prime importance in the state and the project integrates I environmental considerations into agricultural and water resources development. During preparation of the environmental assessment, information has been provided to the preparation and pre-appraisal missions I of the World Bank so that specific components of the project take into account environmental issues at the planning stage. An environmental action plan has been prepared and this forms an integral part of the project. The consultants wish to express their appreciation for the considerable assistance provided by the staff of the PWD and all other govemment and non-government organisations and individuals who have provided valuable information and advice. E I I I I EX 2853 29t111D3  Glossary and List of Abbreviations AED Agricultural Engineering Division anicut Weir |yacut Irrigated land CAD Command area development (programmes) cess Water tax crore 10.000.000 EA Environmental assessment (general) EAP Environmental action plan EIA Environmental Impact Assessment (specific procedure) * FA Farmer Association FAO Food and Agricultural Office FC Farmer Counr 'I I ghat Mountain chain GOI Government of India GOTN Government of Tamilnadu = IIT Indian Institute of Technology IMTI Irrigation Management Training Institute IWS Institute for Water Stuidies I lakh 100.000 MEF Ministry of Environment and Forests (GOI) Metrowater Madras Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board MMWSSB Madras Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research Institute NGO Non-governmental organisation NWMP National Water Management Project OFD On-f3rm development (works) panchayats Local (village) councils I PWD Public Works Department RBM River Basin Management unri (proposed) Rp Indian Rupee SIDCO Small Industries Development Corporation TNEB Tamilnadu Electricity Board TNPCB Tamilnadu Pollution Control Board TNWRCP Tamilnadu Water Resources Consolidation Project TOR Terms of reference TWAD Board Tamrilnadu Water Supply and Drainage Board UNDTC United Nations Dept of Technical Cooperation for Development WRC Water Resources Control and Review Council WRCP Water Resources Consolidation Project WRD Water Resources Department (proposed) Exchange rate: US$ 1 = Rp 31.00 (November 1993) l i EX 28S3 29/11 W3 l  Contents Pago Title page Contract Summary Contents PART A: ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT I Introduction ............. 1 1.1 The setting ............. 1 I 1.2 The context .............. 3 1.3 The project ....... 5 1.3.1 Institutional strengthening component ...... 5 i t.3.2 Irrigation rehabilitation and modernisation component ......... ................ 6 1.3.3 On-going minor schemes component ...... 7 2 Regulatory procedures, legislation and linkages ....... .. 8 2.1 Environmental protection ............... . 8 I 2.2 Water quality regulations ....... ............... 10 2.3 Irrigation and water resources regulations ..... ..... 11 2.4 Intersectoral coordination ....... ............... 12 3 Overview of environmental status in Tamllnadu ......... 13 3.1 Surface water . .13 3.1.1 Tambaraparani Basin .................. 14 3.1.2 Vaigai-Periyar Basin .................. 15 3.1.3 Parambikulam-Aliyar Basin .............. 16 3.1.4 Bhavani Basin .............. .... 16 3.1.5 Cauvery Basin ............... ... 17 3.1.6 Pennajyar Basin .................. 18 3.1.7 Palar Basin .......... ........ 18 3.2 Groundwater .............. .......... 19 3.3 Water quality ........... ............. 20 3.3.1 Surface water ....................... 21 3.3.2 G,.oundwater ................. ...... 21 3.3.3 Water quality standards .......... ...... 22 3.4 Soil and land resources ....................... 23 I 3.4.1 Soil and land use .................... 23 3.4.2 Agriculture ........................ 24 3.4.3 Soil conservation ..................... 25 3.5 Ecological resources ................... 27 3.6 Coastal resources ........ .......... 28 3.7 Energy, minerals and air .................. 29 3.8 Human resources ........ .......... 30 3.8.1 Tribal minorities .................. 31 3.8.2 Cultural aspects ..................... 31 3.8.3 Healtlh aspects .................. 32 EX2853 2Vt11t93  Contents continued 4 Environmental Issues arising from WRCP ..... ......... 34 4.1 Introduction ............... 34 4.2 Catchment protection ...... ......... 35 4.3 Surface water allocation ......................36 4.4 Irrigation water management ................... 37 4.5 Groundwater ................... 39 4.6 Surface water quality .40 4.7 Water qualty for the command areas .40 4.8 Groundwater quality . 41 4.9 River morphology and flooding .42 4.10 Energy .43 4.11 Coastal and estuary regions . 43 4.12 Siltation of tanks, reservoirs and canals ........... 43 4.13 Waterlogging and salinisation .45 4.14 Fisheries ............ 45 4.15 Wildlife .46 _ 4.16 Agricultural weeds and pests ................... 47 4.17 Aquatic weeds ....... ............ 47 4.18 Community involvement ............... 48 4.19 Community health ............... 49 4.20 Land acquisition and economic rehabilitation ..... ... 49 4.21 Construction activities .............. .......... 50 5 The role of non-governmental organisations .......... .. 51 5.1 Farmers' Associations .......... .............. 51 5.2 The role of women ............. ............. 51 5.3 Other NGOs ............................... 52 5.4 Participation of NGOs in the WRCP ...... ....... 52 6 Conclusions and Recommendations. ...... ........... 53 6.1 General sectoral conclusions ....... ............ 53 6.2 WRCP conclusion .............. ............. 54 PART B: ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN I Introduction ................................... 59 2 Review of policy and institutional issues ...... ........ 59 3 Institutional needs ................................ 60 | 3.1 IWS Environment Division ........ ............. 60 3.2 WRD (Plan Formulation) Environment Cell ..... .... 61 3.3 RBM (Plan Formulatio;7 & Coordination) Environment I Cells .62 3.4 Equipment ...... ... 62 DX 2853 29111193  Contents continued 4 Role and functions of Uhe environmental units .......... 63 4.1 Policy and new legislation ..................... 63 I 4.2 Environmental assessment procedures/guidelines and codes. 63 4.3 River basin plans .64 I 4.4 Data collection and monitoring .65 4.5 Eco-gardens and eco-restoration .66 5 Training and awareness building .................... 66 6 Consultancy inputs .68 7 Applied research and development needs .69 8 Cost estimate for the EAP ................... 71 Tables Table 1 Details of on-going minor schemes Table 2 GOI recommended. Tolerance limi.s for inland surface water Table 3 Irrigability classes of water and water quality criteria for classification of groundwater Table 4 Tolerance limits for trade effluents Table 5 Sedimentation of selected reservoirs/tanks in Tamilnadu Table 6 Wldlife sanctuaries in Tamiinadu Table 7 Cost estimates for the Environmental Action Pian Figures Figure 1 Tarnilnadu river basins Figure 2 Tamilnadu hydrogeology Figure 3 Annual rainfall Figure 4 Rainfall from southwest and northeast monsoons Figure 5 Groundwater exploitation in 1992 Figure 6 Elec'rical conductivity of groundwater Figure 7 Major and medium irrigation schemes Figure 8 Main soil types Figure 9 Wiidlife sanctuaries and forests Figure 10 Organigram of the proposed Water Resources Dept. Figure 11 Organigram of River Basin Management Unit Figure 12 EAP implementation schedule Appendices Appendix 1 Government of Tamilnadu Acts related to water resources and the environment Appendix 2 Ministry of Environment and Forests Notification Appendix 3 Proposed programme for Environmental Awareness Building Workshop for Senior Staff of the PWDIWRD I Appendix 4 Issues to be covered in the code of good construction practice Appendix 5 References EX 2BS3 2/1 1/13  I _ I I U I I I IPART A: I ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT I U I I FX 295 29111/9 U  l 1 Introduction The Government of Tamilnadu, with the support of the World Bank, has formulated the Water Resources Consolidation Project In order to improve the management of the water resources of the state. The project aims to Introduce a more rational and sustainable system of water use and management throughout the state and represents a fundamental shift from the U previous emphasis on design and construction of new projects. The rationale for this approach stems from an awareness that the ever increasing and conflicting demands for water will result in a severe crisis unless steps aie taken to improve water use and allocation. This was clearly stated in the World Bank Aide Memoire (June 1993): | "The WRCP would support Tamilnadu's objectives to make better use of its water resources. The objective would be to assist the proposed Water Resources Department to adjust its activities and expenditures to the new I challenges of efficient water resources management. In the light of Tamilnadu's water scarcity, there is a need to maximise the productivity and environmental sustainability of land and water, improve planning, and I the allocation of water between agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, upgrade existing irrigation, drainage and flood control and bulk water supply infrastructure, and complete viable investments. Water users | need to become more involved in water management and maintenance, and cost recovery improved. Integral to these challenges wil be institutional adjustments and improvements to enable these objectives to be achieved." This report is divided into two parts, the environmental assessment and the environmental action plan. In part A, following the introduction and details of the legal aspects in chapters 1 and 2, the environmental assessment gives an overview of the water resources sector in chapter 3 and more specific issues raised by the project in chapter 4. Chapter 5 reviews the role of the NGOs in the project and chapter 6 gives overall conclusions. Part B of the report is the environmental action plan and the aim of this is to ensure that environmental enhancement is an in-built part of project implementation. 1.1 The setting Historically Tamilnadu has been a prosperous region basing its prosperity on a productive agricultural base. Beginning about 1.000 years ago a system of tank irrigation was introduced to augment production and provide security against the relatively short and erratic monsoonal rains. These tanks were I largely independent of each other and were managed and operated by the local community in a way which conserved both the soil and the water resources. Management groups and hierarchies became established, some I of which remain in some form up to the present time. Today there are 39,000 tanks in Tamilnadu. the majority of which remain 'rain-red': such rain-fed tanks are fed solely by run-off from their own catchments. This represents an - average of one tank for every 1,400 of population. _ During the British colonial period a major change took place : the ownership - of land and water was taken from the communities and vested in the govemment directly or through the Zamindai system. Villagers no longer saw it as their duty to maintain protective vegetation and to engage in regular taink 1 eX 253 29 11u93  and canal desilting operations. Although ownership of land was restored at Independence, ownership of water remains with the govemment (as describod in Section 1.2 below). Communities, therefore, have not regained their I traditional attitude towards the conservation of their water sources. Added to this, increasing rural population pressures both In the irrigated areas and in the tank catchments, increasing demands for water by urban areas and industrles I and the release of increasing amounts of pollutants into surface water and groundwater, have brought about a critical situation in some parts of the state where existing water resources are already heavily committed and unlikely to i meet projected future demands even without the effect of siltation which is reducing the availability of good quality water continuously. Undoubtedly, management of water resources by government has brought substantial benefits. A massive increase in irrigated area has been achieved over the last 100 years without which the population could not have been fed. (Although famine was common in the 19th century, there has been only one notable famine in Tamilnadu this century, in 1952/53, which was fairly localised. Droughts remain common but famine has been controlled). This has been achieved by building large storage dams on major rivers as well as anicuts (weirs), headworks and supply canals which not only feed irrigated land directly but also feed water into cascades of tanks to ensure reliable supplies are available to existing irrigated land. This is not without its effects: only two of Tamilnadu's 32 large, medium and minor, east-flowing rivers (the Tambaraparani and the Cauvery) can now be regarded as perennial. Many of the rest flow only for periods of a week or two during the height of the 9 monsoons. Groundwater, again used traditionally for centuries, is also heavily exploited in many parts of the state with very little control over the numerous irrigation wells which now exist. Indeed, over-exploitation is currently exacerbated by the State Government's policy of providing free electricity for agricultural | pumps. In several regions this, combined with urban use, is now resulting in intrusion of sea water into over-pumped aquifers. Given Tamilnadu's current population growth rate of just under 1.5% per year and the increasing expectations for water supplies of a richer urban population, it is clear that the state faces a crisis which will worsen in the next few decades unless urgent steps are taken to improve the water situation. Such a crisis will affect not only the health and wellbeing of the population but also the production of industry, the stabiliy of the regional economy and the ecology of the natural environment. There is no doubt that wise water I management is the key to the future sustainability of Tamilnadu's economy, society and environment. In the light of the situation in Tamilnadu and the above p-oject objectives, the environmental assessment (EA) has taken on a new dimension. It is no longer simply a scrutiny of a specific project to discover whether some troublesome I impacts have been overlooked by the project planners; although this report will also attempt to fulfil this traditional function of an EA. Far more important, in this case, is to consider the project wilhin the whole water resources sector U and ask whether it is indeed likely to contribute to a more productive and sustainable system of land and water utilisalion in Tamilnadu, whether the necessary fundamental changes in approach are likely to result from the | project, whether there are any factors which need closer consideration if long- term sustainability is to be achieved and what form of procedural and 2 EX 2853 29111/93 l  administrative set-up will best help towards long-term sustainabllty. Clearly, one project cannot resolvo agl the problems associated with the whole sector and where it is felt that an issue is beyond the scope of the WRCP attentilon will be drawn to this as it could assist the GOTN in formulating actions through other projects or in its everyday operations. 1.2 The context State Governments in India carry the responsiblifty for the development of water and other natural resources within their state borders. The Central Government becornes involved when the itwestment on individual projects exceeds the level which can be supported solel't by state funds or when proposed resource use has implications for more than one state (as is the case with inter-state rivers). In Tamilnadu, as in most other states, irrigation 13s been treated as a completely separate activity from agriculture despite the fact that a significant proportion of agricultural output relies on irrigation. This separation arises from the fact that, until recently, the main government responsibility with regard to irrigation was seen as the construction of new irrigation systems, Irrigation, therefore, became the responsibility of the engineers of the Public Works Department (PWD) whose other responsibilities include the construction and maintenance of public buildings and flood and coastal defences but not roads and highways. Having constructed irrigation systems and reservoirs, the PWD was given the responsibility for managing the release and distribution of water and hence became the principal agency responsible for the management of both surface _ and ground waters which became formalised in a series of Government Orders and state legislation as described in Cnapter 2. Thus, in effect, ownership of water became vested in the PWD on behalf of the State Government. _ However, a variety of other departments have direct interest in aspects of water resources development and use, the principal ones being: i * The supply of water and collection and disposal of sewage in Madras city and neighbouring area is the responsibility of the Madras Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (Metrowater); * * The development of water and sanitation for other urban areas of the respective municipal authorities and rural communities is the responsibility of the Tamilnadu Water Supply and Drainage Board (TWAD Board): j * The control and monitoring of pollution and, in particular, the enforcement * of effluent disposal standards is the responsibility of the Tamnilnadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB); I * The development of water supplies for large industries is the responsibility of the individual industries whilst that of smaller industries is the responsibility of the Small Industries Development Corporation (SIDCO); The development and management of on-farm irrigation works (to areas I of about 1 Oha) is the responsibility of the Agricultural Engineering Division (AED) under the Department of Agriculture: 3 EX 28S3 2Wt1/j3  * Individuals are free to develop wells and boreholes for providing groundwater for domestic and agricultural use. * The Tamilnadu Bectricity Board (TNEB) Is required to supply free electricity for pumping water for agricultural use provided that the wells are not in certain prohibited locations: * The TN EB is also responsible for the operation of all hydroelectric power stations; and r * The Agricultural Engineering Division (AED) of the Department of A1,,iculture is responsible for soil conservation in river valley project I areas. When water was perceived to be relatively plentiful, a fairly inforrnal system of resource allocation was found to be adequate. The PWD, and in particular the Chief Engineers for Irrigation and Groundwater, took the lead in ensuring that competing interests did not conflict. However, this was always done on an ad hoc, project by project, basis: there was no attemnpt made to introduce a comprehensive approach to the management of the overall water resource. If conflicts of interest arose, a simple priority rule was applied as follows: (i) drinking water (ii) irrigation (iii) hydroelectric power I (iv) industrial and other users. Navigation is not considered as there has never been a major water use for navigation in Tamilnadu. Noticeably the environmental aspects of water do not appear as a consideration. The need for a more comprehensive approach to waler allocation and management is now acute with the increasing competition which is arising between users. Lintil recently, water resources investments in India as elsewhere have been focused on large sii.;le projects often involving construction of a major dam and storage reservoir. Several factors have now combined to change the emphasis of water resources investment. First, the issues of resettlement and environmental impacts arising from major dam projects have made it increasingly difficult to design acceptable projects of this nature. Second, it has been recognised that water resources management is becoming a key issue in many countries and that a new integrated approach is needed to replace the previous site specific project investment. Thirdly, in the irrigation sub-sector, it has been accepted that large areas of existing irrigated land are producing at levels far below their potential and the emphasis is now made on I finding ways of increasing agricultural production from these lands and ensuring sustainability in preference to investing in further new projects. The World Bank has a long history of support for specific water resources projects in the agricultural sector in India and also supports the emphasis on this more integrated approach. Although the Govemment of India is reluctant I to stop building major dams, which it sees as necessary for storing the highly seasonal monsoon rains which the region receives, it does share the concern that water resources must be managed in a more integrated and sustainable I manner than hitherto. In 1992 the Central Water Commission published 'Guidelines for Sustainable Water Resources Development ar" :Management' 4 EX2BS3 2911tl93  which set the stage for a new phase of World Bank support for the water resources and agricultural sectors in India to be called 'Water Resources Consolidation Projects' (WRCP). In 1992 three states began to prepare the necessary preparation documentation for such projects: Haryana, Tamllnadu and Orissa. 1.3 The project The Tamilnadu Water Resources Consoridation Project (WRCP) is a proposed * five year progranmme involving investments and expenditure totalling approximately Rs 10 000 million (US $ 310 million). The project covers the entire State and, among other things, it aims to: * introduce a more rational and comprehensive approach to water resources planning and management which will prevent conflicts over water resource allocation and environmental degradation; * improve the eff iciency of water use for irrigation through rehabilitation and modemisation and improved maintenance so that increasing industrial and domestic demands can be met; and . improve the long-term sustainability of irrigation systems through - enhanced farmer participation in operation and maintenance. 3 The project includes three major components: i) the rehabilitation. modemisation and improved operation and maintenance of existing irrigation sub-projects including the completion of work already begun under the World Bank's National Water Management Project; ii) the completion of on-going or planned irrigation works on a number of minor irrigation schemes; and 3 iii) institutional strengthening, training and special studies aimed at bringing about a radical change in the procedures for planning and managing water resource use in Tamilnadu. It is convenient first of all to discuss the changes which the project will bring in terms of these three component parts which are elaborated below. The institutional strengthening component, although not financially the biggest, has the potential for bringing about the most positive far-reaching changes for the water related environment and is therefore described first. 1.3.1 Institutional strengthening component These are the changes planned within the WRCP which will, if successful, bring about the more rational and sustainable use uf water resources required to prevent conflicts in water use in Tamilnadu and environmental degradation. A number of fundamental changes have been discussed between the World Bank and the Govemment of Tamilnadu (GOTN), the main components being: (a) The creation of a Water Resources Department (WRD) is proposed comprising those parts of the PWD which were previously concerned with U water or irrigation. The WRD will have a new structure which will make it administratively more efficient and will be headed by an Engineer in Chief. A number of other changes are proposed including a review of the 5 EX28I3 29t11J93 l  career structure and redeployment of engineers to achieve greater efficiency. 3 (b) The creation of four River Basin Management Units (RBMs) Is proposed to assume responsibility for water resources planning and management in the four hydrological regions into which Tamilnadu will be divided. I Except in the case of the Cauvery River, each RBM will be responsible for more than one river catchment. The RBMs will be a part of the WRD. (c) The creation of a Water Resources Review and Control Council (WRC) was proposed as part of the project and was rapidly created by the GOTN and established on 30 September 1993. This top level commifttee I will provide a forum for inter-departmental discussions over water resources management, the formulation of policies and the regulation of water abstractions and land use changes affecting water resources. The WRC will be chaired by the Chief Minister who will be assisted by two Vice Chairmen. It will have as a nodal technical support agency an augmented Institute for Water Studies (IWS) which, among other responsibilities, will provide a water quality data bank available for use by all agencies and departments engaged in water resources development. (d) A state Water Policy and Water Act are being formulated to provide a framework for the activities of the WRC and the WRD which aim to give the necessary legislative powers to achieve rational and integrated management of water resources. The Policy and Act are at an advanced I stage of preparation. Similarly a Groundwater Act is proposed to provide the necessary powers to control over-exploitation of groundwater resources. The policy and Acts would have to be passed by the GOTN. . The WRCP is designed to provide support for these important changes particularly through training, institutional support and special studies. A | particular focus of the project will be the strengthening of the Institute for Water Studies and equipping it to fulfil its new nodal role. 1.3.2 Irrigation rehabilitation and modemisation component Experience of rehabilitation has been gained during the GOTN Command Area Development Programme, the World Bank supported National Water Management Project (NWMP) and other projects supported by the central govemment and external donors. The WRCP proposals identify a two-stage approach to irrigation rehabilitation and modernisation which will carry through into sustainable operation and maintenance in the future. (a) Stage 1 will focus on achieving equitable and reliable operation of the inigation system so that each sluice off-take will receive supplies proportional to the area served (usually of the order of 1 Oha). This will entail some structural modifications to the canal network, the removal of silt, weeds and other obstructions and the organisation of farmers into I Farmer Associations (FAs) below each sluice to take control of water distribution and system maintenance. The cost of such works will be low, of the order of Rs 4000 per ha. The work envisaged in Stage 1 is similar to that undertaken under the NWMP but will involve farmers, through the creation of FAs, to a much greater degree. (b) Stage 2 will be introduced once Stage 1 is believed to be successfully completed. In most cases, this will not be achieved for at least three 6 EX285J 2g 1ui93  I E years from the start of WROP but in the case of 7 projects which were pan of the NWMP, Stage 1 Is considered to be virtually complete and * Stage 2 witl be started almost immediately. In Stage 2 a Farmer Council (FC) will be formed at tank or distributary level (units of about 500ha). These Councils will gradually take responsibility for the operation and I maintenance of the entire block including a considerable degree of self financing with govemment support. The Farmer Councils will be encouraged to identify further improvements which might be made to the I irrtgation system and Farmer Associations will consider the need for on- farm development (OFD) works. For such works, WRCP funds will be made available up to a level of approximately Rs 10 000 per ha, but I farmers will have to contribute a part of the money themselves before the works are carried out. A particular emphasis in Stage 2 will be to identify ways in which water use efficiency can be improved so that water can be saved for other uses. This will include the introduction of fixed control structures to evenly distribute water along the main and distributary canals and canal upgrading including lining where necessary. The ultimate intention is to reduce the involvement of the new WRO, compared with the present PWD, in the management of irrigation systems at the tertiary level leaving it free to concentrate on the maintenance and operation of the main supply facilities. This component of the WRCP will not include any projects in the systems supplied by the Cauvery River because there is an on- going Tribunal considering the allocation of Cauvery Water between Tamilnadu _ and Kamataka and any works intended to modernise these systems might be seen as a mnove to establish additional claims which might interfere with the g lTribunal's work. A total command area of approximately 650,000 ha will be covered by the project. This will comprise seven systems, totalling 153.000 ha, which have already benefitted from stage I work through the NWMP. A further area of about 500,000 ha wi.l be taken up and benefit from both stage I and 11 work. The environmental aspects of this component are discussed further in Section 4. 1.3.3 On-going minor schemes component The GOTN requested that funds be allocated under the WRC;P for the completion of construction work for several minor schemes. The World Bank appointed the FAOIC.P to carry out a detailed study of several minor schemes located throughout the state which are either on-going or already planned and sanctioned by the GOTN. At the time of writing the FAO/CP studies of these schemes are nearing completion and it is envisaged that 12 sub-projects will be technically, economically and environmentally viable and will thus be included as part of the WRCP. Data for each minor scheme are given in Table 1. - The minor schemes are at various stages of implementation; in some cases, such as Rajathope Kanar, the work is more than half complete, whereas in others construction has not yet begun. Different actions are therefore required for completion which includes construction of small storage reservoirs in some cases so that the existing irrigated areas can be brought into reliable supply systems as well as extending the command areas. New area development t only totals about 2,070ha overall. The particular environmental issues related to these on-goirig minor schemes are discussed in more detail in Chapters 2 and 4. 7 EX 2S3 29111193  * N I 2 Regulatory procedures, legislation and linkages Several Acts of the Government of India and the Govemment ol Tamilnadu U relate to the water sector. Water is a state responsibility Including storage, exploitation and water use but excluding inter-state rivers. A list of relevant Acts is given in Appendix 1. These Acts could be grouped into those relevant to environmental issues, such as the requirement for environmental clearance for developmental projects; those relevant to the regulation of domestic and industrial discharges into water bodies under the Pollution Control Board: and those relevant to the use and apportionment of water and its application for irrigation. It is better to discuss separately the relevant existing regulations on the basis of environmental protection, water quality regulations and irrigation needs as they relate to water as the central theme and to highlight the ways in which multi-sectoral collaboration is currently achieved for each. In addRion to the statutory regulations of the GOI, the World Bank Operational Directive 4.01 (1991) requires that an environmental assessment is carried out for Category A projects funded by the Bank. This includes most water resources projects. This environmental assessment is for the water resources sector of the state and thus covers the requirements of the project as well as I other sectoral issues beyond the scope of the project. It is intended that this will provide a baseline environmental assessment for the GOTN when considering future water resources projects as well as satisfy GOI and Bank I regulations for the project. 2.1 Environmental protection I All enactments relevant to the environment have as a basic theme the protection of the environment in its totality which includes forests, flora, fauna, wildlife, human habitat, surface and ground water bodies at source and usage I levels, land and air. The Environmental Protection Act, 1986 is an umbrella act which encompasses all activities which provide for prevention of environmental damage, punishment for episodal events such as the one that took place in Bhopal, regulation of industrial locations, clearance for developmental projects and the setting of standards for air, water and solid waste releases. On the basis of this Act the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF), Govemment of India, circulated new rules and regulations in a Notification (Extraordinary) dated January 1993 [see Appendix 2] for clearance of developmental projects of various categories but these rules are still under discussion and have not yet been adopted. In addition to these Acts and regulations the MEF requires that if any project leads to the clearing or submergence of forest of an area exceeding 10 ha then those responsible must replant an area of forest of twice the size after due inspection and approval by the regional Chief Conservator of Forest (GOI). According to current procedures, responsibility for environmental clearance is I delineated between the Government of India, the state governments and local agencies. All the developmental projects which have large investments (over Rp 1,000 million, US$ 31 million) and may have a direct or indirect impact on I air, water, land and coastal resources need a detailed EIA prepared by the proponents and subinitted to the Govemment of India for scrutiny and clearance. This is required at the planning stage. Such reports are scrutinised I by expert committees constituted by the MEF, Govemment of India forvarious sectors or types of projects. The EIA is to be prepared using baseline 8 EX 2853 29/1tl93 l  environmental data, identifying issues and quantifying impacts for each one of the natural resources such as water, air, land, flora, fauna, wildlife, endangered * species, archaeological and cultural monuments and human settlements. The procedure is elaborate wherein a rapid EIA encompassing data for critical seasons, followed by a detailed EIA prepared over a period of not less than I 12 months, are prepared by the proponents and posed before the expert commfftee constituted by the MEF. The expert committee on scrutiny may accept or reject them at the first instance itself or visit the sites proposed and suggest modifications and give conditional clearance. The proponents will be required to submit an effective environmental management plan at the planning stage and follow up action with periodic inspections during the construction and operation stages of the project. It is also necessary to have clearance from the State Environment Committee. It is reported that projects generally get stalled for want of detailed information from the proponents or due to adverse impacts on human habitat, wildlife or archaeological and cultural monuments. The Central Water Commission has appreciated the environmental issues relating to irrigation and water resources projects and has provided guidelines for sustainable water resources and management. It elaborately discusses the environmental issues, the methodologies for EIA, the sensitive areas, I weightages to be provided for ecology, environmental pollution, human interest, physiochemical attributes along with socio-economic benefits accruing to the society. Under the new Notification (January 1993), before initiating any investigation preliminary site clearance wilI be required from the Ministry of Environment and I Forests in the case of following projects if the investigation involves the cutting of trees or drilling, digging or construction of any sort even at the time of investigation. (a) Mining (b) Pithead thermal power projects (c) Hydro-electric power projects (d) Multipurpose river valley projects. This Notification, reprinted as Appendix 2 specifies certain projects as belonging to Schedule 1 under which clearance is required from the Govemment of India. Those identified under Schedule 11 will require environmental clearance from the State Government for which the Tamilnadu * State Environment Committee under the Chairmanship of the Chief Minister considers the issues on merit and gives clearances. In this context it is relevant to point out that the environmental clearance in the irrigation sector I for projects of up to 2000 hectares of command area (where costs are less than Rp 1,000 million) is the responsibility of the State Govemment. All irrigation projects with command areas above 2,000ha (or costs exceeding Rp 1,000 million) need environmental clearance from the Central Govemment. The Notification, paragraph 1, requires environmental clearance for expansion or modemisation of any existing industry or new projects listed in Schedule I or Schedule 11. The WRCP will rehabilitate and madernise, but not expand, several existing command areas throughout the state, and this is not specifically included in either Shedule. The consultants therefore sought clarification from the MEF on how the Notification would apply in this case and were informed that this report, which covers the water resources sector and 9 EX 2B53 29111193 I  were informed that this report, which covers the water resources sector and the WRCP would provide adequate environmental assessment for the project and no further EIA would be needed. For the completion of the on-going minor schemes environmental clearance is needed from the State Environment Committee as they are all below 2,000 ha new development. This clearance has already been given for all those schemes included in the WRCP. For four sub-projects forest areas of more than 10 ha will be submerged and therefore, under the 1980 Forest Conservation Act, approval is required from the Chief Conservator of Forests - (GOI). The identificaiion of the areas to be planted with forest is underway and approval will be sought by the PWD. 3 This report, which con.:iiders the current environmental status of the water resources sector as a whole, fulfils the World Bank requirements for a Category A project and meets the statutory requirements of the GOI and no further EIA will be needed for the project. 2.2 Water quality regulations The second category of Acts and Regulations relates to maintaining water quality in all water bodies including surface water, ground water and coastal waters. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 along with all its amendments provide for the creation of Pollution Control Boards at the central and state levels. The mandate given to these agencies is to regulate the discharge of industrial effluents into natural water bodies, insist on I effluent control systems, monitor the same, set standards for effluent discharge and punish violators. Accordingly a Pollution Control Board is functioning in Tamilnadu as in other States of India which has specific rules and regulations, I the salient features of which are indicated below: Salient features of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 I and amendment of 1988 are: - Empowers the Board to lay down standards for sewagettrade effluent. - uirects that the consent of the Board has to be obtained for the establishment of any industry and for the discharge of sewage/trade effluent into any stream or well or sewer or on land. - Prohibits the pollution of streams or wells or sewers or on land by the disposal of polluting matter not satisfying the standards for effluents. _ - Empowers the Board to collect samples of sewage/trade effluent from any industry. , - Empowers the Board to issue directives for the closure of an offending industry or for stoppage of electricity, water or any other service. I - Stipulates that contravention of the Regulations shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term of not less than one year and six months but I which may extend to six years and with fines. - Provides forthe levy of a cess (water rate) on specified industries, based on the quantum of water consumed. 10 EX2853 28U 2t13 l  As described in Section 3.3.1, the TNPCB also monitors the surface water quality under GEMS (Global Environrmental Monitoring System) on behalf of the Central Pollution Control Board to build up an inventory on water quality status. This activity has been going on for more than a decade mainly to establish the trends in water quality. The State Govemment has also enacted the Madras Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board Act 1978, and the Tamilnadu Water Supply and Drainage Act (1971) which provide for the exploitation, conveyance, treatment and supply of drinking water for the Madras Metropolitan Area as well as all the other urban and rural habitations of Tamilnadu. These Acts provide for collection, treatment and disposal of wastewater as well. Rules and regulations are given for the supply of water to meet various needs such as domestic, commercial and industrial and to establish the rates of supply for these sectors. At the time of exploitation of the resource, either surface or groundwater, approval must be sought through the PWD as described below. 2.3 Irrigation and water resources regulations As irrigation has been in existence historically and in an organised mnanner since the Briish colonial era some of the Acts are more than 100 years old. The Tamilnadu Irrigation Cess Act, 1865 provides for the costing of irrigation water supply and the regulation of the same for irrigation purposes. Subsequently, other Acts have been passed relating to the Irrigation Division of the PWD and the rules and regulations provide for suitable apportionment and costing of water for irrigation. Operation for the release of water for irrigation is controlled by specific regulatory Government Orders which have been brought together in the Compendium of Rules and Regulations, Part 1: Rules for Water Regulation, PWD, 1984. The rnajor reservoirs such as Mettur, Lower Bhavani, Parambikulam-Aliyar have been classified under Category 1 for which specific Orders of Government are required to start and end releases. Krishnagir and Amaravathi and such other smaller reservoirs fall under Category 2 which are regulated by the Commissioner for Land Administration on the basis of specific recommendation of the Chief Engineer (Irrigation), PWD. All the other reservoirs fall under Category 3 where the pattern of water release is decided by the Executive Engineer, PWD and the District Collector. Separate regulations, dated 1985. undertheTamilnadu State Electricity Board govem the operation of reservoirs for power generation. In addition, Part 2 of the PWD Compendium mentioned above sets out rules for flood regulation. A Government Order in the early 1 980s set out that all new projects requiring institutional finance must make application through the PWD for confirmation that the required water resources are available. All industries requiring water, including those which are privately financed, must also apply to the TNPCB for a certificate of approval for their effluent disposal procedures. Water resources decisions are made by the Water Utilisation Committee chaired by the Secretary PWD which has representatives from the Departments of Industry and Commerce, Finance, Planning and Development and Municipal Administration and Water Supply. However, only projects demanding more than 1.0 million gallons per day (4,500m3td) go before the full committee. Other requests are dealt with by the Technical Sub-Committee chaired by the Chief Engineer (Irrigation) with representatives from the Departments of 11 Ex2St3 21193  Industry and Commerce and Agriculture, the TWAD Board and the Chief Engineer (Groundwater). Irrigation projects are not actually discussed In committee but details have to be circulated to all the relevant departments. 2.4 Intersectoral coordination Although the Acts and regulatory measures described are available, and provide a sound basis for regulating pollution, the linkages between the various departments involved in the water sector such as the PWD, the TWAD Board, Metrowater, the TNPCB and the Departments of Agriculture and Industry tends to be weak. At times this leads to conflicts betv. ten the various sectors not only in the allocation of priorities for water supply but also in resolving any disputes. Water quality deterioration may be monitored by the TNPCB and U regulatory Acts enforced; but feedback data to the Agriculture Departments and PWD regarding pollution and deterioration in water quality which they can use to assess its impact on crop production is not being carried out on a I continuing basis. Similarly in the case of siting of industries which involve the TNPCB for environmental clearance, the Industry Department for industrial license, the TNEB for power supply, the PWD and TWAD Board for water supply as well as the Forests Department for environmental clearance coordination is not effective and a rational and organised mechanism is needed so that conflicts can be resolved at the time of the project proposal ikself. Occasions are many when departments like the TNPCB and Forests are not consulted prior to project clearance which has led to delayed action and sometimes difficulties in getting clearance from the respective Ministries. Part of the difficulty lies in the fact that the large number of Acts of the Govemment of India and the Government of Tamilnadu and the regulatory measures at departmental tevel have become difficult to comprehend. Engineers, in particular, are not conversant with environmental issues and the requirements _ for environmental clearance and many wrongly assume that environmental considerations and inter-departmental collaboration are not important with respect to irrigation and water resources projects. Inter-departrmental collaboration has been attempted in a number of issues related to water resources. One initiative has been the establishment of a Review Committee for Reservoir Sedimentation Studies chaired by the Agricultural Production Commissioner. This committee monitors the progress of the reservoir sedimentation studies being undertaken by the Institute of Hydraulics and Hydrology. Poondi, and makes recommendations to concemed departments; for example, on the need for catchment treatment programmes. To date no comprehensive catchment treatment programmes have been undertaken but funds are available for treating the Vaigai catchment as part of an existing World Bank project. A more recent initiative, about which the consultants were able to obtain few details, is the creation of a State Land Use Board chaired by the Member (Agriculture) of the State Planning Commission. Its operational plan is still in preparation but its original objectives include: to protect good agricultural land I from erosion, waterlogging, salinisation and urbanisation; to prepare soil resource surveys; to undertake feasibility studies for medium and major irrigation projects; and to prevent siltation in river basins and medium and I major irrigation projects. It can be seen from the above description of the existing s;tuation that acts, procedures and committees are in place to address many of the water resources and environmental concerns of the state. However, in practice, 12 EX2BS3 2Wit,93  there is often confusion and poor coordination especially with regard to water resource allocation decisions. In addition, the present procedures provide no rmechanism for undertaking long-term water resources planning. It is these short-comings which have prompted the initiators of the WRCP to propose the formation of a Water Resources Control and Review Council, to restructure relevant parts of the present PWD into a Water Resources Department and four River Basin Management units and to call for a Water Policy and the introduction of a Water Act and Groundwater Act. These policy and institutional changes are considered a major positive step towards improved coordination and this will have a positive environmental impact as long as these new institutions acquaint themselves with existing procedures, institutions and inter-departmental committees and seek to work as closely as possible with them. 3 Overview of environmental status in Tamilnadu Tamilnadu has 7% of India's population and 4% of its land area, but only 3% of its water resources. Its physiographic features consist of coastal plains in the east, central plains with outcrops of eastern ghals and eastern slopes of westem ghats with pockets of westem ghat hills on the west, running north to south. The total available surface water is about 1261 thousand million cubic feet TMC, (3.57 Mha.m or 3.57 x 1010 m3) of which about 1050 TMC (2.97 x 1010 m3) has been utilised for irrigation alone. Other uses such as industry and community water supply account for about 105 TMC (0.3 x 10 10 m3), making a total of 115S TMC (3.27 x 1010 m3). Pumping from groundwater is estimated to be 425 TMC (1.21 x 10 10 m3). Undeveloped sources for surface and ground water are meagre, and competing demands from industries and community water supplies make water resources management in Tamilnadu complex. At present the allocation of water between the different sectors and users, both in terms of water rights and decisions governing releases from reservoirs, is clearly demarcated but is not necessarily in the best interests of rational resource management. This was discussed in Chapter 2. Replenishment of water resources is tlhrough southwest and northeast monsoons. These benefit different regions of Tamilnadu by different amounts, see Figures 3 and 4. In some areas only one of the two monsoons is important whilst other areas receive appreciable rainfall from both. The monsoon rains in Tamilnadu show considerable inter-annual variation making surface water supplies unreliable even with the large amount of tank and reservoir storage nuw available. Irrigation from wells has, therefore, increased in recent years and groundwater has become an important, and in some regions over-exploited, resource. I 13 EX 2BSi3 29/1113 I  3.1 Surface water Tapping of surface water for irrigation dates back more than a thousand years in history. Diversion weirs constructed across rivers, provided a loosely knit canal system which filled the tanks constructed in low lying areas wih bunds. There are 39,000 such tanks either fed from surface flows from major rivers or from small rivulets. Organised irrigation systems were developed during the British colonial era, centred round the major rivers such as Tambaraparani, Vaigai, Cauvery, I Pennaiyar and Palar. The main features of such systems are: storage reservoirs in the uplands on the eastern slopes of the westem ghats with catchments in forest and plantation areas; and canal systems fed directly from I the reservoirs or from rivers through diversion weirs (anicuts) located in the central plains and these systems ending in the coastal delta on the east. The diversion of large volumes of water for irrigation from most rivers in Tamilnadu has affected the morphology of the rivers themselves although floods, which are the main channel forming flows, still pass for short periods I in most years. In many rivers, the morphology is further affected by large quantities of sand which are extracted for building purposes. Although no data are available to prove it, there is a belief amongst some engineers that this sand abstraction is sufficiently intense to jeopardise the stability of structures downstream through increased scour and to reduce the ability of the alluvium to store the water needed by the many infiltration galleries which have been constructed along most rivers. Licences are issued by the PWD for sand abstraction. These state a minimum distance from excavation sites to existing structures and a maximum depth (1.5m) to which sand can be dug. Risk of flooding is an important factor for certain areas of Tamilnadu especially along the coast where the flat land gradients make it difficult to drain away direct rainfall during prolonged storms. Areas at particular risk are along the coast from Point Calimere northwards (including Madras). In addition, floods caused by high river flows are a persistent risk in the lower reaches of the Vaigai and Tambaraparani river basins and along much of the Cauvery river. Unlike other Indian states in the north, most of the irrigation reservoirs are small or medium sized ones, except Mettur dam across the Cauvery. The | water resources environmental setting and reservoirs will be discussed basin- wise as each river basin has its own distinctive environmental features and characteristics. A map showing the locations of the river basins is given in Figure 1. 3.1.1 Tambaraparani Basin The Tambaraparani and its tributaries, located in the southern parts of Tamilnadu. receive surface flows resulting from the southwest monsoon and in some local areas, from the northeast monsoon as well. In general, the _ control of surface water is by storage reservoirs located near the foot of the hills on the eastern slopes of western ghats. Karayar reservoir of Papanasam hydroelectric project is one of the earliest to be constructed for power generation during the years 1938 to 1943. Subsequently Manimuthar reservoir was completed in 1956 essentially as an irrigation reservoir. Several other storage reservoirs have been constructed across tributaries of the Tarmbaraparani such as Karuppa Nandhi (1974), and Servalar (1986). Adavinayagar is the latest to be taken up in this basin, which is under construction, and is included amongst the WRCP on-going projects. The 14 EX28S3 2/W1 W93  l E essential features ol the catchment are reserve forests with steep hill slopes and fairly good tree cover. Wildlife Is prevalent In most of the catchment I areas, In a few of the catchment areas wildlife sanctuaries are located interconnecting several river valleys at local level. Mundanthurai (tiger) and Katakkadu (lion tailed monkey) are two such wildlife sanctuaries. In some of the local valleys, there are small plantations cultivating cardamom, cloves and coffee. Coconuts are also prevalent. Soil erosion in the various I small river valleys is negligible and surface flows are free from contamination in the upper reaches of the catchment. In almost all the reservoirs, fish production is organised for producing lingerlings in seed farms (along the shores) as well as for large-scale fish production which is found to be highly productive. Leachates from runoff, such as pesticides and fertilisers, are not being monitored but the general level of such pollution will be minimal due to limited activities in the catchment area. During 1992 there was an intense cyclonic storm during the northeast rmonsoon resulting in heavy land-slides. This uprooted trees and boulders, silted up some of the reservoirs and damaged hydro-electric power houses. Servalar, Karuppa Nadhi, Rama Nadhi and Gadana reservoirs were amongst those affected due to the flash floods which occurred during this period. Except during the cyclonic storm of 1992 the surface flow is devoid of substantial sediment movement and the water quality is fairly good. Almost all the reservoirs store surface flows and divert the waters either via the river or through canals to irrigation tanks which receive water as stated. The regulation below the tanks for irrigation is left to farmer groups. Water quality monitoring is being carried out sporadicatly for some physico- chemical parameters such as pH, suspended solids, electrical conductivity, chlorides, and sulphates. Sample collection and analysis are carried out by the laboratory located in the Soil Mechanics Division of PWD in Madras. A number of community water supply systems and a major scheme to supply water to the industrial complexes in and around Tuticorin draw their requirements from the Tambaraparani basin and release industrial and domestic waste waters back, some of which have little or no treatment. 3.1.2 Vaigai-Periyar Basin The Vaigai river originates on the eastem slopes of the westem ghats and receives flow from the southwest as well as the northeast monsoons. A number of small reservoirs such as Manjalar and Vaigai are located in this basin which store water essentially for irrigation purposes. The Periyar, which * is a west flowing river located in the adjoining state of Kerala, has been diverted through a tunnel into the Vaigai basin to provide additional flow for cultivation in the command area of the Vaigai basin. This project was * completed as early as 1895. The catchment area is partly located on the western slopes of the westem ghats (Kerala) and partly on the eastern slopes of the western ghats (Tamilnadu). Two new reservoirs are being built across I smaller tributaries of the Vaigai, viz, Shanmuga Nadhi and Sothuparai, which are proposed as part of the WRCP on-going minor schemes. The catchment areas of the reservoirs are essentially reserve forests with very little private I land ownership and fairly dense tree cover. Wildlife is prevalent in all the catchment areas. The water spread areas do not receive much siltation due to the good vegetative cover in the catchments and are conducive to fish 15 EX 2853 2W1193  production. In each of the reservoirs, fish production as well as seed farms (fingerlings) are common. Vaigai reservoir, by contrast, Is located in the plains where part of the catchment is eroded whilst the lands under cultivation are mostly for dry-foot crops which result in added siltation. The iirigated area is in the plains leading to the east coast of Tamilnadu. Water from the reservoirs flows through rivers or canals filling up tanks to stabilise the irrigated land (ayacut). Farm runoff from the command area may contain pesticides and fertiliser residues as intense farming operations are being carried out in the entire Vaigal basin. Water quality monitoring is being done sporadically as part of the World Bank aided project on modemisation of the Periyar-Vaigai irrigation system. A number of water supply schemes, including a major scheme to supply Madurai city corporation, draw from the Vaigai basin in different locations Industrial demand for water is also met from different locations in the Vaigai basin. 3.1.3 Parambikulam-Aliyar Basin The catchment areas of small rivers located in the Anamalai hills receive the bulk of their supply during the southwest monsoon and meagre flows during the northeast monsoon. Most of the reservoirs are located in the hilly region of the western ghats. The catchment area has a mixed land use pattem. In some, the catchment area is essentially reserve forest with good tree cover. But in the rest there are tea and other plantations. The Lower Nirar reservoir had a catchment area with cincoan plantations which have been converted into tea plantations with extensive removal of tree cover. Correspondingly, the exposed soil is likely to silt up the lower Nirar dam considerably. This in tum will lead to siltation in the Sholaiyar and Parambikulam reservoirs as well. Nirar dam is located in the upper reaches of the hill area and the stored water flows through tunnels to reservoirs located below. Paramnbikulan and Sholaiyar reservoirs have catchment areas with good tree cover producing surface flows which are free from silt. Aliyar dam, located at the foot hills on the eastern slopes of the western ghats, also has a good catchment area with effective tree cover and siltation is not high. However, Thirumoorthy dam, which receives water from all the other reservoirs in addition to its own catchment, has a greater amount of siltation due to poor vegetative cover in is catchment together with some barren pockets. The command areas of the Parambikulam-Aliyar projects are essentially on black cotton soils where the cropping pattem is on an altemate year basis which provides for recharging groundwater and filling up wells in the neighbourhood. The command area is, thus, distinctly differen. from those of the Tambaraparani and Vaigai basins. Cases of fluoride build up in groundwater widely reported in the past have not proved to be significant. 3.1.4 Bhavani Basin The Bhavani river, which is a tributary of the Cauvery, has a dam at Bhavani Sagarwhich is essentially for irrigation purposes. It receives surface flowfrom two valleys in the upper reaches of Nilgiris viz, Moyar valley and Kundah valley. Glenmorgan (1938), Sandy Nullah (1966), Pykara (1966), and Mukkurthy (1956) are some of the reservoirs located in the hills of the Moyar valley. The catchment areas of most of these reservoirs have good forest and tree cover 16 EX28s3 29d11193  but In recent years Increased human actilvity has resulted In exposure of the top soil. Sandy Mullah reservoir has two large Industrles located in the catchment namely Hindustan Photo Films and Protein Products India which discharge partly treated Industrial effluents into the river. The catchment area also has Intense farming activities where potato, cabbage and othervegetables are grown. All these reservoirs are essentially for storage for power generation In Singara power house located about 400 m below the lamns. The tailrace water of Singerm power house is drawn through a flume to * Mayavakkandi reservoir which acts as a forebay reservoir for Moyar power house located another 300 m below. Moyar runs into Bhavani Sagar reservoir where water is fairly Iree from silt except that originating In the lower catchment areas. Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary is located In this catchment where reserve forest and good tree cover are prevalent. The Kundah valley, on the other hand, has a series of dams: Upper Bhavani (1969), Emerald (1961), Avalanchi (1961), Porthimund (1966), Parsals Valley (1966), Pegrinahalla (1966), Kundah Palam (1 966) and Pillur reservoir (1966). All these reservoirs are interconnected one below the other through tunnels and penstock pipes for the generation of power. The catchments in some of the areas are reserve forests but most of the other areas have tea plantations and vegetable cultivation such as potato, cabbage and carrot, on a large scale. * Such agricultural operations expose the top soil and result in soil erosion which gets reflected in heavy siltation in Pillur dam located at tho lower elevations near the foot of the hills. About 30% reduction in the capacity of the Pillur reservoir during the past 25 years has been reported, though the catchment area of Pillur reservoir by itself has reserve forest and good tree cover. The flow from Pillur reservoir reaches Bhavani Sagar through the river and siltation in Bhavani Sagar has also been attributed to the causes enumerated above. On the other hand, the Upper Bhavani and Makurthi reservoirs and catchments have fully recovered and could be taken as model ecosystems with pristine - conditions. Water is abstracted for industrial use from the Bhavani and heavy pollution due to the Viscose Rayon and other industries has been repotted in this reach. However, systematic water quality monitoring has not been carried out except for sporadic monitoring by the TNPCB. The catchment area has diversion dams across the river which have been in existence even during the British period and the lower Bhavani Main canal is used to irrigate dry-foot crops. Ultimately the drainage from the Bhavani flows into the river Cauvery. An Environmental Assessment of the Bhavani river basin has been carried out wherein the catchment, reservoir and command area have been assessed criically for environrnental quality. This will serve as an example for future replication by WRD and for training purposes. 3.1.5 Cauvery Basin J The Cauvery is an inter-state river having catchment areas in Kamataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu. Bhavani is one of the tributaries of the Cauvery, the basin characteristics of which have been discussed in 3.1.4. The Cauvery is the main source of irrigation for about 9.34 lakhs acres (370,000 ha) in Tanjore delta close to the sea coast. The potential flow in a catchment of about 2,000 km2 is around 250 TMC; (0.71 x 1010 m3) but due to disputes between Kamataka and Tamilnadu, the allocation for Tamilnadu will depend upon the decision of the Cauvery Tribunal. The bulk of Tamilnadu's irrigation and food production depends upon the flow in the Cauvery and also the tributaries of 17 EX2S 25 0t193  Ei R the Cauvery within Tamllnadu. In addition 'o direct irrigation from canals taking off from the river there are also tanks In the basin which get stabilised from the storage provided in Stanley reservoir above the Mettur dam, located just downstream of the border with Karnataka. The Southwest monsoon in the hilly regions of Kerela, Kamataka and Tamilnadu provides the bulk of the flow into the Cauvery basin through several tributades. There are a number of storage reservoirs on the tributaries to the Cauvery as well as two major reservoirs on the main river at Krishnarajasagar I (Karnataka) and Mettur. The storage reservoirs located at the foot of the hills on the eastern slopes of the western ghats including Nilgiris, have esserlially reserve forests and good tree cover. A few locations, as in the Kundah valley I and some reservoirs of Karnataka, have plantations and other activities in the catchment. Correspondingly, soil erosion leading to siltation in Krishna- rajasagar and Mettur is comparatively low. In other localised reservoirs siltation may be heavy but details regarding the situation in Karnataka were not available to the writers. The Cauvery delta receives a fraction of its supply from the northeast monsoon during the October-December irrigation season but the area, being coastal plains with no storage reservoirs, drains into the sea after only partial use of the rainwater in the canals. Wildlife is prevalent in the catchment areas of the Cauvery as well as its tributaries, the details of which have been discussed in 3.1.4. However, for a complete picture of the Cauvery basin further knowlege would be needed of the catchment area in Kerela and Karnataka which is beyond the scope of this study. 3.1.6 Pennajyar Basin Pennaiyar basin lies essentially within outcrops of the eastern ghats and within I the eastern slopes of the western ghats. which do not have dense vegetation and forest cover as in the case of Vaigai and Tambaraparani basins. Most of the areas have dry-foot crop cultivation, which leads to soil erosion during rains. The high rate of siltation in the Krishnagiri reservoir (see Table 5) is an indication to show the fragile catchment characteristics. Further, the bulk of the flow is during the northeast monsoon (October- December) with only part during the southwest monsoon. Most of the time during the year, the river and its tributaries are dry, except during monsoons. The forest ecosystem is fragile and there are very few wildlife except in Shevray and Kolli hills. 3.1.7 Palar Basin The Palar originates from the eastern part of Karnataka, from the outcrops of the western ghats. The bulk of the flow in the river takes place during the northeast monsoon with very little contribution during the southwest monsoon. X Most of the time during the year. the river is dry. The catsnment area in this basin has a fragile forest ecosystem with very few wildlife, except in the Shevray hills and Kolli hills, which are outcrops of the eastern ghats. Rainfed crop cultivation is prevalent in the catchment, which leads to soil erosion during rains. Due to extensive sand cover in the river I bed, subsurface recharge takes place during floods and little water flows into l 1 8 EX Z8S3 Z9t11U93 l  the sea. The Palar is marked by several anicuts across the river and has no major reservoirs. The prevalence of a large number of small and medium sized tanneries adjoining the river course, has resulted in tannery effluents which are causing impairment to groundwater quality. According to the Soil Chemist in the Department of Agriculture, the effluent has already had a severe effect on 3.911 ha of agricultural tand in North Arcot District and a further 11.851 ha are moderately affected. 3.2 Groundwater There Is estimated to be approximately 1.4 million opemting wells in Tamilnadu including several major integrated water supply, municipal supply and industrial supply systems depending on groundwater. lhe Groundwater Division of PWD calculates the groundwater potential for each of the 384 development blocks into which the state is divided. On the basis of this calculation blocks are designated as "dark", in which more than 85% of the annual recharge is already exploited, 'grey", in which the proportion is 65% to 85%, and "white", for blocks where less than 65% is utilised. In Januany 1992 there were 89 dark blocks, 85 grey blocks and 210 white blocks. Figure 2 gives a general overview of the hydrogeology of Tamilnadu and the distribution of dark blocks is shown in Figure 5. This provides a snap-shot of the situation rather than an indication of long-term trends since the calculation of groundwater exploitation is undertaken annually and reflects rainfall and recharge during the year. Between 1980 and 1992 the number of dark blocks varied between 39 (in 1985) and 133 (in 1981). Overall, approximately 60% of Tamilnadu's estimated groundwater potential is now exploited; up from 46% in 1985. Whilst the WRCP will not have any adverse impact on the groundwater it is necessary to discuss the issue in some depth as this report attempts to cover the water resources sector throughout the state. Groundwater problems vary over the state and some particular problem areas are outlined below. The Madras region, which depends on groundwater, for domestic and industrial needs, to a considerable extent, has been observing a fall of over a metre in the water table during the last five years and to some extent saline water intrusion has also taken place in the Minjur well field north of the city. Although beyond the scope of the WRCP this problem needs to be addressed by the Madras Water Supply project. In Chingleput District a fail in ground water level was observed in Tiruttani, Thiruporur, Kundrathur and Minjur blocks whereas in other areas, there has not been an appreciable fall in groundwater levels. In Alangayam, Tirupathur, Anicut, and Pernambet blocks of North Arcot Ambedkar District groundwater levels have fallen in the range of 1 to 2 metres during the five year period 1986-1992. The Chinnaselam, Kallakurichi, Virudhachalam and Kannapuram blocks of South Arcot District have observed up to 7 metres fall in groundwater levels over five years, which is alarming. l 19 EX 2ssa 29(11 193  EN ~~~I- Coimbatore, Periyar, Madurai and Ramnad Districts have some pockets where groundwater depletion appears to be significant. Groundwater depletion has been only marginal in Dindigul, Dharmpur, Tanjavur Districts during the past I five years. Over-exploitation of groundwater carries two dangers: first, the falling water | table demands increasing amounts of energy to extract water for irrigation and other uses; and secondly, depletion of groundwater often leads to deterioration of the water quality especially in coastal areas where saline intrusion occurs. i Groundwater quality is discussed below. Whilst the utilisation rate for groundwater is lower than that of the surface water the problems of regulating groundwater abstractions are more complex. At present there is no legislation to control groundwater abstractions except in the Madras Metropolitan area and even here the authorities feel obliged to U compensate farmers if they wish to remove their right to pump from aquifers required for supplying the city's water needs. Elsewhere, no attempt is made to control abstractions by farmers operating existing wells and boreholes. However, electricity connections for new pumps are denied to farmers digging wells within specified distances of irrigation canals (distance depending on the size of canal) and river banks. For larger consumers (municipal and rural _ water supply schemes and industries) some control is exercised over new ' schemes if the groundwater resources are not considered sufficient to meet demand. This applies chiefly to government schemes which are denied funding if the water source is inadequate. The biggest obstacle to rational management of groundwater resources is the present policy in the state of providing free electricity to agricultural consumers. I This means that groundwater abstractions cannot even be controlled by pricing mechanisms for energy. It also means that scarce water and energy resources are being used uneconomically and unsustainably: it cannot be in I the best overall long-term interests of the region for water to be pumped. sometimes from a significant depth, to irrigate low value crops, particularly paddy. Some restraint has been placed on new connections for agriculture and in 1992 only 40,000 approvals were made from the 6 to 7 year waiting list. In addition, those wishing to have priority are now required to pay a connection charge of Rp 25,000 plus an annual charge per hp per year and about 4.000 of the new approvals accepted this. ' This is a complex p'oblem and whilst the GOTN have accepted the need to revise the policy of free electricity, for both economic and environmental reasons the issue is politically sensitive. Extensive discussions have been held on this subject and a phased approach is recommended. It may not be opportune to introduce pricing for existing users at the same time as creating the new Water Resources Department as this could lead to acrimony and mitigate against the work of the WRD. An initial step would be to withhold approval for any new connections in 'dark or even 'grey' areas. any areas I within 10 km of the coast or where low value crops or deep pumping is required and to introduce charges for all approved new connections. This policy also has an implication for energy consumption as discussed in X Section 3.7. 20 EX 2853 2911 ra93 i  l N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3.3 Water quality 3.3.1 Surface water The TNPCB has an extensive water quality moniloring programme which is centred around 3 advanced environmental laboratories, 3 District Laboratories and 6 mobile ones. Much of the sampling is directed towards municipal end Industrial effluent disposal points to enable TNPCB to meet its statutory requirement to enforce effluent disposal standards (see Section 3.3.3). There are also permanent monitoring stations for coastal and river water quality. There are approximately 30 coastal water quality monitoring stations currently maintained by the TNPCS where a range of chemical and biological parameters are measured including pesticides and plankton. In addition, sediment samples are also collected at some locations and tested for heavy metal and faecal po'utants. The stations cover the entire Tamilnadu coast. Some are located i.i river mouths, others at municipal and industrial outfalls and others in coastal and offshore waters. Sampling inland water quality in rivers is more difficult because the majority of rivers are highly seasonal in their flow and remain dry for much of the year. Pollutants released into the river channel at times when there is little or no flow mainly percolate into the groundwater. The exceptions are the Tambaraparani and Cauvery rivers which are perennial. Here the TNPCB operates a network of monitoring stations, 7 on the Tambaraparani and 18 on the Cauvery. Parameters monitored include standard physio-chemical and biological indicators and the data eollected are submitted to the Indian water quality monitoring network, MINAS, and to the Global Environmental Monitoring network, GEMS. Sporadic water quality monitoring also takes place in the Vaigai basin. Samples are collected at six monthly or yearly intervals from some reservoirs and sent to Madras where they are analysed after a lapse of several days within the laboratory of the Soil Mechanics Division of PWD. Chemical quality may not be affected due to the lapse of time but bacteriological and biological quality would be affected. However the main objective of this programme is to monitor the water's suitability for irrigation. In some of the reservoirs odour problems due to hydrogen sulphide and ammonia gases as well as fish kills have been reported. This could be attributed to disintegration of organic matter from natural vegetation or due to entry of pollution from industrial and domestic sources. Such problems have been reported from hydro-electric power houses as well as irTigation reservoirs. However, organised attempts to collect samples for identification of pollution levels as well as the sources of pollution have yet to be undertaken. It is likely that some of the reservoirs risk eutrophication due to the release of nutrients from plantation and other activities. Nutrients, intense sunlight and favourable agro-climatic conditions are conducive to the eutrophication of many reservoirs, which may be one of the reasons for the smell and other problems mentioned above. The environmental quality of many reservoirs is not being monitored, either for water quality or eutrophication. A few research studies, sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, have been undertaken by Universities, such as the one on Ooly lake in Nilgiris by Madras University and on Kodai Lake in Kodaikanal. 21 EX2BS3 29' lIm l  U 3.3.2 Groundwater Monitoring groundwater quality is the responsibility of the Groundwater wing of PWD using approxirnately 2,100 observation wells located in different parts of the state. Chemical parameters are monitored to assess suitability for irrigation or industrial needs. Bacteriological quality is not monitored under this programme but the Department of Public Health has a drinking water I monitoring programme under which drinking water sources are periodically examined. | Pollution of groundwater due to the discharge of industrial effluents has been studied in selected areas, in the Palar, Vaigai, Cauvery and Tambaraparani river basins. In some locations, as in North Arcot District (Ambur, Ranipet, I Vaniyambadi, etc) tannery effluents discharged over a long period of time, have resulted in deterioration in groundwater quality to such an extent that it has become unfit for drinking and irrigation. Large tracks of well irrigated land I have become unfit for cultivation (see Section 3.1.7). In some other areas salinity has increased due to saline waler intrusion as in Minjur, north of Madras, Radhapuram and Sattankulam taluks of Nellai Kattabomman District and coastal parts of Nagapattinan, Ramnad and Chidambaranar Districts. Away from the coast, a number of recions also show high salinity levels which are deteriorating particularly in Coimbatore and Madurai Districts. A map showing measured electrical conductivity values in groundwater is shown in Figure 6. Deteriorating groundwater quality is likely - to become one of the most important water resources and environmental a issues in the fulure. In 23 locations, particularly in Ramanathapuram and South Arcot Districts, small package water desalination plants have been provided for drinking water under the Water Technology Mission promoted by the Government of India. Technology is available for brackish water desalination by reverse osmosis but the operation and maintenance costs are extremelX high; in the range Rs 40 to 100 per 1000 litres for outputs from 50 to 1Om /day. This is beyond the reach of rural communities. Little is known about the possible pollution of groundwater with agrochemicals although a study in 1989 (UNTCD, 1989) found nitrate levels in parts of the Tambaraparani and Pennaiyar basins above WHO recommended limits for drinking water, In the western part of the state groundwater displays very high levels of fluorides. 3.3.3 Water quality standards Water quality standards have been recommended by the Government of India (CBPCWP, 1986) for different classes of water use [see Tables 2 and 3]. The TNPCB has also set standards for trade effluents being released into inland surface waters, into sewers, into coastal waters and on land [see Table 4]. These effluent release standards are enforcible by law and the TNPCB has the power to enforce them, if necessary, by ordering the closure of a factory or other enterprise. In practice, the TNPCB is reluctant to harm economic activity and tries hard to help industries attain the necessary discharge standards. In the case of small enterprises, such as the tanneries in the Palar basin, the TNPCB 22 EX2SS3 2DttUD3  attempts to promote combined treatment plants serving several unis. There is, however, a backlog of existing industries still failing to meet the required effluent standards although the TNPCB ensures that all new industries comply. A more difficult problem is the discharge of sewage from urban areas since many small municipalities do not have the resources to provide adequate * wastewater treatment. 3.4 Soil and land resources * Tamilnadu covers an area of 130 000 km2 on the southeast tip of India. Its eastem and southern edges are formed by sea coast whilst its northern and westem boarders lie in high land which separates Tamilnadu from its 9 neighbouring states of Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, see Figure 1. Although in the south the boundary lies along the continental watershed dividing the east-flowing from the west-flowing rivers there are a number of rivers rising mainly in the districts of Coimbatore and Nilgiris which flow west into Kerala and several rivers, the most important of which is the Cauvery, which rise in Karanataka and Andhra Pradesh and flow into Tamilnadu. The general picture, however, is of a region bordered by high land in the west and north from which rivers flow in an easterly direction across a broad plain to the sea. The major rivers are lapped extensively for irrigation, see Figure 7. 1 3.4.1 Soil and land use The main soil types are black soils and red loams which are distributed - throughout much of the state with sandy coastal alluvium being found in some coastal regions, see Figure 8. The soils are generally fertile and lack of suitable soils is not considered a constraint to agriculture. The soil resources of Tamilnadu do not show any widespread deterioration due to the processes of soil salinisation or water logging. The Department of Agriculture monitors soil salinisation through its regular soil surveys which test X 980,000 samples annually in 29 soil testing laboratories. Although pockets of salinisation occur in most districts, the largest areas affected are in coastal regions with brackish groundwater and poor drainage. Three of these account I for 57% of the total area affected: Chengalpallu (85,000ha), South Arcot (74,000ha) and Nagapattinam (77,000ha). Inland poor water management is a cause of waterlogging and salinisation and the districts winh the largest areas 3 affected are Coimbatore (28,000ha) in the Parambikulam Aliyar Project and Madurai (23,000ha) in the Vaigai basin. In total some 412,000 ha have been identified as suffering from some degree of salinisation. Once identified, the farmers are advised what remedial measures should be taken (such as application of gypsum) and, if funds are available, they may receive subsidies towards the cost. Under the WRCP parts of those inland areas which fall within the command areas covered by the project will benefit from rehabilitation and improved management which will reduce waterlogging and salinisation. Current land use is largely determined by elevation, rainfall and water availability. In 1990-1991 the land was used in the following ways (Director of Statistics. 1992): | Forest 16.5% Barren and uncultivable 3.9% Non agricultural uses 14.1% Cultivable Waste 2.2% Pastures and grazing 1.0% Tree crops 1.8% 23 EX 2553 23tI 1t93  Current fallow 9.6% Other fallow 8.0% Net area sown 42.9% (of which 18.9 % sown rnore than U once in the year.) 3.4.2 Agriculture | Irrigation is important for agriculture in much of the state although of the net area sown in 1990-91, only 42.5% was under irrigation. The following sources of supply were used (as % of total area irrigated). Government canals XI.4% Tanks 22.4% U Tube wells 7.2% Shallow wells 37.5% Other 0.5% 1 Rice is the dominant agricultural crop although it now accounts for only about 30% of the cropped area. The following table shows how the cropped area, production and yield of major crops have varied over the 20 years up to 1990-91 (Department of Agriculture figures): Crop Cropped area Production (Mt) Yield (tlha) l ~~~~~(ha x 10Ob l_ _ 1970711 1990 f 91t970-71 1990-91 1970-71 j 1990.91 0 Rice 2.64 1.86 5.01 5.78 1.9 3.1 Millet and 1.96 1.18 1.50 135 0.8 1.1 cereal Pulses 0.49 0.85 0.13 0.36 0.3 0.4 Sugar Cane 0.11 0.23 1.07 2.42 9.4 10.4 Grund Nut 0.99 0.96 0.99 1.18 1.0 12 Cotton 0.30 0.24 0.59 0.74 2.0 3.1 In all cases, except pulses and sugar cane, there has been a reduction in cropped area over the 20 years but corresponding increases in yields have meant that the total production figures for all crops except millet have risen during the period. In the case of rice, the increase in yield from 1.9 tVha to U 3.1 t/ha is substantial. This has partly been achieved by increased use of fertilisers. In 1990-91 the average application of fertilisers was 130 kg/ha and that of pesticides was 0.5 kg/ha. Although the chemicals are rnaking a significant contribution to yield, the levels are not sufficiently high to raise concerns of pollution of soil or water as a result of their use except in places where local rates of application are considerably higher. Nevertheless, this will need to be monitored as use of chemicals is likely to increase. U Livestock ownership is important. Tamilnadu has over 9 million cattle, over 3 million water buffalo, over 11 million sheep and goats and over 21 million I poultry. As the following tables shows, almost threequarters of land holdings in Tamilnadu are of less than 1 ha; a size which the government classes as .marginal'. 24 EX 2553 2W1 1193 I  Class Size (ha) Number of % of Total area % of holdings holdings (ha x 106) area _________ ~(xi 06M_ _ _ _ * Marginal c 1.0 5.85 73 2.12 28 Small 1.0-2.0 1.27 16 1.79 24 Semi- 2.0-4.0 0.62 8 1.69 23 medium Medium 4.0-10.0 0.23 3 1.30 17 Large > 10.0 0.03 0.4 0.57 8 Total 8.00 7.47 Forest of various types is found largely in the hills in the western side of the state although patches of forest are also found in the plains and coconuts are common in the Cauvery delta, see Figure 9. The distribution and types of forest will be discussed in more detail in Section 3.5 below. Social forestry can have a positive impact on erosion and there has been an active social forestry programme in Tamilnadu for several years, one element of which is the planting of acacia trees wkhin the water-spread area of tanks to provide fuelwood for villagers. This is generally intended to occur only on the margins of the pool but observations by the consultants and the reports of others suggest that the planting of trees in a substantial proportion of the U water-spread area is common. Crhicism has been made that this imposes an additional water demand on the tank, although data to quantify this are not available and research is needed. The trees have also been criticised with regard to sedimentation because they increase the rates of sediment derosition and hinder desilting. Ecologically the trees are welcomed as nesting sites for birds (Section A.15) but are said to hamper fishing (Section 4.14). It is, therefore welcome that an intor-departmental research committee has been established to look at the overall implications of tree planting within tanks. 3.4.3 Soil conservation One of the main threats to the productivity of the land, and also the management of water, is erosion of soil leading to siltation of tanks and storage reservoirs. These will be considered separately. As stated in the Introduction (Section 1.1), the earliest tanks in Tamilnadu were protected from the effects of sedimentation both by conservation of the catchments and regular desilting. Most of the tanks are in lowland areas and X there is a constant pressure by farmers to occupy and clear the catchment X areas for cultivation leading to increased rates of erosion. This, combined with relatively little desilting work in the last few decades has created a situation of serious siltation in many of the tanks. Data are rather sparse since few tanks have been accurately surveyed for siltation but PWD (1993) estimates on the basis of a cursory study that between 20% and 40% of the original capacity of Tamilnadu tanks is now filled with sediment. Surveys of tanks are the U responsibility of the Gaugings Division but only the larger tanks are surveyed regularly. Unfortunately the data for these tanks contains a large number of inconsistencies anc are not worth reproducing here. 25 EX 285S 29111193  There are far fewer reservoirs than tanks; 65 are Isted by Director of Statistics (1992). Of these, 23, which are presumably the ones which were thought to be at greatest risk from siltation, were surveyed by the Institute of Hydraulics and Hydrology, Poondi in the period 1975 to 1993, see Table 5. At the time they were surveyed the age of the reservoirs ranged from 16 to 87 years and their loss of capacity ranged from 1.1% to 58t% of the original capacity. Ovemll, 17% of the total capacity of these reservoirs had been lost at the time they were surveyed. This figure is rather meaningless, however, since 64% / of the original capacity was provided by a single reservoir; the Mettur Stanley I Reservoir. More revealing is the annual rate of storage loss of individual reservoirs as a percent of their original capacity as shown in Table 5 and summarised below: Rate of storage loss (0/6/yr) Number of reservoirs 3 <0.1% 2 0.1 - 0.5% 10 0.5- 1.0% 4 1.0 - 2.0% 4 > 2.0% 2 The rate of siltation thus varies considerably. In some cases the situation is serious with a substantial loss of ber.ef it from the reservoirs due to the storage capacity already lost. Six reservoirs are filling at more than twice the median rate. In the case of the reservoir filling at the fastest rate (Kundah-Pallam Reservoir), 58% of its storage had been lost in the 22 years up to its first sedimentation survey; a rate of 2.6% per year. Many of the oldest reservoirs were built in hilly areas with catchments which remain well covered in forest to this day. These forests protect the soil and prevent high rates of erosion. The biggest siltation problems are occurring in reservoirs built in the foothills, on the edge of the coastal plain, where considerable clearance of vegetation from catchments has occurred. Parts of the Bhavani river basin exhibits particularly high rates of reservoir sedimentation and should be given a high priority for remedial soil conservation measures. To counter this, and restore the inherent productivity of areas in which loss of soil has made land infertile, the government has a programme of conservation under various micro-watershed management projects but there are no mnajor catchment management projects as yet. It is estimated that of the 13 x 1 O6ha land area in Tamilnadu, 3.65 x I 6ha (28%) is subject to soil erosion. This does not include areas within the forest reserve lands which are the U responsibility of the Forestry Department. Since 1961, an area of 1.69 x 1 06ha has been treated with bunds, check dams, stream training and other protective U measures. This work is largely undertaken under the direction of the U Agricultural Engineering Division (AED). Farmers are expected to contribute to the costs of this work, Rs 600-1,000/ha in the plains and Rs 6,500- 10,000/ha in the hills, but may receive subsidies to cover 25% or 40% of the I cost respectively. Funds are available for 1993/94 to treat 75,000ha most of which will be in the plains. According to the Bhavani Basin Environmental Assessment report (1993) there are 13 agencies involved in some aspect of U soil conservation in the state and thus action is fragmented. 26 EX B53 2911 93  An early Issue to be considered by the WRO should be reservoir sedimentation and the RBMs responsible for those basins with soil erosion problems should give priority to finding solutions, However, there Is a danger that the RBMs will just add to the fragmented institutional responsibilities and this must be avoided. Under the environmental action plan (see Part B) funds are included for a special planning study of soil conservation which should make clear practical proposals for appropriate action as well as review the present institutional responsibilities and make recommendations for consideration by the WRC. Siltation is not only a problem affecting tanks and reservoirs but Is also important with respect to irrigation canals particularly those which take their water direct from rivers without passing through a storage reservoir or tank. Areas which are known to be particLularly prone to canal siltation are parts of the Cauvery delta (Metro and Boniar channels), the Periyar main canal and the Palar anicut, although quantitative measures of the severity of the problem are difficult to obtain. The design and construction of sediment control structures for these canals should form part of the rehabilitation component of the WROP. 3.5 Ecological resources Though Tamilnadu is smaller in size than many other States of India, it has a wide variety of flora and fauna in a wide range of habitats. Dry deciduous forest, thorn forest, scrub, mangroves and wetlands occur in the dry tracks in the plains and lower hills. Moist deciduous and wet evergreen forests with sholas and grass land occupy the hilly regions mostly in the western ghats, see Figure 10. The forests are rich in plant and animal life. Out of 35,000 species of green plants found in India. about 30,000 species are found in Tamilnadu. Most of the important species of mammals are also found here. Tamilnadu has 14 wildlife sanctuaries and 5 national parks covering about 12.5% of the forest area (see Figure 9). Two biosphere reserves, one in the Nilgiris and another in the Gulf of Mannar constituted by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, are also located here. A tiger reserve combining Mundanthurai and Kalakkadu wildlife sanctuaries under 'Project Tiger" has also been established. About 308km2 (1.4% of the total forest area) has been brought under national parks. In addition 252,600ha (2,526km2) have been declared as wildlife sanctuaries. The WildPfe (Protection) Act 1972 and the Wildlife (Protection) Tamilnadu Rules 1975 provide an effective management and conservation strategy for the rich heritage of wildlife. Details of the wildlife sanctuaries in Tamilnadu are given in Table 6. Most of the wildlife sanctuaries are located in the catchment areas of reservoirs in the foot hills of the eastern slopes of the westem ghats. Well organised catchment protection, soil conservation measures as well as forest preservation and protection are necessary not only for the preservation of wildlife but also to protect the storage of water and preserve the ecology of the region. The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 provides legal and regulatory safeguards to support such conservation. Natural inland fisheries are not significant in much of the state although special cold water fisheries are found in the Nilgiris and major reservoirs and large tanks are made productive through annual restocking. The total annual inland fish production is 84,000t including estuary and brackish water areas. Migratory fish such as eels and hilsa are no longer found in Tamilnadu 27 EX 2853 2911113  although giant freshwater orawns occur in the Cauvery. Carp populations In the Cauvery have, howeva3r, declined in recent years, On the negative side, interaction between the biosphere and agricultural production, in the form of weeds and pests, limits crop yields. For example, rice paddy has 10 pests commonly found in Tamilnadu. The Department of L Agriculture through its 160 Plant Protection Officers closely monitors the prevalence of pests throughout the state and prepares weekly bullelins, in discussion with scientists from the Tamilnadu Agricultural University, I Coimbatore. These identify the high risk pests in each District. The bulletins are broadcast and are used by the farmers and Village Extension Workers to guide control measures. In the past these have largely been through chemical 9 control but recently there has been a move towards integrated measures including chemical, biological (competitor species) and physical methods (such as light traps). Plant Protection Officers are also responsible for advising on the control of rodents wlhich cause damage particularly to harvested crops in storage. 3.6 Coastal resources Approximately hall of Tamilnadu is bordered by coastline. The 1,000 km coast represents one sixth of the total coastline of India. The coastal plain is flat and exposed to the attack of the sea especially during cyclones which occur on average two or three times a year causing localised and sometimes widespread, flooding. At present the coastal protection works in Tamilnadu are = constructed and maintained by the PWD. Marine fisheries are a significant source of income. In 1991-92, 300,000t of marine fish were landed by an estimated 100,000 active fishermen working from 440 marine fishing villages. 40% was caught from non-mechanised boats and the remainder from mechanised and motorised boats (only 13% from the larr,er motorised boats). There is increasing concern in many countries about the possible effect of marine pollution on fisheries and marine life. A number of industries, particularly around Madras, are located on the coast and discharge their effluent, both treated and untreated, into the sea. Likewise, Madras and other coastal towns discharge untreated municipal sewage into the sea. The quality of coastal waters in Tamilnadu is monitored regularly by the TNPCB as described in Section 3.3.1. A new area of concern at present is the industry around the southern tip. Apart from fisheries, the Tamilnadu coast supports other important marine life. In the Gulf of Mannar a marine National Park has been established, including 21 small offshore islands, to protect the rare dugong population as well as turtles, dolphins and other marine life. At the point of Calimere there is a wildlife sanctuary wh:- h covers 1,700 ha of tidal swamps where water birds, various mammals, turtles and dolphin are found. At other places along the coast, particularly around the Cauvery delta large populations of birds nest and roost around tanks and water bodies, both fresh and brackish. The above examples, although important, are however somewhat isolated and are not typical of the rnajority of this coastline which along much of its length carries a significant human population and which has only small areas of I undisturbed mangrove and coastal swamps. In the norih, the coastal wetlands are badly degraded. Until recently the coral around the Gulf of Mannar was 28 EX 2653 2W9 11D3  mi, ed for cement production but this has now been stopped. Pearl cultivation is coimmon in this area. Madras is the largest and most importan! sea port in Tamilnadu carrying about 70% of the statek fore;gn trade. Of the other fouir ports the most significant is Tuticorin which carries 12%. Together these ports account for the import and export o foreign goods annually to the total value of Rs. 80 x 109 (800 crores) equivalent to US$ 2,580 million. There is a net northeriy littoral drift of sediment along much of the coast. Around Madras, the construction of breakwaters has caused siltation of the mouths of the channels carrying floodwaters through the city. Dredging operations are, therefore, required to keep these channels and the port clear. It is not anticipated that activities under the WRCP will effect the coastal resources since the small marine discharges from most river basins do not allow major transport of pollutants from inland and the only significant irrigation in a sensitive coastal zone is in the Cauvery Delta which is excluded from the project. 3.7 Energy, minerals and air Tamilnadu's rural population depends heavily on fuelwood as a source of domestic energy although, by the end of 1991, electricity had been provided to 440 towns, 16,000 villages and 48,000 hamlets throuC!4out the state. Hydropower stations are an important source of electricity to meet this demand. In 1991-92 there were 24 hydro-electric stations with a combined capacity of 1,945 MW producing 4.4 TWh of energy (20% of the total production). Three thermal power stations with a combined capacity of 2,340 MW generated 8.5 TWh (40 % of total production). The other 40% of the electricity was purchased from centrally operated and atomic power stations. Energy consumption by the agricultural sector represents 27% of the total. The remaining electricity is consumed by the industrial (42%), commercial (6%), domestic (16%) and other sectors (9%). It is not possible to discuss water resources in isolation from energy resources particularly in Tamilnadu where 20% of electricity is supplied by hydropower, 27%. of electricity consumption is used to pump groundwater for irrigation and much of the domestic energy used by rural households is supplied by fuelwood. Each of these facts raises some potentially difficult issues: * can a balance be found between reservoir operating policies which optimise the production of energy and those which optimise the production of irrigated crops? * can groundwater abstractions be regulated to allow water tables to rise and thereby reduce the amount of energy needed for pumping groundwater? * can provision oi renewable fuelwood plantations be integrated into overall plans for the management of catchments and protection of wildlife? Other potential issues include the provision of cooling water for thermal power stations, the effect of lignie mining on groundwater, the energy needs for supplying clean water through piped systems and the energy requirements for desalination plants. 29 Ex28e3 2g,1U93 ;  Discussions are in progress to address tie ,olitically sensitive issue of introducing payment for electricity for pumping of water for agricultural purposes. The need for appropriate measures has been recognised by the GOTN but will take some time to resolve. In debating this issue It should be realised that excessive energy consumption resuls in unnecessary pollution from power stations. In the meantime some steps have been made to qontrol new connections. This issue is also discussed in Section 3.2. Tamilnadu is not rich in minerals. By far the most valuable mineral output is the 11.8 Mt/yr of lignite from two mines in south Arcot district. This operation also has water resources implications because large quantities of groundwater have to be pumped to keep the open-cast mines dry. Tami;nadu also produces 300,000 t/yr of crude oil, 400,000 tVyr of magnesite and small quantities of bauxite and gypsum. Limestone is quarried in 8 districts the total output being 4.8 Mt/yr. Most of this is used for the 4.5 Mt/yr of cement whic'l the state produces. Industries are located mostly in and around Madras, Coimbatore, Salem, Neyveli, Trichy, Madura! and Tuticorin with cement factories located in different areas. Accordingly, air pollution is limited to the industrial areas and also urban centres with heavy automobile traffic. Air quality measurement has not been undertaken as an organised programme in Tamilnadu except for the city of Madras. Under the National Air Quality Monitori!g Network, three sampling stations (residential, commercial and industrial) are located in Madras city wherein air quality is being assessed for conventional parameters such as suspended particulate matter (SPM), S02 and NO,. This programme has been going on since 1978 and increasing trends in SO2 and NOx are being observed in city locations. However, the concentration of SPM, S02 and NOX are below the prescribed standards viz, 250, 150 and 150mg/l respectively. In addition, TNPCB undertakes air quality monitoring in some of the industrial locations where cement plants, thermal power stations and fertiliser plants are located. 3.8 Human resources The 1991 census showed Tamilnadu to have a population of 55.6 million of which 70%o live in the State Capital, Madras, and the remainder are spread fairly evenly through the other 20 administrative districts, at an average density of 428 per km2. The Nilgris is the most sparsely populated district with a population density of 277 per krrm. In all, 66% of Tamilnadu's population is rural. Statewise. the ratio of females to males is 0.972 although in Coimbatore it is as low as 0.91. There is concern that female infanticide occurs in some places. The Working population is considered to be 24.6 million of which 23% are cultivators, 32% agricultural labourers, and only 5% engaged in manufacturing, repair and other industries. In other words. agriculture directly accounts for 55% of all workers excluding the jobs it supports in manufacturing, retail, transport and the service industries. The economy of the State only partly reflects this agricultural bias. Of the net State domestic product of Rs. 250 x 109 (25.000 crores) less tnan 20% is provided by agriculture while 25% is provided by manufacturing. In 1991-92 the overall budget for the State Government was approximately Rs.60 x 109 (60,000 Crores) of which 70% was allocated to development expenditure. The 30 EX 2893 29I 1/93  following breakdown of the development expenditure budget shows only those headings relevant to this report. Heading Expenditure 1991-92 % of total development expenditure Rs x IOP Rs croiea Medical and Public 3.4 340 7,7 Health Water supply and 1.7 170 Y.8 m sanitation 3 Nutrition 2.7 270 6.2 Relief following 0.3 30 0.7 natural calamities Agriculture 7.0 700 15.9 Rural Development 3.2 320 7.2 Irrigation and flood 1.4 140 3.2 control Energy 0.03 3 0.06 Industry and 1.1 110 2.5 I Minerals l cience, 0.02 2 0.05 Tec!.nology and Environment Over the period of the 8th 5-year plan 1he proposed development expenditure shows increased expenditure on agricultural, irriqation and, particularly, power. The proportions are: agriculture (10.4%), rural development (4.7%), irrigation and flood control (5.6%), power (27%) and industry and minerals (5.8%). Engineers are responsible for much of the water related planning, development and management in Tamilnadu. The PWD employed about 3,900 engineers in 1992-93. Moreover, statistics indicate that 39,000 students were enrolled in colleges of engineering and technology in 1990-91, over ten times more than the nuinbers in agricultural colleges. 3.8.1 Tribal minorities Only 1% (aoproximalely) of Tamnilnadu's population is recognised as belonging to scheduled tribes. The main concentrations of tribal groups are in the hill country, particularly in the Nilgris, Analnis, the upper Tambaraparani basin and tile Jawadhu hills of the eastern i its. Tribal mincriies will not be affected by the proposed WRCP. 3.8.2 Cultural aspects Tarni!nadu has a rich heritage of sites of historical, cultural and religious value. and contains many ancient temples, shrines, forts and other cultural and historical buildings and sites of great value. These are protected by the 31 FX 2853 29/11/93  'NEN Archaeological Survey of India and the GOTN Religions Endowment Board and there are few known instances when such sites have been dostroyed or submerged as a result reservoir and irrigation projects. However, temples were affected by the Methur, Poondi and Bawanisar projects. Tamilnadu promotes its cultural heritage to visitors through an active Department of 1Tourism and private tourist industry. The local population is also encouraged lo visit dam sites by creating parks and gardens around thom. The WRCP will not hlave any adverse impact on cultural, historical or religious sites. 3 3.8.3 Health aspects There is a well established system of hospitals, dispensaries and primary health centres in the state, one centre to every 30,000 of the rural pcpulation, as well as approximately 6 times as many (9,000) health subicentres. Of the 190 000 deaths by specified diseases amongst the 350 000 deaths in 1990, 'he following shows those diseases which are generally associated with water. Disease f Number ot As % of deaths by l ___________________ deaths in 1990 specified diseases Dysentery and Diarrhoea 9145 4.88 Typhoid 578 0.31 Japanese encephalitis 170 0.09 3 Cholera 19 0.01 Malaria 0 0 It is clear that the water-bome diseases, dysentery. diarrhoea, typhoid and cholera are the main causes of concern with regard to fatalities arising from U water-related diseases. Officials of the Public Health Services believe that much of the transmission of these diseases occurs in rural areas along the banks of rivers and canals where people wash and drink polluted water. In many cases an alternate source of safe water exists, but people use polluted U water while working in iheir fields since otherwise they would have to return to their villages. Not all of the improved water supplies available are free of bacteriological contamination. UNTCD (1989) notes that many water supplies as well as some piped rural supplies consvructed by the TWAD Board, use infiltration galleries and wells. typica:ly 5-6 m deep, in the sandy beds of rivers. Many such wells were found to be infected and although most systems had treatment works, the report concluded that due to ineffective chlorination they 3 posed a health risk. There have been few studies of the bacterological quality of shallow village well3 but a study was conducted several years ago of 100 deep b3reholes with handpumps in rural areas around Madras by the Centre for .wvironmental Studies, Anna University for UNICEF. The study showed that faecal contamination could occur even in such wells, particularly when sited in areas of fissured granite. The King Institute in Madras monitors drinking water quality both before and attor treatment. Two water-related diseases whicth are major concerns in other places do not occur in Tamitnadu: Guinea worm was eradicated in 1982 although a surveillance programme is nmaintained to prevent its reintroduction from 32 EX2853 2WI I=  neighbouring Andhara Pradesh; and schistosomiasis occurs in only one small pocket In the whole of India, In Maharashtra. Three mosquito-borne diseases require special mention. Malaria Is the most widely recognised of the three and produced about 150,000 recorded cases in 1991 and 1992. The malaria mortality rate is very low in Tamilnadu due to the very low percentage of the parasite Plasmodium faiciparum compared to the more common P. vivax and also to the effective treatment programme which exists. In Tamilnadu only 8% of all cases in recent years have been ascribed to P. falciparum compared to 60-70% in some of India's northern states. As a result, for over three decades there were no mcorded fatalities due to malaria in Tamilnadu although in 1991, four deaths occurred in Madras and the following year a further death occurred in a coastal village. Historically, Tamilnadu has suffered serious malaria epidemics. One occurred in the period 1936 to 1942 when a large new area of irrigation was opened up in the Cauvery Delta. The cause was ascribed to 'untidy irrigation' (Rao, 1984) which was corrected by filling up borrow pits, realigning field canals, improving bunds, rotational supply, chemical larviciding and introduction of larviverous fish. Similarly in the period 1952 to 1960 an epidemic occurred along the river reach downstream of the newly constructed Sathanur Dam due to the large number of pools which formed in the river bed when no releases were being inade from the dam. In some years the number of recorded cases exceeded the total population! There are two vectors of malaria active in Tamilnadu: Anopheles stephensii breeds mainly in water sto,3ge tanks and is responsible for urban and per- urban malaria: and A. culicifaces breeds mainly in clear sunlit pools and is responsible for riverine and coastal malaria. The relative distribution of cases between these three types is * urban, 60% (of which almost three-quarters of the cases occur in Madras); peri-urban malaria, 10% ; riverine malaria 5%: and coastal 25%. There was a ten-fold increase in the number of cases of riverine malaria between 1989 and 1992 mainly in the districts of Tiruvannamalai, Villupuram, Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri and Periyar (at Erode). The main cause of coastal malaria appears to be the planting of coconuts, cashew and other trees with a pool around them to trap water. There is both active and passive monitoring of malaria by the Public Health Service. Under the active programme at least 66% of the population is screened each year. Control programnmes in the urban areas are under the municipal authorities and focus on larvae control whereas the Public Health Service is responsible for control in rural areas and uses the chemical malathion as a house spray to kill adult mosquitoes. Such control is in addition to the control provided by the thorough programme of treatment that exists. The second mosquito-borne disease of concem is Japanese encephalitis which is transmitted by the Culex vishui group of r,mosquitoes. Unlike A. culicifaces which tends to breed in rice fields only before the rice plants appear, these Culex mosquitoes breed amongst the paddy crop at all stages. Japanese encephalitis is a viral disease. The virus is common in pigs, and even in humans only a small number of those infected actually develop symptoms. However, once the disease becomes established, mortality rates are very high; of the order of 60% of all cases. 33 EX 253 2S9 1113  There is a fluctuating number of cases each year but, on average over the last 16 years, there have been about 150 deaths a year; the highest rate being _ 432 deaths in 1986. The main districts where Japanese encephalitis occurs are South Arcot, Thanjavur, Tiruchchiapalli, Madurai and Tirunelveli. So far, no overall control strategy has been established. f The third mosquito-bome disease of concern is filariasis. Although rarely fatal, f ilariasis can be severely debilitating and is difficult to treat. The vectors in this case are Culex mosquitoes which favour stagnant and polluted water for breeding. Hence, in the past, filariasis has tended to be more prevalent in urban than in rural situations. However rural cases are increasing due to _ water supply schemes without adequate drainage. There is an active diagnosis and control programme which began in 1957 and now comprises 21 control units operating 42 night clinics in 43 urban centres. These units survey about 1.1 million people per year of whom about 1% are found to be infected with the parasite and 20% of these show signs of disease. The programme of case detection and treatment is the main control method used but chemical control of mosquito larvae is also used. Centres of transmission occur in most parts of Tamilnadu. There are a number of laboratories and research institutes in Tamilnadu with 3 expertise in vector-borne diseases: the Central Malaria Laboratory in Madras, the Malaria Research Centre (ICMR) in Madras, the Centre for Research in Medical Entomology (ICMS) in Madurai, various University departments and 3 the Institute of Vector Control and Zoognosis in Hosur. The last of these has been recognised by WHO as a National Centre for training in vector control. In addition, in Pondicherry there is a WHO assisted Vector Control Research Centre. 4 Environmental issues arising from WRCP 3 4.1 Introduction The proposed scope of the Tamilnadu Water Resources Consolidation Project I was described in Section 1.3. From that description it can be seen that one objective of the WRCP is to address the issues arising from water resource utilisation and to bring about environmental improvements. The project's three I main components are to rehabilitate and modernise a large area of existing surface waler irrigation; to complete several minor schemes already started and to provide advice, training and institutional strengthening in orderto enable policy and organisational changes to be introduced. This chapter considers the environmental issues in the water resources sector j with respect to the different project components. Overall the project will have a beneficial impact but the achievement of those benefits requires active rather than passive intervention. The chapter considers whether there are any - additional adverse effects which may arise or any additional environmental enhancements which may be achievable. The largest project componient is the rehabititation and modernisation of U existing irrigation schemes in Tamilnadu, including further work on schemes previously under the National Water Management Project. As described in Section 1.3 the rehabilitation and modernisation work will be undertaken in two _ stages. Stage 1 will focus on restoring and upgrading the main distribution system to the extent necessary to ensure reliable and equitable supplies at 34 EX 2853 28111193  sluice off-takes and the hand-over of operation and rnaintenance responsibilKttos to Famners Associations (FAs) below the sluice, Stage 2 will involve the creation of Farmer Councils (FCs) at distributary level and the transfer of rosponsibilities for operation and maintenance to these FCs including suc.h upgrading of the distribution system as may be agreed. Together these stages will lay the foundation for long-term sustainability of the i(rrgation systems. Taking the command areas individually, a comparison of impacts and benefits indicates that the effect of the WRCP will be environmentally positive since improved water management and maintenance of the projects will be beneficiat and little now land will be developed. For the twelve on-going minor schemes which have been put forward for inclusion in the WRCP some new construction is involved. For nine sub- projects, additional reservoir or tank storage is being created and areas of new irrigatedcommandarebeingdeveloped. Theterm on-going isnot, therefore, meant to imply that these schemes, like the rehabilitation/modernisation category, are already wholly in existence. The term is used to indicate that the planning and design, and in sorne cases their implementation, had begun before the WRCP was proposed and that they will now be taken under the umbrella of the WRCP at the stage tliey have now reached. To the extent that these schemes involve the construction of new dams, weirs, canals and irrigation works it is likely that their environmental effects will be more extensive than those of the rehabilitation component. However, this is a small part of the overall poject. 4.2 Catchment protection A major disadvantage of water resources planning on a piece-meal project by project basis is that the upstream or downstream effects on water resources of land-use changes and human activities within the catchment may be overlooked. There are complex inter-relationships, some not sufficiently understood for accurate predictions to be made at present, between land cover, soil erosion, evaporation, runoff. infiltration and the leaching of nutrients and agro-chemicals. Unless the whole catchment area of a river can be managed in a comprehensive manner it will not be possible to protect the quality and quantity of groundwater and surface water sources and to prevent excessive sedimentation of reservoirs and irrigation channels. Tamilnadu currently has an inter-departmental committee to coordinate catchment treatment work for the protection of major reservoirs (see Section 2.3) but no such coordination exists for protecting the large number of tanks that exist. Under the WRCP i is proposed that River Basin Management units be created within the Water Resources Department, overseen by the WRC. The proposed structure of the RBMs given in the report of the Institutional Study clearly demarcates the Chief Engineer (Plan Formulation) as having responsibility for coordination with other agencies at the basin level. With this arrangement catchment management and conservation should be properly addressed in the future provided that there is adequate montoring and data collection to provide a sound basis for decision making. However, as mentioned in section 3.4 there are numerous Govemment agencies involved in catchment activities and consultation and coordination must be effective if inter-agency conflict is to be avoided. The issues are not straightforward since conservation activities designed to reduce soil erosion are likely to increase rates of infiltration (and possibly evaporation) 35 eX 2BS: 21 193  and, thus, decrease overall rates of surface water runoff. At the same time, there may be a change in the seasonal distribution of flow so that flows during the monsoon period are reduced but base-flow during non-rainfall periods are Increased. Provided that degraded catchments can be identified by the RBMs and that agreement can be reached on suitable conservation measures to introduce, there remains the question as to whether inter-departmental and inter-agency cooperation is adequate, and funding available, to ensure that the chosen measures are implemented. As mentioned above this already occurs to some extent through the inter-departmental committee on reservoir sedimentation. Under the project such links would, hopefully, be strengthened through the RBMs and WRC, An important issue to be addressed early by the WRC is constructive coordination with the AED, who have prirmary responsibility for soil conservation, and other agencies involved in catchment protection otherwise inter-agency rivalry could be detrimental to soil conservation measures. Comprehensive management of tlhe catchmenl will also provide a basis for addressing problems of eutrophication due to the leaching of nutrients and to other water quality problems related to leachates from agro-chemicals and other non-point sources of pollution. Downstream in the command area a catchment-wide view of waterlogging, salinisation and flood inundations will also be beneficial. For all of these a valuable tool to aid interpretation will be the use of remotely sensed images. Enhancement of capabilities to interpret and use remotely sensed images is one of the institutional strengthening measures proposed under the WRCP. Finally the protection and enhancement of flora and fauna will be more effective if it can be seen as an integral part of the other catchment management activities described above. As demonstrated above, the WRCP has great potential for environmental benefits in relation to catchment management. This has received attention in f the project preparation and emphasis should be given during project supervision to ensure that these benefits materialise otherwise an important opportunity may be lost or only partially exploited. In addition, following the completion of the proposed soil conservation planning study (see Part B), _ consideration should be given by the GOTN to fund soil conservation works in selected basins. 4.3 Surface water allocation Up to the present time, irrigation direct from canals or tanks has taken priority over other surface water demands simply because industrial and domestic U demands were not developed. With larger reservoirs the situation is more complex and rules have been established for day-to-day operation to satisfy the various demands for which the reservoir was buikt: hydropower, irrigation, | domestic and industrial. Nevertheless, basin-wide long-term planning is lacking; new projects are considered individually in the light of available flows and existing demands. New industries are not even considered if adequate water resources are not available but there is no information on the extent to which this has constrained industrial developnent. Under the WRCP the proposed policy and organisational changes are aimed at creating a -system whereby surface water can be allocated according to an agreed set of priorities and procedures, river basin by river basin and for the 3 36 EX 28S3 29n 1193 l  ]IEN1 state as a whole. A basic requirement for such allocation is improved data on J the available flows and on the available storage taking account of current and future sedimentation losses as well as an ability to model complex multi- storage supply and demand networks. These have been identified as components which will be strengthened although the need to accurately predict the future impact on reservoir operation ot sedimentation is not specifically highlighted and would require modelling the sedimentation behaviour of ] reservoirs. The biggest challenge facing the WRCP is that, with an estimated 95% of all surface water resources already committed, any increase in domestic, i municipal or industrial demand will have to be mu' from savings or cut-backs in irrigation use. This issue must be addressed initially at a basin or state level but must also be translated into appropriate action on individual irrigation I schemes. The IWS is responsible for preparing river basin plans and will face the challenge of introducing a more effective way of managing the finite surface water resources in Tamilnadu. This may lead to consideration of some ] fundamental questions such as the wastewater reuse, necessity of imposing restrictions on highly water consumptive industries, changes in cropping pattems and possibility of alternative water sources. These questions are discussed further in the environmental action plan. The preparation of river basin plans looking ahead 20 and 40 years, as proposed under the WRCP. will facilitate a more holistic approach to planning and assist in highlighting the potential conflicts and problems sufficiently in advance to allow these complex issues to be studied and attemative responses developed and tested. The WRC also provides a forum in which I difficult policy decisions can be made. The changes proposed under the WFRCP provide a much firmer basis for future water resources management than the current situation altlhough the complexity of the problems should not be underestimated and should be constantly reviwed by those responsible in the new WRD and by the World Bank supervision missions. 1 4.4 Irrigation water management It is anticipated that through the WRCP more reliable and equitable supplies will be available for irrigation and, at the same time, water will be saved for other uses. This is perhaps one of the most positive environmental aspects of the WRCP. | Water conservation/saving is a priority for the GOTN in line with their objectives of improved water resources management. PWD data for the Tambaraparani basin shows that significant volumes of water previously used d for irrigation can be saved with the methods being implemented in the WRCP. The Monitoring and Evaluation' task within the project will include performance measurements to show the crop production per unit of water delivered: this and other performance indicators are essential if water conservation is to be given a high priority. In addition, the farmers must be made aware of this priority. Field reports on three schemes which have been rehabilitated to stage 1 level under the NWMP are being monitored and initial evidence shows a significant reduction in water use (up to 34% on one scheme with crop yields increased by amounts varying from 21 to 57%). More equitable distribution has also been noted with tail-end farmers now getting more reliable supplies. Farmer response to taking over maintenance of the system below 500 ha has also been favourable. 37 X28S53 2WU1V93  The quickest and most effective way to save water would be to change the crop mix, however, this is outside of the direct control of the authorities. I Nevertheless, farmers are already aware of the conflict for water in some areas and should be made to realise that unless water Is used more sparingly reductions in Iheir consumption may be necessary. With incentives and adequate support through effective agricultural extension they may adopt alternative cropping pattems. It is important to consider what use wil1 be made of the water saved. For the I Tambaraparani basin example cited above, it Is stated that water saved will be used to meet urban water demands, in this case sufficient up to the year 2011. In other basins, the savings appear to be earmarked to expand the area to be irrigated. Those farmers operating from rainfed tanks, suffer from unreliable single-season supply and wherever possible savings from improvements within the command areas should benefit such farmers rather than allow for I expansion of the command area. At a state or river basin level the WRC and River Basin Management units are being established to resolve this question but at a sub-project level it is not clear what policy will be applied in the interim I period before the river basin plans have been formulated. By the time the plans become available many of the sub-project allocation decisions may have already been made and the Basin Manager's scope for flexibility much I reduced. To forestall this situation, provisional guidelines should be prepared for immediate application, As mentioned above, farmers often have wells within command areas which they use to supplement canal supplies and to irrigate dry-foot crops in the dry season. This is particularly useful in areas which have erratic rains from one or other of the monsoons. At present there do not appear to be good data showing the possible effect which canal lining and improved operation would have on groundwater levels since reduced seepage and wastage is likely to reduce recharge. This in tum could lead to further depletion of the groundwater as the farmers pump from a diminishing resource. On the other hand rrora equitable distribution of surface water may reduce the need to pump groundwater. Conjunctive use of water is discussed further in section 4.5 below. Measures to save water could have other impacts both positive and negative on wildtife and community health and these are discussed in Sections 4.15 and 4.19 respectively. With respect to the completion of the on-going minor shemes it is necessary = to consider what implications each will have for the overall utilisation of water resources of the river basin. In particular, any effects on the existing water use downstream of any proposed dams or off-takes shoulc be made to ensure that they do not adversely affect downstream users, sun.h as those drawing I water from infiltration galleries in the river bed for rural water supply schemes. In the Sothuparai scheme, a large area (4,000 ha) of inango cultivation was I observed just downstream of the proposed dam site. This raises the concem that impoundment of water may cause groundwater levels to rise and, since mango trees are very sensitive to waterlogging, might disrupt this very productive existing local enterprise. A PWD hydrogeotogist should study this particular scheme before any work commences. In other cases, a rise in water table around the dam or command area may be beneficial to well owners who are currently suffering from steadily falling groundwNater levels. 38 EX2S53 29t11193  4.5 Groundwater The WRCP will not have any direct impact on groundwater as the project concentrates on surface water utilisation. Groundwater is therefore discussed in more detail in chapter 3 in relation to water resources in general. Nevertheless, the project does include the proposal for a Groundwnter Act which should be beneficial to the long term sustainability of the resource. Groundwater use should also be included in the proposed river basin plans. Some of the 1.4 million wells and pumps discussed in chapter 3, about 20% of the total, are located within the command areas and in these areas there could be an impact on project activities. In such locations the rehabilitation works should lead to more efficient water use, however, the incentive to safe waler may be negated by the farmers' access to free water by pumping. Moreover, energy consumption may increase as the groundwater level falls because of the reduced recharge owing for example to canal lining and less seepage. Used sensibly groundwater pumping in conjunction with surface water can be of immense benefit to irrigated crop production by selecting the appropriate source according to availability. For example, groundwater pumping could allow early land preparation and seed germination prior to surface water releases; protect against crop failure if rains are poor and the surface distribution system unreliable in mid-season; and allow the cultivation of a dry- foot crop in periods when no surface water is being released. An obstacle to optimising the potential benefits of conjunctive use is that the wells and pumps used to abstract groundwater are owned by individual farmers who are unlikely to surrender their individual freedom of action either to instructions from government staff or to the collective decisions of the proposed Farmer Councils. This issue must be adressed by the new WRD when drafting the proposed groundwater act as it seems reasonably certain that Farmer Associations will not be able to control groundwater use amongst farmner groups below each sluice outlet. During the planning of sub-projects, the current level of dependency of farmers on groundwater must be established so that the conjunctive nature of the irrigation supply is properly recognised. These are complex inter-related issues and better understanding is needed of the ways in which catchment land use and irrigation practices affect the rates of recharge so that the available groundwater resource is better used. It is worth noting that the current practice of the PWD in assessing groundwater potential annually by designating 'dark', 'grey' and 'white' blocks should be replaced by a more robust set of parameters which indicate more reliably the long-term state of exploitation of groundwater in particular blocks and the deviations from long-term trends produced by annual variations in rainfall and abstractions. Within the WRCP groundwater levels will be included as part of the Monitoring and Evaluation task which will facilitate improved planning. In addition, given that groundwater use is an important water resources concem in the state, a study of groundwater potential and conjunctive use has been included in the environmental action plan. It is essential when considering groundwater utilisation to set water quality alongside resource availability. For the purposes of this report, however, water quality issues are considered separately in the following sections. 39 EX 2853 29/11/93  4.6 Surface water quality The monitoring and control of surface water quality are primarly the responsibility to TNPCB and, therefore, sepamted from the functions of water allocation and use which are under other agencies. However, the PWD, through the Executive Engineer Soil Mechanics, maintains its own periodic monitoring of water quality in reservoirs to assess suitability for irrigation and the Department of Public Health Services (through the King Institute) monitors drinking water quality on behalf of the TWAD Board and other water supply agencies. Other agencies, such as the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) also collect water quality data. What is currently lacking for most rivers is a basin-wide overview of pollution sources and supply points for various categories of water user so that areas where there is a high risk of chemical or biological contamination can be identified and measures taken to minimise the risk In the Cauvery basin, however, a basin-wide overview is in progress under the Cauvery Action Plan funded by the Ganga Action Pban Board. The main problem with the effluent control procedures currently used by the TNPCB is that there is a single standard for elfluent quality for a narticular method of disposal (see Table 4). In the case of river disposal, these do not vary according to the flow in the river so that problems of downstream or groundwater pollution may occur in periods of low or zero flow. Similarly, biological activity in reservoirs may stimulate eutrophic or anaerobic processes exacerbating the effecis of low quality discharges. It is anticipated that the WRCP will improve the authorities' ability to manage surface water quality in two ways. First, a centralised data archive will be created within the IWS in which data from the various agencies undertaking water quality measurements will be brought together, processed in a common format and made accessible to intending users. Where necessary existing data gathering will be strengthened to provide an adequate water quality monitoring network. Secondly, the RBMs will study the overall water resources of individual river basins and will be in a position to make assessments of the interactions between effluent discharge points and water abstraction points and between river flows and water quality. The WRCP does not seek to strengthen the legislation for water quality regulation but the current legislation and the abilhy to enforce it through the TNPCB appear to be adequate provided that the resources and political will are there to tackle suco Droblems as municipal wastewater. It is hoped that the resources and politiv-al will may be forthcoming through the proposed WRC but this remains to be seen. Certainly if it strengthens the linkages between TNPCB and the proposed WRD this in itself will improve the prospects for better water quality management in future. 4.7 Water quality for the command areas The principal effect of the WRCP on water quality at the level of individual sub- projects is expected to be a greater degree of monitoring and control of harmful chemical and biological pollutants resulting in sustained crop production into the future and reduced pollution downstream. As with water availability many of the issues can only be tackled at the state and river basin levels. Nevertheless, in preparing plans for individual sub-projects, assessment of current water quality and prediction of any future changes that may effect its suitability for irrigation are necessary. Bearing in mind the observation in the earlier section that conjunctive use should be recognised, 40 EX2853 29/111I3  this water quality assessment must also include an assessmont of groundwater quality in the co.nmand area. Pollution and increased salinity of water are likely to become more significant threats to the future sustainability of irrigation In Tamilnadu. Types of local situations which may threaten Ihe sustainability of irrigation through water quality changes are: * Where industrial or municipal expansion is planned which might lead to point source pollution: * Where the surface water supply contains a significant proportion of drainage water from olher irrigated land; * Where the salinity of groundwater Is high either naturally or through processes of salinisation or saline intrusion; and * Where conditions in storage reservoirs are such that eutrophication and H2S production can occur. Reconnaissance stuidies in preparation for each sub-project must include water quality testing of appropriate samples (a mninimum sampling strategy is necessary) as well as identifying potentially hazardous situations, as listed above, and recommending a suitable ongoing monitoring programme for each situation. An assessment must also be made of the likelihood that irrigation practices and non-point source pollution from the irrigated land or from the human settlements around will result in adverse water quality downstream or in the groundwater. 4.6 Groundwater quality I As with surface water, monitoring of groundwater quality is undertaken by various agencies utilising groundwater for different ourposes and by the TNPCB which is concerned about the pollution of groundwater by effluents. * The most comprehensive monitoring is that undertaken at 2,100 observation wells by the Groundwater Division of PWD whose main concern is the suitability of groundwater for irrigation. The problems which affect suitability for irrigation are high concentrations of mineral salts (as indicated by high values of electrical conductivity, see Figure 6) and pollution by industrial effluents (as has occurred in the Palar Basin, see Section 3.1.7). Both of I these can lead to poisoning of soils and hence the loss of agricultural land and production. Water quality problems also affect domestic and industrial users of groundwater which are generally more sensitive to a wider range of I parameters than irrigation. A particular difficulty is to monitor the large number of village water supply wells to detect any pollution by disease pathogens. * At present the most serious aspect of groundwater quality is the deterioration due to increasing levels of salinity. This occurs in inland areas due to irrigation with poor quality groundwater and inadequate drainage provision; and in coastal areas due to over-pumping of aquifers allowing gradual intrusion by sea water. A number of studies of saline water intrusion have been undertaken by the PWD and artificial recharge has been studied as a means of arresting the problem but its viability has not been adequately demonstrated I to date. The mosi effective means of control remains that of regulating the rates of abstraction to sustainable levels (see Sections 3.2 and 4.5) but this is not yet achievable. 41 Ex2853 29,11/93  The WRCP will assist in the management of water quality in several ways: * assist In tho drafting of a Groundwater Act; * establish a central data archive and expand the current monitoring network to ensure that adequate data are available; * create RBMs with a mandate to look comprehensively at the quality and quantity of surface water and groundwater abstractions and develop plans for their sustainable management: and * provide a mechanism at state level (through the WRC and IWS) to identify particular problems such as saline water intrusion which may require specific study and the development of appropriate control strategies and policies. As noted earlier, in the short terrn, the prospects for ;egulating groundwater abstractions for agriculture are slim. Nevertheless, water quality may be one I way in which some degree of control can be exercised. Farmers may be prepared to accept regulations prohibiting the use of groundwater in areas where the quality has fallen below particular thresholds or which are in danger I from saline intrusion since they will recognise the need to protect the soil from degradation. 4.9 River morphology and flooding The regimes of all the rivers in lTamilnadu have been substantially altered by human activity: the regulation of flows in reservoirs; the abstraction of flows for irrigation and other uses and, in some cases, the diversion to other river basins; the construction of aniculs, offtakes, well-points, bridges, dikes and other structures; and the extraction of sand for building. Although flood warning systems have been developed and regulations govern the abstraction of water and the extraction of sand, there have been no comprehensive studies of the interaction of these various human interventions with such effects as: channel morphology and the stability of hydraulic structures: recharge rates and storage capacities of aquifers in the river alluvium and surrounding areas; flood frequencies, propagation rates and areas of inundation; and the potential for pool formation which would favour mosquito breeding. The WRCP does not specifically address the types of problem outlined above but by establishing the RBMs it creates organisations under which data collection and comprehensive studies could be undertaken. The proposed National Hydrology Project will address such issues more directly. In most cases further information is needed on the nature and extent of such problems before specified actions can be recommended. However, the prediction and I control of flooding, the maintenance of a reliable flood waming system and the enforcement of appropriate flood zoning regulations should be part of the RBMs mandate from their inception. The particular issue of dam safety with its implications for flood risk downstream is being addressed under a separate World Bank project and under the WRCP all dam design will be reviewed by the dam safety panel. The risk of damage to structures due to seismic activity is considered low in all parts of Tamilnadu, 42 EXZ15W 9t1Y93  4.10 Energy Energy is discussed fully in chapter 3 as the linkages between energy and water resources constitute an important sectoral issue in Tamilnadu but is not covered specifically by the project. Although the WROP will not have any direct impact on energy use, as pumping does not form part of the project, it will have an indirect beneficial environmental impact. Energy consumption should be reduced through pressures to revise the policy of free electricity for farmers and improved management of irrigation water within the command area may reduce the need for tailend farmers to install wells. The Tamilnadu Electricity Board will be represented on the WRC and therefore better coordination should be possible between those charged with formulating j Tamilnadu's water resources policies and those formulating energy policies. It is thus hoped that the project will be a catalyst for solving the interconnected issue of groundwater exploitation and energy supply. 4.11 Coastal and estuary regions As discussed in Section 3.5 there are important coastal resources in I Tamilnadu which must be protected, although much of the coastline is now substantially changed by human activity, and coastal defenses are needed against regular attack by tropical cyclones. In addition there are two active I estuaries remaining, the Cauvery and the Tambaraparani with important mangrove ecosystems. Although coastal protection work is one of the current functions of the PWD, it does not feature in the WRCP. No decision has as yet been made on the responsibility for coastal protection and coastal zone management fcllowing the formation of the WRD. Apart from the two estuaries named above, the management of Tamilnadu's surface and groundwater resources can have very little influence on what happens in the coastal zone. Nevertheless, the types of data and activities required for coastal zone management are similar to some of those required for water resources management: collection of water quality and sediment transport data; monitoring and protection of particular ecosystems; and calculation of, and protection against flood risk. In this respect it may be preferable to I include coastal protection work under the RBMs. Similarly the WRD should be made responsible for coastal zone management, however, close liaison will be required with the Ministry of Environment and Forests and other interested authorities. This must be considered carefully by the GOTN when organising the WRD. 4.12 Siltation of tanks, reservoirs and canals The project attempts to reduce the impact of siltation both by promoting enhanced catchment conservation work and by introducing a system of I maintenance which will ensure that tanks and canals suffering heavy siltation are regularly desilted. In sub-projects reliant upon large storage reservoirs the issue of storage loss through sedimentation is one which will best be tackled 1 at the river basin level. However, for many sub-projects the rate at which tanks and canals fill with sediment is one which is vially important in relation to the on-going cost of maintenance and, in extreme cases, the sustainability and viability of the system. It has already been noted in Section 3.4.3 that little data exists on general rates of storage loss from tanks due to siltation. This, together with the local variability of erosion rates, makes individual assessment of the severity of tank siltation for each sub-project a necessity. This need not be through capacity surveys: other indirect methods of assessing the extent of siltation may be 43 EX 2SS 29, V93  more appropriate and should be set-out In guidelines for sub-project planners. From such observations, and in discussion with the local community, an assessment has to be made as to whether the siltation rates are unacceptably high given the resources available for desilting. Ideally a scale showing the severity of the siltation problem should be developed so that sub-projects with particularly high rates of siltation can be identified. A similar approach is also needed in respect of canal siltation, although here, since desilting may have taken place regularly in the past, understanding the balance between sediment deposition rates and the effort spent in sediment removal is particularly important. This understanding cannot be achieved without close dialogue with the community. Community involvement in diagnosing environmental problems is discussed further in Section 4.18. Assuming that sub-projects with high rates of siltation can be identified, Ihere is still a need to consider what, if anything, can be done about it. The AED is actively involved in micro-watershed treatment projects. At present the link with PWD in collaborating to select areas for treatment on the basis of the severity of tank siltation rates is weak. The situation is better with respect to reservoirs since an inter-deparimental Review Commitlee for Reservoir Sedimentation Studies makes recommendations as to which catchments are in need of priority treatment. This kind of collaboration enabling fhture micro- watershed management activities to be targeted in the catchments of tanks or anicuts where serious siltation has been identified would be beneficial and the creation of the RBMs under the WRCP would facilitate this. The question is, however, wider than that of collaboration to reduce sediment yield. More research and discussion is needed as to the most appropriate forms of land use and land treatment since measures which produce the maximum reduction in sediment yield are also the ones most likely to reduce rates of runoff. In other words, siltation may be reduced at the cost of a reduction in available surface water resources. IWS is currently doing research in runoff from tank catchments and further research of this nature is needed. In planning sub-projects other options to control canal siltation could also be considered such as the provision of structures for sediment exclusion or sedimnent removal. Sediment control must be rigorously sustained after rehabilitation since uncontrolled orifices are being introduced to replace gated sluices and, with these structures, siltation will severely affect the equity of distribution. With maintenance activities to clear silt it is necessary to determine where the silt will be disposed. Large amounts of sand are extracted from river beds for building and it is likely that some of the sediment taken from tanks and canals will find a commercial market even though it will contain a wider range of sediment sizes than river sediment. The commercial opportunities should, therefore, be examined before disposal on land or into river channels. In several schemes farmers have expressed their willingness to desilt tanks at their own expense in order to have access to the silt which, they believe, enhances the soil quality. Unfortunately, such initiatives have, in tt.e past, been prevented by PWD officials who have been unnecessarily legalistic in applying a Government Order stating that only the PWD should desilt tanks. Certainly, this confusion should be removed before the WRCP begins. However, a policy for land disposal of sediment is required which should take account both of the dangers (destroying habitats for wildlife, raising the levels of fields taking them out of command, creating mounds which could become unstable in subsequent rain) as well as the opportunities (to enrich the soil with 44 EX 2653 29/t V3  lLIN nutrients and to fill In druinago hollows and pits loft by earlier construction activities). The filling of hollows ond pits may bo particularl benolicial in the control of water-related diseosos (Soction 4,19). 4.13 Waterlogging and salinisatlon Waterlogging and salinity Are relatod and often result from poor draliage, whether natural or man-made. Excossive application of i,rigation vwater, inequitable distribution and poor maintenance will causo such problems. Present evidence indicates that wolerlogging and salinisationi e,o no'$ major problems in Tamilnadu, other thani that in coastal regions caused by irrigating with groundwater contarninated by saline intrusion. There are pockets of watellogging inland in the Tambaraparani command areas and areas of solinised soils In botlh the Voigai basin and the * Parambikkulam Aliyar Project. The possibility that land has been affocted by these processes or that it is io danger from them must, therefore, be considered during the design of eachI sub-project. A relatively small number || of soil samples taken at localions indicated by farmers as suffering low yields, may be adequate to provide an initial scope of ilte problein of salinisalion and, * in addition, couIld revoal if other forms of toxicity are affecting the soil. * Likewise, discussion wilti farmers to identify areas of poor drainage and study of water levels in wells, again in discussion with farmers, may indicatc the probability that there is a risk of waterlogging or that groundwater levels are becoming unacceptably high. In both cases recommendations arising from each situation should be made by sub-project planners as to the need for additional drainage works and an appropriate lovel of long-term monitoring. * The WRCP will improve water managemrent, rehabilitate canals and drains and lead to improved maintenance of the command areas. Experience from the NWMP and from projects in other countries demonstrates that improved water management results in a more equitable distribution of water between the tail and head of the system and less wastage of water. In addition, improvements to the drains should reduce waterlogging at the tailend. These project activities will thus directly reduce waterlogping ano salinisation and will thus have a strong positive impact on the environment. | 4.14 Fisheries The fisheries potential of tanks is constrained by the fact that most of them drain dry each year. Breeding communities of fish can, therefore, rarely be I established and any fish production must depend on annual restocking. Even in reservoirs, annual restocking is normal since many only retain a small amount of water in dead storage by the end of each year and, in such districts I as South Arcot, even the largest reservoirs are dry for upto four months a year. 3 A number of other factors influence the likely productivity of tank fisheries. Firstly, the right to grant fishing licences is vested in the Fisheries Department for all 'Provincial tanks (designated 'A) and comes under the authority of the | panchayat for most other tanks (classed as 'B'). The Fisheries Department recognises the need for long-term investment and grants 3-5 year licences to fishing cooperatives but panchayats issue licences, if at all, only on a vear by | year basis. l 45 rx zas3 W119Z1s l  ReliabilIty of stored wrIter is also necessary. Tc achieve reasonable returns tho tank should nol be omptied below an agrenci mninimum lovol for at loast 3.4 mortlis. Whilst this need is rocognised by the PWD, irrigation requirements are paramount and premature einptying my occur. Even 3-4 months is really too short to provide a sensible yield and thie Fisheries Department would prefer longor but in many tonks the short rnonsoort and tho Irrigation needs of the crops do not allow lonqer. The timing of the tank filling may also cause difficulties for fish production U since fingerlings are generally raised by the Fisheries Department In May, dictated by the natural sporning behaviour of the fish, but some tanks do not fill until September or October. Finally, to ensure that lish do not escape, inlet and outlet protective devices are fitted to the tanks. These, howover, are often resisted by villagers. Due to the above constraints there are a limited number of successful fisheries projects in irrigation tanks. However. discussion with the Fisheries Ciepartment, the panciayat and the villagers to assess the potential in individual sub-projects as part ol the stub-project planning process will be wornhwhile. In the 'Farmer Organisation' report for the WRCP it was recommended that fishing rights be veslerl in Farmer Councils. In view of the experience of the Fisheries Departrrent with Ihq poor relLurns normally achieved from tanks currently under the control of panchayals this recommendation should be discussed moro fully wi'h all parlies before being implemer.ted. 4.15 Wildlife In the established irrigation schemnes covered by lhe project, the opportunities for enhancing wildlife or the possibility of harming it are rather limited but not negligible. In India it is forbidden to establish a new project within 5 km of a rese.trve forest or within 25 km of a wildlife sanctuary. These rules do not apply to existing projects but provide a useful guide as to potential wildlife sensitivity. If a sub-project is found to infringe either rule the Department of Wildlife should be consulted as to ai iy measures they might recommend to minimize the effect on the reserve or sanctuary of the rehabilitation work and the on-going operation of the scheme. Within the project area itself, the areas most beneficial to wildlife are likely to be the tanks, the river and canal banks and the paddy fields and. whilst the project will not have any direct impact, the PWD staff should be sensitive to wildlife needs. In several schemes in b,uthern Tamilnadu, irrigation tanks have become major roosting and nesting sites for migratory birds. There are several species for which Tamilnadu is the only place in India where their breeding season coincides with the period when there is plentiful water in the tanks. The main requirement is for trees around the tanks in which to nest. The birds feed on fish in the tank and on small creatures in the surrounding paddy fields. When the Wildlife Department recognise a tank as having a significant bird population it is designated a sanctuary and the PWD passes the tank into the control of the Forestry Department. This does not affect PWD's exclusive right to control releases of water but enables the trees to be protected and also prevents any fishing from taking place. PWD rernains responsible for tank bund and sluice maintenance but the Forest Department regulates (but does not prevent) silt removal mainly to protect the trees from 46 EX 2M 291 1/3 l  damage. Tho numbor of tanks protocted in this way has been increasing in I recent years and sub-project planners should discuss with the Wildlife Department and farmers Ihe potential for tanks under study to be developed as bird sanctuaries in this way. In particular, certain lanks which no longer serve a useful Irrigation purpose could readily be utilised and the proposed environment cells within the RBMs should monitor this. The other type of wildlife which the Wildlife Department has sought to protect around certain rivers and irrigation systems is crocodiles. In this they have been less successful than with birds; a projecl in the Cauvery Delta suffered badly during floods and has been abandoned. There are also obvious dangers in developing crocodile colonies too close to human habitation. 4.16 Agricultural weeds and pests * The control of agricultural weeds and pests is an ongoing necessity to ensure sustained crop production from all agricultural land, both irrigated and rain-fed. It requires active development and testing of new control rneasures and * strategies to respond to new threats and requirements. Integrated pest management is becoming increasingly important in the drive to reduce the costs of agrochemical inputs to agriculture and reduce the potential effect of I agricultural runoff. Day to day advice on weed and pest control is provided to farmers by Village Extension Workers and active programmes of research into new methods of control are being undertaken by the Department of I Agriculture's Plant Protection Officers in collaboration with the Tamilnadu Agricultural University at Coimbatore, see Section 3.4. Although it may not be relevant to go into great detail about weed and pest problems in planning WROP sub-projects, it is recommended that local communities are asked about the most serious threats to their crops, the cost of control measures used and their effectiveness. In this way, if a particular problem exists it can be discussed with the Department of Agriculture. 4.17 Aquatic weeds Aquatic weeds are one of the causes of deteriorating performance in irrigation and drainage systems and therefore one of the reasons why on-going maintenance is required. In general weeds are less of a problem in many * Tamilnadu systems than might be expected because the flows are seasonal resulting in partial or complete destruction of weed colonies in periods when tanks, canals and drains are dry. However, the floating weed water hyacinth * (Eichhornia crassipes) has established itself in systems of different types throughout Tamilnadu and is able to survive desiccation or to rapidly recolonise from upstream when flows return. The one area where aquatic I weeds are known to be present in significant amounts in Tamilnadu is in the Thanjavur Delta where a plant of lpomoea species (locally known as Seemai Kattamani) is very common both in irrigation and drainage channels. Since I non of the WRCP sub-projects lies in the Cauvery basin, this particular problem is outside the scope of this part of the report. A more general threat is the invasion by terrestrial weeds, shrubs and even trees into many irrigation 3 canals. The WRCP will improve maintenance of the command areas which will ameliorate the problem of aquatic weeds and thus improve irrigation performance and the environment. However, to ensure that the benefits are long-lasting, information must be collected at an early date on existing or potential aquatic and terrestrial weed problems affecting channels, the current 47 EX 28S3 2WlI 93  method of their control (if any), Its cost and its effectiveness, so that options for sustainable aquatic weeod mainagement can be considered as part of the maintenance planning. Woed scientists can assist in providing guidance on the most cost-effective maintennnce strategy for different types of woed: the method, frequency and timing of cutting to optimise control. 4.18 Community Involvement Community involvement is an important aspect o. the rehabilitation and modemisatlon work to be undertaken under WRCP and Is one of the key ways of ensuring sustainability. Studios have been undertaken on Farmer Organisation and Operation and Maintenance wlhich form the basis for this aspect of the project. Further work was done by PWD, and the Worid Bank pre-appraisal mission. The proposal for former organisation Is based on previous experience, both in the state and elsewhere. The objective will be to form Farmer Councils who will have responsibility for the 0 & M at the distributory level covering areas of approximately 500 ha. The executive board of the Farmer Council will comprise three members of the sluice committee, one of whom will be a woman farmer, Thie sluice committee (or Farmer e Association) covers an area of about 40 ha. Thie project concentrates on forming an organisational structure at the distributary level rather than the tertiary, or sluice command level. This is an ambitious programme and farmer consultation and involvement will be a pre-requisite for success. Farmer management is not new and there is a long history of farmer associations in the tank areas. During implementation it will be important to capitalise on this I past experience. A phased introduction is proposed with reconnaissance carried out by IMTI (Irrigation Management Training Institute) aher which a detailed assessment will be made by the PWD staff. Farmers will be consultedl at this stage and any existing organisational arrangements will be studied and taken into account. The PWD will be assisted by a social worker for each scheme. The PWD will then organise a long series of meetings with farmers to explain the new o & M responsibilities of the FC. A joint management stage will follow before turnover is completed. During implementation flexibility will be needed and the PWD should avoid imposing a fixed theoretical model for the Farmer Councils as existing arrangements and attitudes vill vary throughout the state. It should also be recognised that the timeframe for completing the turnover will = vary between schemes. The project has made provision for farmer consultation and this should be adhered to during implementation. Given the history of farmer management in Tamilnadu and with experience gained from previous projects since 1974, this aspect of the project can be successful. However. community involvement i is essential and a rigidly imposed programme and time-frame should be avoided. From information available to the consultants tribal people will not be affected in any way by the project activities as none of the sub-projects lies within or close to areas inhabited by tribal people. 3 4 l 48 EX 2s8329/t W3~ l  4.19 Community health The WRCP Is expected to have a beneficial effect on human health by providing greater security of Income and food supplies to the rural population living in the areas of Ihe sub-projects and hence improve their nutrition. Nevertheless, there are a number of water-related diseases which are of concarn In Tamilnadu and the issue of whether incidence of these wili be increased or reduced by the WRCP must also be addressed, The main water- related diseases are discussed fully in Section 3.8.3. There are two groups of diseases which must be considered: those related to domestic water supply and sanitation and those which are transmitted by mosquitoes. Diseases in the first group are the more significant in terms of the number of cases and the number of fatalities. The inhabitants of irrigation schemes are one of the groups at highest risk since, alil,ough they may have safe water supplies in their villages, they often use the plentiful water from nearby canals, tanks and rivers if it is closer and more convenient. It is, therefore, recommended that during the planning of sub-projects the Department of Health is contacted to determine whether there is an unusually high incidence of water borne diseases such as dysentery, diarrhoea, typhoid and cholera in the region and also that details be obtained as to the adequacy of the domestic water supplies for the scheme inhabitants. If a problem is found to exist it may not be possible to use the WRCP funds to rectify it but at least the PWD can work with the agencies responsible, the Department of Health and the TWAD Board, to see if a solution can be found. In the case of the mosquito-borne diseases, lle evidence available at present ME suggests that the improved water management practices which will result from the WRCP should lead to a reduction in the incidence of these diseases. Nevertheless, as in the case of water-borne diseases, it is recommended that - in each sub-project the Department of Health is invited to evaluate the risk from malaria, filariasis and Japanese encephalitis in the region and to discuss with the proposed WRD any conitrol measures which might be applied wihin the irrigation system. The filling of pits and drainage hollows and the introduction of larviverous fish are examples of measures which could be taken up within the WRCP. Additional research and pilot studies will be required to verify the effectiveness of any measures which may require substantial changes to be made in the irrigation or drainage systems or in the scheduling and management of water, since engineers will find it difficult to justify such changes unless the benefits have been clearly demonstrated. 4.20 Land acquisition and economic rehabilitation This is not an issue for the rehabilitation and modernisation component of the WRCP since the area of land to be irrigated and the land needed for the irrigation works and inifrtistructure witl not change appreciably during the work. Where canals are realigned the experience from the NWMP project has shown that the local community readily appreciates and accepts this as a necessary improvement to their benefit. If water saved by more efficient irrigation is used to expand the irrigated area new land may be brought into command but in most cases it will be land which is already farmed less intensively either for rain-fed or groundwater irrigated crops. For completion of the on-going minor schemes studies have been undertaken by a specialist consultant and by the FAOICP. with the assistance of the PWO, and visits have been made by World Bank staff and the consultants. This has confirmed that the WRCP will not involve significant disturbance of settled 49 EX 28S3 2W11193  areas and resottlement issues will not arise. Some localised land acquisition and associated economic rehabilitation measures will be required where new infrastructure works pass through existing farms. However, this will be modest and over the whole slate it is estimated that only about 700 ha of farm land will be affected. As work has started on soma of the schemes the process of land acquisition has already commenced. Under the WRCP institutional arrangements for land acquisition will be improved. Coordinating commitlees end special units will be established within the PWD to ensure that a full and fair evaluation is made of land value and compensation due. It is noteworthy that a recent initiative by the Land Acquisition Commissioner will perrnit greater flexibility in valuation which will i include not only market value but land productivity and accessibility to transport and other amenities. There will also be an acceleration in the process for payment, which is often the mnost frequent cause of dissatisfaction. - The institutional arrangements are described in the report on the Land Acquisition and Economic Rehabilitation Program (LAERP) which has been prepared in association with the GOTN. An Economic Rehabilitation Action Programme is under preparation and this will focus on programmes for economic advancement and poverty alleviation with priority given to those famillies affected by infrastructure works. This should include those who are not landowners but who have been earning theit living from the affected areas. This provides tIhe opportunity for environmental enhancement with respect to land use. Waste land which is out of command would be improved by planting fuelwood trees, shade trees, fruit trees or horticulture although care will be needed not to plant too close to canal banks or irrigation structures. Also, for this small-scale income generation activity effective involvement of the community, rather than government officials, is necessary and it is suggested that assistance is provided by local NGOs so that grasssroots participation is achieved. This is a good initiative which is U socially and environmentally beneficial. As mentioned in chapter 2 there are a number of statutory requirements which must be observed with regard to land acquisition. For example, any submergence of forest of more than 10 ha must be compensated by planting twice the area of new forest in a location agreed with the Forest Department. I This has been examined by the consultants and four minor schemes will require approval from the Chief Conservator of Forests (GOI) and this is discussed in chapter 2. I 4.21 Construction activities Many environmental impacts result directly from the methods and practices adopted by the construction contractors. Some are short-term in their effect but others can be more long-lasting. For the WRCP the works wilt be generally small. however, construction of dams for example could be disruptive d to the local community and environment. It is therefore recommended that under the WRCP a Code of Good Practice for Construction is prepared and that, if possible, this is agreed with the contractor and included as part of the contract to undertake the work. The main issues that should be addressed by the code are site safety, the health of the workforce, sources and disposal sites for construction materials, control of pollution and environmental conservation. This is discussed further in the environmental action plan. 50 EX28D3 29WI1/93 l  I~~~~~~~~~~I 5 The role of non-governmental organisations 5.1 Farmers' Associations Tamilnadu has a long history of activities of Farmers' Associations in different river basin irrigation systems some of which are more than 100 years old (for example, the Kadambar Tank Farmers' Association, Tambaraparani). Farmers' Associations have been in existence mainly to protect their interests when drawing water from tanks with command areas ranging from 100 to 2,000ha. The PWD supplies water through-canals up to the end of distributary canals being 10 to 50ha of command. In areas where ayacut has been stabilised by supplying water to tanks which were in existence even prior to the commencement of organised irrigation systems, the farmers have organised themselves to take care of their interests on a cooperative basis. In the command areas of tanks where Farmeis' Associations are prevalent they voluntarily subscribe to the association and during liarvesting a part of the produce is given to the association as their contribution. The associations, which have been in existence and working fairly satisfactorily in several of the command areas in the Cauvery, Vaigai-Periyar and Tambaraparani irrigation systems, have established the following rules: (a) Equitable distribution of water among farmers in the command area. (b) Protecting the crops and fields from minor thefts, grazing by cattle, etc. (c) Impounding cattle in their own locked sheds and charging a fine for violation of grazing into private lands. (d) Representing, to the irrigation officials, problems associated wilh tank maintenance and canal and sluice discharges. Under the WRCP the creation of farmer organisations and turnover of a greater share of 0 & M to farmers is a major objective. In carrying out this task the relevant WRD staff and consultants should involve existing Farmer Associations and benefit from their experience. In forming farmer groups attention must be given to a system for resolving possible conflicts, for example between the WRD and the farmers or between different farmer groups concerning water availability. 5.2 The role of women In recent years the Tamilnadu Women's Welfare Department, through their extension workers, have been motivating the women in rural areas, particularly those who come from farmers' families, to form an association among themselves. The Block Development Agricultural Extension Officers, Women's Welfare Associations and the Block Development Officials have been able to mobilise women in some of the areas to constitute Farm Women's Associations. Extension workers and specialists in agriculture, nutrition and public health provide lecture demonstrations to the women regarding use of fertilisers and pesticides, other allied activities such as poultry, sheep breeding, silviculture, etc. Avinasilingam Home Science Institute tor Women (deemed university) has been undertaking courses for several extension workers focusing on rural women and encouraging them to form women's welfare associations. 51 E X2853 2Dl11193  Activities promoted by the university extension servico include nutrition, public health, family planning and small activities like tailoring, Improved farming methods and better storage of agricultural products. This work is being carried - out in several villages in Coimbatore District. Gandhigram Rural University has also been involved in encouraging women to form women's associations with I activities similar to those indicated above. The project proposes to involve women on the Farmer Councils and the WRD engineers responsible for farmer turnover should seek guidance from the U above organisations. 5.3 Other NGOs There are many NGOs which have an educational or campaigning role related to the environment such as the CP Ramaswami Environmental Education, Centre, the Madras Naturalist Society, INTACH and the Worldwide Fund for I Nature. However, the level of activity in such NGOs often varies drarnatically depending on the people who are in them at any given time. The most active NGOs are community based organisations olten found in city areas addressing - quite specific, local environmental concerns. There are also various developmental and missionary NGOs which are active in Tamilnadu, particularly in the area of community health. u In addition to public or community based NGOs, there are some important academic and research organisations which have a wide knowledge of water I resources and environmental issues and many of these, being separate from state government departments, are free to provide an objective assessment of the implications of water resources decisions and the need for new initiatives and policies. Such groups include: the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) which has a zonal laboratory in Madras; the Centre for Environmental Studies, Anna University; the Centre for Water Resources, Anna University, the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Nilgiris; and various departments of the Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. These lists are only indicative and are not intended to be exhaustive. 5.4 Participation of NGOs in the WRCP Although much has been written about the creation of new Farmer Councils I in the command areas, the WRCP would be incomplete without providing an institutional mechanism for active participation and involvement of existing farmer NGOs in the planning, execution, operation and maintenance of I irrigation systems. In this effort a detailed study regarding the functioning of the various Farmeis' Associations is being undertaken simultaneously with the environmental assessment. It will not be prudent to have one uniform pattern of farmers' organisation for the state as a whole as there will be about 2,000 formed and the problems at field level are quite different and the socio-cultural attitudes of the farmers, community norms, religion, and exposure to modem I concepts vary depending upon the group. It would be necessary to study tbe existing patterns in other parts of the river basin of the proposed projects anod encourage other areas to form farmers! associations similar to the ones which I are active within the river basin area. It may not be conducive, nor would it be effective, if the perceptions and method of functioning of a Farmer Council association in the Cauvery system were introduced to the Parambikulam Aliyar Project system as the characteristics and problems are distin-tly different. 52 EX 28W3 2gJ 1j3  On this basis NGOs, commencing from villages or groups ol villages building up to block levels and district levels. should be represented In the planning, and Implementation of the project and the River Basin Management units should coordinate closely with them. Input of ide.As from active farmers' associations will be effective in Impleinenting decisions particularly on cropping patterns and allocation of water during scarciy periods and also in maintaining a continuing dialogue with irrigation officials at all levels, It will also be prudent to encourage the participation of existing women's farmers! associations in as many locations as possible for which greater efforts and encouragement wilt be required. In recent years quite a large number of i rural women have been exposed to education up to school levels. In addition, the national literacy mission has also been encouraging rural women to take to literacy classes. In the next 5 to 10 years quite a large number of women I in rural areas, parlicularly farm workers, will become educated at least up to school level: able to read and write and also understand newspapers and pamphlets. Increasingly, the mass media will be used to convey messages i about methods of irrigation, allocation of priorities for crop production and alternate employment opportunities during non irrigation periods such as poultry, fish farming, etc. It should be emphasised that most of these activities should not be entrusted solely to governmental agencies or government departments. Irrigation and Government officials should play a catalytic role and leave the initiatives, action and promotion of various activities to the people themselves through farmers associations and other NGOs. In recent years NGOs also have a good back up with a number of specialists such as sociologists, economists, teachers and engineers. A large number of government officials, from the senior level to the clerical level in various offices. have been retiring from service and have settled in rural areas. Almost every village will have retired * officials from Government, army or other organisations and their knowledge and expertise is being increasingly recognised and the role of NGOs is starting to be recognised and promoted through various water-related activities. Another aspect of NGO involvement in the WRCP is that of public watchdog providing scientific and public scrutiny of the decisions of the Water Resources I Department. To avoid conflict over environmental issues the IWS and RBMs should liaise with NGOs, including those from research organisations, in order to correctly guide the WRC in technical decisions (see Part B). 6 Conclusions and Recommendations. 6.1 General sectoral conclusions In addition to the project specific conclusions which are discussed in 3 Section 6.2 below there are general conclusions relevant to the water resources of the state. The GOTN, and in particular the new WRD, should take these into account in future planning and preparation of river basin plans. Water is a heavily used resource and little potential exists for the development I of new sources of supply other than interstate water transfer and desalination. It will have to be well managed and conserved if future demands are to be met and conflicts between agriculture, industry and domestic use avoided. The I WRCP promotes a more holistic approach to water resources management and is a start to improved water use but it cannot resolve all the sectora environmental issues. 53 EX2853 29111/3  Although groundwater throughout the state is not fully exploited there are areas of over-exploitation which are increasing. Groundwater utilisation is thus F potentially the most critical water resources issue for the state. New policy initiatives are required in order to regulate groundwaler exploitation and this has been addressed in the shorn term by the proposal in the WRCP for a Groundwater Act and for restrictions on new electricity connections to agricultural users. The present policy of free electricity to agricultural users will have to be changed and this is recognised by the State Govemment. However, it is a sensitive political issue and therefore a phased introduction of pricing will be necessary. The situation should not be over-stated and the consultants support a gradual phased resolution of the problem which will be greatly facilitated by the creation of the Water Resources Control and Review I Council under the WRCP. A low tariff should be introduced initially followed by progressive increases until the full electricity costs are recovered. In addition, it could be counterproductive to introduce such an unpopular measure I at the same time as creating the WRD. It could mitigate against the introduction of new ideas by the WRD and farmer conlidence and cooperation may be compromised. I The main environmental issues of concern for the sector are deterioration in water quality and soil erosion in some basins. None of these problems are I severe througlhout the state but there are locations where some problems are becoming acute. For example, in the Palar basin industrial pollution of ground and surface water by the tanneries needs to be regulated. Soil conservation measures are needed in parts of the Bhavani and other basins to prevent siltation and thus prolong the life of some reservoirs and reduce irrigation maintenance costs. In addition to preventive measures such as statutory regulation, innovative research is needed to explore more efficient water use and the possibility of wastewater reuse. In the WRCP a research and development programme is included as part of the environmental action plan. The purpose of this is to study these sectoral issues more thoroughly and to devise solutions before they become serious problems. In this way the WRCP will make a major contribution to resolving I longer term sectoral environmental problems. 6.2 WRCP conclusion | The WRCP is an environmentally beneficial project which provides for significant changes to the institutional arrangements in the water resources sector and the rehabilitation. modernisation and improved maintenance of the I irrigation system comprising several sub-projects which have been in existence for almost 100 years. The project will address a number of water related environmental issues and thereby achieve overall environmental enhancement. I In particular it will strengthen the environmental management capability within the state water resources sector. It will lead to a more sustainable system of irrigated agriculture and improved water resources utilisation. The project is I thus in line with the principles outlined in the Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development issued after the International Conference on Water and Environment in Januaty 1992. 3 To achieve environmental improvements the proposed WRD, which will be responsible for project implementation, must embrace the in-built institutional framework provided so that the staff fully appreciate the need for protecting and preserving environmental quaiity. A risk with the WRCP is that the WRD will be staffed by engineers with Ittle knowledge of the environmental or social 3 54 EX2Ms3 11 1193 l  - issues related to water resources monagemont. It Is important that consideration of environmental issues is not construed as a necessary iivil to clear the project but as a basic requirement to promote the well-bolni and enhancement of society as a whole. It is often felt by irrigation enginears that environment assessment is unnecessary since Irrigation per sc is beneficial to society. It is seldom understood that there can be other environmental impacts which may or may not be positive and in their totality may even be negative. Attitudes are changing slowly and stalf are beginning to understand that by tackling environmental issues at the planning stage and providing for mitigating or remedial measures at the construction phase the process will be cost effective and promote environmental quality without causing delays to * implementation. It is also important that staff appreciate that EA is a statutory requirement meant to safeguard socielal welfare rather than to promote the interest of any one section of society. Often farmers are also unaware that I their actions may be environmentally unsound. To minimise this risk a training programme is recommended so that engineers and farmers are made aware of environmental issues. A trainiing and awareness building programme is * therefore included in the environmental action plan together with funds for inputs from specialist consultants. The consultants have examined the three main components of the project and conclude that they will have a positive environmental impact. However, to ensure that implementation leads to enhancemenl, rather than being simply benign, a proactive approach is needed. This will ensure that the intended benefits of the project are realised and the opportunity is taken to exploit the potential for further environmental enhancement. Each project component will bring some benefits and these are discussed separately below. In relation to _the olicy and institutional chancies proposed under the WRCP, the project offers the following potential benefits: U * Improved coordination of departmental activities and the creation of River Basin Management units which will allow catchment management to be undertaken comprehensively. This could be stressed more strongly as one of the project's objectives. * Through the RBMs and the creation of a Water Resources Control and I Review Council procedures concerning the allocation and management of surface water will be improved and water conservation measures introduced. Section 4.3 highlights, however, a numberof questions which -will have to be resolved in the course of time. _ * Improvement in the regulation of groundwater abstractions is anticipated by the project but this may be constrained, particularly in the short term, by political difficulties which such regulation would create. This also applies to some extent to the control of groundwater quality. I * Better coordination between departments and improved monitoring will benefit surface water quality although the particular problem of controlling urban wastewater will require political will and resources beyond the scope of this project. * Individual issues linking energy production and consumption and water I resource utilisation will be addressed through the project and in the long- term closer liaison between energy planners and water resources planners will be beneficial. 55 EX2O53 28w111v3  When reorganising the PWD, the GOTN should designate a single body as responsible to oversee coastal zone managament, In relation to the component for rehabilitation and modemisation of existin- irrigation schemes and their future operation and maintenance, the following environmental benefits and opportunities have been identified: * Water supplies to farmers will be made more reliable and equitable and water is expected to be saved for other uses. This will have a strong positive environmental benefit. A number of complex questions have been identified such as the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater and the environmental action plan (EAP) includes a research programme to address some of these questions. * The quality of irrigation water supplies will be more carefully monitored and controlled if suitable procedures are followed during sub-project planning. * The impact of sedimenitationt on tanks and canals will be reduced by improved maintenance but more work should be done on soil consc rvation, here too, several important questions will need to be 3 addressed (see Section 4.12) and the EAP includes a special study and research programme.