India - Irrigation sector review (Vol. 2 of 2) : Supplementary analysis

Report No. 9518-IN India irrigation Sector Review (In Two Volumes) Volume II: Supplementary Analysis December 20, 1991 Agriculture Operations Division India Country Department Asia Region FOR OFrICIAL USE ONLY H1 N-~~~~~~~~~~~ Dcwi,entof the Wsorld! Bank This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients ofrin the perforfmance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Banvk authorization. .,  INDIA IRRIGATION SECTOR REVEW Abbreviaons AAR Annual Administration Review AD Agricultural Department CADA Command Area Development Authority CBIP Central Board of Irrigation and Power C.GWB Central Grcundwater Board CWC Central Watur Commission ERR Economic Rate of Return GOI Government of India ID Irrigation Department MIS Management Information System MOA Ministry of Agriculture MOF Ministry of Finance MOWR Ministry of Water Resources NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development NGO Non-Governmental Organization NWB National Water Board NWDA National Water Development Agency NWMP National Water Management Project O&M Operations and Maintenance PCR Project Completion Report R&R Resettlement and Rehabilitation UNDP United Nations Development Program WALMI Water and Land Management Institute WUA Water User's Association Exchange Rate: 17.90 Rs/US$1.00 (1990/91) Measure: 1 hectare (ha) = '.47 acres The Indian fiscal year is April 1 - March 31.  FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Preface This is the second volume to a two volume report on the Indian irrigation sector. The "Main Report" (Volume I) contains the full discussion and recommendations relative to the Irrigation Sector Review. This "Supplementary Analysis" (Volume II) report contains additional discussion and analysis in selected areas as back-up material for Volume I. This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance Of their offcial duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.  INDIA IRRIGA11ON SECTOR REVIEW Volume II - Suppleme1tary Analvsis Table of Conteut IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPACT ................. 1 A. Development of Iirigation ................................ 1 B. Impact on Agricultural Production ........................... 3 Expansion of Cropped Area ............................ 3 Crop Yields and Output ............................... 5 Stabilization of Output ................................ 8 Cropping Patterns and Diversification ...................... 9 C. Employment and Incomes ................................ 12 Employment Impact ................................. 12 Income Impact ........... ......................... 13 D. Impact on Regional Development and Poverty .................... 15 Impact on Regional Development ......................... 17 Impact on Poverty and Secondary Effects .................... 21 II. WATER RESOURCES AND PHYSICAL POTENTIAL FOR IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT . .23 A. Introduction .23 B. Water Resources and Irrigation Development Potential............... 25 C. Competing Uses of Water .28 D. Irrigation and Drainage Development Prospects .30 Improvements to Existing Surface Water Irrigation Systems .30 Completion of Ongoing Projects .......................... 31 Groundwater ............ ................. 31 Drainage ............................... 32 Storage Reservoirs ............................... 32 Inter-Basin Water Transfers ............................ 34 E. Regional Prospects .............................. 34 F. River Basin Planning .............................. 37 III. ECONOMIC VIABILITY ............................... 41 A. Background and Data Sources ............................. 41 B. Economic Rates of Return from Irigation ...................... 42 ERRs Estimated at Appraisal ............................ 42  ERRs Estimated at Project Completion ....... ......... ...,.43 C Implementation and Investment Implications .. . ................. 47 D. Improving Project Preparation and Evaluation .................... 48 IV. POTENTIAL AGRICULTURAL GROWTH INFLUENCES FROM IRRIGATION .......................................... 50 A. Sources of Agricultural Growth ............................ 50 Rainfed Agriculture .................................. 51 Irrigated Agriculture ................................. 53 B. Agricultural Growth Under Different Assumptions ................. 54 V. FINANCING IRRIGATION OPERATIONS ....... .. ............. 58 A. Financial Situation of the Irrigation Sector ...................... 58 Historical Development and Current Situation .................. 58 Revenues from Water Charges ........................... 59 The Rise in Non-Plan Expenditures ........................ 61 Increasing Investment Costs ............................ 62 B. ImDroving Sector Financing and Funding of Maintenanc .... ......... 62 C. Cost Recovery Policy ................................... 63 Principles of Water Charges and their Application in India .... ...... 64 Impact of Water Charges on Farmers ....................... 66 VI. ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESETIlEMENT POLICY ................ 70 A. Positive Environmental Impacts B. Waterlogging, Salinization and Drainage ....................... 71 Dimensions of the Waterlogging and Salinzation Problem .72 Tackling Irrigation Induced Waterlogging and Salinity .72 C. Oher Environental Itnpacts. .73 Nature of Environmental Problems .73 Approach to Environmental Problems .76 D. Land Losses, Population Displacement and Deforestation ............. 76 E. Resettement and Rehabilitation Policy. 78 Past Experience with Resettlement and Rehabilitation ............. 79 Proposed Future R&R Policy ........................... 79  List of Tbles in the Main Text (Volume IL Table 1.1 Development of Irrigation: 1950 to 1985 Table 1.2 Share of Irigation in Cultivated Armas Table 1.3 Changes in Irrigated Area and Cropping Intensity During 1960-63/1980-83 in Major States Table 1.4 Irrigated and Ur"rigatea Yields of Rice and Wheat in Major States (1980-83) Table 1.5 Foodgrain and Overall Crop Yields by Major States (1983-84) Table 1.6 Yield Impact of Irrigation from Selected Government Projects Table 1.7 Land Productivity Per Net Irrigated Hectare by Sources of Irrigation Table 1.8 Stabilizing Impact of Irigation on Productivity Table 1.9 Impact of Drough! Years orn Output from Irrigated and Unirrigated Lands Table 1.10 Changes in Crop Pattern in India 1960-63/1980-83 Table 1.11 Development of Irrigated Diversification Crops (1960-61 to 1984-85) Table 1.12 Estimates of Employment Generated by Irigated and Rainfed Crops in Maharashtra Table 1.13 Income Impact of Irigation at Farm Level in Gujarat Table 1.14 Average Monthly Per Capita Expenditure for Different Land 1 iolding Groups in Six Rural Andhra Pradesh Districts (1983) Table 1.15 Gross Income, Expenditure and Net Returns per Hectare of Cropped Area by Different Canal Zones in Maharashtra Table 1.16 Distribution of Districts and Input Use by Productivity Levels Table 1.17 Percentage of Population Below the Poverty Line in Relation to the Percentage of Area Irrigated Table 1.1 R State and Regionwise Levels and Growth of Value Productivity of Major Crops Table 1.19 Development of Irrigation and Agricultural Productivity by Major States Table 2.1 Government Estimates of Status of Indian Irrigation Development in 1985 Table 2.2 Present Demand and Year 2025 Demand and Consumption of Water by Various Sectors in India Table 2.3 Indicative Irrigation Developnr- Prospects by Major States Table 2.4 Indicative Prospects for Future -..lopment of Major and Medium Surface Irrigation Table 2.5 Indicative Groundwater Development Prospects by Major States Table 3.1 Econonmc Rates of Return as Estimated at Appraisal for Ongoing or Recently Completed World Bank Assisted Irrigation Projects Table 3.2 Estimated ERRs of Completed World Bank Assisted Irrigation Projects in India: 1970-1984 Table 3.3 Comparison of Appraisal ERRs and Re-estimated ERRs at Project Completion for Selected World Bank Assisted Irigation Projects in India. Tabie 4.1 Growth of Cultivation and Irrigation Table 4.2 Past Changes in Productivity of Mainly Rainfed Crops Table 4.3 Past Rates of Development of New Irrigation (1970/71 to 1984/85) Table 4.4 Illustrated Sources of Agricultural Growth Table 5.1 Revenues From and Expenditures On Major and Medium Irrigation Projects Table 5.2 Water Rates for Rice and Wheat in Selected States Table 5.3 Changes in Operation and Maintenance Expenditures in Selected States and Projects Table 5.4 Irrigation Charges, Gross Return and Net Return for Canal Irrigation Table 5.5 Net Retum, Gross Return and Irrigation Charges for Wheat and Paddy Crops in Bihar Table 5.6 Irigaton Charges and Returns from Irrigation Under Alternative Cost Recovery Assumpdions Table 6.1 Siltation of Selected Idian Reservoirs Table 6.2 Lands Lost and Population Displaced on Bank Irrigation Projects Approved between 1978 and 1988  Aniex I (Tables and Charts) Annex Table 1.1 Gross Value per Hectare of Irrigated and Unirrigated Land in Selected Major States, 1974-75 to 1978-79 Annex Table 1.2 State-wise Relative Fluctuations in Production, Yield and Area of Irrigated and Unirrigated Crop Segp ents During 1970-83 Annex Table 1.3 Instability in Irrigated and Unirrigated Farming (1971 to 1984) Annex Table 1.4 State-wise Percent Reduction in Output During Selected Droughts Annex Table 1.5 Share of Non-Cereals in Gross Agricultural Area Annex Table 1.6 Labor Utilization on Rainfed and Irrigated Crop in God Canal Area in Maharashtra and Rajasthan Annex Table 1.7 Per Hectare Mandays of Human Labor Use Before and After Well Inrigation in Karnataka Annex Table 1.8 Indicators of the Spread of Improved Agricultural Technology, by State Annex Table 1.9 Ratio of Foodgrain Prices to Prices of All Commodities in India - 1970/71 to 1986/87 Annex Table 3.1 Plan Outlays on Major and Medium Irrigation Projects Annex Table 3.2 ERRs at Project Completion for Government Surface Inrigation Projects Annex Table 3.3 Agricultural Operations Evaluated in India 1974-88 By Year of Evaluation and Approval Annex Table 3.4 A Comparison of Appraisal and Actual ERRs in the Irrigation and Drainage Sector in Asia Annex Table 3.5 Analysis of Economic Rates of Return (ERR) for Bank-Funded Projects: Appraisal and PCR Estimates Annex Table 5.1 Non-Plan Expenditure on Major & Medium Inrigation Projects Annex Table 5.2 Capital Disbursements of Plan Outlays for Irrigation Sector: 1980-81 and 1988-89 Annex Table 5.3 Plan Outlays and Non-Plan Expenditures on Major and Medium Irrigation Projects: 1988-89 Annex Table 5.4 Capital Disbursements of Plan Outlays for Irigation as percent to Total Outlays by States Annex Table 5.5 Cost of Establshment and Works in Maharashtra & Bihar Annex Table 5.6 Cust of Establishment, Works and Revenue Collection for Sone and Kosi Project in Pihar Annex Table 5.7 0 & M C asts in Gujarat Annex Table 5.8 Resourct Flows Related to Irrigation Financing in Bihar Annex Figure 6.1 Impact of Irrigation on the Water Table in Parts of Northwestern India Annex Table 6.2 Relationship Between Net Area IrTigated and Area Submerged On Bank Financed Irrigation Projects (1978-88) Annex Table 6.3 Initial Water Distribution Results from National Water Management Project on Karnataka's Bhadra Command Annex Table 7.1 Plan Outlays on Irrigation Annex Table 7.2 Inigated Areas in India and Other Countries Annex Figure 7.3 IrTigation Department Restructuring to Promote Functional Specialization: A. Typical Existing Structure of an Irrigation Department B. Organization of a Restructured Irrigation Department Annex Figure 7.4 Proposed Institutsonal Linkages A. & B. Coordinad.on Committees at National and State Levels C. & D. Coordination Committees at Scheme and Local Levels Annex Table 7.5 Bank/lDA/IFAD Lending for the Irrigation Sector in India: FY1961- FY1990  Annex Il - Inigation Development Poterjd (Tables and Charts in Text) Table 1 Comp, * on of Average Annual Rainfall with June/September Average Rainfall in Selected Areas of India Table 2 Summary of Land Use in India Table 3 Salient Features of Indian River Basins Figure 1 Impact of Creating Storage on Water Utilization Prospects Table 4 State Areas and their Distributions within Basins Table 5 Volumes of Water Passed Through Hydio-Electric Turbines Table 6 Long-term Demands and Consumption of Water by Various Sectors in India Table 7 Growth of Indian Agricultural and Irrigation Development Table 8 Estimates of Ultimate Irrigadon Potential by States Table 9 Irrigation Potential Developed and Utilized Table 10 Estimates of Groundwater Availability in States with Large Irigation Demands  INADL& IRIfATION SECrOR REVaW VOLUME 1 (SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS) Chapter I: Irr*gat*on DevelopMent and o!j Impact A. Develoment of Irrigation 1.1 listorj al Develggment. Irrigation in India has ancient roots. Amongst those developments for which some historical records exist, is the Grand Anicut in present day Tamil Nadu which was begun in the 2nd century AD with its basic design still used today. Some tanks used in southern India today are known to go back to before the 10th century, and construction of some of the Yamuna canals in Haryana began in the 14th century. Further development of irrigation took place in the British period starting in the first half of the 19th century with renovation and improvement of existing works aria later with new investments. Development was frher stimulated as a result of the great famine of 1876-78. By 1900 the total irrigated area in undivided India was about 13.4 million hectares of which 56% was under public schemes and the rest private, maunly wells and tanks. The two successive famines at the end of the 19th century led to increased attention to irrigation development and appointment of the First Irrigation Commission in 1)01 which recommended an expanded public irrigation investment program and support for private irrigation investment through a combination of low interest loans, grants and survey assistance for location of wells. In reality, growth of private well irrigation showed only modest gains over the next 50 years but public irrigation (canals and public tubewells) expanded appreciahly and by 1944-47 net irrigated area had expanded to 28.2 million hectares. Partition of India in 1947 resulted in a significant proportion of irrigated land passing over to Pakistan. In 1950-51, present day India's irrigation resource consisted of 20.9 million net hectares under irrigation (22.5 million hectares gross), of which 8 million hectares were irrigated by canals, 6.0 million hectares by wells and the remainder through tanks or other sources. 1.2 Development Since :)50. Independent India put major emphasis on irrigation development. From the 21 million hectares under irrigation in 1950, net irrigated area doubled to 42 million hectares in 1984-85, an expansion of about 0.6 million hectares per annum. 1 As shown in Table 1.1, the growth in net irrigated area has been due to two principal developments. Public investment in canal irrigation resulted in a doubling of the area under surface irrigation; from 8.3 to 15.9 million htctares between 1950-51 and 1984-85 or an annual expansion of about 220,000 hectares. Even more spectacular has been the growth of irrigation through tubewells, mainly private, which has expanded from minimal development through the early 1960s to 1.3 million hectares in 1984-85. Added to a more modest growth in the number of dugwells, the area irrigated by well irrigation was 20 million hectares in 1984-85, thus exceeding the 16 million hectares irrigated through canals. Particularly in northern India (especially the northwest) the development 1 Throughout this report, the terms "net" and "gross", when referring to irrigated or cropped area, utilize Indian rather than internationm nomenclature. In this report, "net irrigated area" refers to the land area that receives irrigation regardless of whether 'utie or more irrigated crops are grown. "Gross irrigated area" refers to the total cropped area irrigated annually. Tbus, where on a 1,000 hectare irrigated parcel of land 1.5 irrigated crops are grown per annum, net irrigated arma is 1,000 ha and gross irr.gated area is 1,500 ha.  -2 - of tubewell irrigation, supported by investment in electrification and provision of credit Las been the main driving force behind irrigation expansion and productivity improvements over the past several decades. In contrast to the development of groundwater and canal irrigation, the net irrigated area under tanks or other sources of irrigation such as lift schemes has remained fairly constant and by 1984-85 represented only 14% of India's net irrigated area. Table 1.1 Development of Irrigation; 1950 to 1985 (Net Irigated Area in Million Hectares) 1250-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1984-85 Canal Irnigation 8.3 10.4 12.8 15.3 15.9 Tanks 3.6 4.6 4.1 3.2 3.3 Tubewells n/a 0.1 4.5 9.5 11.3 Other Wels 6.0 7.2 7.4 8.2 8.7 Other Sources 3.0 2.4 2.3 2.6 2.6 NAtal Net Irrigated Area 20.9 24.7 31.1 au 41.8 1.3 As shown in Table 1.2, about one third of gross cropped area in India is now irrigated. In the early 1950s only 17% of cultivated land was irrigated. As a result of the growth of irrigation, there have been a variety of impacts on agricultural production, incomes, regional development and poverty which will be discussed in this chapter. Table 1.2 Share of Irrig,ation in Cultivated Areas Unit 1951/2 1965/66 i97QLnJl 1984185 NetCroppedArea Mha 119.4 136.2 140.3 140.7 Gross Cropped Area M ha 133.2 155.3 165.8 175.9 Area CroppedMoreThanOnce Mha 13.8 19.1 25.0 35.2 NetlrrigatedArea Mha 21.0 29.3 31.1 41.8 Gross rrigated Area M ha 23.2 30.9 38.2 54.1 Implied Irigation Intensity % 110 105 123 129 Share of Gross Irrigated to Gross Cropped Area % 17.4 19.9 23.0 30.7 Data Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi. 1.4 Data and Methodolog. Analysis of irrigation's impact must contend with limitations in the available data. Most of the data used in the report pertain up to the mid 1980's for lack of more recent statistics.2 Reported data is sometimes different depending on the official source used, as has been pointed out by numerous Government commissions on the subject. Most stadstics are best regarded as approximate, and in some cases only indicative of the real situation, and some figures, as discussed where appropriate, may contain estimation biases due to the measurement sources available. I more important difficulty is the comparative rarity of reported data 2 More recent data is available on financial matters and in some specific studies and has been used where available.  -3- disaggregated between irrigated and unirrigated farming. Finallv, analyses of irrigation impact have been beset by the tendency of many variables to vary in step with each other causing multicollinearity problems in regression analysis. Thus, upi3ke of irrigation is usually paralleled or followed by increased usage of fertilizer and high yielding varieties, increased use of capital and other developments. Similarly, regional differences in development of irrigation are often parallelled by similar differences in the state of development of other infrastruc:ure and services (roads, markets, credit, education). Isolation of specific causes and effects have thus seldom been successful. 1.5 This chapter will develop the inferences that can be made about the impact of irrigation. An important simplifying procedure will be to regard irrigated agriculture, when compared to rainfed agriculture, as a package of farmning technology changes enabled by irrigation. Irrigation is, thus, not the sole determinant of obser% ed differences in, for instance, yields. However, the irrigation variable, by substantially changing the crop growing environment, enables intensification of input and labor use and, where effectively practiced, can have major impact on production and social development objectives B. Impact on Agricultural Production Expansion of Cropped Area 1.6 India has now nearly reached the ceiling of available land suitable for cultivation. This is illustrated by the plateauing out of growth in reported net cropped area shown in Table 1.2. Until the mid 1960s, growth of net cropped area (still at 1% per annum between 1951 and 1965) remained a factor in India's agricultural growth. From 1970/71 to 1984/85, net cropped area hardly changed (from 140.3 to 140.7 million hectares). Agri .Atural growth in the past two decades has relied almost entirely on increasing productivity due to growth in crop yields (including crop substitution to higher value crops) and expansion of gross cropped area due to cropping more than once per annum on the same land. This latter influence has been quite significant. Gross cropped area expanded from 155 to 176 million hectares from 1965 to 1984, by 21 million hectares or at nearly 1% growth per annum. 1.7 The contribution of expansion of irrigation to increase in gross cropped area cannot be fully ascertained from the available data. Gross irrigated area expanded by 23.2 million hectares in the period 1965 to 1984. Since the overall net cropped area increased by only 4.5 million hectares, expansion of gross irrigated area was due either to irrigating already cropped but formerly rainfed land, or increasing cropping intensity on irrigated land. Assuming that the expansion by 12 million hectares in net irrigated land growing more than one crop per annum between 1965 and 1984 is entirely due to irrigation, then nearly 60% of the overall expansion of gross cropped area is from irrigation expansion. This is likely to overstate the area expansion impact of irrigation as part of the increase in double cropping would have occurred without irrigation, as has to some extent occurred on rainfed lands.3 3 The introduction of HYVs cropping technology on residual moisture has partly contributed to the increase in mainfed double cropping.  -4- 1.8 At the all India level, irrigation intensity (irrigation of mote tha;a onie crop per annum ex;iressed by the ratio of gross to net irrigated area) increased from 110% in 1950/51 to 129% in 1984/85. This has contributed to the growth in overall cropping intensity (including rainfed crops) which increased in the same period from 11 1% to 125%. The growth in cropping intensity has been quite variable betweer. states mainly reflecting differcnt rates of irrigation developm-ti, the kind of irrigation investment and rainfall distribution as illustrated ir. Table 1.3. Rapid development of irrigation in Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh has been accompanied by relatively high changes in cropping intensity; for instance, in Punjab from 127 to 161% or an increase of 34%, in two decades. The nature of the irrigation development in these northwest areas has had much to do with its impact on cropping intensity. Expansion of tubewells and availability of surfac'd water from s-iow melt sources outside the monsoon season has enabled the growth of rabi and summer crops. Less impact from irrigation is found in areas where irrigation has been designed mainly as "supplemental" irrigation for the kharif (monsoon) crop based on run-of-the- river irrigation schemes without storage or replenishment from snow melt Here, irrigation water is itself dependent on rainfall, and cropping intensity has not been greatly influenced by surface water irrigation, a common situation it, eastern and central India. in Bihar, substantial growth of surface irrigation has had no apparent irnpact on crspping intensity. Table 1.3 Changes in Irrigated Area and Cropping Intensity During 1960-63/1980-83 in Major States Rainfall Percent Net Crop (Normal) Sown Area Irrigated Intensity mm 1960-63 1980-83 1960.63 1980.83 1. Lo&wRaifalReion PuLnjab 590 53 82 127 161 Haryana 610 32 62 133 149 Raiasthan 500 13 20 108 116 Gujarat 870 7 21 105 112 2. MediumJ;banfl Regim Maharashut 870 6 11 105 110 AndhraPradesh 900 27 32 111 115 Tamil Nadu* 990 41 48 121 124 Kaaka Mi0 9 14 104 108 Uttar Padesh 1040 29 54 127 142 3. High Rainfall Rei MadhyaPradesh 1140 6 12 113 114 Bihar 1260 24 36 135 135 West Bengal** 25 35 117 135 Orissa 1450 16 20 112 141 4. All lia 19 28 115 124 * for 1979-80 ** for 1983-84 Reported net and gross uTigated area are equal. Source: Area and Production of Principal Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI.  - - 1.9 Va-ious studies support the picture emerging from Table 1.3 but with somewhat different quantitative assessments of the impact of irrigation on cropping intensity. Narain and Roy (1980) using cross sectional analysis of statewide data concluded that a one percent increase in net irrigated area resulted in a 0.67 percent increase in crop intensity. They also found that cropping intensity was higher on smaller farms and that the impact of irrigation on cropping intensity was lower in higher rainfall areas. Dhawan's (1989) time series analysis led to the conclusion that a one percent increase in the percentage of gross irrigated to gross cropped area had resulted in a 0.62 percent increase in overall crop intensity. Rao et al (1988) found a much lower impact on cropping intensity from irrigation, but had similar conclusions to the above regarding regional differences in impact. 1.10 Future prospects for expanding gross crop area will depend upon the type of irrigation investments feasible. The following developments will have particularly strong impact on cropping intensities. First, the expansion of groundwater irrigation will continue to have a very positive impact. Second, storage schemes for irrigation outside the monsoon period will have much greater impact than irrigation using run-of-the river diversions. Third, irrigation investments that can provide some off-season water in drier regions would have greater impact on gross cropped area than in wetter eastem and central regions where somewhat longer monsoon periods and presence of residual moisture provide scope for second rainfed crops. Co Yields and Output 1.11 Available data and studies, although they vary in their assessment of impact depending on data sources usc and analytical methodology, all indicate that productivity from irrigated lands is much higher than under rainfed conditions. Over '5% of gross agricultural output can be attributed to production from irrigation, though some estimates put these figures even higher. Yield differences are, however, very variable and in particular are influenced by rainfall levels and the nature and quality of individual irrigation systems. 1.12 The largest increments in yields are found in drier states with well functioning irrigation systems. Table 1.4 presents state level average yields for rice and wheat under irrigated and unirrigated conditions (1980-83). In Punjab, average yields of rice increase from 1 tOha under rainfed conditions to 3 tlha under irrigation, while wheat yields increase from 1.6 to 3 t/ha. Much lower impact is apparent in eastern and central India where rainfall is higher and the quality of the irrigation service is generally much lower. Monsoon waterlogging and lack of drainage further reduce the yield augmenting impact of irrigation in this region. Similar observations can be made from Table 1.5 based on Dhawan's analysis (1988) of yields of foodgrains taken as a whole and of all major crops expressed in terms of food energy equivalents. For India as a whole, Dhawan found that foodgrain yields in 1983-84 under irrigated conditions averaged 1980 kgs/ha as compared with rainfed yields of 864 kgs/ha, an increment of 1.1 t/ha or a 130% increase in productivity per hectare. Taking all crops into consideration, food energy equivalent yields were 2208 Kgs/ha compared with 877 Kgs/ha under rainfed conditions, up 1.3 tons or by 150%. The analysis by selected projects summarized in Table 1.6 provides some indication of :'ke departures from state averages present at the level of individual irrigation schemes. Other studies point to similar conclusions regarding the yield impact of irrigation and its variability by region. Thus Vaidyanathan (1987), in an analys. nf the impact of irrigation in 12 major states covering 12 crops for the 1974-75 to 1978-19 period estimated that the average value productivity per hectare of irrigated crops was about Rs. 1849, which is about 180% more compared to rainfed lands. There is a lower ihiprct of irrigation in eastern and central :ndia than in the drier states of the northwest and south (Annttx Table 1.1).  - 6- Table 1.4 Irrigated and Unirrigated Yields of Rice and Wheat in Major States (1980-83) State Normnal Rice (Autumn) Kgslha Rainfall _ Wheat (mm) Irrigat^d Unirnigated Percent Irrigated Unifrigated Percent Increase Increase 1. Low Rainfall Regions Punjab 590 2957 1029 187 2960 1616 83 Haryana 610 - - - 2458 1644 50 Rajasthan 500 1737 613 183 1719 887 94 Gujarat 870 - - - 2506 510 391 2. Medium Rainfall Regions Maharashtra 870 n.a. n.a. - 1159 471 146 Andhra Pradesh 900 2115 920 130 - - - Tamil Nadu 9