Integrating environmental issues into a strategy for sustainable agricultural development : the case of Mozambique

_ _ _ WTP- 146 Integrating Environmental Issues into a Strategy for Sustainable Agricultural Development The Case of Mozambique L Alemneh Dejene and Jos' Olivares I L* EEDS*C IMMQDITIE' :)UNTRY STII UDEVELI EVE LOMN N AND TI ICOE ERNVRONMI EVAL U PRICEJ IONsK^f ffyw FORESTESOUR(G; 2 E~~~~~a TASO iEeS- _ - =S~~~PL ANDMAUATUIGISTU PlLDPL )EVEL ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~V IVOME~~~~~~ Ft EU..N EUELN T  RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 82 Vogel, Cost Recovery in the Health Care Sector: Selected Country Studies in West Africa No. 83 Ewing and Chalk, The Forest Industries Sector: An Operational Strategy for Developing Countries No. 84 Vergara and Brown, The New Face of the World Petrochemical Sector: Implications for Developing Countries No. 85 Ernst & Whinney, Proposals forMonitoring the Performance of Electric Utilities No. 86 Munasinghe, Integrated National Energy Planning and Management: Methodology and Application to Sri Lanka No. 87 Baxter, Slade, and Howell, Aid and Agricultural Extension: Evidence from the World Bank and Other Donors No. 88 Vuylsteke, Techniques of Privatization of State-Owned Enterprises, vol. 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Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing August 1991 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. 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The complete bacldist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Publications Sales Unit, Department F, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'Iena, 75116 Paris, France. ISSN: 0253-7494 When this paper was written, Alemneh Dejene was a consultant to the Agriculture Operations Division of the World Bank's Southern Africa Department. Jose Olivares is principal agricultural economist in the same division. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dejene, Alemneh. Integrating environmental issues into a strategy for sustainable agricultural development: the case of Mozambique / Alemneh Dejene and Jos6 Olivares. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494; no. 146) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8213-1850-0 1. Agriculture-Economic aspects-Mozambique. 2. Agriculture- -Environmental aspects-Mozambique. 3. Environmental policy- -Mozambique. I. Olivares, Jose, 1939- . II. Title. m. Series. HD2129.Z8D45 1991 363.7'056'09679-dc2O 91-25127 CIP  Contents Abbreviations ................................................. iv Summary and Conclusions . ......................................... v I. Background ............................................... 1 II. Major Agricultural and Natural Resource Features of Mozambique . ..................................... 4 A. Agricultural Production . ..................................... 4 B. Land Tenure ............................................ 5 C. Inland Waters ............................................ 6 D. Coastal Waters ............................................ 7 E. Mangrove Ecosystems . ....................................... 7 F. Forest Resources .......................................... 8 E. Wildlife ............................................ 9 III. The Effects of the Civil War on the Environment .11 A. The Displaced People and Emergency Assistance .11 B. The Effects of the Displaced Population on Land Resources .12 C. The Effects of the Civil War on Inland and Coastal Water Resources .14 D. The Effects of the Civil War on Forest and Wildlife Resources .14 IV. Major Environmental Policy Issues in Sustainable Agricultural Development .... 16 A. Land Tenure .16 B. "Green Zone" Development Policy .18 C. Construction of Large Dams for Hydropower .19 Human Displacement .20 Water-borne Diseases .20 Downstream Effects .20 Wildlife .21 Fisheries .21 Salt Intrusion .21 D. Large-Scale Irrigation Schemes ..21 Salinization .22 Siltation and Sedimentation .................................. 23 Water-borne Diseases . ..................................... 23 Cropping Pattern and Intensity ............................... 23 E. Manpower and Institutional Capacity for Water Management ............... 23 F. Water Pricing Policy . ....................................... 24 G. Depletion of Forest Resources .............. .................. 24 H. Stumpage Rate Policy .................. ..................... 25 I. Legislation, Manpower, and Institutional Issues in Forest Protection and Development ........................... 26 J. Afforestation for Fuelwood and Environmental Protection ............... 27 V. Notes ................................................ 28 Maps iii  Abbreviations CENE National Executive Emergency Commission DPCCN Department for the Combat and Prevention of Natural Disaster DINAGECA National Directorate for Geography and Cadastre DNDR National Directorate for Rural Development DNFFB National Forest and Wildlife Directorate DNA National Water Directorate FAHU Field Agricultural Hydraulics Units INIA National Agriculture Research Institute INPF National Institute of Physical Planning PDP Priority District Program SEHA Secretary of State for Agricultural Hydraulics SEA State Secretariat of Cotton SADCC Southern Africa Development Coordination Conference UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNFAO United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization Currencrl Mozambique Meticais= MT U.S. $ 1 = 1380 Meticais June 1991 iv  Summary and Conclusions The Government of Mozambique, in conjunction with the World Bank and other donor agencies, is preparing a strategy for agricultural development in Mozambique. For this strategy to promote sustainable development, it must take into consideration the environmental implications of the proposed courses of action. The strategy should identify vital environmental risks associated with the development of natural resources and suggest alternative ways to reduce these risks and to ensure sustainability. The purpose of this paper is to identify the most important factors affecting the environment in Mozambique as they relate to agricultural and rural development. The paper also discusses developments in other economic and social spheres which have an impact on the development of the agricultural sector as well as the potential risks they may pose to the environment. This paper is based on two missions to Mozambique and secondary sources. The civil war and the ensuing displacement of two million people is currently the key environmental problem in Mozambique. About 30% of the population in the 40 priority districts included in the Government's agricultural development strategy consists of displaced people. Moreover, the provinces with high agricultural potential such as Nampula and Zambezia have the largest number of displaced people. The displaced population is concentrated near the major towns of the coastal zones and safe rural areas, creating severe shortages of land, increasing the demand for woodfuel and fishery resources, and threatening the mangroves. One of the most significant national environmental threats is the disruption of the mangrove ecosystem and its associated impact on shrimp and prawn production. Mangrove vegetation is an essential habitat for the reproduction of shrimp and prawns, which are significant contributors to the country's economy. There are two principal threats to the mangrove ecosystem. First, mangrove trees are being cut down for fuelwood, boat building and construction near the coastal towns where the displaced have concentrated and where there is a serious shortage of fuelwood. The second threat to mangroves arises from changes in salinity levels due to the construction of large dams for hydropower and irrigation purposes. The Zambezi River system, the largest river in Mozambique, discharges through the Sofala Bay, which is well-endowed with shrimp. With the construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam, there is a higher incidence of salt water intrusion to the areas where mangroves are found and fewer incoming nutrients entering the Zambezi River. The clearing of the mangroves for wood combined with higher salinity and lower nutrient levels in the mangrove areas has had an adverse impact on the shrimp population. Mangroves are renewable natural resources with a threshold; if they are managed properly, they can be used on a sustainable basis. Given the importance of mangroves to Mozambique's economy, it would seem appropriate to make a concerted effort to create awareness of mangrove conservation and utilization and to develop a national plan for mangrove conservation and development. Such a plan should identify all national resources, assess people's needs, define areas for sustainable uses and preservation, and assess the significance of mangroves in relation to water flow, genetic diversity, sedimentary v  stability, marine species reproduction and migration, and nursery areas for both aquatic and terrestrial life. Woodfuel is severely lacking around the major cities and safer rural areas where the displaced population is concentrated. This is a major cause of the depletion of the forest resources. Woodfuel projects initiated around Maputo, Beira, and Nampula should be strengthened. The woodfuel demand in rural areas could best be met by initiating agroforestry projects that involve the local people. The low stumpage fees for woodfuel and high quality timber encourages deforestation. Hence, reasonable stumpage fees should be set for the proper utilization and management of forest resources. Intensive cultivation in the areas where the displaced people are settled, due to a shortage of cultivable land, is resulting in land degradation. This probletn can be rectified only when the civil war comes to an end, as population density is low in most of the rural areas. Similarly, the areas rich in wildlife resources have become inaccessible because of the civil war. There has been widespread destruction of the wildlife population by the rebels, both for food and revenue generation. In particular, elephant tusks, rhino horns, and giraffe tails are being used as a source of revenue to finance rebel activities. Thus, bringing an end to the civil war is the most important step in reducing the major environmental risks posed in the development of agricultural land, forest, fisheries, and wildlife resources in Mozambique. Peace, indeed, is a fundamental requisite for the attainment of sustainable agricultural development in Mozambique. The emphasis on the construction of large dams for hydropower and irrigation needs to be reassessed. Most of the large-scale irrigation schemes are afflicted with soil salinization, sedimentation, and water-borne diseases. There is also a serious shortage of water management skills to deal with these problems. Small-scale irrigation schemes might be a better alternative to simultaneously reduce environmental risks and contribute to the development of the irrigation potential of the country. vi  I. Background Situated on the east coast of Southern Africa, Mozambique has an area of 799,388 square kilometers. It has a coastal line of 2500 kilometers adjoining the Indian Ocean, one of the longest coastal lines in East Africa. With a per capita income of US$ 100, Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in the world.' Yet, Mozambique is endowed with abundant land, water, forest and wildlife resources that hold a promising prospect for development. Mozambique has four distinct topographic features: (i) the coastal area (ess than 200 meters above sea level) occupies 42% of the country's land. About 90% of the land south of the Save river (which includes the Inhambane, Maputo and Gaza provinces) lies below 200 meters elevation. Over half of this area is susceptible to flooding. (ii) The middle plateau (ranging between 200 and 500 meters above sea level) which is mostly in the northern part of the country and extends westward in the Zambezi valley, covers about 29% of the area. (iii) The upland plateau (ranging from 500 meters to 1000 meters elevation), is mostly in the northern region and has frequent occurrence of inselbergs. It occupies 25% of the land area. (iv) The highland and mountain areas (over 1000 meters elevation), are mostly situated on the Malawi and Zimbabwe border (particularly in the provinces of Niassa, Tete, and Manica), and cover 4% of the land area.2 (See Map 1) Over half of the population lives in the coastal belt area. As a result of the increasing number of people who are fleeing the countryside, population density near the coastal areas has increased substantially in the past years. The weather is greatly influenced by the annual movement of the Inter- Tropical Convergence Zone and the trade winds of the Indian Ocean. Annual precipitation is shown in Map 2. Climatically, the country may be divided into two main regions. North of the Save river there is a rainy season from November - December to March - April. Average rainfall for most of the area ranges from 1,000 mm to 1,400 mm, reaching over 2,000 mm in the mountainous parts of Zambezia Province, but with low rainfall in the Western part of Zambezia Valley. South of the Save River, average rainfall over most of the area is 600 mm to 800 mm, falling to 400 mm in the west. Distribution of rainfall within the season is irregular, and there can be long dry periods, particularly in the critical growing period. The provinces and the major rivers in Mozambique are shown in Map 3. In general, soil distribution is closely related to the physiographic characteristics. The soils in the higher areas are mostly clay and clay loams and have good fertility. The soils in the low-lying costal plain in the south, except for the alluvial deposits along the rivers, are largely sandy and of low fertility with low water holding capacity, making them vulnerable to drought. The National Agricultural Research Institute (INIA) is currently preparing a National Soil Map at the district level.3 Mozambique is divided into five agro-ecological regions as shown in Map 4. (i) Agro-ecological Region 1 - Specialized and Diversified includes areas with clear agricultural specialization which, at the same time, have favorable agricultural conditions for diversification. This region has high altitudes and is exposed to erosion. This region is suitable for the cultivation of tea, coffee, fruit, and forest products. (ii) Agro-ecological Region 2 - Intensive includes areas with shortage of water in the dry season (June /July and October/November) and excess water during the rainy season (November/December and March/April). This region is suitable for various crops with the appropriate agricultural practices. This region includes the lower parts of the Zambezi, Pungue, and Buzi rivers, which have fertile alluvial soils and are suitable for  intensive irrigated farming. (iii) Agro-ecological Region 3 - Semi-intensive includes areas south of the Save River and is characterized by irregular rainfall and high temperature. The region is suited for integrated farming and animal husbandry. (iv) Agro-ecological Region 4. Semi - extensive has considerable risk of drought due to shortage of rainfall and requires irrigation or water harvesting techniques for agriculture. (V) Agro-ecological Region 5 - Extensive is only suitable for irrigated agriculture along the major rivers and their tributaries.4 Mozambique has a population of 16 million and an annual growth rate estimated at 2.7%.5 A large portion of the population (40%) is below the age of 15. The demographic trend for Mozambique, characterized by high population growth rates and dependency rates, is similar to the situation faced by most African countries. Mozambique, however, has ample land resources. Forty-five percent of the total land area (36.1 million hectares) is estimated to be cultivable with rather low climatic risks. Since there are 2.5 million farmers in the smallholder sector, this would mean that up to 14 hectares of land are available per family. The settlement pattern of the population, however, is not well-matched with areas where there is a large reserve of fertile land, largely due to the security problem. The Mozambique Government faces armed opposition from the Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO). The armed conflict has resulted in a massive exodus from rural to urban and coastal areas. Most displaced people have abandoned farming and have moved closer to the major towns and relatively safer areas (Table 1). The population of the capital city, Maputo, has been increasing by about 5% per annum, and now has over 1 million inhabitants. The civil war has also brought an uneven population distribution in many of the provinces. The Zambezia and Nampula Provinces are the most densely populated provinces, with 40% of the Mozambique population. These provinces have rich agricultural land, but as a large segment of the rural population is affected by the civil war, it is difficult to fully exploit it. Table 1 Distribution of Affected and Displaced People by Province as of 1990 Province Total Number of Number of Population Affected People Displaced People Zambezia 3,241,800 253,523 855,000 Nampula 3,117,400 444,040 149,000 Maputo 1,616,400 289,650 84,000 Sofala 1,381,600 261,893 179,000 Gaza 1,294,600 307,400 110,000 Inhambane 1,293,700 441,144 103,000 Cabo Delgado 1,219,800 177,224 60,000 Tete 1,076,900 107,500 139,000 Manica 831,200 87,160 127,000 Niassa 666,600 37,209 133,000 Total 15,730,000 2,406,743 1,939,000 (Source: National Emergency Executive Commission, 1990)6 The economic polices pursued by the Government under the ten-year development plan, 1980-1990, resulted in a stagnating economic performance, particularly in the 2  agricultural sector. Since 1981, there has been a sharp decline in agricultural production which is largely attributed to the disruption of peasant production by the civil war, drought, and Government policies. The ten-year plan emphasized large-scale agricultural projects run by the state for which Mozambique did not have the required capital or trained manpower. These policies were abandoned in 1987 with the Government's Economic Rehabilitation Program. This Program gives priority to improving agricultural productivity by restructuring unprofitable state farms in order to make them commercially viable; by providing improved incentives to peasant farmers through increased prices for crops, improved support services, and increased flow of consumer goods; by shifting the balance of trade in favor of the rural sector; and by supporting industries which produce consumer goods for rural people. The program also attempts to reduce poverty by creating employment opportunities for the poor, rehabilitating social services, and building local level institutional capacity. The Government is attempting to reactivate the rural areas through the Priority District Program (PDP), which would rehabilitate rural infrastructure and productive structure in 40 districts that are considered to have high potential for rapid agricultural development and better infrastructure, and to be relatively safe. Map 5 shows the location of the 40 priority districts. The World Bank is fully supportive of the PDP and is preparing projects to support agricultural development projects in many of these priority districts. 3  11. Major Agricultural and Natural Resource Features of Mozambique A. Agricultural Production About 85% of the people live in rural areas and agriculture is the dominant sector in Mozambique's economy. The agricultural sector contributes about 40 to 50% of the GDP, employs over 80% of the labor force, and generates around 80% of the country's export earnings.7 Agricultural production declined significantly throughout the 1980s due to a combination of factors such as inappropriate policies, the civil war, and drought. Between 1980 and 1986, total gross output valued at official producer prices fell by about one third.! Marketed volume of maize and rice, the two most important food crops, which had fluctuated between 150,000 and 230,000 tons per year during 1970 to 1975, ranged between 40,000 to 75,000 tons per year from 1985 to 1988.9 Mozambique, by and large, has good soils and climate for growing various food and cash crops. Of the country's 79.9 million hectares of land, 36.1 million hectares are considered to be potentially cultivable. Yet, only 2 to 3 million hectares are estimated to be presently cultivated.'0 Thus, Mozambique is far from utilizing its potential for crop production under rainfed agriculture. The potential for irrigation is estimated at 1.3 million hectares, while about 90,000 hectares of land are currently under irrigation. About 70% of the cultivated land is used for growing food crops such as maize, sorghum, millet, soybean, cassava, and groundnut; the remaining 30% of the land is used for growing export crops such as sugar, cotton, cashews, and sisal.'" There is very little application of inputs in the family sector, and the use of chemical fertilizer is almost non-existent. Fertilizer use is limited to commercial and entrepreneurial farmers. The family sector uses traditional hoe cultivation. There is a shortage of agricultural hand tools, which is an impediment to increased production and improved land cultivation. The major food and export crops are those listed in Table 2. Table 2 Amount of Land Suited for Rainfed Production of Crops in Mozambique Under Lower Level of Inputs in Square Kilometer Crop Very Suitable Moderately Marginally Not Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Maize 19,422 20,760 115,816 59,904 557,640 Sorghum 19,419 17,561 114,949 85,474 536,139 Millet 16,035 39,788 75,306 117,669 524,744 Wheat 0 112 163 1,732 771,535 Soybean 10,347 31,281 52,181 101,966 577,767 Groundnut 18,541 22,440 121,623 85,139 525,889 Cotton 0 6,774 3,192 17,725 717,851 Cassava 0 4,830 15,222 27,378 726,112 (Source: FAO, 1982)12 4  Agricultural production is carried out by three major types of producers, namely family farms, commercial farms (state and private), and cooperative farms. There are about 2.5 million family farms operating an average of 1 to 1.5 hectares, with an average of 5 persons per family. Family farms use 90% of the cultivated area and provide a livelihood for 80% of the population."3 Yields on family farms are low, as they use traditional farming methods with little improved agricultural inputs. With good weather conditions, however, family farms can produce enough food to meet household needs and contribute about 50% of the marketed output. Most of these farmers practice shifting cultivation, with fallow intervals of roughly seven years. The other producers (state, private, and cooperative farms) comprise less than 200,000 hectares of cultivated land. The area cultivated by the state farm sector decreased from 119,000 hectares in 1983 to 70,000 hectares in 1987 while that of private farms has increased from 41,000 hectares in 1983 to 55,000 hectares in 1987. The area cultivated by the cooperative farm sector has declined from 13,000 hectares in 1984 to 5,000 hectares in 1986, and produces less than 1% of the marketed output.'4 Subsidized by the Government and unable to meet its production targets, the state farm sector has incurred heavy debts from the Bank of Mozambique. As a result, the Government passed a divestiture law which shifts the management of land from the state to private or family enterprises."5 Under divestiture, the size of the state farm sector is to be reduced and incentives are to be given for good performance while ownership of land would still belong to the state. Livestock consists of cattle and goats. Mozambique is well endowed with "miambo" woodlands suitable for livestock raising. The areas best suited for pasture and livestock development, however, are infested by tse-tse fly (See Map 6). Thus, 75% of the country's cattle are concentrated in the southern region (Gaza, Inhambane, and Maputo provinces) and in the northwest region in Tete Province. At present, there is little effort to deal with the tse-tse fly infestation, a problem which needs serious attention. B. Land Tenure The family sector has customary land tenure rights while the commercial (private and state farm) and cooperative sector have leasehold tenure rights. The commercial and cooperative sector are recent phenomena and have taken some of the good land from the family sector. The 1979 Land Law states that all land is the property of the state, and that individuals and groups have the right to use it for up to 50 years with a lease, except for family farms which are not required to have a lease or pay tax as long as the land is occupied within the regulations. The regulations state that a family can have a quarter of a hectare of irrigated land and half a hectare in rainfed agriculture. A family can have up to 10 hectares of land if it practices shifting cultivation. Local authorities have the right to adjust the amount of land given to a family, depending on prevailing local conditions. The Land Law prohibits the transfer of land through sale, rental or mortgaging, while it allows inheritance of land with title. The Constitution passed in November 1990 did not change the Land Law. Yet changes are occurring towards privatization of land. Under the new agricultural policy, land belonging to the state and cooperatives is being distributed to individual 5  producers and private companies. Smallholders occupying and working certain areas are being provided with title to land. At the same time, titles are allegedly being given to people and firms which are not working the land, and some are getting land from the smallholder sector."' Most of the land in Mozambique is under customary law. Nearly all of the rural population owns their land through customary law. The National Cadastral Service (DINAGECA) does not provide titles to land acquired through customary law. The Land Law should recognize the right of vast numbers of smallholders to the land they cultivate otherwise it will inevitably lead to encroachment by those with economic and political influence. It is appropriate for the land law to recognize customary ownership and for DINAGECA to demarcate those areas and provide title to the smallholder sector. The importance of protecting the interest of family sector farmers operating under customary law by issuing them titles has been advocated by some officials in the Ministry of Agriculture.17 In the cotton growing areas of Nampula and Cabo Delgado provinces, the Government has granted joint venture companies (JVCs) the right to grow and process cotton, and the right to buy all cotton produced by the family sector. The JVCs also have the responsibility to provide extension service, inputs, and technical assistance to the family sector farmers growing cotton. There is a legitimate concern, particularly among non-governmental organizations, that the powerful position the JVCs have vis-a-vis the family sector may result in further infringement of land owned by the family sector. Hence, the Government should make adequate provision in lease contracts to prevent such infringement. C. Inland Waters Mozambique has 13,000 km2 of inland waters, which include Cahora Bassa Reservoir, part of Lake Malawi, and several minor (mainly coastal) lakes. It has ten major rivers that cross the country eastward, entering into the Indian Ocean, namely, the Zambezi, Rovuma, Messalo, Lurio, Licungo, Pungoe, Buzi, Save, Limpopo, and Incomati. Most of Mozambique's surface water resources come from the Zambezi River, which is a major international river passing through Angola, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Malawi. Development schemes involving the Zambezi River would have a significant impact on the availability of surface water resources in Mozambique and on the amount of fresh water flowing to the coastal areas and the Indian Ocean. Most of the major rivers, particularly those emanating from the highland areas in Mozambique and neighboring countries, cause considerable flooding during the rainy season and diminish in size in the dry season. There is little downward slope as these rivers come closer to the coastal zone and enter the Indian Ocean. Thus, salt water intrusion in the dry season and the ensuing risk of salinization, particularly during high tides, is substantial. Salt water intrusion and salinity is observed in the coastal areas of Pemba District (Cabo Delgado Province), Angoche District (Nampula Province), Pebane District (Zambezia Province), Buzi and Dondo Districts (Sofala Province), Morrumbene District (Inhambane Province), Xai-Xai District (Gaza Province), and Manhica and Marracuene Districts (Maputo Province). 6  D. Coastal Waters With 2,500 km bordering the Indian Ocean, Mozambique has one of the longest coastal lines in Africa. It has a continental shelf area of 120,000 square km."8 Over half of the population live in the coastal belt area, with many relying on inland and offshore fishery resources for food and income. The sustainable catch is estimated at 500,000 tons of fish and 14,000 tons of prawns annually."0 Fisheries play an important role in Mozambique's economy. Coastal and deep sea fishing have become the backbone of the economy, with shrimp alone contributing to 42% of foreign exchange earnings.20 There are 60,000 artisan fishermen who use canoes and sailboats. These small-scale fishermen supply 65% of the total fishery production and most of the animal protein for the country.21 Mozambique does not have adequate national vessels to exploit its coastal and deep sea fisheries for export; it relies heavily on joint ventures with the Soviet Union, Japan, and South Africa. Estuaries are among the most productive ecosystems for fisheries, shellfish, and shrimp exploitation. Estuaries, however, are increasingly threatened by salinity intrusion as a result of dam construction, mangrove destruction, and urban and industrial pollution.' Tlhe most important ecosystem on the coast is the mangrove, estimated at 454,000 hectares and occupying about 15% of the coastline.? Other important coastal ecosystems are coral reefs, covering about 30% of the coast, and coastal dunes, which help protect against storms and tidal surges.2? Coral reefs have a great deal of biological diversity and generate substantial tourism interest. It is important to have vegetative cover of some sort since otherwise dunes would be carried inland by wind, thus threatening agricultural land. E. Mangrove Ecosystems The mangrove ecosystem helps to reduce storm surges and coastal and beach erosion. Large mangrove areas are found on the estuaries of the Zambezi, Save, Limpopo, Messalo, Pungue, and Maputo Rivers. In these areas, the mangroves help reduce floods and erosion on the river banks. Mangroves play a vital role in the reproduction of shrimp and prawns, which are the country's largest source of foreign export earnings. Mangroves are concentrated in the provinces of Cabo Delgado (88,300 ha), Nampula (129,000 ha), Zambezia (105,000 ha), Sofala (107,000 ha), and Inhambane (25,000 ha).5 The main mangrove species in Mozambique are Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Avicennia marina, and Lumnitzera racemosa. Most of these are able to grow and survive in adverse habitats, partly due to their morphological features, including aerating roots. Even when they are battered and damaged by heavy storms or floods, they are fairly resilient and regenerate naturally. Mangroves are currently under serious threat from several sources, including the war-induced displacement of people and the construction of dams. The capacity of mangroves to regenerate when they are clearfelled in a destructive way for fuelwood and construction purposes is limited. For example, a helicopter tour of the Sofala Bay area during the field work showed that large areas of mangroves have been cut from the roots or very close to the roots, thus seriously affecting their regeneratve capacity. The areas where large quantities of mangroves are being cleared by large influxes of displaced population are in Pebane and Chinde Districts (Zambezia Province); Buzi and Dondo Districts (Sofala Province); Pemba district (Cabo Delgado Province); Morrumbene and Massinga Districts (Inhambane Province); and Angoche District (Nampula Province). The construction of large dams for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes 7  also poses a threat to the mangrove ecosystem by reducing the flow of fresh water into the estuaries or by changing the river's regime. Other threats to the mangroves come from the construction of shrimp ponds and salt evaporation pans. F. Forest Resources Over 70% of Mozambique's land, amounting to 57,000,000 hectares, has woody vegetative cover. Of the total land covered by vegetation, 8.7% is forest with high and medium productivity, 26% is forest with medium and low productivity, and the remaining is composed of savanna and scrub woodland, primarily used for fuelwood and building poles, with little commercial and timber value.26 The forests of good productive potential contain many valued species of high quality timber which are a source of foreign exchange. About two-thirds of the high forest (over 15 meters in canopy height) are found in the Sofala Province and are important for commercial use. Other provinces with dense low forest (9 to 15 meters in canopy height) with good commercial value are Zambezia, Manica, Nampula and Cabo Delgado. The sustainable yield from these good forest lands is estimated at 1 million m3 annually, which is five times as much as the highest output ever obtained.' These forests of good productive potential can generate considerable revenue in foreign exchange. Forest products make a significant contribution to the domestic economy as well to the country's export earning capacity. Since 1980, timber production, particularly for export, has decreased due to the security problem. Timber exports declined from US$ 8 million in 1980 to US$ 1.7 million in 1984. Yet, timber production constituted an average of 20% of the value of production of all agro-industries (including cotton, cashews, sisal, and animal feed) in the period 1980 to 1985.8 Hence, the forest sub-sector has an important role in the development of the national economy. State enterprises have a dominant role in the logging and wood processing sectors. There are 17 state-owned enterprises with an installed logging capacity of 272,500 m3 per annum, and 19 private enterprises with a logging capacity of 99,500 m3 per annum.3 Most logging operations are concentrated in the central and northern regions of the country. Logging output, particularly of those that are state-owned, is well below their installed capacity. The state-owned forest industries operate at only 619% of their installed logging capacity. This underutilization is due to the security problem, lack of managerial and technical expertise, and lack of maintenance and spare parts. The administration of the country's forest and wildlife resources comes under the National Forest and Wildlife Directorate (DNFFB), within the Ministry of Agriculture. Its main objectives are to protect and develop the forest and wildlife resources, to prepare and enforce the forest and wildlife regulations, to promote afforestation schemes for household and industrial purposes, to set up information networks on forest and wildlife resources for better management, to establish forest areas under protection (forest reserves), and to promote national awareness on the preservation of forest and wildlife resources. To attain these objectives, the Directorate is organized at the headquarters level in Maputo in three departments, namely the Forest Department, the Wildlife Department, and the Forest Industry and Economics Department. At the provincial level, there are 11 Provincial Forest and Wildlife Services (SPFFB), under the Provincial Directorate of Agriculture 8  (DPA), representing each province and Maputo city. In addition, the state-owned forest industries are staffed and managed by the National Directorate. The forest industries which contribute to the bulk of exported timber are directly under the management of the Directorate. A major constraint to attaining the objectives of the National Forest and Wildlife Directorate is the lack of institutional capacity and trained manpower. At independence, the only trained staff in the Directorate were a few Portuguese foresters and sawmill operators who then left, paralyzing the activities of the Directorate and the logging capacity of the nation. The Directorate has a serious shortage of trained personnel at the national and provincial levels. At present, there are only 35 university-trained foresters and 150 medium level technicians working with the Directorate and the state-owned industries. Nearly all of these were trained after independence. It is estimated that the Directorate has only one-third of the trained staff required to run its operation at all levels. G. Wildlife Mozambique has large and diverse wildlife resources. The protected areas for national parks and natural reserves cover 13% of the country's area, of which 15,850 square kilometers is in national parks, 19,700 square kilometers is on wildlife reserves and 56,700 square kilometers is on hunting reserves (See Map 7).3 No inventory on wildlife population has been undertaken. In response to the dramatic decrease in the wildlife population, particularly elephants, rhinos, and cheetahs, national park and game reserves were established in 1960 to control poaching. Hunting is not permitted in the national parks while controlled hunting is allowed in reserves. Most of the national parks are not operating since the RENAMO forces have destroyed the infrastructure, and traveling in the national park and game reserve areas is not safe. The most important national parks are described below." The Gorongosa National Park, located in the Sofala Province, was a well-known tourist attraction before the civil war. It has a total area of 4000 square kilometers and a rich biological diversity, including many animal and plant species. One of the main reasons for the establishment of the park was the conservation of the abundant flora and fauna and the protection of the wildlife population, including some of the endangered animal species such as the black rhino, elephant, waterbuck, reedbuck, and leopard. There are also many land and water birds. In 1981, RENAMO insurgents occupied the park and destroyed the infrastructure and hotel services. Hence, it is currently not in operation. The Zinave National Park, located in both Gaza and Inhambane Provinces, has an area of 5000 square kilometers. There are a considerable number of roan antelope, nyala, and ostrich. Also present are some of the endangered species in Mozambique such as cheetah, giraffe, rhino, caracal, and black-backed jackal. Banhine National Park, in Gaza Province, northeast of the Limpopo River, has an area of 7000 square kilometers and is the largest national park in the country. Most of the park is in the arid zone and the main feature of the park is open grassland. The wildlife includes elephants, cheetah, roan antelope, sable, side-striped jackal, giraffe, and ostrich. Tsessebe, once abundant, are now under threat of extinction. Bazaruto National Park, on the islands of Bangue, Santo Antonio, and Santa Isabel, in Inhambane Province, is one of the few marine parks in Africa and is meant to protect the dugong and sea turtles which are both endangered species. It has an area of 80 square 9  kilometers. There are extensive coral formations and it is the only national park functioning at present. The five game reserves are the Niassa Reserve (15,000 km2 - protection of sable and nature); Gile Reserve (2100 km2 - protection of kudu, wildebeest and natural scenery); Romene Reserve (200 km2 - protection of dugong and sea birds); Maputo Reserve (900 km2 - protection for rhinos and elephants); and Marromeu Reserve (1500 km2- protection of water buffalos). There are seven fauna protection areas where some animals are protected while others can be exploited. These are area do Gile where all wildlife is protected; Troco do rio Pungle where hippo are protected; area do Zinave and area do Banhine (5 km corridor) whare all wildlife is protected; Torco do rio Limpopo and area do Marracuene, which serve for the protection of hippos; area do Maputo which extends from the Umbelizi River to Maputo River and from the coastal zone to the Libombo mountains; and Ilhas da Inhaca where some animal species and corals are protected. Within the PDP, the districts where wildlife has come under threat are in Mueda (Cabo Delgado Province), Monapo and Ribaue (Nampula Province), Barue (Manica Province), and Gorongoza (Sofala Province). 10  III. The Effects of the Civil War on the Environment The civil war in Mozambique has had a devastating impact on human welfare, the economy, and the environment. About 600,000 people have died directly or indirectly as a result of the war, over a million have fled the country, and nearly one-third of the population has been seriously affected. Close to half of the population is in need of food assistance.32 The greatest environmental threats in Mozambique result from the pressure the displaced population exerts on the natural resources in safe areas, and from poaching of wildlife in rebel-held territories. This chapter examines the impact of the civil war on land, water and fisheries, and forest and wildlife resources. A. The Displaced People and Emergency Assistance The civil war has resulted in a massive movement of people from the countryside to the coastal zones and around major towns. According to the Government's 1990/91 Emergency Appeal, the civil war has had a significant negative impact on nearly 4.3 million people, of which 1.9 million people are displaced requiring emergency assistance and 2.4 million are affected (Table 1). The displaced population are those who have abandoned their farms, have no possessions and are unable to meet their basic needs. The displaced population is often resettled around the major cities, provincial and district capitals, and around the rail line connecting Zimbabwe and Mozambique (the Beira Corridor), which is well-protected by the armies of both Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The affected population are those who live on their farms but whose capacity to be self-sufficient in food has been severely limited by the civil war. The affected population also includes those who have been counted as displaced for a period of over 18 months. The breakdown of the population affected and displaced by province is presented in Table 1. It is beyond the capacity of the country to provide food and basic necessities to the millions of people whose lives were disrupted by the war. Consequently, the Government has made an international appeal for emergency assistance each year since 1987, and has received a substantial amount of assistance. The Ministry of Cooperation is responsible for the administration of relief. The National Executive Emergency Commission (CENE) under the Ministry of Cooperation facilitates the emergency assistance for those displaced and affected by the civil war. The major task of CENE is to coordinate the emergency assistance with the various ministries, donor agencies and non-govermmental agencies. CENE also provides logistical support and administers relief operations through the Department for the Combat and Prevention of Natural Disaster (DPCCN). The DPCCN has offices at the provincial and district levels and runs accommodation centers for the displaced population. The Government, with the assistance of donor agencies and non- governmental organizations, has set up programs to help the displaced population. These programs include the allocation of land in relatively safe areas; the distribution of seeds, tools, and construction materials; and the provision of food, clothes, and essential social services. To undertake these activities, the Government has requested an emergency appeal to the UN for the past two years. The 1990/91 Emergency Requirement was US$ 135,799,026. The amount requested for food aid (US$ 56,900,000) and for logistics (US$ 34,000,000) constituted the largest items in the appeal.33 The appeal also included a program to help over 200,000 11  refugees who are returning from neighboring countries (Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa). The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has helped resettle a significant number of these refugees. The number of displaced people in each province (as indicated in Table 1 as of 1990) changes frequently. This is partly due to the unpredictable nature of rebel attacks, and partly due to how quickly the displaced people can be resettled. For example, in 1989, the number of displaced persons decreased in Maputo, Nampula, Inhambane, and Niassa Provinces, as more displaced families were brought back into agricultural production, whereas in the Zambezia, Manica, Sofala, Tete, and Gaza Provinces it increased, due to the Government's major counteroffensive against rebel forces. Accessibility is also a major constraint to providing emergency assistance. Most areas can be reached only under military escort and a considerable part of the Zambezia, Sofala, and Inhambane Provinces are not accessible. It is estimated that about 25% of the displaced population can easily be supplied by the emergency program, 60% can be reached by military-protected convoys, and 15% can only be supplied by air.4 Due to these security and logistical problems, the 1990/91 appeal will include targeted beneficiaries of 1.4 million people which amounts to 72% of the displaced persons. The 40 priority districts upon which the Government's agricultural development strategy concentrates are equally affected by the displaced population. Over 30% of the population in the 40 priority districts are believed to be displaced people. For instance, the provinces endowed with the highest agricultural potential, Zambezia and Nampula, have the largest number of displaced persons (Table 1). OXFAM (United Kingdom), which has an emergency assistance program in the Zambezia Province, estimates that the number of displaced persons in the four priority districts (Chinde, Mocuba, Nicoadala, and Pebane) is increasing. According to an OXFAM report, from January 1989 to January 1990, the number of displaced persons increased from 32,039 to 76,701 in the Chinde District; from 45,605 to 69,584 in the Mocuba District; from 59,258 to 76,890 in the Nicoadala District; and from 97,260 to 199,796 in the Pebane District.35 The concentration of displaced people in the priority districts is having an adverse impact on land quality and agricultural production. B. The Effects of the Civil War on Land Resources The DPCCN and the Ministry of Agriculture district offices distribute land to the displaced people who are living in the accommodation centers which are usually located in communal villages or on the outskirts of the major towns. There is little information on the amount of land that has been distributed to the displaced population. Reports from non- governmental agencies such as OXFAM and Action Aid indicate that land near the urban (and safer) areas where the displaced have concentrated is scarce. The United Nations Inter-Agency mission to the Sofala Province indicated that most displaced farmers were receiving 30 x 40 meter lots, which is only one-eighth of the land needed to support a family of four. Similarly, there is a critical shortage of land to be distributed to the displaced population in the Nampula, Maputo, and Zambezia Provinces . In nearly all the areas where the displaced population has concentrated, land available to be distributed for cultivation is becoming scarcer. In such a situation, farmers who have no or minimal access to modern inputs and extension services cannot practice the traditional method of shifting cultivation, where farmers use a seven-year rotational farming 12  system before returning to the same plot of land, to maintain soil fertility. This acute shortage of land in those areas where the displaced population has concentrated has led to intensive cultivation and a decrease in soil quality and fertility. The loss of soil fertility due to intensive cultivation on small plots is a serious problem facing many of the priority districts with good agricultural potential. The preliminary report from the priority districts in the Zambezia, Sofala, and Maputo Provinces, in particular, indicate an acute shortage of land. A preliminary report in the Pebane District, one of the priority districts in the Zambezia Province with the highest number of displaced people (about 200,000) shows that the size of plots distributed to a displaced family of five is less than one-fourth of a hectare. Near the accommodation centers around the town of Pebane there is no land left for distribution. The coastal strip of the Pebane District, where many displaced people are concentrated, has relatively poor sandy soil. Intensive cultivation of such sandy soil has accelerated the loss of soil fertility, thus adversely affecting the ability of the displaced population to be self-sufficient in food. A more desirable area to resettle the displaced population would have been the Impaca Valley, in the Pebane District, which has high agricultural potential. The Impaca Valley produces a considerable amount of maize, rice, cassava, and beans. The security problem around the Impaca Valley area and the interior of Pebane District, however, has worsened in the past year leading to a massive movement of rural people to the Pebane town area. The adverse impact of a high people-land ratio on soil quality is also reported in the Manica District, one of the priority districts in the Manica Province. In particular, the hilly areas of the Penhalonga region along the Beira corridor bordering Zimbabwe show signs of severe degradation. The streams and rivers flowing downstream have been considerably reduced in size, and at times have dried up due to the cutting of forests and intensive cultivation on the hills. The Penhalonga area is well protected by soldiers as a telecommunications system is installed on the top of the hill (Mount Xilunva) and the railroad that links Zimbabwe with Mozambique passes through this region. Many displaced families have settled on the hills as it is one of the most secure areas in the province. Ministry of Agriculture staff report that most of the displaced people who have settled on these hills came from flat areas and are not familiar with cultivating high slope land. The new settlers are farming the slopes without terraces, greatly increasing soil erosion in a region that receives high rainfall. Land shortage is also severe in the priority districts of Moamba, Manhica, and Marracuene of the Maputo Province. The United Nations Inter-Agency reports that over 35% of the population in these districts are displaced people. There is an absolute shortage of land to be distributed around the district towns and most of the displaced people have been allocated very small plots. The red sandy soils in most of these priority districts, particularly in Marracuene, are very susceptible to degradation and erosion. Many of the displaced people in these districts still rely on food aid, and yields are unlikely to improve as intensive cultivation of such small plots gradually reduces soil fertility. 13  C. The Effects of the Civil War on Inland and Coastal Water Resources There has been a dramatic increase in the number of people who have moved from the hinterland to the coastal zones as a result of the civil war. The coastal areas are generally secure, and have good infrastructure, and those people who live around the major costal towns have easy access to emergency assistance. Most of those displaced people are peasant farmers who knew little about fishing before coming to the coastal areas. And yet, they are increasingly depending on fishery resources for food and income. Fishing activities using small boats have increased substantially both in inland and coastal waters. There is no available data or study to indicate the impact of these activities on the fisherie sector. Preliminary observations from some of the non- governmental organizations and Ministry of Agricultural staff suggest that the adverse impact of a high fishing effort may be of more concern in the inland waters (rivers and lakes) than in the coastal waters of the Indian Ocean. Similarly, a study currently being undertaken by Action Aid about the fisheries profile in the Zambezia Province suggests that overfishing is not a problem in the coastal areas of Pebane District, whereas it may be a problem in the inland waters (small lakes) of Maganja da Costa District.' The displaced population concentrated in the coastal towns is presenting a major threat to the mangrove ecosystems, which are a crucial habitat for the reproduction of shrimp and prawns, the largest contributors to Mozambique foreign exchange, and subsistence food for local population. Due to the severe shortage of building wood in the coastal areas of the Pebane district, mangrove trees are reportedly being cut for boat building by many of the displaced people, despite the fact that mangrove trees are not good for making boats as they crack and form holes easily, letting water inside. The traditional artisan fishermen are aware of this fact and do not use mangrove trees for boat making. The Forest Department has also reported that due to the severe shortage of fuelwood, mangrove trees are being used for fuelwood in the coastal area of the Beira and Dondo Districts, which are among the four priority districts in Sofala Province. D. The Effects of the Civil War on Forest and Wildlife Resources Deforestation is a localized problem in Mozambique. The areas around the provincial towns, particularly those close to the coastal zones, are facing serious problems of deforestation. The influx of displaced population has accelerated this problem because of forest land clearing for cultivation and for collection of fuelwood and construction materials. Maputo, which has over one million residents and a large number of displaced people, now obtains its fuelwood supply from a distance of 60 to 70 kilometers away. During the field visits to the Boane and Marracuene Districts (which are among the priority districts in Maputo Province), it was noted that a considerable number of the displaced are facing wood shortages for construction and fuelwood. In several of the settlement sites outside the district town of Boane, for instance, a number of displaced families walk considerable distances (four to six hours) to find wood, and are increasingly using corn husks as fuel instead. In the Beira Corridor, the rate of deforestation has accelerated in the past few years as large numbers of displaced people have moved close to the railroad which is well- protected by security forces. There has been forest clearing for cultivation, fuelwood, and 14  construction. Ministry of Agriculture staff have reported that there is little forested area remaining along both sides of the railroad. The displaced families are now walking a great distance to fetch fuelwood, sometimes venturing into areas whichn need military escort. The guerilla war has become the most serious impediment to the conservation and development of wildlife resources. The regions of Mozambique where some of the remaining endangered species and big game animals exist are among the most affected by the ongoing civil war. The animals threatened with extinction, such as the roan antelope, elephant, and rhino, are found in the districts of Gorongosa (Sofala Province), Chiringoma and Chemba (Sofala Province), and Barue and Tambara (Manica Province), where guerrilla forces are actively operating. The areas noted for big game in the Gaza, Inhambane, and Niassa provinces are also affected by frequent fighting. The functioning of the Wildlife Department has been severely limited due to the civil war. Its anti-poaching stations are closed in many rural areas and it has no mechanism to enforce any regulations regarding illegal hunting. Hunting for elephant tusks and rhino horns in rebel-held regions is believed to be widespread and is beyond the capacity of the Wildlife Department to control. Most of the national parks and wildlife reserves, which had previously protected wildlife and generated revenues, have collapsed due to frequent attacks by RENAMO forces. Big and small game hunting safaris in the Zambezia Valley and game viewing safaris in the Gorongosa National Parks are no longer possible. Located in Gorongosa District, one of the priority Districts in the Sofala Province, the Gorongosa National Park has the most diverse and rich wildlife resources. In recent years, however, RENAMO's main military operation has been based in the Gorongosa District, making the park area inaccessible. Therefore, many believe that the wildlife population, particularly that of the elephants, rhinos, zebras and antelopes, is being rapidly destroyed. Ivory trading in areas controlled by RENAMO is reported to be widespread and RENAMO may be using some of the revenue from ivory to finance its guerilla activities. Giraffes are being killed for their tails, which are used in making bracelets. The rebels also rely heavily on wildlife as a source of food as agricultural production in the countryside is disrupted. The development of national parks, game reserves and wildlife farming has become extremely difficult. The tourist camps and lodges in the Banhine, Zinave and Gorongosa National Parks and in several of the tourist hunting reserves have been destroyed by RENAMO. In Zambezia Valley, the infrastructure and the Wildlife Production Units' materials and equipment have similarly been destroyed. There are no wildlife staff working at field level, making it difficult to supervise or support wildlife activities in the countryside. Hence, neither the conservation of wildlife resources nor their development can be attained under the present situation. 15  IV. Major Environmental Policy Issues in Sustainable Agricultural Development Sustainable development in Mozambique is not possible, without creating conditions for peace. Consequently, the study cannot suggest new investment programs for consideration. It has, however, identified key environmental issues in the development of land, water, forest, and wildlife resources which could be integrated in any future strategy for sustainable agricultural development. A. Land Tenure Article 8 of the 1975 Constitution states that all land is the property of the State, and the State determines the conditions for its development and use. The Land Law amended in July 1979 abolished private ownership of land and stated that land cannot be sold, rented, or mortgaged. The law, at the same time, entitles individuals or legal entities to be title holders for up to 50 years. Family farms and peasant households that are involved in subsistence production are not required to have a lease or pay taxes. The Ministry of Construction and Water has the responsibility to enforce land legislation. The Land Law attempts to limit the amount of land to be used for crop production as farm families are entitled to have 0.25 hectare per family in irrigated land and 0.5 hectare in rainfed land. The reason for limiting the size of rainfed agriculture to 0.5 hectare per family is difficult to understand since land is relatively abundant compared to the size of the population, provided that the security situation improves in the countryside. With about 80 million hectares of land and 16 million people, the average per capita land size in Mozainbique is about 5 hectares. There is no study indicating the optimal farm size for a peasant family to operate effectively in Mozambique. It seems most unlikely, however, that 0.5 hectare of land could be enough for the sustainable agricultural development of the peasant sector. Peasant households cultivating small plots - less than one hectare - would be involved in intensive cultivation, without fallow area, which would accelerate the rate of land degradation. It is even plausible to assume that cultivating such a small plot would not provide adequate financial profitability from the application of inputs such as fertilizer and improved seed. Thus, the present Land Law has an adverse effect on the sustainable development of the rural economy and does not provide adequate incentives for the implementation of good conservation practices. In practice, the Law is ineffective as the Government does not have the capacity to enforce it. The Law, in contrast, has a significant effect when divestiture of state- owned land is involved. Divestiture essentially involves breaking up large state-owned estates and agricultural enterprises into smaller family or privately-owned farms. Divestiture began in 1985 as state farms became highly unproductive and difficult to manage, incurring large debt. Environmental issues such as how to reduce the risk of salinity and loss of soil fertility due to monocropping are not given consideration in divestiture involving large-scale irrigation farms. Shifting cultivation with a rotational period of about seven years is widespread in Mozambique. Subsistence farmers involved in shifting cultivation are allowed to use additional land up to 10 hectares, and to have access to common grazing land in the village for livestock. When there is pressure on land, local authorities can limit the size of the area subject to shifting cultivation. Previously, shifting cultivation did not pose a threat to land quality or forest resources, given the low population density in the rural areas. With an estimated 2.7% 16  annual population growth rate, however, there will be a substantial reduction in the fallow period, resulting in an incomplete regeneration of the forest woodlands and soil fertility. With the current low level of agricultural technology, soil quality will gradually deteriorate. Hence, shifting cultivation is not a viable system for the sustained development of the rural sector. Land ownership provides the security and the incentive needed to increase agricultural production and undertake conservation activities. In Mozambique, shifting cultivation, the state ownership of land, and the law governing land leases have all had an adverse impact on security in land tenure. Peasants who practice shifting cultivation do not register the land they traditionally use. When shifting cultivators return after several years to the land they had left for regeneration, they are increasingly finding their plots taken by private or commercial farmers who have been given title to land by a Govermnent agency that had little or no knowledge the land was being used by shifting cultivators. This has resulted in frequent land conflicts between subsistence and commercial farmers. Given the Government's encouragement to expand commercial farming in rural areas, land conflicts are likely to increase, which will further reduce land security and incentives to improve the land. Very little of the land occupied in Mozambique is registered and titled. The registration of land rights is required for the private sector, but is not required for the family sector. The National Directorate for Geography and Cadastre (DINAGECA), under the Ministry of Agriculture, is responsible for identification, survey, registration and issuing of titles to land. Some officials in the Ministry of Agriculture have advocated that DINAGECA issue titles to the land the family sector cultivates as otherwise those with power and influence could claim it.7 Land grabbing is reportedly occurring in the outskirts of many urban areas and is likely to intensify with the privatization of agriculture and the eventual restoration of peace in the rural areas. Hence, the registry and titling of land owned by the family sector should be given serious priority. Since independence, DINAGECA operations at the provincial level have been neglected. The information on land registration and mapping has not been updated in the last decade, and is not likely to reflect reality regarding the land situation in the provinces. The state land that has been distributed under the privatization and divestiture procedures has not been recorded through DINAGECA. Lands given by provincial governors or by the Ministry of Agriculture to the Green Zone development program and commercial farmers have not been consistently reported to DINAGECA for registration and issuance of title as required. On some occasions, this has led DINAGECA to give to other commercial farmers and private families titles to land that has already been allocated to others by the provincial governor or that was being used by shifting cultivators, there by creating land conflicts and insecurity of tenure. All land in Mozambique is leasehold vested in the state. The 1987 Land Law extended the maximum duration of a lease from 15 to 50 years and granted automatic renewal of leases. Given the poor record keeping and bureaucratic inefficiencies, getting and renewing leases can be time-consuming and costly. The purpose of long-term leases is to encourage investment in the land and to provide incentives for increased agricultural production. In spite of these positive amendments, the Land Law is still limited in providing security of tenure. First, all leases are required to have a development plan, which describes the type of investment to be undertaken and the conditions predicated in maintaining land quality by leaseholder. The Government, however, does not have the capacity to monitor such plans. In fact, studies have shown that such development plans are used by some officials to evict 17  landholders from desired lands or as a way to generate bribes from those who have not complied with the development conditions.3' The development plan could be an important means to minimize environmental risks and enhance conservation activities. In particular, projects promoted by commercial farmers which depend on large-scale irrigation schemes need close monitoring to 4.38). However, for most private and family farms, preparation of the development plan, which is the centerpiece of the leasehold system, is beyond their technical or financial capacity. Besides, such plans may not be flexible enough to respond to changing market and weather conditions in using land. The Land Law prohibits the mortgaging and selling of land, thus reducing land transactions and diminishing the opportunities to profit from investment in land development. The selling and renting of land could bring a more efficient use of land by increasing the flow of money to the rural sector. It would seem that a freehold system, where private ownership of land and inheritance is guaranteed by law, would provide the greatest security in land rights, and thus would be an incentive for individuals to invest in the land. Hence, the Land Law should address the issues of land ownership, long-term leaseholds with transactions, land inheritance, and land survey, as they are crucial factors for the sustainable development of land resources in Mozambique. B. "Green Zone" Development Policy FRELIMO's Third Congress in 1977 emphasized the need to make the major cities and their vicinities self-sufficient in food. In 1980, Green Zone Offices were established in each provincial capital to increase food supplies and create employment opportunities for the urban people. This operation started in Maputo, which has the largest and most developed Green Zone area. The Green Zone concept has not been fully implemented in the other provincial capitals. The Ministry of Agriculture and the city municipality share responsibility in the administration of the Green Zone Office. The Maputo Green Zone areas have a total size of 15,251 hectares. There are 58,234 farm families cultivating 12,301 hectares (81% of the Green Zone area), 390 private farmers cultivating 2,200 hectares, and 203 cooperatives (with 11,000 members) cultivating 750 hectares.39 The average area cultivated by farm families is 0.2 hectares - a size that will trigger even more land degradation in a short time. Even with the provision of inputs and good farming practices, it is difficult to imagine how 0.2 hectares of land per family could provide a meaningful contribution to family income and employment and also be a basis for sustainable development. Throughout southern Mozambique, an important factor in determining crop production potential is the water holding capacity of the soil at the root zone. Most soils in the Maputo Green Zone area have low water holding capacity. The rainfall pattern is often erratic and most rain occurs in high intensity storms. As a result, most of the available rainwater is lost as runoff. Most of the Maputo Green Zone areas are in dry areas with limited irrigation potential. Hence, Green Zone development relying on rainfed agriculture involves considerable risks and limitations to increased food production for the urban areas. The Government officially favors the promotion of cooperatives, which are seen as a vehicle to modernize the agricultural sector. In 1982, the Green Zone Office 18  established the General Union of Cooperatives to link individual cooperatives, coordinate their activities, and provide them with bargaining power without interfering with the administration of each cooperative. The Union's task is to provide tools, seeds, and veterinary services, and transport and market agricultural products such as vegetables and meat to urban areas. The Union also has ties with Government agencies and the party structure, as it relies on their support to generate foreign exchange and to get technical assistance from donor agencies. Cooperatives cultivate only 5% of the Green Zone areas around Maputo. Yet, a great deal of significance is attached to the role of cooperatives in the Green Zone areas in accelerating agricultural production near the cities. This optimism is partly based on the experience of the very few cooperatives in the Maputo Green Zone (such as Julius Nyerere, Che Guevara, Joaquim Chissano, and 7 De April) which are considered successful. The success of cooperatives is measured in terms of revenue generation, good management, output per member, and profitability, which enables them to increase the income of the members. The cooperatives who meet these economic criteria are classified as Class A whereas those cooperatives that do not meet these criteria are classified as Class C cooperatives. A study done by the General Union of Cooperatives in 1985 points out that of the 182 cooperatives in the Green Zone areas of Maputo, only 15 are classified as Class A cooperatives whereas 125 are Class C cooperatives and the rest are in between.' This suggests that, on the whole, the cooperative subsector has not been very successful in contributing to the development of the Maputo Green Zone areas. In addition, most Class A cooperatives are situated on wet land with access to irrigation, and their members derive most of their income from non-farm employment. In contrast, most of the Class C cooperatives are on dry land, with poor sandy soil, and depend on rainfed agriculture. Thus, the success of a very few cooperatives in the Maputo Green Zone areas should not be misconstrued as indicating that cooperatives provide better organization to improve agricultural production or employment opportunities. C. Construction of Large Dams for Hydropower Surface water is the main source of water in Mozambique. Only about half of the volume of surface water available in Mozambique is derived from local rainfall. The remaining half enters the country through the Zambezi River and the other major rivers that originate from neighboring countries and flow eastward crossing Mozambique to the Indian Ocean." This means that the development of these rivers within and outside the country will have a significant impact on water availability and the hydrologic regime of the country. The Government has attached great importance to the development of these major rivers through the construction of dams for generating hydroelectric power and for irrigation. There are about 10 dams that are used for generating power. The Cahora Bassa Dam, on the Zambezi River, is the largest dam and is the source of nearly all the hydropower generated in the country. It has an installed capacity of 2,075 MW whereas all the other power sources together have 257 MW. The primary user of the Cahora Bassa power is South Africa, as Mozambique is able to consume only a small portion (71 MW) of the installed capacity.'2 The transmission line has been a frequent target of the rebel forces and the hydropower station has not been in operation most of the time. The Cahora Bassa Dam uses the Zambezi River system, which extends for about 3,000 km from its source in the Central African Plateau to the Indian Ocean, and drains an area of about 1,300,000 km2 within Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, 19  and Mozambique, making it the third largest river system in Africa. Built in the middle course of the Zambezi River, wholly within Mozambique, the Cahora Bassa Dam has a surface area of 2,300 km2 which makes it the fifth largest reservoir in Africa.'3 It has a water storage capacity of 43 billion cubic meters and a mean depth of 19 meters. The impact of the Cahora Bassa on terrestrial and aquatic resources was neglected by the Portuguese, who initiated the project, as well as by the Mozambique Government afterwards. A Portuguese company still administers the dam. The National Water Directorate (DNA) under the Ministry of Construction and Water has the responsibility of monitoring the construction of dams and has focused on the technical problems of hydropower. There have been few studies examining the environmental and social aspects of the Cahora Bassa Dam. Even so, several plans are underway to expand hydropower generation in the lower Zambezi basin of Mozambique, which has high potential for agricultural development and the conservation of biodiversity. Since the Zambezi River system is the largest water resource in Mozambique, passing through the agriculturally endowed Zambezi River basin and the fishery-rich Sofala Bay, an environmental assessment of the effects of the Cahora Bassa Dam and other hydropower development on the river should have a high priority. During the mission, little information was obtained on the Cahora Bassa Dam. Secondary sources have stated, however, that the dam has an adverse environmental impact on humans, wildlife, and the development of agricultural and fishery resources of Mozambique. Some of the major environmental threats posed by the Cahora Bassa Dam are highlighted below. Human Displacement: The area where the Cahora Bassa Dam was constructed is sparsely populated and the number of people displaced at construction is estimated at 25,000. But, during construction, the Portuguese resettled over 200,000 people who lived in the lower Zambezi basin to "protected" villages further away from the dam area so that they would not join FRELIMO forces and threaten the dam. The Cahora Bassa Dam was widely seen as a symbol of Portuguese colonialism and an obvious target for attack by the resistance movement. The villagers were resettled under coercion in hastily cleared forest areas not suited for cultivation." Water-borne Diseases: The incidence and prevalence of water-borne diseases are reported to have increased substantially due to the reservoir and other flooded areas created after the construction of the dam. The principal vector-borne diseases affecting the population of the lower Zambezi basin are schistosomiasis, malaria, and trypanosomiasis. Before the construction of the dam, the Zambezi River and its tributaries flowed at a speed which did not provide a suitable habitat for the vectors of such diseases. Suitable breeding conditions for the vectors were created, however, around the shoreline of Lake Cahora Bassa, particularly when the water recedes, leaving small pools and swamps. The mosquito population has increased around the reservoir since the impoundment of the lake.'5 At present there is very little large-scale irrigation in the Cahora Bassa Valley, which may have limited the spread of malaria and schistosomiasis. Downstream Effects: Considering the vastness of the Cahora Bassa dam and its impact on the flow of the Zambezi River system, there is still little detailed study on the downstream effects of this dam and others that are planned for construction in this area. One of the few studies done revealed that the river level had become erratic and unseasonal since the Cahora Bassa Dam started operating in 1974. Since the construction of the dam, there has been 20  an increase in the level of river discharge during the dry season and a substantial decrease during the wet season. During the wet season, the Zambezi River used to flood the surrounding land, making it easy for traditional and recessing cultivation, replenishing swamps and lakes, and providing favorable conditions for fish breeding. The reduction in the wet season flow has had a damaging effect on fisheries, wildlife, and agricultural activities along the riverbanks in the lower Zambezi area. Wildlife: The Zambezi River basin at one time had the highest population of wild buffalo in Africa. There are indications of a dramatic decrease in the area's buffalo population since the construction of the dam, attributable to the lowering of the groundwater table in the basin and a shortage of grass and biomass cover. Fisheries: Two separate issues have emerged in this regard. The first one deals with fish population in the reservoir lake. There are few migratory fish in the Zambezi River and the dam has had little direct impact on the migratory fish population. Lake Cahora Bassa was originally seen as a major source of fishery development as it receives nutrients from the Zambezi River. However, the great fluctuation in the depth of the reservoir has limited the reproduction of fish. Further, the reservoir has low storage volume and high drawdown, making it difficult for a stable fishery community to develop along the shoreline.' Hence, fishing in the Lake Cahora Bassa area has not become a major source of income or of protein, as had been initially expected at the time of the dam's construction. The second issue deals with the downstream effects of the Cahora Bassa Dam on the aquatic environment of the Zambezi delta. The coastal waters where the Zambezi River enters the Indian Ocean (the Sofala Bay) are well-endowed with shrimp. Many of the country's major fishing activities for export take place in this area. Due to the construction of the dam, the nutrients that the Zambezi River used to bring to the coastal waters have been reduced substantially. As a result, the quantity of shrimp caught has decreased. Preliminary studies show that the amount of shrimp harvested increases when more water is released from the reservoir.' Salt Intrusion: Salt water intrusion from the ocean into the river and coastal land is a serious problem. The intensity of intrusion is much higher when water inflow into the ocean diminishes due to the construction of large dams, as is the case of the Cahora Bassa Dam. In this case, salt water intrusion is having an adverse impact on large areas of mangroves in the Zambezi delta and Sofala Bay area, where there is a substantial reduction of water flowing to the ocean. The mangrove ecosystem, which is central to shrimp reproduction, requires a transitional ecosystem between land and water, where salt and fresh water mix. As the volume of fresh water coming to the ocean reduces, more salt water from the ocean moves upstream into the river and the mangrove vegetation areas. Too much salt water adversely affects the mangrove vegetation and shrimp population. Thus, salt water intrusion poses a threat to the sustainable use of the shrimp resources in Mozambique. D. Large-scale Irrigation Schemes A recent study indicated that 90,500 ha of land have been developed for irrigation, of which only 53,400 ha are fully operational. The study also identified 1,250,000 ha of potential land for expanding irrigation, most of it located in the Zambezia Province.' The irrigated area by basin and province is presented in Table 3. 21  Table 3 Irrigated Area Per River Basin and Province River Basin Province Fully Operating (ha) Developed (ha) Limpopo Gaza 30,170 39,520 Inharrime Gaza 300 300 Incomati Maputo 7,950 17,200 Umbeluzi Maputo 1,000 1,500 Infulene Maputo 500 500 Maputo Maputo 150 550 Inhanhanbe Inhambane 580 580 Save Inhambane 150 400 Pungoe Sofala 5,120 6,120 Buzi Sofala & Manica 2,795 6,100 Zambezi Zambezia 1,635 12,360 Northern Basin Cabo Delgado & Niassa 3,055 5,360 Total 53,405 90,490 (Source: National Directorate of Water, SOGREAH, 1987)49 About 70 % of the land under irrigation is used for sugar production involving large schemes, 20% for rice, and 10% for citrus fruits, vegetables and food crops. All sugar cane schemes are found in the Incomati, Buzi, Pungoe, and Zambezi basins and have areas ranging from 4,000 ha to 10,000 ha. Most of the rice is produced in the Chokwe irrigation scheme, which has a size of 25,000 ha and is located in the Limpopo River basin. Small-scale irrigation schemes of less than 1,000 ha are usually located in the Green Zones which produce fruits, vegetables, and food crops. A considerable number of small-scale irrigation schemes in the Northern basin (Rovuma, Mutamaba, Messalo, Montepuez, Lurio, and Licungo) are not operating because of security problems. Prior to 1987, most large-scale irrigation schemes were in state hands. In 1987, the Fourth FRELIMO Congress de-emphasized the role of state farms and encouraged their breakup. At present, 65% of the irrigated land is under the state sector, 15% under the private sector, 15% under the family sector, and 5% under the cooperative sector. Most of the environmental risks arise from large-scale irrigation schemes involving over 1,000 ha. The major environmental risks are: Salinization: As indicated in Table 3, most of the irrigated land (66%) is in the Maputo and Gaza Provinces. The dominant soils are alluvial soils prone to salinization. In addition, the mouths of the lower Limpopo and Incomati River basins suffer from serious salt water intrusion. Salinity is a major factor limiting the use of land developed for irrigation in these basins. The problem of salinity is aggravated by lack of adequate water management skills and poor drainage systems. When drainage canals are not well maintained, as is often the case, it leads to waterlogging and loss of soil fertility due to salinization are bound to occur. 22  Siltation and Sedimentation: Most irrigation systems pump water from the rivers to a reservoir. This process requires good management and availability of spare parts and fuel to pump the water, the lack of which has limited the expansion of irrigated areas. Sprinkler irrigation is the most popular technique used in sugar cane plantation, whereas controlled gravitational flooding is used in rice schemes. Direct water intake from the river for gravitational irrigation is rare. The absence of good drainage and water management leads to deposits of silts and sediments in the canal system. This reduces the capacity of the canal system, the size of the area available for cultivation, and the life cycle of the project. Water-borne Diseases: The accumulation of slow-moving water on the land surface causes a serious health hazard in many large-scale irrigation schemes. In the absence of well-functioning drainage systems, as is the case in Mozambique, irrigation water stagnates and weeds grow, creating an ideal habitat for expansion of the vectors of water- borne diseases. Needless to say, there is an increased incidence of water-borne diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis in nearly all the large-scale irrigation project areas. Cropping Pattern and Intensity: Most irrigation schemes do not practice double cropping, and the ratio of cultivated area to total area under irrigation is reported to be very low. The absence of crop rotation in large-scale sugar cane and rice irrigation schemes may reduce soil fertility in the long run. E. Manpower and Institutional Capacity For Water Management Lack of Water Management Skills: The efficiency of most irrigation projects is very low and there is great wastage of water. At the farm level, irrigation efficiency is estimated to be between 25% and 50%.5