India - Forestry education, training, research and extension subsector review

Document of The World Bank THE UNITED STATES AGENCY OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION (U.K.) FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Report No. 4750-IN I ND IA FORESTRY EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUB-SECTOR REVIEW October 21, 1983 This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank, United States Agency of International Development and the Uverseas vevelopmteut Administration (U.K.) Authorization.  CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS US$1.00 = Rs 9.75 Rs 1.00 = US$0.103 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Metric system ABB:REVIATIONS CAB - Commonwealth Agri^ultural Bureau FDC - Forestry Development Corporation FEW -- Forestry Extensioa Worker FRI - Forestry Research Institute FRIC - Forestry Research Institute and Colleges FSTIS - Forestry Subject latter Specialist GOI - Government of India ICAR - Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICFRE Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education IFS - Indian Forest Service IGF -- Inspector General of Forests MM'lS -- M'ass Media Specialist NCA -- National Commission on Agriculture NDDB -- National Dairy Development Board NGO -- Non-government Organization SAU -- State Agricultural University SFD -- State Forest Department SIDA -- Swedish International Development Authority SFS -- State Forest Service VEW -- Village Extension Worker  FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY (1) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. Summary of Main Recommendations and Proposed Action Program .................................... i - xii I. INTRODUCTION ......................... .................. &.......... .... 1 Forestry Sector Background .................... .... O .. . 2 Forestry Programs Under Past Development Plans...*........... 2 The Sixth Plan Forestry Program .............. ............... 3 The Seventh Plan Forestry Program .......................... 6 II. GENERAL BACKGROUND TO FORESTRY EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION ........................, 6 A. Forestry Training and Education ......... ................ 6 Forestry Training Institutions ....................... . 6 rIanpower Supply Problems ..................... ... 7 Responsibility for Training Policy and Curricul a ...... 8 Staffing for Training and Educational Institutions .... 8 Entry Requirements for IFS and SFS ........ 10 Nature of Work ........................................ 10 Personnel Management ..... ........... ..* ........ 11 Forestry Research Institute and Colleges (Dehra Dun) ....................... ......... 1 11 Industrial Training ............. ................... ........ ..... .... 12 B. Forestry Research. ...... ......... . ..................... 12 Problems and Constraints to the Development of Forestry Research ..... ............. . ..... 14 C. Forestry Extension ...... 15 This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.  (2) III. OVERALL STRATEGY FOR SOCIAI AND PRODUCTION FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT ........................... 16 A. Social Forestry ......................................... 16 The Role of Small and M1arginal Farmers ................ 17 The Role of Larger Farmers ............................ 17 The Role of Schools . .................. 18 The Role of Panchayat Communities, Tribals and Non-government Voluntary Organizations ......... 19 B. Production Forestry ..................................... 20 The Role of Farmers ................................... 20 I'he Role of Forest Development Corporations and Industrial Companies . . 21 I'he Role of State Forest Departments . . 21 IV. RECO1111ENDATIONS FOR ACTION .. 22 A. Forestry Education and Training ......................... 22 Manpower Requirements Survey . . 22 Institutional Capacity Survey . . 23 Review of Syllabus Content . . 23 Careers in Teaching .. 24 Training in Social Forestry ........................... 24 Training for Non-forestry Department Personnel .. 25 The Role of FRIC (Dehra Dun) . . 26 B. Forestry Research ....................................... 26 MIatching Research Investments to Changing Research E'riorities . . 26 Collaboration Between FRI and ICAR . . 30 All-India Coordinated Forestry Research Program .. 31 Sociological Research .. 31 Regional Forest Research Institute . . 32 Research in State Forescry Departments . . 32 University Research in Forestry ....................... 33 Forestry Research by Private Industry ................. 34 Development of a Research Career Structure ............ 34 Information and Records Service Requirements .......... 35 The Status of the Forestry Research Institute ......... 36 The Establishment of a Forestry Department and Indian Council of Forestry Research ................ 37  (3) C. Forestry Extension ...................................... 38 Matching Extension to Requirements . .38 Integration of Forestry Department Extension Programs with Extension Programs of Other Agencies . .39 Job Descriptions for Extension Staff. 42 Mass Media and Distance Learning . . 42 Relation of Research to Extension. 43 Organization of Extension and Integral Relationships Between Forestry Department and Other Agencies.... 44 V. PROJECT INVESTMENT AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE OPPORTUNITIES... 44 An Expanded National Social Forestry Program . .44 An Expanded Program for Production Forestry. 45 Education, Training and Research . . 46 Extension . .48 ANNEXES I Guidelines for Training Syllabus Content M.Sc. Syllabus for FRIC (Dehra Dun) 2 Outline of Training Requirements and Suggested Curriculum Content for Forest Rangers, Foresters and Forest Extension Workers Employed in Social Forestry 3 ICAR - Proposed Agro-Forestry Research Program 4 Forestry Research Recommendations: Selection of Priority Areas for Future Research 5 Revised Job Descriptions for Extension Staff 6 Proposal for Organization of Forestry Research in India (Chart)  INDIA FORESTRY, EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUB-SECTOR REVIEW Summary of Main Recommendations and Proposed Action Program Review of Overall Strategy for Social Production Forestry 1. As a basis for estimating future manpower requirements, education, training, extension and research needs for the Seventh Plan period it is recommended that Government of India (GOI) carry out a State by State review of future strategy for both Social and Production Forestry, taking into account experience gained in the Sixth Plan. 2. In relation to Social forestry which now accounts for 51% of the Sixth Plan outlay, it is recommended that: There should be a significant increase in total planting area to reflect the recommendations of the Fuelwood Conmission on the size of planting programs needed to ensure self-sufficiency in rural fuelwood and fodder supplies by the year 2000. There should be much greater emphasis on farm forestry in the Seventh Plan period. As a guideline target, at least 75% of total planting effort should result from seedlings distributed to small and large farmers, panchayat communities, landless, tribals and non-government organizations (NGO). All State Forestry Departments (SFD) should be encouraged to increase the number of village nurseries and to escalate seedling production of multi-purpose fuelwood/fodder/pole/fruit species. In order to achieve this, all States should be encouraged to sub-contract the construction and operation of tree nurseries to private farmers, schools and other agencies. SFD's main role in this area should be the provision of extension advice on nursery site location and technical operation. Maximum possible use should be made of low cost seedling distribu- tion techniques, including direct sale or distribution of seed to farmers and comnunities. The above programs should incorporate systematic sociological studies at the panchayat or block level aimed at determining likely farmer and community response and peoples preferences over  - ii- such issues as choice of tree species and their perceived needs for fuelwood. These studies should provide guidelines for siting nurseries and appropriate size of the seedling production program. 3. In relation to Production forestry, it is recommended that: There should be an increase in the annual planting rate to ensure future domestic self-sufficiency in pulpwood, sawlogs and peeler logs. To the maximum possible extent, the raising of industrial tree plantations should be carried out by Forestry Development Corpora- tions (FDC), industrial companies, both small and large farmers, and where waste land can be rmade available, by landless and tribal communities. There is a need to complement current silvicultural emphasis on such long rotation species as teak and sal with increasing emphasis on short rotation, fast-growing industrial species, both indigenous and exotic. To the maximum possible extent, such plantations should be estab- lished on wastelands and farnlands situated outside forest reserves, and in cegraded forest lands which cover some2O M ha. As a basis for determining the optimum location of industrial tree plantations, GOI, working with forest industry associations, should carry out a systematic economic zoning study aimed at determining the forest industries' future wood supply and demand situation for pulpwood and sawlogs, at defining the likely economic basis for log transportation to existing and planned future wood pulp and sawmills, and siting plantations close enough to these industrial enterprises to ensure tree plantations giving maximum possible stumpage prices and financial returns. Leasing of degraded Forest Department reserves to industrial companies for afforestation should be encouraged. In the course of the study, credit facilities available to farmers should be reviewed. Mlajor industrial plantation programs should also be preceded by systematic sociological studies aimed at sounding out local people's acceptance of such programs and taking into account their opinions over such issues as choice of species, improved forest protection and likely conflicts between planting industrial versus fuelwood and fodder species. 4. In social forestry, the principal role of SFD as is now apparent, is to provide appropriate and adequate extension services, complementing  -iii- those of the Agricultural Departments. In production forestry, the prin- cipal role of the States is to increase the production of goods and serv- ices from the reserved forest estate by more intensive and socially con- scious management. 5. It is recommended that the conclusions of the strategy studies described above should be used as a basis both for preparing state forestry development proposals for the Seventh Plan period and for prepar- ing a nationwide program of social and production forestry suitable for donor agency support. It is recommended that the Bank and other donors be prepared to assist GOI to carry out such studies if so requested, par- ticularly in relation to the proposed all-India 'Umbrella' project cur- rently being discussed with the States for Bank and other donor financing. It is recommended that the Project Formulation Cell of the Forestry Divi- sion in the Ministry of Agriculture be strengthened to carry out this work, and that ways and means be explored of incorporating into this team, representatives of NGOs such as the Society for Protection of Wastelands and the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), particularly in relation to the latter's proposed social forestry program. 6. Manpower Requirements and Cost Implications. There is ample evidence that significantly increased productivity of all aspects of forestry is now seriously inhibited by lack of manpower trained and edu- cated in forestry concepts and practices appropriate to conditions in modern India. 7. It is necessary to examine staffing cost implications during the Seventh Plan period taking into account budgetary limitations to continu- ing forestry activities along current lines, which require a high level of SFD involvement in operational planting programs. 8. Future manpower requirements for the Seventh Plan period and beyond should be based on the outcome of the overall review of social and production forestry strategy outlined above. In preparing these projec- tions, emphasis should be given to the complementary roles of Forestry and Agriculture Department personnel in providing effective extension support for social forestry both in the reserved forest estate and on land outside the reserves. 9. On the basis of the review of manpower requirenents, plans need to be drawn up for the minimum necessary construction of new, and upgrading existing, forestry training facilities necessary for future training of departmental staff. Measures will need to be taken to cope with the temporary peak in new staff requirements. 10. Staff Use and Job Descriptions. A review of staff use and exist- ing staff norms is necessary, with the object of producing detailed job descriptions for staff employed in social forestry and releasing trained  -:Lv- staff from those duties which can be adequately handled by staff with lower levels of forestry training. Extension staff, to the maximum extent possible, should be relieved of all territorial responsibilities. 11. In preparing these extension oriented job descriptions, consult- ation should be arranged with farmerS, schools, panchayats and industrial company representatives, to take into account their perception of exten- sion needs. The possibility of making more effective use of the ongoing and successful extension related activities of other agencies, such as the Ministry of Agriculture and NDDB should be actively explored. Maximum use should be made of Village Extension Workers (VEW). 12. Social forestry information and extension should be strengthened by: Extensive adoption of village motivators to provide an extension mechanism and point of contaat in villages for social forestry personnel; and encouraging panchayats to maintain their own forest guards. Issuing statements of policy at National and State levels to establish relationships between social forestry personnel and other rural extension staff - particularly in agriculture, soil conserveation, and animal production and range nanagement. Introducing training orientation programs for agricultural staff to improve their understanding of social forestry objectives and activities, to involve VEWs in simple social forestry-related messages, and to prevent conflicting advice on tree/crop relation- ships between agricultural and forestry extension personnel. Clarifyjing roles and relationships between social forestry and animal production extension personnel, in terms of respon- sibilitiLes for education and extension for livestock owners, and tree and fodder production, protection and harvesting. In liaison with other relevant agencies of government, develop capability within the SFDs for the best possible use of mass media and distance education techniques for forestry and soil conserva- tion education, and in-field training of village motivators, VEW and low level forestry personnel. 13. Education and Training Needs. Taking into account the future manpower requirements for the Seventh Plan derived from the exercise outlined above, an assessment should be made of the capacity of existing forestry education and training colleges and schools relative to future manpower requireaments. This review should cover:  Forestry Research Institute and Colleges (FRIC), Dehra Dun State Forestry Colleges State Agricultural Universities (SAU) Ranger Colleges (both Regional and State) Forester Colleges Forest Guard/Training Schools The Logging Institute The Indian Institute of Forest Management Indian Administrative Service 1/ * Rural Mlanagement Institute_2/ 14. Review of Syllabus Content. The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) (para. 18) together with FRIC and appropriate State representation should review the syllabus content of all education and training establishments. In carrying out this review, special attention should be paid to broadening current syllabus content to include more emphasis on social and environmental forestry and extension oriented subjects. The same Task Force should undertake a systematic State by State review of the current syllabus for Agricultural Univer- sities with a view to strengthening the forestry content. Initially, at least five of these Universities should be encouraged to develop the capability for awarding B.Sc. level forestry degrees. There should be a deliberate attempt to encourage specialization at the post graduate level in areas such as social and environmental forestry (e.g. watershed manage- ment), wood sciences and timber utilization. The report should contain preliminary guidelines for syllabus content for all levels of training, ranging from Forest Guards, Foresters, Rangers, State Forest Service (SFS) and Indian Forest Service (IFS) staff through M.Sc. Forestry Graduate level. School curricula for primary and secondary levels, and teachers' training institutions should be reviewed and revised to include an orien- tation toward social forestry objectives. 1/ In relation to strengthening the forestry content of District Collec- tor courses. 2/ Operated by the NDDB, the extension staff from which could also make a significant input into extension.  -vi- 15. Role of FRIC Dehra Dun. FRIC Dehra Dun, should be upgraded in status to that of an institution of national importance (National Univer- sity) and be assisted to build up ca-ability to: Award pcst-graduate level degrees in specialized topics such as social forestry, environmental forestry and watershed management, wood industries and technology, forest economics, industrial wood production, and wildlife and range managenent. Assist ICFRE in implementing GOI recommendations in all areas of forestry education, training and research, particularly in rela- tion to redefinition of job descriptions (para 10); reviewing the capacity of existing forestry education and training needs in relation to future manpower requirements (para 6); reviewing college and training school syllabus content (para 14); broadening the current syllabus content at all levels to include more emphasis on extension; and upgrading the forestry content of agricultural university course. It should implement the Univer- sity Grants Review committee recommendations to establish TI.Sc./Ph.D. programs. It should liaise closely with ICFRE's committee to review the scientific content of forestry teaching at all levels and with the ICFRE/Public Service Commission Task Force established to review the scope for encouraging scientific specialization in selected areas of forestry and to review terms of service and incentives for forestry teachers (para 16). In addition to the above, it should endorse the recent proposals of the Special Committee set up to review competitive exams for IFS and SFS to include forestry as an option. 16. Careers in Teaching. It is recommended that a task force be established by ICFRE and the Public Service Commission to review the terms of service of forestry teaching staff: and to encourage specialization; the general object being to establish conditions that will offer permanency of service and career development for teaching staff, and improve their status and effectiveness. Teaching material and facilities will require substantial upgrading at institutions at all levels. Additional training opportunities for forestry teachers should be pursued including, where appropriate, in overseas institutions. Training for Non-forest Department Personnel 17. If social forestry objectives are to be achieved, training is needed for individuals outside the Fcrest Departments. This includes staff of the Department of Agriculture and MIinistry of Local Government, panchayat leaders, teachers, bank staff, groups of farmers and landless people, groups interested in small village industry, industrial company  -vii- staff, etc. It is recommended that as part of the MIanpower Survey dis- cussed in para 6 above, that a special sub-committee should review non-Forest Department training needs. Forestry Research 18. The mission endorses the recommendation of the Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet that the Council of Indian Forestry Research and Education be revitalized and given autonomous status. 19. At an early date, ICFRE should review with FRIC and the State, methods by which research efforts could be concentrated on areas which can make the greatest contribution to improving productivity and rural incomes. ICFRE should take a lead in promoting the concept of concentrat- ing research on high priority topics of relevance to clearly identifiable target groups (Table 5 of the report provides guidelines). The scope for establishing more effective regional or global contact with overseas research agencies carrying out work likely to be of use to Indian forestry research scientists should also be reviewed. 20. It is recommended that the forest regional centers located at Coimbatore, Jabalpur, Bangalore and Burnyhat, be upgraded to the status of independent Research Institutes. The research programs of these institutes should be reviewed by ICFRE with a view to encouraging specialization on topics of national concern and to ensure their relevance to India's forestry research needs and to the applied research and development programs of SFDs and the Forest Departments of State Agricul- tural Universities. Location specific research should be the respon- sibility of the SFDs' Research Divisions. SFDs should take responsibility for the extension of research information to field practice of relevance to individual States. 21. ICFRE should be provided with adequate finance to sub-contract and fund research tasks in both State Forest Research Branches and Univer- sities under an All-India Coordinated Program of forestry research that would concentrate on topics of priority concern. ICFRE. should play a lead role in ensuring overall coordination of the All-India Forestry Research Program, in defining the responsibili74es of the various central and state government agencies involved in forestry research, and in monitoring achievements. A tentative organization chart showing possible inter- linkages between various forestry research agencies is given in Annex 6 of the report. Where NGOs can offer adequate facilities, these should also be included in All-India research programs. 22. ICFRE Dehra Dun and ICAR should appoint a joint committee to review the current status of agro-forestry and pasture research being carried out by States and to examine ways and means of ensuring closer collaboration between forest research workers and agricultural workers  -viii- with research-based expertise in tree crops, including both the reclama- tion work of the Soil and Water Conservation Research Institute and the plantations technology of tea, coffee, rubber, oil palm and coconuts. This will avoid expensive rediscovery of known technologies. The commit- tee should actively seek the views of local communities, farmers and individual entrepreneurs concerning their perceptions of research needs. FRI and ICAR should be prepared to exchange staff to ensure that agro-forestry research programs achieve an appropriate mix of agriculture and forestry expertise. 23. ICFRE should also work with the States, SAUs, FRIC and NGOs in preparing a program of social forestry (including watershed management) research suitable for inclusion in the Seventh Plan and appropriate for donor agency funding. In preparing such a project pipeline, donor agen- cies should be prepared to assist GO: if requested to do so, by providing guidelines for research project preparation and, if needed, technical assistance to translate individual project proposals into a format suitable for donor agency appraisal. 24. ICFRE should arrange for Task Force to be established, involving the Forest Division, the Forestry ReSearch Institute (FRI) and the Public Service Commission to review the tenns of service of forestry research staff and to encourage specialization, the general object being to estab- lish conditions that will offer permanency of service and career develop- ment for research staff and improve lheir status and effectiveness. 25. An immedLiate task which ICFR7 should encourage FRI to undertake in cooperation with State and University forestry research staff and interested NGOs, is the organization of an active research information and records service. Both forest research scientists and information specialists are needed to develop and maintain a computer file on current State and FRI research programs. Quantitative results in abstract form from recent work and from the more important achievements of past work should be included. Access to international scientific information sys- tems, such as the computer tapes of the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau Abstracts Service should be provided. The computer program will need to be cross-indexed for environmental and land use factors, as well as for management factors, such as species and end-uses. The system should provide a powerful integrating force in Indian forestry research. 26. Cooperative applied field research should be encouraged throughout FRI, the State Forest Services, the Universities, private industries and voluntary agencies, using the research information and records service to maintain awareness of progress and to work toward upgrading the scien- tific content of' research programs. Funding allocations should require quantitative measurements rather than observations.  -ix- 27. It is recommended that GOI encourage more systematic involvement of India's sociological research institutes in forestry development, to ensure that local communities and farmers' aspirations are adequately taken into account in designing state-assisted rural forestry programs. Forest Extension 28. A more systematic approach is recommended to matching extension needs of different sections of the community with the forestry extension programs being provided by various government services. The maximum possible integration should be sought between SFD extension staff and those of the existing Agricultural Department, NDDB and other rural exten- sion agencies. Wherever possible, the staff of these existing agencies should be used for forestry extension rather than the SFDs attempting to create an exclusive forestry extension service. Table 6 of the report provides guidance on this topic. 29. It is recommended that a review of SFDs' current job descriptions for all grades from Assistant Conservator of Forests to Forest Guards be carried out to give less emphasis to territorial protection, strip planta- tions and village woodlots, and much greater emphasis to extension, teach- ing and communications techniques. 30. SFDs should give high priority to identification of appropriate technical packages for extension, concentrating on a few critical impact points. 31. Grass roots level involvement in forestry of communities, schools, NGOs and other segments of the community should be encouraged through more effective use of mass media and audio-visual extension related techniques. Special attention should be given to involving women in social forestry programs, particularly in basic decisions relating to species, identifica- tion of end-use needs, appropriate design for more efficient wood-burning stoves, etc. 32. More effective linking is recommended between extension and research to ensure effective adoption by farmers and connunities of research results. Clear identification of the organizational linkages between various extension agents and structuring extension should be pursued so as to ensure the maximum possible free flow of information. Project Investment Opportunities 33. This report identifies three major investment opportunities suitable for donor agency support. They are:  (a) An All-India Social Forestry Project, channeled through the Central Government Forestry Division (see para 2 for suggested criteria for project identification). This project is ready for immediate preparation. (b) An Education, Training and Research Project, the main components of which are summarized in para 36. This is also ready for immediate preparation. (c) An All-India Production Forestry Project, which might follow on, about three years after the implementation of the Social Forestry Project outlined above. The broad outlines for identification of the Production Forestry Project would be as outlined in para 3. 34. The proposal to defer external aid involvement in production forestry for three years is not intended to imply that production forestry is less important: than social forestry. It reflects the fact that produc- tion forestry has been the main target for past funding and that a period of accelerated investment in social forestry is now needed to redress the imbalance. 35. In order to assist in preparation, appraisal and monitoring of the expanded forestry investment program, it is recommended that a strong Central Economic Planning Division should be established within the Forestry DivisionI of the Ministry of Agriculture. Education, Training and Research Project 36. The components of the proposed project include: Revitalization of ICFRE and provision of funding and policy plan- ning advice to enable it to play a lead role in project formula- tion and implementation. Accelerated training or retraining at all levels from Forest TIotivator to professional staff with special emphasis on social and environmental forestry topics. Strengthening SAU training and developing capability in selected universities for awarding of B.Sc. degrees in forestry. Retraining of teachers for all levels of forestry education. Upgrading the status of FRIC, Dehra Dun to an institution of national importance and strengthened teaching facilities to enable Dehra Dun to award its own MI.Sc. and Ph.D. level degrees. Dehra Dun would be a logical choice as a site for a teacher training service.  -xi- A program of All-India Coordinated Research topics concentrating on a few research impact points likely to raise productivity and rural incomes. Expanding regional forestry research institutes and developing specialized capability in areas of common interest. Strengthening forestry research activities of individual SAUs and Forest Departments, including, where necessary, construction of new laboratories and other buildings. A program of agro-forestry to be pursued by ICAR. Creating of an effective national forestry research information and records service. Strengthening SFD diagnostic laboratories for supporting extension staff. 37. In preparing the proposed education, training and research project outlined above, high priority should be given to the early initiation of project preparation studies including: Re-appraisal of manpower requirements for the Seventh Plan period, taking into account the objectives of shifting the emphasis in both social and production forestry activities of SFDs toward an extension oriented role, rather than an exclusively forest manage- ment oriented role. Re-assessment of staff use and job descriptions to bring these more into line with changing needs. Institutional capacity survey of existing education and training establishments to examine what new physical facilities may be needed to undertake the level of manpower training required effec- tively to support the forestry programs to be inplemented during the Seventh Plan period. Revision of the syllabus content for education and training at all levels, in particular, to reflect the increasing emphasis needed on sociological and agro-forestry topics of relevance to social forestry and the need to strengthen the scientific content of forestry research programs. Scope for concentrating research efforts on a few priority topics which have the greatest potential for increasing productivity, reducing costs, and increasing benefits to the rural poor.  -xii- Review of the changing emphasis in forestry research, particularly in relation to social forestry and for a more systematic matching of research investment to the perceived research needs of farmers, communities, NGOs and industry. Assessment of the scope for more systematic collaboration between ICFRE, FRI, the State regional forestry research institutions, SAUs, and the relevant research agencies of ICAR in relation to agro-forestry research. *More systematic involvement of India's specialized sociological research institutes in forestry development to ensure that local community and farmers' aspirations are adequately considered in designing State-assisted rural forestry prograns. Possibilities for increased use of mass media in forestry exten- sion worlk. Scope for improving research/extension/farmer linkages and for ensuring technical support for the mechanisms proposed.  INDIA FORESTRY, EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUB-SECTOR REVIEW I. INTRODUCTION 1.01 This report was prepared by a joint World Bank/USAID/ODA mission 1/ which visited India between February 14 and March 4, 1983. The primary objective was to examine current policy issues relating to forestry education, training, research and extension and to identify how these institutions might be strengthened, particularly in relation to newly emerging priorities in Indian forestry such as fuelwood, farm forestry, forest conservation and environmental protection (e.g. watershed management). 1.02 The Government of India's (GOI) request for such a review arose primarily from concerns relating to the possible impact of trained man- power shortages on the very large scale social and other forestry programs planned for the rest of the Sixth Plan (1980-85) and forthcoming Seventh Plan (1986-90) periods. Also from long standing recognition that the structure of current education, training, research and extension programs may require significant modification and upgrading if the Plan targets are to be achieved. In addressing those topics, the mission found it neces- sary to examine issues relating to GOI's overall strategy for social forestry 2/ development, particularly the extent to which lower cost methods of afforestation might be implemented by involving landless, tribal people, communities and private farmers in tree planting. 1.03 The mission's conclusions took into account, recommendations already made by various GOI committees which reflect both State and Central Government concerns 3/ and those of many earlier donor agency reports. The mission visited education, training and research centers in various States and the Forestry Research Institute and Colleges (FRIC) Dehra Dun. The mission also reviewed the past experience of the State 1/ Consisting of Messrs. A. J. Pritchard, J. Spears and B. Woods (IBRD), K. lIcNamara, C. Gallegos and G. Watson (USAID), L. Roche (ODA) and Sir Charles Pereira (consultant to IBRD). Mr. L. Ljungman from the Bank's New Delhi Office participated in the mission's field visits and discussions and also contributed part of the report. 2/ Broadly defined as forestry outside the forest reserve. 3/ In particular, recommendations of the National Agricultural Commission (1976), the University Grants Review Committee of 1982 and the preliminary conclusions (still under review) of the 1983 Science Advisory Committee to the Cabinet Task Force on Forestry under the Chairmanship of Dr. T. N. Khoshoo.  -2- Forest Departments (SFD), the Bank and other donor agencies in funding social forestry and environmental forestry projects in various States. Forestry Secl:or Background 1.04 The area of forests in India is about 7511 ha of which only about 30 H1 ha are accessible and productives. Yields from these forests are estimated at between 0.5 to 0.9 m3 /aa/year, compared with a world average of 2.5m3 for hardwood forest. While the recorded contribution of forestry to the Net Domestic Product is small (1.5%), forests play a vital role in supplying a substantial part of requirements of India's rural population for fuelwood and, fodder and in protezting watersheds and the environment. These benefits are not reflected in official statistics. 1.05 Over 902% of India's forests are Government owned, with the balance belonging to civil authorities (3%), corporate bodies (4%), and private individuals (2%). 1.06 An All-India Forestry Service (IFS) was created in 1867, but management of the forestry estate in each state remains the responsibility of the State Forestry Departments (SFD). At the center the Forest Divi- sion of the Department of Agriculture, an Inspector-General of Forests (IGF), assisted by a small team of professional forest officers, is responsible for general forest policy and planning. 1.07 In 1972, the interim report of the National Commission on Agricul- ture (NCA) recommended the creation of autonomous State Forestry Develop- ment Corporations (FDC) for establishing and managing both forestry plan- tations and forest based industries. Subsequently, 16 corporations were set up with access to institutional financing, mainly through the Agricul- tural RefinancirLg and Development Corporation. Land and its standing timber were transferred to FDC and their value forn the basis of equity capital against which loans can be secured. 1.08 The forest industries private sector includes 23,000 small (vil- lage level) and about 3,500 larger sized sawmills, producing some 13 It m3 of saw wood annually. Most nills are operating at less than 50% of capacity, mainly due to lack of raw material. There are five wood based pulp mills. (Current annual pulp production is about 220,000 tons). A further seven are in the planning stage (total additional capacity 530,000 tons per annum). The average mill size is 50,000 tons per annum. There are 42 plywood raills and 11 wood-based panel mills. Forestry Programs Under Past Development Plans 1.09 Forests in India have historically been regarded as sources of revenue and, until recently, the need for substantial investments, in order to increase the supply of forest products for donestic consumption, was not recognized. Consequently, between 1951 and 1979, the forestry sector was neglected; receiving less than 1% of total plan outlays. This was in spite of awareness on the part of the general populace and the central and state governments that rapidly rising domestic demands for fuelwood, fodder, building poles, timber and other forest products had already outstripped the sustainable supplies available from India's  -3- forests; and that forest cover was necessary for the preservation of the environment. 1.10 During the First and Second Plan periods (1951-56 and 1957-61) an afforestation program was begun, but the initial emphasis was on refores- tation with valuable, but slow growing, species of industrial importance (teak, sal, sissoo, etc.). During the Third Plan period (1962-67) there was a move toward planting faster growing short-rotation industrial and fuelwood species. By the end of the Fourth Plan period (1968-73) a total of 2M ha had been planted of which 1.411 ha (70%) were for industrial timber or pulpwood and 0.611 ha were for fuelwood and poles. 1.11 Social forestry programs began on a meaningful scale only in 1974 in response to the NCA interim report, which recommended that Rs 77011 be allocated for these activities during the Fifth Plan. Because of budgetary constraints, only Rs 3731M were allocated, but during this period priority was given to planting fuelwood and timber species in rural areas. Social forestry accounted for 50% of the 1.211 ha planted. 1.12 During the period 1970-80, protection of the environment (nature conservation, forest protection and development of pastures) received only 7% of the total allocation of plan funds to forestry. Therefore, little progress was made either in afforestation of water catchments, wastelands, and ravines; or in the development of urban/community forestry. The Sixth Plan Forestry Program 1.13 The Sixth Plan addresses the problems of industrial, social and environmental forestry in an organized and concerted manner. The main objectives of the Plan include: (a) improving the environment by protecting forests and wildlife, and undertaking large scale afforestation in degraded forests; (b) organizing and executing a massive program of social forestry, farm forestry and village fuelwood plantations to meet growing energy needs; (c) providing employment to the rural population with special atten- tion to economic support for the disadvantaged sections of society (i.e. tribals and scheduled castes); and (d) increasing production of forest products so as to achieve self-sufficiency. The allocation of funds to the various schemes is presented in Table 1.  -4- Table 1. Proposed Expenditure Under the Sixth Plan (1980-85) ForesStry Allocation Central Sector Schemes Rs 11. US $M1 Research, Education and Training 187.5 Environment and Wildlife Protection 56.0 Others 65.0 Sub-total - 308.5 32 Centrally Sponsored Schemes Social Forestry (rural fuelwood plantations) 500.0 Wildlife 90.0 Soil, Water and Tree Conservation in the Himalayas 150.0 Sub-total - 740.0 77 State Schemes Social Forestry 3018.8 Production Forestry 1003.1 Environmental and Wildlife Protection 559.5 Others Sub-total - 5876.4 618 Total - 6924.9 728 1.14 The Government has continued to emphasize social forestry by allocating 51% of available Sixth Plan funds to these activities. In comparison, production forestry has been allocated 17% of available funds. The allocations for Research, Education and Training are only 2.7% of total Plan expenditures in forestry. It will be difficult for the major changes in forestry as outlined in the Sixth Plan to become operationally effective without corresponding changes and reforms in education, training and research. 1.15 A number of other issues, critical for the development of forestry are being addressed under the Sixth Plan. These are: (i) Researcb All-India Coordinated Research Projects, which have been success- ful in integrating multi-locational and multi-disciplinary research efforts in agriculture, are being extended to diverse forest trees and shrubs. Agro-forestry research programs are being jointly undertaken by SFDs and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).  -5- (ii) Public Participation Mass media are being used to comnunicate an awareness of the need for forests. A "tree for every child" program 's being introduced and school children are being given seedlings of useful species for planting at home. An Eco-development Force consisting mainly of ex-servicemen was formed for afforestation in eroded hill areas. Eco-development camps for university students will aim at afforestation of hill, desert and coastal areas. (iii) Forestry Extension A Division of Forestry Extension was set up at FRIC "Van Vigyan Kendras" (Forestry Centers) for research and demonstration under normal field conditions were to be established to further social forestry. (iv) Forest Survey It was proposed that the Forest Survey of India would link with specialist institutions (e.g. Indian Remote Sensing Agency) for continuous updating of mapping techniques and forest data. (v) Logging and Hianagement A Logging Training Center would be strengthened and upgraded. to the status of a Logging Development Institute. The Indian Institute of Forest Mlanagement would develop modern management techniques for Indian conditions and train forestry staff in their use. Special emphasis would be given to social forestry problems. (vi) Labor It was recommended that the contract system be eliminated by 1984/85, and replaced by direct labor hire and/or the use of forest labor corporations. 1.16 Both the Central Forest Division and SFDs have made strenuous efforts to adjust to the changing nature of forestry by adapting organiza- tional structures to reflect the needs of social forestry (para. 1.13). Several SFDs have created separate Social Forestry Directorates. An indication of changes in social forestry and production of changes in social forestry and production forestry plantings are shown in Table 2. Social forestry planting increased from 30% of total planting in 1951-56 to an estimated 70% in the Sixth Plan period (1980-85).  Table 2. Social Forestry Planting in Relation to Total Planting (1959-79) and Proposed Planting (1980-85) Area Planted (ha '000) Plan Period Social Production Total Social First (1951-56) 15 37 52 30 Second (1957-61) 147 164 311 47 Third (1962-66) 260 323 583 44 (1967-69) 127 325 452 45 Fourth (1969-74) 190 523 713 26 Fifth (1974-79) 567 653 1220 46 Sixtlh (1980-85) 1520 624 2144 70 The Seventh Plan Forestry Program 1.17 Guidelines for forestry deve]opment under the Seventh Plan will be provided by several studies, particularly those of the Fuelwood Commis- sion, the 1981 University Grants Committee and the Task Force of the Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet under the chairmanship of Dr. T.N. Khooshoo. Further planning should include assessment of the costs. to the GOI of a continually expanding forestry program. If the present job descriptions are not revised, and if GOI retains the established ratios of lower level staff to supervisors and continues to calculate staff requirements on the basis of fixed land areas under forest, then the new demands for staff will far exceed the capacity of the forestry train- ing institutes. The future forestry program cannot, tlherefore, be based on a simple forward projection of the current rate of development, since this would lead to large expenditures which GOI would probably be unable to sustain. In this sector review, an attempt is made to define a strategy for both social and production forestry based on the reconnenda- tions of the Indian Commission and Committees referred to above, and on the experience gained in several of the larger States in implementing social forestry programs over the last five years. The review examines how changing objectives and strategy in Indian forestry are likely to influence forestry education training research and extension. II. GENERAL BACKGROUND TO FORESTRY, EDUCATION, TRAINING RESEARCH AND EXTENSION A. Forestry Training and Education Forestry Training Institutions 2.01 Formal forestry training began at Dehra Dun in 1878; the Indian Forest College was established in 1903; a second ranger college was opened at Coimbatore in 1906, and the first forest officer training course for IFS commenced at Dehra Dun in 1926. A university degree, with at least  -7- intermediate level school science is the minimum qualification for the competitive examination for entrance to the forest officer course. The course is for two years and is followed by a four-month foundation train- ing course at the National Academy of Administration at liussoorie. 2.02 Selection for The State Forestry Service (SFS) is through open competitive examinations conducted by the respective State Public Service Commission, with the same minimum educational qualifications as for IFS. The two-year course is given at one of the SFS colleges which are located at Coimbatore, Burnyhat and Dehra Dun. All these colleges are run by the Central Government. 2.03 Rangers are selected by the States, and attend a two-year training course at one of the ten rangers' colleges, of which four are regional (located at Dehra Dun, Coimbatore, Kuseong and Chandrapur) and six are state institutions. Deputy Rangers/Foresters and Forest Guards are selected and trained at state-run schools. The medium of instruction for IFS, SFS and Rangers is English; for other staff, it is the local ver- nacular. The annual training capacity is presently for about 100 IFS officers, 175 SFS officers and 675 Rangers. 2.04 The Forest Research Institute (FRI) and the Forest Colleges offer refresher courses for IFS, SFS and Rangers, in addition to preservice training. 2.05 Following NCA recommendations, some State Agricultural Univer- sities (SAU) have set up Departments of Forestry for teaching, research and extension in farm forestry. Ten SAUs offer forestry courses, either as electives or as an integral part of agricultural and related degrees. Garhwal University (Uttar Pradesh), a non-agricultural University, also offers a forestry qualification. Of the SAUs, at least two now offer full degrees in forestry. 2.06 Contrasting models of development in forestry training and educa- tion are offered by the Department of Forestry, University of Himachal Pradesh, Solan Campus; the Faculty of Forestry, Birsa Agricultural Univer- sity, Ranchi; and the Department of Forestry, University of Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore. The first offers a two-year M.Sc. course in forest genetics, and also provides forestry courses for agricultural students. The second offers a B.Sc. in forestry based on a three-year program of lectures, practicals and field works, of which the first two years constitute the diploma course for Rangers. The University of Tamil Nadu offers electives with the Faculty of Horticulture, and has prepared a B.Sc. syllabus in forestry. Manpower Supply Problems 2.07 Training and manpower supply problems were pointed out in the NCA report of 1976. A detailed and comprehensive study of forestry manpower and training needs in India was subsequently made by FAO in 1977. References to the inadequacies of trained manpower supply appear repeatedly in minutes of meetings at the Central Board of Forestry and the FRIC Liaison Committee, all forecasting a substantial shortfall in supply. Another study on staffing for IFS during the Sixth Plan period is now in  -8- progress. Despite all these efforts, inadequacies in nanpower supply and training facilities remain a pervasive constraint to the forestry develop- ment needed as India redirects its forestry program toward social forestry, erosion and flood control; and the demands from FDC for new technology increase. Of the 1900 staff positions in IFS, only 1300 are filled. Vacancies at the ranger level occur in many forestry projects. Up to the present, little progress has been made in increasing forestry training to a level necessary to supply manpower demands. This can be attributed to a complex combination of factors related to the SFDs' use of training facilities and personnel management policies. The most important of these factors are described below. Responsibility for Training Policy an,d Curricula 2.08 The responsibility for training policy is split between Central and State governments. A Deputy Inspector General of Forests in Delhi is responsible to the IGF for training matters. The Forestry Division provides policy guidelines for training, approves curricula and dis- tributes places for training among the States. A panel for forestry education advises a Central Board of Forestry on manpower and training issues, but this panel is inactive. Hence, the Forestry Division in Delhi has nominal responsibility for forestry training but little effective control. 2.09 States are responsible for training personnel below the ranger level, for selection of students for ranger and SFS officer training, and increasingly, for ranger training. FRIC is responsible for curricula design for training at the ranger level and above. Since five ranger training institutes, three colleges at Dehra Dun and the Burnyhat States Service Institute are national facilities, FRIC has effective respon- sibility for most of the technical aspects of staff training activities, but the expansion of these activitieS has not been accompanied by a increase in staff and facilities at FRIC. On the contrary, increases in other activities and staff shortages have reduced the capacity of FRIC to handle these responsibilities. Staffing of Training and Educational Institutions 2.10 The Forestry Service is almost exclusively responsible for train- ing its own staff. Originally, this followed an "Officers and men" model with state Forest Officers and Rangers receiving professional training at Dehra Dun and stibordinates receiving whatever minimum training was required to carry out their duties. Subordinate training is either in-service training or provided at a training institution within the State.  -9- 2.11 The present structure of pre-service training is given in Table 3. Table 3. Pre-service Forestry Training Length of Min. Entry Category Training Level Location Forest Guard 3-6 months High School State Forester 1 year Intermediate State Science Ranger 2 years 1/ Intermediate 10 Ranger Colleges State Forest Officer 2 years Graduate Burnyhat, Coimbatore and and Dehra Dun IFS Officer 2 years Graduate Dehra Dun Post Graduate Various Graduate and Dehra Dun 2/ Forestry Dip. State Agricultural Universities 1/ Temporarily reduced to one year to increase output. 2/ Diploma level awarded by Dehra Dun. M.Sc. or Ph.D. students are offered graduate fellowship at Dehra Dun. 2.12 With the exception of a few dedicated individuals, there is a constant turnover of staff at teaching institutions and teaching staff shortages are a constant problem. Staff are not attracted to teaching positions since career prospects are very limited and teaching staff are not eligible for certain allowances with which field staff are able to supplement their salaries. 2.13 An FAO report in 1977 stated: " Forestry training is given at a variety of institutions, often by people with little or no teaching experience or training in teaching procedures, and who do not see teaching as providing a long-term career with an appropriate promotion ladder. While some teaching staff are dedicated and highly motivated, many are frustrated by the apparently insurmountable problems associated with too few teaching staff because of failure to fill all approved posts, and overburdened with administration due to lack of administrative support, inadequate facilities, isolation, inability to introduce changes into outdated courses, lack of consultation between the teaching staff of different institutions, and family settlement problems arising from the temporary nature of employment." The situation has not changed today. 2.14 Expertise in teaching is very variable. Teaching staff do not receive training in teaching techniques, nor is there a clear respon- sibility for the evaluation of lecturers or trainers within the system.  --10- 2.15 All for,estry training institutions are short staffed and the SFS at Burnyhat is effectively closed because of lack of teaching staff. SAUs which initiated teaching programs ir. social and production forestry are experiencing great difficulty in recruiting trained forest officers for teaching positions. This is because salary levels for SAU lecturers are lower than those for professional forest officers, and also because there is no guarantee that officers leavirg the forest service to take up a SAU appointment would be able to return to the forestry service, or that reemployment would be offered at the level reached prior to the transfers to SAU. Staff shortages are hindering the development of forestry train- ing courses at SAU. Entry Requirements for IFS and SFS 2.16 The service entry examinations for acceptance for forest officer training are open to both arts and science graduates (provided the former had studied science to the intermediate level), and include a number of subjects from which the candidate can select those appropriate to his training. Since there has been no training in forestry outside the Forest Division before SAU began forestry courses, the entrance exams did not include a foresiLry elective. In spite of the desperate need for trained manpower, there were no incentives for SAU to teach forestry as this did not enhance chances for selection for IFS or increased employment oppor- tunities, and in fact, may have handicapped a student's chances of passing the entrance examination. It has now been decided to include forestry subjects as options in the examinations for IFS and SFS. Nature of Work 2.17 In the past, the primary activities of forestry staff have been in demarcation, protection, management and rehabilitation of the reserved forest estate. The forest service was established more than a century ago and developed into an institution with strict discipline, uniforms and power of arrest. iany achievements of the service are attributable to its strong discipline and traditions, but the nature of the forestry opera- tions has not as yet required high levels of technical skill from middle level and junior staff. 2.18 In the last decade, SFD activities have ceased to be confined to the traditional protection of forests. The impetus for new activities has come from more liberal funding of the forestry sector in the Fifth and Sixth Five-Year Plans, particularly for social forestry, wildlife manage- ment and environmental protection. Intensive commercial management of production forests has been taken up by the state FDCs (para. 1.07). The social forestry programs have promptad some States to set up separate Social Forestry Directorates, the staff for which have been obtained by direct transfer from the territorial Forest Divisions. These staff con- tinue to operate on traditional regimented lines with emphasis on administration and protection. These are not always appropriate where the aim is to encourage popular participation in tree planting schemes. In addition, job profiles and entry qualifications for new activities have followed traditional forestry models, irrespective of changing job con- tent. Although pre-service training now includes social forestry courses,  -11- emphasis remains on the training needed for staff expected to work in traditional forestry. Personnel Management 2.19 Length of service within a grade is the greatest single factor influencing either advancement within the grade or promotion. Regulations for promotion from a lower to a higher grade require that one third of the new entrants into the higher grade be taken from the inmediately subor- dinate grade. In Gujarat, for example, of new entrants to the Assistant Conservator of Forests grade, two-thirds would normally be recruited directly from the State Forest Service Colleges and one-third would be Rangers who have both ten years service and the minimun educational qualifications. The rate of expansion of forestry activities in Gujarat has been so rapid that no Rangers remain in the service who are able to meet these two requirements and the length of service requirement has been reduced to eight years and is expected to be reduced further. 2.20 In this situation, there is little sensitivity to an individual's performance and little incentive to provide special training to improve performance. Changes in regulations controlling promotion which would encourage the development of a meaningful and applicable training system, require changes in the public service rules. Since questions arise regarding parity between states and with other all-India services, this would involve tedious negotiations and interventions at high levels of government. The scale on which these problems must be tackled is daunt- ing. Furthermore, senior officers who owe much of their seniority to the present system, and particularly those who are approaching the most senior levels of service, have little incentive to change the system. Therefore, the present unique structure of forestry education and training in India is self-sustaining and consequently it is difficult to introduce reforms. Forestry Research Institute and Colleges (Dehra Dun) 2.21 Following its establishment, the reputation of FRIC grew steadily until it became recognized as the foremost center for forestry research and training in South Asia. The campus at Dehra Dun now contains the Central Forest Research Institute and a range of training and research facilities in wood technology, commercial forestry and wildlife, in addi- tion to the three training colleges (paras. 2.01 to 2.03). There is ample evidence, however, that the College of Forestry is a neglected institution in comparison with FRI and there is a pressing need for a formal integra- tion of teaching and research at Dehra Dun which goes beyond the intermit- tent use of research workers as lecturers or the loan of research facilities for training purposes. 2.22 With a strong international reputation and support from Indian forestry personnel, there has been no strong pressure to alter curricula in well established courses so as to adapt them to the changing needs of Indian forestry. Furthermore, rapid increases in demand for trained staff and the resulting decentralization of training has eroded FRIC's ability to control forestry training. FRIC has not been able to adjust to the altered central role in research and training which is needed in the currently changing situation.  -12- Industrial Training 2.23 The tra-ining of skilled industrial technicians for FDCs and private sector companies is provided by specialized engineering schools and is not therefore included in this review. In addition to engineers, both corporations and private companies require staff trained in business management and 'Logging. A Business Administration and Training project supported by the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) led to the proposal in 1979 to create an India Institute of Forest Management. This type of training is important for the development of forestry in India, but to date the Institute has been understaffed and inadequately funded. SIDA is now actively considering the provision of additional support for the Institute. 2.24 Since 1977, SIDA has also supported a Logging Training Center aimed at training forest workers in the use of improved logging tools, methods of off-road transportation and in situ conversion of logs. A Logging Development Institute is now proposed, which will also be sup- ported by SIDA and which will broaden the scope of the training program to cover both social and production forestry. B. Forestry Research 2.25 In response to a NCA recommendation, a Council for Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) was set up in 1978 as an advisory body to the Forest Division. It has been inactive since its first meeting in July 1980 when sub-committees were formedl for (i) forest biology, forest management and operations research, (ii) industry and utilization research, and (iii) education and training. The recent Task Force of the Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (para. 1.03) has made recom- mendations for revitalizing ICFRE. These are further discussed in Chapter IV. 2.26 FRI and its four Regional Research Centers (Bangalore, Coimbatore, Burnyhat and Jabalpur) are mainly responsible for forestry research in India, both in silviculture and forest product utilization. The four research directorates at FRI are listed below. (i) Forestry Research; silviculture, logging, forest genetics, ecology, plant physiology, forest influence, forest economics, forest soils, management and mensuration. (ii) Forest Products Research; composite wood, timber engineering, timber mechanics, cellulose and paper, forest products chemistry, wood seasoning, wood preservation, precision instrumentation, woodworking, sawmilling and finishing. (iii) Biological Research; entomo:Logy, forest pathology, disease and insect survey, wood anatomy, systematic botany. (iv) Wildlife; statistics, publicity and liaison  -13- The Editorial Board, Library and Documentation Center of Central Services are directly under the President of FRI. 2.27 The four regional centers conduct research in silviculture, entomology, mycology and botany. In addition, the regional center at Bangalore is concerned with the utilization of timber. 2.28 In each State, forestry research divisions have been set up under SF, and a technical committee constituted to provide coordination between the regional, state and national research. Each State details one or more Forest Officers, usually for four-year spells of duty, as research sil- viculturists. Their main responsibilities are to conduct plantation trials and sometimes to select and record "plus trees" as seed bearers. Trials comparing species, or cultivars within species, under the ecologi- cal conditions of state forest lands are in some cases conducted in cooperation with FRI as centrally coordinated national schemes (Eucalyp- tus, poplars, high level conifers, tropical pines, sandals). Serious problems of pests and diseases, or of difficult soils are referred to FRI, but the staff there are so severely under strength that they are often slow to respond and are sometimes unable to provide help. 2.29 FRI's research program is reviewed quinquennially by its Advisory Board of Research which includes representatives from industry, agricul- ture and timber consumers, and during the five-yearly Forestry Conference held at FRI, when individual States have an opportunity to influence the choice of research topics. 2.30 FRI is now one of the leading forestry research centers in the world, and in 1951 was officially recognized by FAO as a center for forestry and forest products research for South and East Asia. Among its major achievements have been: (i) significant improvement of 22 species indigenous to Indian forests; (ii) advances in production, pre-treatment and storage of seeds; (iii) selection and evaluation of quick growing and high-yielding exotic species for industrial purposes (including bamboo); and (iv) improvement of managerial techniques for natural and man-made forests. In recent years the research program has been enlarged to include opera- tional research and production economics. 2.31 Only one State in India has set up its own fully-fledged research institute. This opened in 1978 at Peechi in Kerala. One quarter of Kerala State is under forest which provides a substantial part of state revenues. The Institute was therefore established to provide a scientific base for the economic development of the state forests and their related industries. An autonomous authority, supported by a grant-in-aid from the State, the Institute has been able to set its own terms of service for  -14- research staff and to recruit freely through both national and interna- tional advertisements. The governing body is chaired by Kerala's Minister for Forests and includes the IGF (Delhi) as well as representatives of local industry and of Kerala State Agricultural University. The Institute has already attracted support from international donors. New buildings and a professional staff of over 50 provide a significant addition to India's forestry research capacity. Problems and Constraints to the Development of Forestry Research 2.32 The current constraints to development and the weaknesses of forestry research are outcomes of the education, training and career structure problems (paras. 2.07 to 2.15) and from the changing emphasis in forestry development. Forestry has undergone a major shift of orientation from state controlled production forestry towards newly emerging areas of national concern, such as provision of fuelwood and fodder, farm forestry and watershed rehabilitation. The budgetary allocations in the States reflect these changes of emphasis. However, the predoninant bias at FRI is still toward research on industrial forests, silviculture and timber utilization. This program will need to be broadened in scope, and emphasis redirected, if the new areas of concern are to be adequately supported. A key issue will be acceptance of the principle of concentrat- ing forestry research on a few critical impact points that can have posi- tive influences on productivity and rural incomes. 2.33 Another policy issue will be the extent to which the ongoing research programs of ICAR, particularly those being implemented by the Soil and Water Conservation Research Institute, could be effectively concentrated on problems of farm forestry, leaving FRI to work on research problems for which forestry research expertise is the main technical requirement. ICAR's input wuld be crucial in areas such as farming sys- tems research, where trees are grown on farmland outside forest reserves and intercroppecl with agricultural crops. This requires expertise in agronomy, soil science and possible irrigation, and trials should be replicated in the various ecological zones to provide data on biomass production, fodd[er, tree species and the effects of intercropping on tree crop and livestock yields. 2.34 Forestry research is not an attractive career for forestry staff. Education and training programs emphasize forest administration, manage- ment and protection and the basic scientific training needed for research is weak in both State Forest Colleges and FRIC. In addition, staff are frequently interchanged between territorial, research and other forestry programs, and there is little incentive for professional Forest Officers to specialize in forestry research. This results in a lack of continuity in the research efforts and a failure to motivate research staff to study newly emerging topics of national concern. The research staff employed directly by FRIC, who are not part of a Forestry Service are in a par- ticularly invidious position with al-most no career prospects other than those within FRIC itself. 2.35 lWith the increasing complexity of forestry in India, the demand for information and improved technology is increasing. IMuch of the research data which could be of use to the States is filed at FRI, but  -15- since there is no rapid and easy method for data retrieval, FRI is unable to cope effectively with the task of disseminating research results and data. A modern computer based facility is required at FRI for recording, storing and retrieving information. C. Forestry Extension 2.36 The traditional role of forestry personnel has been predominantly regulatory and only marginally educational or advisory. As social forestry becomes a major activity, the demands for extension increase. Since SFDs have no tradition of extension, social forestry programs to date have been operated largely on an annual target basis. This has been successful and may, in fact, have been essential for achieving the results obtained, but the limited number of trained staff, restricted by job definitions inherited from traditional forestry activities, are under great pressure as, in each year, a supervision and maintenance respon- sibility for new plantations is added to an already large work load. 2.37 Extension is viewed as the solution to many of the current dif- ficulties. The agricultural extension model is readily available and to the extent that a social forestry extension philosophy exists, it is the model on which SFDs are basing their approach. However, the extension needs in social forestry differ from those of agricultural extension (e.g., the slow-growing perennial nature of the crop). States cannot afford to employ a large body of forestry extension personnel, and a strong case exists for the more effective use of mass media in forestry related extension and education activities, as an adjunct to a more con- ventional extension system. With the exception of Gujarat, West Bengal and Haryana, SFDs have little experience of mass communication media, but could draw on the existing resources of the Ministry of Agriculture's Information Wing and the All-India Radio. 2.38 The important role of women in forestry and forestry-related activities is hardly recognized in forestry extension activities. Women are intimately involved in all forestry related tasks, ranging from tree planting to fuelwood gathering and cooking. The role of women should become a point of major focus in an improved forestry extension, training and education program, since only by involving women in the extension process will it be possible to encourage communities and individual farmers to take up tree planting on the scale now required to ensure domestic self sufficiency in forest products. 2.39 SFDs have little in-house competence in wood conservation measures (such as fuel-efficient stoves). A review is required to assess the extent to which private voluntary organizations, sociological institutes and other agencies could be involved in dissemination of conservation techniques. 2.40 Currently, extension approaches are being introduced on an ad hoc basis in response to the local situation, and to the inventiveness and flexibility of social forestry administrators. There is an urgent need to streamline and standardize these extension schemes and to study the extent  -1.6- to which extension messages in forestry may be delivered to communities and farmers without the need for a costly forestry extension bureaucracy. III. OVERALL STRATEGY FOR SOCIAL AND PRODUCTION FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT A. Socia:L Forestry 3.01 The major shift which is tak-ing place in India forestry towards social and environmental forestry poses major challenges to forestry in all areas of administration, education, training, research and extension. Of overriding concern is the massive increase in the scale of afforesta- tion and other activities which will be needed to ensure adequate supplies of fuelwood and fodder, building poles and other products for the rural poor, and to ensure rehabilitation oi the Himalayan watersheds - deterioration of which has contributed to a major increase in the level of flood damage in the plains of northern India during the last decade. In relation to fuelwood production, the Fuelwood Commission Report 1/ advo- cates raising the current level of afforestation to 1.5 M ha a year in order to achieve self-sufficiency by the year 2000. This implies a five-fold increase in the level of planting advocated for the Sixth Plan. 3.02 The only possible means of achieving such an escalation in the rate of tree planting will be by mobilizing all sections of the community - schools, farmers, panchayats, voluntary organizations, forest industry organizations, industrial companies and Government's Central and State Forest Departments - in afforestation programs. There is scope for: (i) community and private NGO initiatives; (ii) programs which involve the landless and tribals in afforestation of wastelands; (iii) involving small farmers in tree planting along farm boundaries; (iv) using the incentive of rising prices for fuelwood and poles as a mechanism for involving both small and larger farmers as cash-crop tree farners; and (v) encouraging forest industries, organizations and industrial companies to plant trees, both for fuel and to meet industry's own raw material requirements. None of these are mutually exclusive - all have a part to play in meeting future needs. 3.03 In formulating its recommendations the mission has attempted to identify education, training, research and extension needs for all sec- tions of the comrlunity. The key issues are firstly to examine what role schools, local communities, farmers, NGOs and industrial companies could play in naking an effective impact on afforestation needs without further escalation in the levels of Government staffing, and secondly, to define the types of staff training, research programs and extension systems most appropriate to mreeting those needs. 1/ Report of the Fuelwood Study Corrmittee chaired by M.J. Swaminathan, Mlarch 21, 19382.  -17- The Role of Small and Mfarginal Farmers 3.04 Of India's 81 M farmers, 59 14, or 73%, are small marginal farmers with less than 2 ha of land. For them the primary emphasis in agricul- tural production will continue to be growing subsistence food crops and it would be unrealistic to assume that many such small farmers would be willing, or able, to consider establishing blocks of tree plantations as cash crops. The main emphasis in such planting will be on planting trees along boundaries, around houses or on very small patches of wasteland unsuitable for agricultural crops. The objectives of such tree planting include provision of fuelwood, fodder, fruit, building poles and other products primarily for the families' domestic consumption. Fuelwood, being grown on small farms is being used to replace other fuels (animal dung or agricultural crop residues) and to save the women and children of the household from the drudgery of having to walk long distances to col- lect fuelwood. Experience in several Indian States and in Bank-financed social forestry projects in other countries has clearly demonstrated the difficulty of persuading small farmers to take up tree planting where there is little prospect of a significant and early cash income. Special incentives, such as subsidized seedling distribution and considerable promotional support, are usually required before tree planting is taken up on a large scale. 3.05 On the positive side, where such tree planting has been success- fully introduced (as for example in parts of western Uttar Pradesh and Haryana States), it has been demonstrated that relatively few trees (less than 100) can, in most situations, adequately meet a family's basic fuel- wood, fodder and building pole needs, and that the cost of such planting (about Rs. 2000-3000 per ha, of which 70 to 80% is the farmer's own labor input), is very low compared with SFD planting. Econonic rates of return for this type of small farm forestry in Bank-financed social forestry projects, typically range from 25 to 30%, compared with 10 to 13% for Government managed plantations. 3.06 In order to ensure that small farmers and communities adequately benefit from seedling distribution programs, some SFDs have taken steps to introduce a monitoring systen for seedling allocation which gives priority to small farmers. The Role of Larger Farmers 3.07 The spontaneous and positive response of larger farmers to rising prices for fuelwood, poles, pulpwood, and other forest products has been one of the factors responsible for the recent rapid increase in social forestry planting in India. Larger farmers, particularly in Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh have taken up poplar and Eucalyptus planting on a large scale; those in Gujarat have concentrated on raising Eucalyptus for poles and fuelwood for industrial and urban markets, those of Tamil Nadu, Eucalyptus for the pulp and paper industry and those in Karnataka, Casuarina for fuelwood. The fact that larger farmers have been sig- nificant beneficiaries of the government subsidized social forestry program has led to criticism of GOI (and the Bank) by sociological  -18- institutes and other agencies. 1/ Nevertheless, through demonstration, such tree planting has had a positive influence on attitudes of smaller neighboring farmers. The Role of Schools 3.08 The potential contribution of India's 640,000 primary, middle level and secondary schools to afforestation could, and in some States already has, becorae a major factor in rural afforestation. In 1981, for example, school children of the 11ahatma Gandhi Vidyalaya in Urli-Kanchan (UIaharashtra State) planted 100,000 Subabul (Leucaena) seedlings, 80% of which survived. 2/ This example indicates the large potential for plant- ings through school schemes. 3/ As was noted in the case of small farmers (para. 3.05), tree planting carried out by schools is nuch cheaper than that done by SFDs. 3.09 SFDs can assist schools to realize this potential by directing Government sponsored education, training and extension programs toward this goal. In fact, in some States, SFDs have already taken active steps in this direction. A good example is that of Gujarat State where, three years ago at the outset of the Bank financed Social Forestry Project, a target was set of achieving a five-fold increase in the number of rural nurseries from 210 government owned and 4 school nurseries, to about 1000 over a five-year period. The Gujaral Forestry Department's Social Forestry Wing decided to involve schools and private farmers in this effort. It set a guaranteed price of- Rs 0.30 per seedling and offered to buy seedlings from individual schools and distribute them to communities and farmers. The response was encouraging. By 1982 (the third year of the project), the number of nurseries had increased to 1600, of which 670 were owned and operated by schools, and 560 by private farmers. Seedlings raised by these two groups account for 20% of the 156 1I seedlings so far raised and distributed for commercial and private planting. 1/ The role of Indian sociological lnstitutions in forestry planning and research is further examined in paras. 4.22 and 4.23. 2/ "Schools Tree and Afforestation", Kamla Chowdry, 1982 3/ As a hypothesis - if only 10% of India's 640,000 schools raised and planted 50,000 seedlings a year, the total number of seedlings raised annually would be about 3 billion. The equivalent area planted would be five times the annual level of socia:L forestry planting targeted by Government for the whole of the Sixth Plan period. The area of land required for a 50,000 tree seedling nursery is quite small (50 x 50 m2) and many rural schools have gardens of that size, or access to adjacent wastelands where such an area could be secured.  -19- The Role of Panchayats, Communities, Tribals and Non-government Voluntary Organizations 3.10 Increasing effort is being made by GOI to involve panchayats and landless and tribal people in afforestation. A special comnittee, estab- lished by GOI, is currently reviewing this topic and its report is expected shortly. Some States, e.g. West Bengal, have introduced special reforestation programs for the landless by allocating small plots of wasteland to landless families and providing them with credit and inputs to encourage them to become cash-crop tree farmers. 3.11 The Anadniketan Ashram, A Gandhian agency working with the tribals of South Gujarat provides an example of the contribution an NGO can make to the social afforestation programs. The Ashram originally assisted in integrated development of villages with special emphasis on lift irriga- tion, agriculture, hybrid cotton, education, health, family planning, and resolution of social conflicts: forestry has now been added to that list of activities. In 1982, the tribals planted 1.25 HI saplings on their bunds and wastelands with a survival rate of about 90%. Next year, the tribals, with the help of the Ashram, have plans to raise seedlings in nurseries and plant 10 It trees. 3.12 A second example of an effective NGO intervention in forestry protection and watershed improvement is that of the 'Chipko' movement which originated in the Himalayas where the local people, especially the women, are dedicated to protection of forests. One of the incidents which resulted in the initiation of this movement was a decision by the Uttar Pradesh Forest Department to give a contract to a private company 1/ manufacturing sporting goods, and to deny the same ash wood to the local people who needed it for making agricultural implements. In anger, the local people refused to let the contractors cut trees by "Chipko," i.e., clinging to the trees. The movement spread from village to village. In 1980, GOI appointed a committee to assess its policy of cutting trees in the valley, and the potential for landslides, floods, erosion of river banks and hill slopes. The committee recommended a moratorium on tree cutting. The Chipko movement has gained momentum as a people's movement for the protection and conservation of forests everywhere. The movement perceived the SFD, as represented by the Forest Guard, as the enemy of the rural poor. 3.13 The Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development, an NGO estab- lished in early 1982, works closely with the government corporate sector, the cooperative sector, and voluntary agencies for afforestation of waste- lands. The Society provides technical services, training, information and arranges long-term loans from financial agencies. It lhas already activated schools, voluntary agencies and the corporate sector into pilot programs of afforestation and is pursuing institutional innovations with GOI which are likely to be important for the success of social forestry. To date, such NGOs as those cited above have received little direct sup- port from the SFDs. The concept of encouraging NGO involvement in social 1/ Chipko Mlovement by Anupan Mlishra and S. Tripathi (1978)  -2:0- forestry was accepted in the sixth plan, but an issue for the Seventh Plan will be the strategy for more effectively assisting NGOs to become involved in reforestation and forest conservation. B. Production Forestry 3.14 The distinctions between social and production forestry are partly semantic (Indian foresters argue quite correctly that nuch of the so-called production forestry has substantial social benefits). Neverthe- less, this categorization is adhered to in this review because it is the basis for preparing government development plans, planting targets and investment needs. Hlost production forestry is carried out on forest reserves and is mainly the management: of forests, and production of industrial pulpwood or timber, to meet the raw material requirements of the larger wood using industries - sawmills, match factories, wood based panel and pulp mills. Table 4 below summarizes Raw llaterial Requirements for industrial forest products. Table 4. Raw Material Requirements (million m3) 1/ Item 1980 1985 2000 Sawnwood 14.100 18.300 29.650 Panel Products: Plywood and Veneer 0.600 0.965 2.155 Fiberboard 0.095 0.125 0.200 Pulp and Paper 4.t75 6.055 17.695 Matchwood 0.535 0.680 1.415 Roundwood 7.:390 0.055 13.335 Total Industrial Wood 26.395 35.180 64.450 Fuelwood 184.0 202.0 225.0 1/ Source: National Agricultural Commission, 1976 3.15 A policy issue for the Seventh Plan Period would be to decide the means for the mobilization of small farmers, communities, and industrial conpanies in industrial reforestation and protection so as to supply part of future industrial wood needs. The Role of Farrmers 3.16 The increasing demand for forest products and the rising prices for all types of forest based raw materials, have been powerful incentives to farmers, communities and industrial organizations to take up tree planting. Larger farmers in several States have spontaneously started  -21- planting poplars or Eucalyptus species (para 3.07) mainly for production of pulpwood, or as raw material for the manufacture of matches and other products. For those farmers situated within an economic haulage radius of forest industrial enterprises, growing industrial trees as a cash crop can be an attractive alternative to other agricultural cash crops. Because of the time required to produce merchantable sized logs of the traditional indigenous hardwoods such as sal and teak, most farmers who are taking up industrial forestry have opted for shorter rotation species. The Role of Forest Development Corporations and Industrial Companies 3.17 Establishment of FDCs in different States in India followed the recommendations of NCA in its Interim Report on Production Forestry - "Man-made Forests." Today, there are 16 FDCs, at least one in every major State and Union Territory; their objectives and activities vary greatly, from intensive timber production to the entire spectruni of forest activities, including operation of forest-based industries. 3.18 FDCs have made commendable progress but are hampered by a number of constraints, the most important of which is lack of trained personnel. The staff is mainly on deputation from SFDs and there is a chronic lack of business expertise. 3.19 The relevance of FDCs and private forest industrial companies to this review lies firstly in their potential to undertake part of the afforestation effort needed to ensure future domestic self-sufficiency and to relieve the SFD from the responsibility for some of the necessary industrial planting. Secondly, since the trained manpower will have to come largely from the central and state forestry colleges and training schools, and agricultural universities, their special training research and extension needs have to be integrated into any plan for institutional strengthening. 3.20 Industrial entities could, in time, become an additional source of extension staff and forestry management expertise, as for example, the Ballarpur Industries Limited pulp and paper mill in Yamuna Nagar, which has, of its own initiative, started an extension program for the local farmers and communities, incorporating seminars, demonstrations, distribu- tion of seedlings and guaranteed wood purchase. Such efforts should be encouraged. The Role of State Forest Departments 3.21 One of the most successful activities of SFDs lias been roadside, canal bank and railway embankment plantings (over 10,000 km already planted). This program provided employment for the landless and a source of fuelwood for the rural poor, and now provides a demonstration to local people of the advantages of tree planting. Similarly, tree planting organized by the SFDs in degraded forest land has had a beneficial impact on employment. However, for reasons cited earlier (para. 3.02) it is becoming increasingly obvious that the size of the afforestation effort needed is too big for SFDs to handle and would be too costly if exclusively carried out by government departments or agencies.  -22- 3.22 Some SFI)s have already demonstrated their perception of the need to change the direction of their efforts and to encourage farmers com- munities, FDC and industrial companies to take up tree planting on a large scale. The example of Gujarat State's decision to encourage schools and private farmers to take up tree seedling production has already been mentioned (para. 3.09). Other examples include the attempts being made by the West Bengal's Forestry Department to involve landless and tribal people in afforestation by allocating each family 0.2 ha of wasteland and providing seedlings and technical advice for plantation establishnent (para. 3.10). in Haryana and Tamil Nadu States, the SFDs are providing extension advice to farmers interested in growing trees for sale, either as industrial wood or as fuelwood. 3.23 Notwithstanding these positive achievements, SFDs have come under heavy criticism for failing to recognize the aspirations of local com- munities. Their ability for rapid change has been questioned and it has been implied that social forestry programs, particularly fuelwood plant- ing, might be more effectively implemented by creating either a separate service within SFD or by leaving it to NGOs and local communities. It is the 11ission's jujdgment that a separate extension service would be a counter-productive step. In spite ef criticism, the past achievements of SFDs in relation to efficient protection and management of India's remain- ing forest resources have been outstanding. Notwithstanding the past emphasis on a disciplined technically oriented training system and an over-emphasis in training programs on protection and management of exist- ing forest reserves, the SFDs appear willing and ready to make adjustments to their currenlt organizational structures and as the examples above indicate, some have already begun to introduce effective measures for involving farmers and other members of the community in tree planting. 3.24 What is needed is not a complete dismantling of the system but a further restructuring of SFDs, redefinition of job responsibilities, and greater emphasis on extension and social forestry programs which make provision for all levels of public participation, particularly schools, voluntary organizations, panchayats, small and large farmers, FDCs and industrial companies in addition to SFDs' own efforts. Early resolution of these issues is crucial to future education, training, research, and extension planning since it will affect both the size and nature of train- ing programs needed, and the budgetary requirements. IV. RECOMLIENDAkTIONS FOR ACTION A. Forestry Education and Training Manpower Requirements Survey 4.01 It is recommended that in relation to social forestry manpower requirements, the States carry out a manpower survey as an integral part of preparing their submission to the center for financial support under the proposed National Forestry Program being currently formulated for Bank and other donor agency support (para 5.01). Production forestry manpower requirements should also be reviewed taking into account the possible need to transfer some territorial staff t:o the social forestry agencies in each  -23- State. The Forestry Division's central project Formulation Unit should coordinate the results of this manpower study and prepare a report on recommendations for consideration by GOI. 4.02 In formulating future manpower requirements, account should be taken of the changing strategy for social forestry and production forestry as already summarized in Chapter III, particularly the increasing emphasis on SFD's role as a provider of extension support services to the com- munity. Account should also be taken of the likely shifts in job descrip- tions of SFD staff (para 4.55). Institutional Capacity Survey 4.03 Taking into account the future manpower requirements for the Seventh Plan derived from the exercise outlined in para 4.01, an assess- ment should be made of the capacity of existing forestry education and training colleges and schools relative to future manpower requirements. It is recommended that this review should be initiated by FRIC and cover: FRIC Dehra Dun State Forestry Colleges State Agricultural Universities Ranger Colleges (both Regional and State) Forester Colleges Forest Guard Training Schools The Logging Institute The Indian Institute of Forest Management Indian Administrative Service Rural Mlanagement Institute Review of Syllabus Content 4.04 It is recommended that an ICFRE task force, with FRIC and appropriate state representation should review the syllabus content of all education and training establishments. In carrying out this review spe- cial attention should be paid to broadening current syllabus content to include more emphasis on extension oriented subjects. The same task force should undertake a systematic state-by-state review of the current syl- labus for SAU with a view to strengthening forestry teaching content. Initially, at least five of these universities should be encouraged to develop the capability for awarding B.Sc. level forestry degrees. A guideline for a curriculum for a B.Sc. in Forestry is given in Annex 2 and is based primarily on examples from SAU already teaching forestry (para 2.06), but modified to include greater emphasis on newly emerging  -24- priorities, such as sociological, technical and economic aspects of agro-forestry, land use and watershed management, wood based technologies, etc. There should be a deliberate attempt to encourage specialization at the post graduate level in areas such as social and environmental forestry (e.g., watershed management), wood sciences and timber utilization. Preliminary guidelines for syllabus content for all levels of training ranging from Forest Guards, Foresters, Rangers, SFS and IFS staff through to fl.Sc. forestry graduate level are attached in Annexes 1 and 2. School curricula for primary and secondary levels, and teachers training institu- tions, should be reviewed and revised to include an orientation towards social forestry objectives (as they have been for health education). Careers in Teaclhing 4.05 Taking into account the current lack of incentive and career structure for instructors at forestry training institutions, it is recom- mended that a task force be established by ICFRE and the Public Service Commission to review the terms of service of forestry teaching staff and to encourage specialization. The general objective should be to establish conditions that would offer permanency of service and career development for teaching staff, and improve their status and effectiveness. Teaching materials and facilities would require substantial upgrading at institu- tions at all levels. Additional training opportunities for forestry teachers should be pursued including, where appropriate, in overseas institutions. Training in Social Forestry 4.06 Training in social forestry to develop the knowledge, attitudes and skills needed for the technical advisory and community mobilization activities and to provide orientation and training outside SFD can be considered in two main categories: (i) formal pre-appointment training; and (ii) in-service or in-field training. Instruction and information delivery through distance learning techniques which are of critical impor- tance in forestry extension programs are discussed in paras. 4.57 to 4.59. 4.07 Pre-appointment Training. For some time to conie, ranger level staff and above will make their career in SFD as a whole rather than in a subsector of SFD. Therefore, pre-appointment training should provide a foundation in basic forestry and related sciences which would enable staff to move subsequently between SFD's divisions and offices. A new flexibility is needed, however, so that training can be related to an individuals' subsequent appointment. This would involve introducing a modular system of training so that, after a basic, comnion course, staff receive relevant training for social forestry duties, wildlife, tradi- tional forestry and so on, according to their postings. It would then be possible to make appropriate training a requirement for transfer between subsectors. 4.08 AssisteLnce would be needed fron outside SFD for redesigning pre-employment curricula on a modular basis, developing teaching materials, and training teaching staff. This would be particularly true in the case of social forestry. It is unlikely that all colleges and institutes would need to develop all specializations and there may well be  -25- advantages in developing different specializations at different institu- tions. 4.09 Training below ranger level is a state responsibility and hence more easily planned and managed than the higher level training. Each State has facilities for forester and forest guard training and these can be expanded or supplemented to meet the needs for lower level training. 2Iany existing facilities are not well equipped, few teaching staff have teaching experience or qualifications, and the reward system provides no incentive to forestry staff to accept teaching positions. This situation has serious implications for the training of a new cadre of lower level staff to become the spearhead of social forestry programs in the field. An ongoing USAID program includes funds which could be used by GOI to improve facilities, develop teaching materials, and establish a regular system of training for teachers at institutes. An effective incentive for teaching staff would be provided by an opportunity of further training being associated with teaching positions. 4.10 In-service and In-field Training. Social forestry is creating new technology, testing untried approaches, and using trained staff in different roles. In such a situation, the need for a dynamic training capability at field level is a high priority. It is recommended that within SFD, suitably trained personnel be appointed to Training Officer and Forestry Subject Hlatter Specialist (FSMS) positions with respon- sibility for developing highly flexible training programs. In addition, supervisory staff at all levels require training to improve their perfor- mance in on-the-job training of their subordinates. The re-introduction of well designed promotion courses for staff moving to more senior levels is also needed. Overseas in-service training courses should be encouraged for key senior staff in specialized topics such as social forestry plan- ning, forestry research planning and management, and in newly emerging technologies such as wood-based energy. 4.11 In traditional forestry activities, the pace of change was slow and the need for in-service and in-field training relatively small -- hence this staff training capability was not developed. A major in-service training operation is needed for existing staff in the specific skills required in their changing roles. In addition, as recommended by NCA, there will be a continuing need for in-field training to bring staff up-to-date with new technology and successful approaches in social forestry programs in India and elsewhere in the world. The modular con- cept (para 4.07) can be applied to training for managers so that relevant training becomes a requirement for entry to management positions. This will become increasingly important as the rate of expansion of social forestry programs reduces the age, and years of experience, of new managers. Training for Non-forestry Department Personnel 4.12 Orientation and training is required for many categories of people outside SFD if social forestry programs are to achieve their goals. These include staff of the Department of Agriculture and 2Ministry of Local Government; panchayat leaders; teachers; bank staff; farmers; landless; herdboys; groups interested in small village industry; industrial company  --26- extension staff and others. Some training for these groups has taken place in ongoing programs, but little of it in a systenatic way. Funds for such activities, and the expertise in SFDs to plan such training and to produce teaching materials to support and guide field staff in these activities, have been very limited. It is recommended that, as envisaged as part of the manpower and capacity surveys recommended in paras. 4.01 and 4.03, a special sub-committee should review the specialized training needs of non-forestry department personnel. The Role of FRIC (Dehra Dun) 4.13 The status of FRIC has been the subject of a recent GOI study and a decision has 'been made that FRIC should become a national university under an Act of Parliament with the power to award degrees. The mission endorses this diecision. FRIC should be assisted to develop capability to: (a) award post-graduate (1l.Sc./Ph.D.) degrees in specialized topics such as social forestry, environmental forestry and watershed management, wood industries and technology, forest economics, industrial wood production, and wildlife and range management. (These are given only as examples, and much more intensive review is need,ed before specific recommendations can be made); (b) work closely with ICFRE in implementing the recommendations of this Subsector Review in all, areas of forestry education and training, particularly in relation to surveys of manpower require- ment; redefining job descriptions; reviewing capacity of existing forestry education and training needs relative to future manpower requirements; and reviewing forestry college and training school syllabus content (including broadening the current syllabus con- tent at all levels to inclucde more emphasis on extension and upgrading the forestry content of agricultural university cour- ses); and (c) liaise closely with GOI's cormittee to review the scientific content of forestry teaching at all levels; and with the GOI/ Public Service Commission Task Force, review the scope for encouraging scientific specialization in selected areas of forestry, review the terms of service and incentives for forestry teachers; and competitive examination requirements for IFS and SFS. B. Forestry Research Matching Research Investments to Changing Research Priorities 4.14 The shift in emphasis in Indian forestry to new areas of concern, particularly in social forestry, and the involvement of farmers, local communities, NGOs and industrial coTnpanies, in forestry, are bringing about a change in the nature of research program needed to support forestry development. At an early (late, ICFRE should undertake a review of research priorities, matched to the needs of different target groups and identify a few crucial topics that would make the greatest impact. Table 5 lists some possible topics ifor consideration. ICFRE should also  -27- undertake periodic reviews of forestry research priorities in conjunction with FRI and with the assistance of forestry research staff from individual States. In undertaking such a review, it is recommended that the views of small and large farmers, communities, NGOs and industrial companies should be actively solicited in defining perceived research needs. To some extent, these views would be a natural consequence of the research programs to be conducted by sociological institutes (para. 4.23). 4.15 Appropriate research programs for backstopping tree planting by small farmers are specific and markedly different from those of larger farmers, industrial companies and SFDs which are establishing blocks of plantations as a cash crop (see Table 5). They include better knowledge of multi-purpose tree species appropriate for farm forestry (fruit, fod- der, fuelwood, pole and timber products); improved knouledge of the likely impact of such trees on agricultural crop or livestock yields (par- ticularly where intercropping is being practiced or where trees are being established along farm boundaries adjacent to agricultural crops); the impact of trees on soil fertility, better knowledge of the potential for producing fodder and fuelwood by continuous lopping of widely spaced pollarded trees or by coppicing short rotation closely spaced biomass plantations; and better understanding of soil water relationships par- ticularly in arid zones. This range of research topics highlights and reaffirms the urgent need to realize the stated objective of the Sixth Plan, that All-India Coordinated Research Projects should be developed for Neem (Azadrachta indica) and leguminous trees and shrubs. The work already initiated in this area by, for example, the Botanical Research Institute of Lucknow needs to be replicated in other ecological zones. In this field of research, there is obvious scope for more effective research network collaboration with overseas research institutes such as the Philippine Forestry Research Institute and University of Hawaii, USA which have taken a lead role in leguminous trees, shrubs and fodder research. Table 5: Suggested Priority Areas of Forestry Research 1/ Target Group Examples of Appropriate Research Topics Small farmers and local communities . Sociological research aimed at test- growing wood mainly for domestic ing people's receptivity to tree consumption. planting. . Species trials of multi-purpose fast growing trees (particularly legumi- nous species) which will produce fodder, fruit, fuelwood, poles, tim- ber and minor forest products. 1/ This is an indicative listing only.  -28- Target Group Examples of Appropriate Research Topics . Agro-forestry establishment methods (including direct sowing) of trees being inter-planted with agriculture crops or along farm boundaries. . Interaction between trees and agri- cultural crops, impact on productivity and on soil nutrient status. . Optimal farm forestry, silvicultural management techniques for maximiza- tion of single tree branch wood and leaf (fodder) output (e.g. pollard- ing and coppicing). . Minor forest products research. Large farmers and communities . Species trials of fast growing growing wood both for domestic multi-purpose species - nursery consumption and as a cash crop. techniques. , Genetic (tree breeding) research aimed at increased productivity of trees grown in blocks (plantations). * Cultural establishment techniques for maximizing productivity of block plantations (e.g. via clean weeding, high density planting, fertilizer application). Rotation length trials and harvesting methods aimed at reducing costs and maximizing financial returns. . M4arket research including alternative institutional options for ensuring farmers and communities a fair return on forestry investment. . Wood-based energy technology research and conservation techniques for en- suring more efficient use of fuelwood. FDCs and wood using industrial . Economic research relative to defin- companies. ition of zones of influence for eco- nomic wood haulage.  -29- Target Group Examples of Appropriate Research Topics . Species and establishment trials of fast growing species suitable for industrial use (e.g. pulpwood). . Tree breeding. . Cultural techniques for management of plantations of fast growing industrial species. . Harvesting and transportation methods. . Utilization of industrial species (particularly secondary hardwoods) and reduction of waste. Farmers and communities living in . Rotational grazing and range manage- upland watersheds. ment techniques for upland watersheds (optimal stocking densities). Fodder tree species trials aimed at maximizing production of tree fodder and fuelwood. . Fuelwood species trials. . Management systems for upland natural forests. . Sociological research which examines institutional options for involving local communities and PVOs in forest management. . Soil conservation research at both the farm and overall catchment area level. . Hydrological research related to optimal land use practices for conserving water supplies and maximizing water yield. 4.16 Research needed by the larger farmers is likely to be similar to that which the SFDs and FRIC have traditionally favored in their own plantation/silvicultural research programs, e.g., improved knowledge of species, optional cultivation techniques for plantation, genetic research aimed at increasing quality and productivity of stands; and, where pulpwood or timber is being grown, research into the utilization proper- ties of the common farm forestry species.  -30- 4.17 In order to serve this section of the community effectively, it is recommended that the SFDs and FRIC should increase capabilities for dis- semination of research results to the farming community; and assist farmers in planning farm forestry planting programs and in designing on-farm forestry research trials for testing new approaches to improved forest management. 4.18 Forestry related activities of FDC and industrial companies require research on fast growing tree species suitable for industrial forestry, genetic research aimed at increasing productivity, improved management and harvesting systems, and timber utilization. These are traditional areas of forestry researc-h in which many state forest research institutes and FRIC have been activeLy engaged for many years. Some of these areas, in particular, forest genetics/tree improvement and species/soil/site relationships are suitable for network collaboration with overseas research institutions. There are also areas in which newly emerging technologies being developed overseas (such as the truss frame housing system pioneered by the Forestry Products Laboratory in MIadison, Wisconsin, USA) can help greatly to ensure more effective use of India's timber resources and to reduce waste and construction costs. Since many of India's forest industrial enterprises are too small to finance overseas visits for their engineers to study new techniques, FRI and other research institutions should contact overseas research networks and, where pos- sible, arrange "twinning" networks which would help to accelerate the transfer of new forestry industrial technology. Collaboration Between FRI and ICAR 4.19 The ICFRE and ICAR should jointly review the current status of agro-forestry, pasture research and cf research on the specific problems of shifting cultivation, which is being carried out by the States, examine ways and means of ensuring closer collaboration between forest research workers and agricultural workers with research expertise in tree crops (including both the reclamation work of the Soil and Water Conservative Research Institute and the plantations technology of tea, coffee, rubber, oil palm and coconuts). This will avoid wasteful rediscovery of known technologies. 4.20 In relation to agro-forestry research, ICAR has already prepared a proposed program of agro-forestry related research topics (see Annex 3 for details). It is recommended that in order to ensure an effective forestry input into the research program, FRI and the States should be prepared to second technical forestry research staff to ICAR on a systematic basis. These would assist in the design of forestry components of the agro-forestry related research projects. Similarly, in relation to the agro-forestry re:Lated research topics being funded by FRI and the States (particularly in relation to reclamation of degraded forest lands under government control), it is recommended that ICAR should be prepared to second to FRI, sujfficient agronomists, livestock experts and other exper- tise as needed to ensure that these research projects are designed in an appropriate mannesr, and that monitoring of results includes appropriate emphasis on increased agricultural productivity.  -31- All-India Coordinated Forestry Research Program 4.21 Because of the variety of development issues being currently faced in Indian forestry, there is a serious risk that proliferation of research over too many topics could lead to waste of resources and to poor results. It is recommended that ICFRE, where necessary, in consultation with ICAR, examine the possibility of selecting a short list of priority topics which are of obvious common concern to all Indian States and that every effort should be made to concentrate research on these activities, particularly those which will help increase productivity, reduce costs and increase small farmer and community income. Examples of such topics might include: (a) Fuelwood biomass research; (b) Fodder trees; (c) Watershed management; (d) Forest products utilization and small scale rural industry; and (e) Wood-based energy technologies. Annex 4 briefly summarizes the possible research topics which might be examined under each of these priority areas. A selection should be made of those on which major research effort could be concentrated. The list is indicative only. ICFRE and the States working in close consultation with ICAR, should further develop the specialization concept. Sociological Research 4.22 As India has moved rapidly into the area of social forestry development, there have been many criticisms of the nature of the social forestry programs being promulgated by the SFDs. Basic issues have been raised, such as the choice of species, the degree of enphasis on use of the genus Eucalyptus, lack of attention to basic fodder needs, conflicts between forestry and food production, and possible ecological damage to soils through monocultures of exotic species. The Center for Science and Environment recently carried out an overview 1/ of the potential conflicts between government policy and people's perceived forestry needs. Various individual state institutions, such as the Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology and the Indian Institute of Management in Bangalore have published critical articles on individual aspects of the social forestry programs. 4.23 It is recommended that FRIC and the States should make a concerted effort to involve appropriate sociological institutions in more systematic research aimed at testing community and farmers' perceived needs in rela- tion to forestry development and that flexibility should be maintained in all social forestry programs to shift the emphasis in such areas as choice of species, management objectives, selection of land areas for planting 1/ See "The State of India's Environment - 1982," a citizen's report.  -32- and multi-purpose technical packages for social forestry, from one type of activity to another according to progress being made and people's recep- tivity to such alternative options. Regional Forest Research Institutes 4.24 Very few States could afford, or could justify, the establishment of a state forestry research institute, but in the vast geographical range of India, the FRI at Dehra Dun cannot cope with the diversity of ecologi- cal environments in which trees must be grown to meet community needs. The Kerala Forest: Research Institute (para 2.31) is separated from Dehra Dun by more than 200 of latitude and over 2,000 km. There was thus a strong scientific case for regionalization of research efforts and this was attempted by creating regional research centers at Coimbatore, Ban- galore, Jabalpur and Burnyhat. Three of these have the essential specialists in silviculture, entomology and pathology in which the States are most likely to call for assistance. The Bangalore center deals entirely with timber utilization, wood preservation and paper manufacture (para 2.27). These regional centers have not developed the advisory, diagnostic and support role which would be needed to back-stop national forestry production. Vacancies (such as the three out of four heads of technical divisions at Burnyhat) are one of the severest constraints. 4.25 It is the mission's recommendation that the research in the regional research institutes be redirected to focus on single topics of all-India importance, such as those identified in para. 4.21. A precedent has already been set by the Forestry Research Institute in Bangalore which concentrates on forest products utilization. 4.26 It is recommended that ICFRE appoint a committee to review the scope for changing the focus of research at the regional research institutes, and identify the steps needed to enable these institutes to become centers of excellence for specific topics of national concern. Research in State Forestry DepartmentS 4.27 The main research role of SFDs should remain that of carrying our research into topics of specific concern to the state concerned, taking into account locaLl ecological conditions. SFDs should also implement some of the replicated field experiments of the All-India Coordnated Forestry Research Program to be financed by ICFRE, where appropriate in association with the specialized regional research institutes (para. 4.25). 4.28 It is recommended that the SFI)s devote more resources to providing diagnostic and advisory scientific support for their field services in the form of simple laboratories and a smaLl team of scientific specialists. The basic requirements are a soils laboratory, a seed-testing laboratory, a screen house for pot-testing of botlh soils and plant selections, and a pests and diseases laboratory with aut:oclaving and incubating equipment and insect cages for observation of pests. Where minor forest products are of economic importance, a simple testing laboratory for standard- ization of products such as honey, beeswax, resin, etc. is needed. Such laboratories should be adjacent to, and operated in close cooperation with, those of the state Agricultural Departments, preferably sharing  -33- common facilities such as library and workshop. Elaborate buildings and equipment are not required, but the scientists need good support through provision of junior staff, vehicles and laboratory supplies. 4.29 As an example of the approach needed, the experience of Uttar Pradesh is relevant. Uttar Pradesh, with a population of some 107 M is India's largest State, and has a geographical range from the crest of the Himalayas to the waterlogged saline or alkaline farmlands of the plains. SFD has a massive responsibility for tree growing to meet the needs of this very large community, as well as for forest management to support state revenues. The Uttar Pradesh SFD has a very small but highly active laboratory at Lucknow with four graduate research workers. They conduct a practical field trials program which includes indigenous species such as Acacia nilotoca to plant the large areas of flat alkaline wastelands, whiTlc are underlain by indurated horizons of concretionary limestone. Strikingly successful results have been achieved by the simple but laborious method of breaking through the limestone with crowbars at each planting hole, thus turning barren wastelands into productive plantations. 4.30 This small team has recently been reinforced by cooperation with the National Botanical Research Institute, also in Lucknow. This Institute has no silviculturists but has received a grant from USAID for planting trees in "biomass" formation. At the present stage, only one arbitrary spacing is under trial with 12 species, not all of which are able to grow in these harsh conditions. Research work of this nature needs to be upgraded in status and form part of an All-India Coordinated Forestry Research Program which could be led by a selected research center developed specifically to be the national focus for the particular research topic. University Research in Forestry 4.31 SAUs should focus on basic scientific research and on research topics of particular concern to the relevant State. SAUs should also participate in research network experimental trials under the auspices of the All-India Coordinated Research Programs of ICFRE and ICAR. The national policy decision to encourage farm forestry outside the state forest reserves, requires direct participation of agriculturalists in studies which involve the simultaneous production of tree crops and arable crops on small farms. Some of the SAU administered by ICAR should be able to make useful and practical contributions to research into farm aspects of social forestry. Their participation will be effective, however, only if they recruit professional forestry experience at a senior level into these faculties. Professors of botany or ecology can contribute to facets of treecrop interactions, but the management skills in the production of trees are so dominant that success without an input from professional forestry is improbable. 4.32 Building competent faculty strength for both teaching and research in forestry will be effective in only a few of India's great spectrum of universities. Donor support will be critical for such expensive new ventures and should be deliberately concentrated in a few strong centers. A proliferation of weak university efforts in forestry could be  -34- counter-productive. Government and donors should aim at building a few "centers of excellence" in university forestry research. Forestry Research by Private Industry 4.33 Land concessions to private industry to produce pulpwood for manufacture of paper or cellulose acetate fiber have already demonstrated the advantages of intensive, well capitalized management for fast-growing tree crops. In Kanataka, tree planting on wastelands has demonstrated that private industry can cooperate successfully with subsistence farming communities and conduct competent silvicultural trials which contribute usefully to forestry progress. The differences found in growth rates and yield among cultivars of poplars, eucalyptus and pines and indigenous species is of commercial importance to these enterprises. In Haryana, the strains of poplars issued by commercial pulpwood enterprises to cooperat- ing farmers are strikingly superior to other strains. Experimental data from the commercial sector should be sought by FRI for inclusion in the Research Information and Records index described in paras 4.36 to 4.42. New research initiatives are required with eucalyptus and methods of propagation. The potential for yield improvement can be demonstrated by comparing the average yields of Eucalypts in India (5 to 8 m3/ha), to those in South and East Africa and in South America (15 to 20 m3/ha). It appears probable that commercial scale propagation of clones by vegetative propagation, as already developed in Australia for eucalypts and in New Zealand for pines, could become important for India's wood-fiber industries. Development of a Research Career Structure 4.34 In IFS, research is a minor facet of a forestry officer's career, to which h Is likely to be posted for a short period (usually limited to four years). No career structure was (or is, as yet) provided to enable a successful research worker to devote his life to forestry science. Such a policy contradicts the experience of science (including forestry science) throughout the world. While the disruption caused by frequent changes of staff weakens the scientific thrust, the lack of a career structure inhibits recruitment, so that research progress at FRI is at present crippled by staff vacancies. The teaching institutions are similarly disadvantaged, with 42% of staff posts vacant. 4.35 The need for terms of service and career prospects for a forestry research Servic,e has been emphasized. by earlier reports. An inter-ministerial committee, chaired by the Secretary for Agricultural Research and Eduacation at the Ministry of Agriculture (and Direc- tor-General of ICAR) made detailed recommendations some three years ago for the establishment of a Central Forestry Research Service for IFS staff. The total numbers of research staff were not considered large enough to provide a formal cadre structure within the Indian Civil Serv- ice, so that a series of special provisions were recomnended. These new provisions are "'still under study" and meanwhile, the research and train- ing staff remain seriously under-strength and unable to meet the needs of India's forestry developments. The mission recommends urgent government action to correct these anomalies.  -35- Information and Records Service Requirements '.36 The large-scale programs for tree planting outside the forest reserves are currently involving species and planting situations for which India has as yet very little documented quantitative information or results of scientific research. The problems are quite different from conventional forest management and usually involve initiation of a social contract to get trees planted, tended and protected, and the products distributed to meet communal needs. There is a national necessity to quantify and systematize the information as it become available in order to exploit successful methods and to avoid repetition of failures. ICFRE, in association with FRI, should appoint a special task force to review the issue. 4.37 The lack of information available to research silviculturalists in the field is not confined to social forestry. At present, SFDs receive little information on the results of forestry research elsewhere in India and in countries overseas. The journal "The India Forester" was not regarded by the Mission as a dynamic source of information, and the States visited do not appear to receive the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau (CAB) Forest Abstracts. FRI has a Library and Documentation Branch (with the Oi/c post vacant) and a Statistical Branch. Although the latter has a computer, which was originally meant for data storage and retrieval as well as statistical work, the records of forestry experiments are kept on card indexes and are not available for computer search. FRI has a good library, housed with exceptional elegance, and has a unique opportunity to create a Forestry Research Information and Records Service based on a computer filing system. This should store information on research programs, experiments and results, publications and reports of work throughout India. This should be cross-indexed for access by species, environments, etc., to provide a factual basis for the assessment of research opportunities and priorities. Much authoritative forestry work is in publications over several decades which should be available in the FRI library. 4.38 Much recent work, especially on fast-growing species, is in reports of limited circulation. Searching, sorting and mounting such information on computer tape, is a major task which will take a small team competent in both forestry science and programming skills some three years or more to assemble and index, working with reporting officers designated by each SFD, University Faculty of Forestry, FRI Division and NGO active in research. Information requested from forest research workers all over India should then be available promptly as computer print-out. 4.39 It is important that such an enterprise should draw on the experience of the CAB and the Commonwealth Forestry Bureau, and that the considerable volume of references and abstracts of Indian forestry research already available on computer tape should be purchased cheaply, rather than expensively reworked. 4.40 The Information Service should provide a vital link with the forestry research of other tropical and subtropical countries: the CAB tapes of Forest Abstracts will provide a wealth of information on  -36- worldwide research progress. Arrangements for access into other interna- tional abstracting services may offer further opportunities. 4.41 Since most of the exotic species of fast-growing eucalyptus, pines and poplars havie been the subject of research in many other countries it is a matter of some urgency that this information should be freely avail- able to the foresters who are committing thousands to hectares of planta- tion investment. Recording seed sources and the performance of provenan- ces will require a continuous updating of information. This is an immediate, modest and self-contained project which could be supported by a donor without awaiting a more general project in research, training and extension. 4.42 It is presumed that the Statistical Branch of FRI will be using the computer to build up the national forest inventory; but this work is best kept separate from the information and records programs, which will be complex enough to provide a challenging exercise in programming and information management. The Status of Forestry Research Institute and Colleges 4.43 Recognition of FRIC as an institution of national importance will free the institute from the cumbersome mechanisms of recruitment through the Public Service Commission and permit the selection of candidates more precisely matched to their specialized tasks. It would also enable the non-IFS scientists now working at FRI to be absorbed into a larger organization able to offer attractive career opportunities. 4.44 It is recommended that FRI should assist ICFRE in strengthening all areas of research discussed above, i.e.: (i) reviewing the changing nature of forestry research and ensuring that research investment coincides more closely with perceived needs of farmers, communities and industry; (ii) assisting selected regional research institutes which are building up specialized capability in research topics of common concern and which could provide a focal point for research networking in these topics; (iii) concentrating research effort on selected topics which are likely to make the most impact on productivity and the incomes of the urban and rural poor; (iv) reviewing the status of ongoing state forestry research programs, and assisting in the establishment of All-India Coordinated Research Projects, for which FRI itself could play a lead role in monitoring and disseminating results; (v) monitoring forestry and agro-forestry research being carried out by the universities;  -37- (vi) working closely with sociological institutes in the implementation of more systematic sociological research, particularly in relation to social forestry programs being undertaken by the States; (vii) working closely with ICAR in ensuring adequate technical forestry support to ICAR's agro-forestry related research programs; and (viii) providing advice to private industry on appropriate forestry research topics. 4.45 In addition to the above, FRI should play a lead role in the discussions and analyses of potential for an improved career structure in forestry research. Finally, it should act as an advisory body for All-India related forestry and agro-forestry research to the revitalized ICFRE (para 4.47). The Establishment of a Forestry Department and an Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education 4.46 The size and scope of India's forest research responsibilities have grown massively over the past decade as the need for professional organization of tree production expanded from a coverage of the 75 M ha of the state forests to concern much of the 153 H1 ha of cultivated land. Also, there is increasing recognition of the importance of forests in steep watersheds for the control of flood-flow together with the impor- tance of tree planting on the plains to minimize flood damage on the occasions when India's monsoon climate overcomes all other restraints. NCA recognized the increasing responsibilities of the forestry authorities and recommended in 1976 the elevation of the Forestry Division in the Ministry of Agriculture to the status of a full Departnent of Forests. The mission supports this recommendation. 4.47 NCA also recommended the establishment of an Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) (para. 2.25) to be an autonomous body representing the wide range of research needs for wise land use; timber production by management of natural forests and by development of plantations; wild life and ecological conservation; professional training and maintenance of standards; technical support of forest-related industries; and for studies of new methods for cooperation with rural communities to increase the planting of trees for local supplies of poles, fuel and fodder. In practice, mainly for bureaucratic reasons, the NCA recommendation to create ICFRE was never implemented. 4.48 The need for ICFRE has grown sharply since NCA proposed it. The increasing scale of forestry operations and complexity of research call for a national body with the authority to advise both Central Government and States, with freedom to create terms of service which will make better use of the nation's talents for the development of forest resources, and with a representation which will bring together scientific, technical, commercial and social concerns. The mission strongly supports the revitalization of ICFRE. An organogram illustrating possible linkages between ICFRE and other research agencies is given in Annex 6.  -38-- C. Forestry Extension Hatching Extension to Requirements 4.49 Table 6 summarizes the main types of forestry activity likely to be undertaken and illustrates differing extension requirenents for each. It also shows possible linkage with the most appropriate source of such extension advice. As can be noted from Table 6,, there is a considerable variation in the technical content of extension needs and in the possible sources of extension advice. Table 6: MAIN AREAS OF EXTENSION EMPHASIS FOR SOCIAL AND PRODUCTION FOR'ESTRY IN INDIA Main Characteristics of Appropriate Potential Main Participants Type of Forestry Activity Extension Activity in Extension Programs Seedling production by Nursery locationlconstruc- Forestry Department Subject private farmers, schools ion/soil mixing. Seedling Matter Specialists (SMS)/ and other communities. production & distribution Forest Extension Workers techniques. Monitoring of (FEW) seedling distribution. Forestry Motivators Selection of sources and organization of provenance of seed, fuelwood and fod- der species. Tree planting on small M-fass media, promotional Forestry Department Mass Media farms (mainly boundary activity, incentives, Specialists (MMS) and SMS/ planting). establishment techniques, Agriculture Department, NDDB, choice of species, assess- and other Rural Institution ment of survival, fuelwood/ Extension Staff/VEWs/ fodder/agricultural crop, Sociological Research Institute livestock interrelation- Field Enumerators. ships, sociological analyses of farmers' response to project design. Improved marketing.  -39- Main Characteristics of Appropriate Potential Main Participants Type of Forestry Activity Extension Activity in Extension Programs Block tree planting on Management of block planta- Forestry Department SMS/ larger farms. tions (tree cash crops), Forester/FEWs increasing productivity, Agricultural Credit Bank harvesting systems. Pro- Extension Staff. motional activity where Forestry Motivators. smaller farmers are block planting on marginal land. Intercropping relationships/ credit needs. Improved marketing. Self-help village wood- Promotional activities. Forestry Department MMS/SMS/ lots, communal and non- Organization of land dis- Forester/FEWs governmental organiza- tribution, planning inputs Sociological Research Insitute tion tree planting. (seedlings), establishment Field Enumerators. Planting of wastelands techniques, fodder/fuelwood/ Ag. Credit Bank Extension Staff and rehabilitation of credit/fertilizer needs, FDC Marketing staff. degraded forest land by protection of trees from Forestry Motivators tribals or landless grazing. Sociological people. analyses of community response. Assistance in harvesting and marketing. Forest conservation Protection of forests from Forestry Department Rangers/ protection and manage- fire and grazing, ecologic- Foresters and Forest Guards ment of natural forests ally desirable harvesting Agriculture, Livestock, and (especially in upland and regeneration systems, Irrigation Department Assist- wasteland). road alignments, soil con- ant Agricultural Officers servation, range management and VEWs. and fodder protection. Check dam and gully plugging techniques. End-use conservation, Appropriate stove design. Sociological Research Institute e.g., improved stoves, Testing local reaction to Enuneraturs, Technical Insti- preservative treatment. stove adoption. Demonstra- tute extension staff (e.g., tion of pilot conservation stove design). related activities (e.g., Community oriented home welfare improved crematoria and extension agents. simple preservative treat- ment technologies, e.g., for fence posts, housing rafters, etc.). Integration of Forestry Department Extension Programs with Extension Programs of Other Agencies 4.50 It is clear, for reasons discussed in Chapter II, and as is becom- ing increasingly apparent through the experiences of SFDs already involved  -40- in large state social forestry programs, that there is no possibility of building up separate extension services large enough to meet the needs of all sections of the community. 1/ M1ore effective use must be made of the existing extension resources of the Agricultural Departments, and the other rural institutions. An exercise carried out by the mission indi- cated that creation of an exclusive forestry extension service for han- dling all aspects of social forestry extension for the Seventh Plan period would require an additional 22,300 staff at an estimated annual cost of Rs 200 M. Clearly, this would be inappropriate in view of the existence of lower cost alternatives based on the use of existing extension service staff. It would also be impracticable to attempt to train this number of additional staff before the commencement of the Seventh Plan period in 1986. 4.51 The success of the social forestry program to date has demon- strated that the absence of a continlous supply of technical advice is not the constraint to tree planting that it can be for annual food and cash crops. This does not pre-suppose that delivery of advice on tree planting is unnecessary, but shows that a separate forestry extension service, comparable to the existing agricultural extension service is not needed--even if it were financially i-easible. Much of the information on tree growing is relatively simple and can be conveyed through short periods of technical demonstration in the field, prior to the short plant- ing season, backed up by mass communication techniques, which have the advantage over more formal extension services of reaching women and children, as well as men, in the remotest areas. At present, however, SFDs have very limited capacity for, and experience with, the use of mass media. 4.52 It is becoming generally accepted in SFD that village extension workers (VEW) of the Agricultural Department could help to convey simple, timely messages to farmers who are interested in tree planting on farm boundaries and around homesteads. They (and their superiors) will require orientation training on the objectives and nature of the social forestry programs and will require appropriate in-field training by qualified Foresters. This could be the role of FSIIS (para 4.10), who could also provide a two-way communication channel between forestry research and forestry field staff and play a key part in in-field training. 4.53 Foresters and Forest Guards working in seedling production, block plantings and woodlots should become less territorially oriented and work directly with farmers and schools involved in seedling production; and with communities, tribals and NGOs engaged in tree planting. They should provide day-to-day advice on the procluction aspects of nursery operation and tree planting, taking into account the changing role of Forest Guards. These posts should be redesignated as Forestry Extension Workers (FEW). Forestry 2Iotivators would work under FEWs to encourage communities to participate in social forestry projec:ts. 1/ See Interim Review Reports of the Gujarat and UP Forestry Projects (December 1982).  -41- 4.54 Assuming an increased involvement of VEW and mass media informa- tion techniques to promote social forestry, the functions of a governmen- tal technical advisory service would revolve around the following: (i) working with local authorities and NGOs to gain their support and active involvement in supporting farm forestry, appropriating areas of wasteland for reforestation, providing technical advice and soil testing, and planning rural forestry programs; (ii) assisting schools with nurseries and increasing awareness among school children of needs and benefits of tree planting; (iii) assisting in the review of school curricula so as to reflect forestry priorities, and training school teachers in forestry; (iv) training motivators to work in villages to promote adoption of tree planting and helping communities to identify social as well as physical constraints to tree growing; (v) providing seed and other inputs, and guiding nurseries in seedling production; (vi) providing FSMS for training VEW at regular extension training sessions; (vii) providing a source of specialist advice on technology and manage- ment in tree farming; (viii) conducting field trials of improved tree farming practices; (ix) identifying successful innovations and disseminating the informa- tion obtained; (x) promoting the use of tree products and village industry based on tree products; (xi) demonstrating conservation related technology (e.g., improved stoves and crematoria), and assisting in arranging finance for these; (xii) assisting local credit institutions to establish credit facilities for tree farming enterprises by farmers and landless peasants; (xiii) assisting in establishing marketing mechanisms for surplus wood and wood products; (xiv) involving industrial interests in using production from farm forestry; and (xv) preparing topical information for mass dissemination.  -42- Job Descriptions for Extension Staff 4.55 SFD staff lack the scientific. background, training and understand- ing of changed forestry objectives, to enable them to fulfill the func- tions outlined in para 4.54. An early review is recommended of staff use and existing staff norms with the objective of producing detailed, revised and clearly defined job descriptions for staff employed in social forestry, to ensure that the range of extension activities are adequately carried out, and that trained staff are released from those duties which can be adequately handled by staff with lower levels of forestry training. Extension staff to the maximum extent possible should be relieved of all territorial responsibilities. In preparing these extension oriented job descriptions, consultation should be arranged with farmers, schools, panchayats, NGOs, FDCs and industrial company representatives to take into account their perception of extension. needs. A small committee may be required under the IGF with representatives from those States with experience in large scale social forestry programs in order to consolidate opinions expressed by the diverse agencies involved. Annex 5 contains preliminary guidtelines for job descriptions for forestry extension staff to enable them to carry out revised extension functions. Annexes 1 and 2 provide guidelines for the training curricula most appropriate for the various levels of forestry department extension staff. 4.56 Technical Content of Forestry Extension Programs. Once trees are successfully established, annual maintenance requirements are small in comparison with annual agricultural cropping. The technical aspects of forestry extension are correspondingly simple. To be effective, extension messages for forestry should be concentrated on a few critical impact points, such as choice of species, planting espacement, depth of planting hole and watering regimes; and delivered in an extension campaign just prior to the planting season. Maximum use should be made of tree planting techniques based on direct sowing of seed and low cost establishment techniques such as the "basket" system. Strong emphasis should be given to seed collection of multipurpose indigenous species. Mass Media and Distance Learning 4.57 Success in social forestry in India requires that: (a) The entire population in the rural sector is made aware of the purpose of social forestry programs, and individuals understand their own relationships to the programs. (b) As programs move further into the fields of soil, water and livestock control, allocation of land to landless, promoting small farmer groups, and community involvement, a larger educational activity is undertaken than can be accomplished either by an occasional visit by an extension worker, or by para-professionals with limited technical background working in the villages. (c) The role of women in many forest-related activities is recognized and women are recruited to SFD and agricul- tural extension services.  -43- (d) the number of forestry staff working on social forestry programs is increased in relation to the number of intended beneficiaries. (e) Policymakers with no background in the practicalities of social forestry programs should be made aware of the objectives and realities of these programs. 4.58 The use of methods of mass communication is recommended in support of programs in the field. Technology and experience have advanced in recent years; India has a well established Agricultural Information Serv- ice whose brief is to handle mass communication for the entire Ministry of Agriculture. In the past, the Forestry Division and SFDs have had little opportunity to use mass communication media and so its expertise and traditions in this field are limited. It will be necessary to develop capability in SFD: (a) to produce printed material for use by staff in extension activities, for teaching materials in training programs, and for public relation purposes; and (b) to produce programs on tape and video for broadcasting and/or for use with mobile information units. 4.59 At present, SFDs have a small number of mobile information units. This fleet could be expanded considerably and their use and impact improved as experience (both from India and overseas) with the use of broadcast and printed media in distance education programs demonstrates their value as a mode for training field workers. To date this experien- ces has not been fully exploited in the forestry sector in India and could be applied in the training of motivators and orientation of other groups such as teachers and VEWs. Relation of Research to Extension 4.60 In both agriculture and forestry, extension activities are the responsibility of the state governments. In comparison with the well qualified extension cadres employed in the highly productive agriculture of the developed countries, Indian rural extension services have little training, and have poor standards of pay, housing and transport. lMajor efforts by the World Bank and other donors to improve this situation by projects based on the "Training and Visit" extension system, depend on the deployment into the rural areas of competent qualified Subject Matter Specialists (SMS). This is the key element in the transfer of research progress into practice. It is characteristically weak in Indian State Agricultural Services, where the professional staff spend more time in urban than in rural areas and the extension staff have a relatively low prestige and a low priority for resources. 4.61 As a result of reports by the Fuel Commission, it is now national policy to plant very large numbers of trees in cooperation with rural communities for the better use of wastelands, and to combine trees with arable crops. This involves new research initiatives and the transfer of  -44- research results to an extension service required to operate for the first time in social forestry. An initial constraint is that the Forest Serv- ices have a very restricted knowledge of the techniques for the fast-growing species of fuel and fodder trees now required. Few of the junior field staff have been trained in the production and management of such tree crops. FRI could be of direct assistance by assembling research information already verified for Indian conditions and distributing this to all SFDs (para 4.41). 4.62 An intensive training campaign is needed to pass this knowledge from the Forest Ranger to the Forester and Forest Guard. These will be the only SM1S in forestry seen by most: villagers, but intensive field supervision outside the forest estate by Forest Officers and Rangers is now needed to guide the activities of junior staff in this relatively unfamiliar field. Fortunately, the roadside planting aspects of social forestry, which have already added silgnificantly to the forestry resources of the nation, have brought SFD into contact with large numbers of village communities and from these contacts t:he spread of planting onto communal lands rendered barren by overgrazing,, has already begun on an encouraging scale. The critical link between research and extension occurs at a higher level and depends on how effectively the Forest Ranger is supplied with information and given the resources to pass the information on to the Foresters and Forest Guards. On the information side, the FRI should take immediate steps to increase the distribution of the CAB Forest Abstracts, and selections from the Abstracts of Information of particular relevance to India's current needs. Organization of Extension and Integral Relationships between Forestry Department and Other Agencies 4.63 It is recommended that at an early date, GOI's central Forest Division, in cooperation with the States should create a small inter-Ministerial working group to re'view possible inter-linkages between the various extension agencies (see Table 5) and to clearly define the respective roles of each. V. PROJECT INVESTMENT AND TECFHNICAL ASSISTANCE OPPORTUNITIES An Expanded National Social Forestry Program 5.01 Based on the recommendations of the Fuelwood Commission and other studies (paras. 1.16 and 3.01), and taking into account the encouraging progress already made in the various States in escalating the rate of social reforestation, it is recommended that GOI proceed with the prepara- tion of an All-India National Social Forestry Program, suitable for fund- ing by external aid agencies. This preparation will require considerable strengthening of the Project Formulation Cell (para. 4.01) which should be upgraded and redesignated as the Central Forestry Economic Planning Divi- sion. In preparing this investment program, it is recommended that the following criteria be taken into acccunt: (a) The increase in total planting area should reflect the recommenda- tions of the Fuelwood Commission and other studies on the size of  -45- planting programs needed to ensure self-sufficiency in rural fuelwood and fodder supplies by the year 2000. A target should be established which triples the current annual level of planting over the next five years. (b) Emphasis on farm forestry should be increased in the Seventh Plan period and the resources of the Department of Agriculture har- nessed to this objective. As a guideline target, raising seed- lings for distribution to small and large farmers, to panchayat communities, to landless and tribals and NGOs, should constitute at least 75% of total planting effort. (c) All SFDs should be encouraged to increase the number of village nurseries 1/ and to increase seedling production of multi-purpose fuelwood/fodder/pole/fruit species. In order to achieve this, all States should be encouraged to adopt the principle successfully demonstrated in Gujarat State of sub-contracting the the construc- tion and operation of tree nurseries to private farmers, schools and other agencies, SFD's main role in this area should be the provision of extension advice on nursery site location and techni- cal operation and quality control, particularly in relation to use of certified seed. (d) Maximum possible use should be made of low cost seedling distribu- tion techniques such as the "basket" system. Also, distribution of seed of species such as Acacia nilotica, Leucaena leucocephala, Proposis juliflora and Cassia Siamea for direct sowing. (e) The nursery construction program should be preceded by sociologi- cal studies aimed at determining likely farmer and community response and peoples' preferences with regard to issues such as choice of tree species. An Expanded Program for Production Forestry 5.02 Demands for all industrial forest products are escalating. Since there are substantial benefits to be gained from programs aimed at self-sufficiency in forest products (including savings in foreign exchange as a result of local manufacture, and increased rural incomes by growing industrial trees as cash crops), it is recommended that planting forests for industrial uses should be expanded. In planning this expansion, it is recommended that: (a) The annual planting rate should be increased in accordance with the earlier recommendations of the 1976 NAC study that a sig- nificant increase in total planting area is needed to ensure future domestic self-sufficiency in pulpwood and sawlogs. 1/ In Gujarat, they have already been increased from 1 per 80 to 1 per 10 villages.  -46- (b) To the maximum possible extent, the raising of industrial tree plantations should be carried out by FDCs, industrial companies, both small and large farms and landless and tribal communities. (c) More emphasis in industrial planting should be given to the use of short rotation, fast growing industrial species, although long rotation species such as sal and teak still have an important role to play. (d) To the maximum possible extent, such plantations should be estab- lished on wastelands and farmlands situated outside forest reser- ves and in the degraded forest lands which cover some 20 H1 ha. (e) As a basis for determining the optimum for industrial tree planta- tions GOI should carry out a systematic economic zoning study aimed at determining the forest industries' future supply and demand situation for pulpwood and sawlogs; at defining the likely economic basis for log transportation to existing and planned future wood pulp and sawmills; and siting plantations close enough to these industrial enterprises to ensure that tree plantation gives maximum possible stumpage prices and financial returns. Leasing of degraded forest reserves to FDCs and industrial com- panies for afforestation should be encouraged. Private sector companies and NGOs should play a lead role to designing these studies. (f) Major ind[ustrial plantation programs should also be preceded by systematic sociological studies aimed at ascertaining local peoples' acceptance of such programs and taking into account their opinions over such issues as choice of species and those issues likely to arise as a result of planting industrial species rather than fuelwood and fodder species. 5.03 Because of possible absorptive capacity constraints, both in the formulation and implementation of the above programs, it is recommended that the programs for social and production forestry be phased, with short-term priority emphasis being given to social forestry. Preparation of a production iorestry program suitable for aid-agency support should follow as a second priority two to three years after the National Social Forestry Project has been established. Education Training and Research 5.04 Recognizing that it will take some time to finalize preparation and appraisal of the national Social Forestry program outlined in para 5.02, and that there are several areas of education training and research which are appropriate for immediate and agency support, it is recommended that a separate education training and research project be prepared immediately. Appropriate components of this might include: (a) Revitalization of ICFRE and provision of funding and policy plan- ning advice to enable it to play a lead role in project formula- tion and implementation.  -47- (b) Accelerated training or retraining at all levels from motivator through professonal staff, with special emphasis on social and environmental forestry topics. (c) Strengthening selected SAU training by developing a capability to award B.Sc. degrees in forestry. (d) Training teachers for all levels of forestry education and intro- ducing incentives that will attract and retain good staff in teaching positions. (e) Upgrading the status of FRI, Dehra Dun to an institution of national importance (National University) and strengthened teach- ing facilities to enable FRI to award its own 1I.Sc and Ph.D. level degrees. Dehra Dun would be a logical choice for a forestry teacher training center. (f) A program of All-India Coordinated Research topics concentrating on a few research impact points likely to raise productivity and rural incomes (the program outlined in Annex 3 could be a possible starting point for such a project component) (g) Expanding the regional forestry research institutes and developing specialized capability in areas of common national interest. (h) Strengthening individual SAU Forestry Departments and forestry research activities, including, where necessary, construction of new laboratories and other buildings. (i) A program of agro-forestry to be pursued by ICAR. (j) Creating an effective national forestry research information and records service. 5.05 In preparing the proposed education, training and research project outlined above, a number of the essential project preparation studies and surveys would be required (see Chapters III and IV). There is scope for donor technical assistance in implementing some of those studies and surveys especially those which would result in: (a) A re-appraisal of manpower requirements for the Seventh Plan period taking into account the objectives of shifting the emphasis in both social and production forestry of SFD activities more toward an extension oriented rather than an exclusively forest management oriented role. (b) A re-assessment of staff use and job descriptions to bring these more into line with changing needs. (c) An institutional capacity survey of existing education and train- ing establishments to examine what new physical facilities may be  -48- needed to undertake the level of manpower training required effec- tively to support the forestry programs to be implemented during the Seventh Plan period. (d) Revision of the syllabus content for education and training at all levels, in particular to reflect the increasing emphasis needed oln sociological and agro-forestry topics of relevance to social forestry. (e) A change of emphasis in forestry research, particularly in rela- tion to social forestry and a more systematic matching of research investment to the perceived research needs of farmers, com- munities, non-government organization and industry. (f) Systematic collaboration between FRI, regional forestry research institutions, industrial research institutions and relevant agen- cies of ICAR, particularly in relation to agro-forestry research and the allocation of research topics to the most appropriate institution. (g) More systematic involvement of India's specialized sociological research institutes in forestry development to ensure that local community and farmers' aspirations are adequately considered in designing state-assisted rural forestry programs. (h) Concentrating research efforts on a few priority topics which have the greatest potential for increasing productivity, reducing costs, and increasing benefits to the rural poor. (i) Strengthening the scientific content of SFD researchi programs. Extension 5.06 It has been recommended (paras. 4.01, 4.02 and 4.05) that exten- sion, manpower and training needs should be systematically reviewed on a State-by-State basis as an integral part of the project preparation for the National Social and Production Forestry Projects. In carrying out this preparation work, there is scope for drawing on the specialized donor technical assistance programs for such specific areas as: (a) Reviewing job descriptions for extension staff. (b) Designing mass media programs. (c) Designing appropriate mechanisms for ensuring efficient transfer of research results to farmers and local communities.  -49- Annex 1 Page 1 INDIA FORESTRY EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUB-SECTOR REVIEW Guidelines for Training Syllabus Content M.Sc. Syllabus For FRIC (Dehra Dun) 1. The Mission recommends that Forestry Research Institute and Col- leges (FRIC) should be raised to the status of an institution of national importance (National University) and on the attainment of this status, it is recommended that an M.Sc. program in forestry be initiated at the earliest possible date. The M.Sc. would be primarily a taught course during a two-year period. It would have a strong field component and a dissertation based on field research in a specialized subject during a period of six months. In the case of wood technology, the dissertation would be based primarily on laboratory work. 2. The core of the M.Sc. taught programs, common to all specializa- tions, would be storage and retrieval of data and computer use, statis- tics, design and analysis of experiments, scientific methodology, and the basic forestry courses of silviculture, management and mensuration. Fol- lowing completion of the core program, the student would enter one of the specializations listed below: (i) Forestry for industrial development (with emphasis on industrial wood production and economics). (ii) Forestry for rural development (with emphasis on social forestry, farm forestry, fuelwood production, rural forest industries, and the production of "minor" forest products). (iii) Environmental forestry (with emphasis on watershed management, erosion control and the rehabilitation of degraded lands). (iv) Wildlife and range management (with emphasis on ecology and sylvi-pastoral systems). (v) Forest biology and protection (with emphasis on genetics, plant breeding and plant physiology).  -50- Annex 1 Page 2 (vi) Wood teclnology (wood testing, preservation and grading, production of wood-based panels, rural wood processing industries). (vii) Forestry for economic development ( Forest economics and management). 3. A graduate with a B.Sc. in Forestry from a recognized university would be deemed ito have completed the first year of the M.Sc. program and would enter at the beginning of the second year. The M.Sc. program proposed by FRIC is different in structure to that proposed here and has its origin in the in-service training diploma. 4. Assuming the elevation of the FRIC to the level of an institution of national importance, the Mission strongly recommends that staff of the FRI be given ful:L and formal responsibility for teaching the M.Sc. course and supervising the the field and laboratory work required for the disser- tation in the student's field of specialization. In this way, teaching and research wilL be integrated, as is common and desirable in institu- tions offering higher degrees. 5. In due course, it is expected that FRIC will offer Ph.D. programs based on research.  Annex L -51- Page 1 INDIA FORESTRY EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUB-SECTOR REVIEW Outline of Training Requirements and Suggested Curriculum Content for Forest Rangers, Foresters and Forest Extension Workers Employed in Social Forestry Social Forestry Curricula The substantial change in job content of staff involved in social forestry calls for restructuring of pre-posting training provided by SFD. It is recommended that ranger training be restructured by provide, first, basic forestry sciences and skills required by rangers in all fields of SFD work, then be supplemented by specialist training in social forestry, wild life traditional forestry, etc., according to the individual ranger's posting. Staff subsequently transferring, or moving on promotion from one specialized field to another, would be required to take the appropriate specialized course prior to transfer. The lower the level of training, the easier it becomes to make training specific to the job required. Therefore, it is possible to plan training for Foresters and Forest Extension Wiorkers in accordance with planned needs of specific social forestry programs. The best of the staff in each category will qualify for promotion, however, and mechanisms will be needed so that Foresters who have received initial training for social forestry work and are promoted to ranger level, can be given training to allow them to move to other specialized fields. The following topics are suggested for inclusion in ranger, forester, and forest extension worker training for staff likely to be employed in social forestry programs - the subjects will, of course, need to be taught at differing depths for different levels of staff. a) Technical aspects of agro-forestry b) Farming systems c) Soils and soil fertility d) Rural sociology and village economics e) Communication and extension skills f) Watershed management  -52- Annex 2 Page 2 g) Soil and water conservation, and conservation engineering h) Irrigation and drainage i) GoverrLment policies in social forestry j) Supervisory and management requirements In all cases, some of the training needed can best be given in formal training situations, but much of it - both in the case of existing staff and for new staff - can be provided best by a series of planned, in-field training sessions as a supplement to the formal training. This is already being done for the separate cadres of social forestry staff that have been established in Maharashtra and West Bengal. The following recommendations take the experience in these two States into account as well as experience elsewhere in India and in other countries. Social forestry curricula should include the following: 1. Technical Aspects of Agro-forestry Combinations Learning Objectives: Trainees should have a clear idea of the practical options for agro-Forestry crop considerations in such key areas as choice of species, planting, espacement, direct sowing versus traditional pot plant:Lng, management methods for maximizing fodder, fuelwood and pole yields. Curriculum Content a. Definition of most common tree/agriculture/livestock combina- tions for the particular state. b. Quantification of number of trees needed to satisfy domestic needs for fuelwood, fruit, fodder, poles and other products. c. Alternative technical approaches for establishing agro-forestry plantations, e.g.: * Direct sowing * Close espacement, biomass, block-planting * Boundary planting d. Calculation of optimal seedling rates, espacements and rota- tion ages for above.  -53- Annex 2 Page 3 e. Management systems for maximum fuelwood, fodder, pole produc- tion (pollarding, coppicing, etc.). f. Harvesting systems for agro-forestry combinations. g. Economics of fuelwood and fodder production. h. Field trials (planning, layout, supervising, harvesting and recording). 2. Agriculture Farming Systems Learning Objectives Trainees should be familiar with the requirements and production practices for farm and garden crops, livestock, and natural and improved range and should be able to evaluate field sites in different regions and understand optinum crop and live- stock systems for those sites. Curriculum Content This should include soils and climatic requirements and cultural practices for the common fruit, vegetable and grain crops of India, management of livestock; range management; farm plan- ning, combination forest tree and food crop production systems. Field trips to observe and discuss various crop and livestock systems; farm planning; evaluate resources in a rural farming area and develop optimized plans for farming operations; range manage- ment; field trips to observe and discuss various types of natural and improved range; identification of common forage plants. Spe- cial emphasis on how forestry can most effectively contribute to increasing agricultural productivity and meeting fodder needs. 3. Soil Fertility Learning Objectives Trainees should be familiar with the principles of soil fertility and fertility management and be able to prescribe soil amendments for agricultural and forestry situations. Curriculum Content Plant growth and nutritional requirements; basic soil-plant relationships; soil and fertilizer nitrogen; soil and fertilizer phosphorus; soil and fertilizer potassium, calcium,  -54- Annex 2 Page 4 magnesium, and sodium; sulphur and microelements; use of organic manures; manufacture and properties of fertilizers; liming; soil fertility evaluation; soil fertility management; role of leguminous trees in contributing to soil fertility. Appropriate techniques for green manuring with fodder and tree crops. 4. Rural Sociology and Village Economics Learning Objectives At the completion of training, trainees should be able to: a. Describe the social structure of rural communities in India in different regions. b. State the influences which can shape particular societies and say how they operate. Understand basic needs concepts and the role of forestry in contribut- ing to those needs. C. Illustrate positive and negative aspects of natural resource conservation and development in local com- munity development. Curriculum Content The nature and characteristics of rural social systems in general. Particular social and ethnic groupings of people in India, interactions in rural communities, status, role, caste, values. Culture and religion and its role in shaping societies. Community health, welfare and education. Social and economic power. Basic needs and cash earning activities in rural com- munities. Creation and distribution of wealth. Self-sufficiency and interdependence. Role of rnatural resources conservation in community development--benefits and problems. Village leadership and interaction of leaders with social forestry activities. Approaches to involving the whole community in development activities. 5. Communication and Extension Learning Objectives At completion of training, trainees should be familiar with extension principles and alternative modes of communication with target audiences, and with basic training approaches. They should be able to:  -55- Annex 2 Page 5 a. Identify and diagnose constraints to the adoption of recommended practices. b. Speak with authority and confidence to individuals and groups. c. Organize and run small group meetings and field days. d. Design, prepare and use an appropriate range of visual display materials. e. Use available mass media resources in support of planned extension programs. Curriculum Content: principles and practice of extension; individual communication skills, public speaking; training techni- ques, teaching aids; group dynamics, committee procedures; role, production techniques and use of mass media - posters, leaflets, newspaper articles, radio programs, etc. 6. Watershed Management Learning Objectives Trainees should be able to evaluate a drainage basin and understand the principles behind the preparation of management plans that optimize water yield and quality within the constraints of multiple use. Syllabus Institutional and social considerations -- water law, regional codes of water use, constraints on ecosystem manipula- tion; drainage basin treatments -- water quantity, water conserva- tion and utilization, control of streamflow regime, control of water quality; the management plan -- objectives of management, watershed inventory and analysis, the treatment plan, implementa- tion and evaluation. Understand the factors affecting preparation of management plans for a watershed with mixed forestry and agricultural land uses. 7. Soil Conservation Learning Objectives Trainees should know the processes of erosion and sedimen- tation, the erosion problems of India and understand the factors which influence evaluation of a drainage basin and design a com- plete soil and water conservation plan.  -56- Annex 2 Page 6 Syllabus Problems of wind and water erosion and sedimentation with particular reference to India; physical principles of erosion processes; ecosystem factors that affect erosion rate, measurement and prediction of erosional soi:L losses; soil and water conserva- tion measures--design and implemnentation; drainage basin evalua- tion and development of conservation plans; evaluation of erosion hazards, measurement of erosional soil loss; Enphasis should be placed on the planning, design and management aspects of conserva- tion implementation. 8. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering Learning Objectives Trainees should understand the factors affecting the design of various structures for soil and water conservation and flood control. Syllabus Simple design, layout and construction of terrace systems, grassed waterways, holding basins, drop control structures, ponds, dams, levees, floodways, etc. Field problems in layout and con- struction of structures discussed in lecture. 9. Irrigation and Drainage Learning Objectives Trainees should understand the principles behind designing irrigation and drainage systems for agriculture and forestry in India. Syllabus Water resources for irrigation; water transport in the ecosystem; chemistry of irrigated soils; measurements for irriga- tion design and control--soil survey, water status of the soil, evapotranspiration, water status in plants; design of irrigation systems for various types of topography; crop water requirements and prediction of irrigation needs; drainage systems for removal of excess water. Land evaluation for irrigation; measurement of water status of the soil and plants, measurement of evapotran- spiration; design and layout of an irrigation and drainage system; estimation of water requirement and irrigation scheduling.  -57- Annex 2 Page 7 10. Government Policies in Social Forestry Learning Objectives At completion of training, trainees should be fully con- versant with: a) Government policies relating to social forestry programs; b) Roles of government staff involved in social forestry work; and c) Laws relating to their work. Curriculum Content Objectives of social forestry programs, current develop- ment plans; work relationships in social forestry between dif- ferent Government agencies; people/land relationships and cus- tomary rights; agrarian laws relating to agro-forestry; role of commercial sector in social forestry activities. 11. Management and Supervisory Skills Learning Objectives At completion of training, trainees should be: a) Fully conversant with their managerial and/or super- visory roles and responsibilities; b) Able to plan, supervise, and evaluate field programs; and c) Proficient in supervising and developing subordinate staff. Curriculum Content Job definition, performance evaluation; work planning and organization; labor management; financial and labor records; training responsibilities or managers and supervisors; monitoring and evaluation, survey methods; reporting. Field Experience in Pre-posting Training Practical experience to supplement classroom instruction is of great importance in the rural sociology and extension fields. Development of appropriate supervised field practical work will be needed in social  -58- Annex 2 Page 8 forestry training at all levels, and it is recommended that formal train- ing of Rangers andL Foresters in social forestry include the following. Students (individually or in smlall groups) would live in selected villages to work with the community under the immediate control of the Panchayat. GuidarLce would be provided by DFO and their staff, and stu- dents would be visited by instructors from their training institute or college during their field assignment. The aims of this practical experience would be to: a) Emphasize the need to work with and through the local com- munity in all development projects and to recognize that, to achieve this, a knowledge of their total pattern of life is essential. b) Learn from the needs of the community and to begin to identify ways in which these might be met. c) Assist: the community in small development projects by physi- cally working with them. d) Encourage the young to develop a more positive attitude toward the conservation of resources by undertaking a small, regular teaching commitment in the local school. e) Considler the most appropriate extension techniques that might be used in that Panchayat and the ways in which cooperation can be! fostered between officials of different GOI depart- ments. f) Develop powers of observation and analysis of the total natural resources of the panchayat and to identify likely trends and needs for collective action, e.g., further defores- tation, soil erosion, etc. Evaluation of Field Experience Analysis and evaluation of field experience is of great value in reinforcing and learning from their experiences. Time would need to be allowed in course curricula to provide the student with the opportunity of evaluating the conpleted field experience and presenting the conclusions-- including lessons learned, mistakes to avoid in the future, and how best to further personal development. Teaching would be by analysis of work- book and reports submitted, oral presentation to follow students and staff in seminars and group discussions.  -59- Annex 3 Page 1 INDIA FORESTRY, EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUB-SECTOR REVIEW Agro-forestry Research Studies Research Studies A GOI Task Force of May 1975 recommended that the strategy for agro-forestry research in India should be as follows: i. data on existing agro-forestry practices and systems, includ- ing knowledge with respect to multi-purpose tree species should be collected and analyzed; ii. steps should be taken for collection of germplasm of indigenous and exotic species capable of being utilized in the different eco-climatic zones of India; iii. elimination (screening) and establishment trials should be conducted of the tree species identified as being suitable for agro-forestry, special emphasis in subsequent work being given to those species for which the farmers have preference; iv. the same procedure outlined above should be followed with respect to the agricultural and fodder species to be used in agro-forestry system, i.e. analysis of available data, collec- tion of germplasm, screening and establishnent trials; v. the tree species selected should not only be compatible with agricultural crops and/or grasses and/or fodder shrubs, but should also have beneficial effects on soil fertility; vi. techniques of propagation, spacing and management (pollarding, thinning, lopping, harvesting, etc.) should be developed after suitable species have been identified, the objective being to permit the farmer to intercrop for as long as possible without reduction in agricultural crop yields;  -60- Annex 3 Page 2 vii. sequential systems of intercropping should be developed so that the under-storey may be utilized for as long as possible, e.g. agricultural crops may be followed by shade-tolerant fodder shrubs or winter crops by summer crops; viii. research should be so designed that the resource development/ conservation aspects, with respect to soil fertility, water conservation, water yield, soil conservation, nutrient recyc- ling etc. must be monitored; ix. in the case of fodder trees, lopping cycles should be estab- lished and the most efficient nix of various top-feed species ascertained, so as to obtain nutritious forage throughout the year; x. alternate systems to shifting cultivation that are designed to reduce the fallow period without deterioration of the site, and at the same time increase yields, should be investigated. To this end, tree species which are efficient at nutrient recycling should be looked for, and high yielding agricultural species should be tested. xi. in the development of agro-forestry system for fodder the nutrient needs of cattle must be taken into account and the replacement of plant nutrients removed in wood and fodder should be studied; and xii. special attention and research must be devoted to the breeding of trees, agricultural and ifodder species suitable for agro-forestry system.  -61- Annex 4 Page 1 INDIA FORESTRY EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUB-SECTOR REVIEW Forestry Research Recommendations Selection of Priority Areas for Future Research 1/ 1. As an illustration of the potential for concentrating research on areas which have obvious potential for increasing productivity, reducing costs and improving rural incomes, Chapter 4 listed the following topics: a. Fuelwood biomass research b. Fodder trees c. Watershed land use management d. Forest product utilization e. Wood-based energy technologies This is an indicative listing and further discussion of this issue is needed in India before a final selection is made. 2. For each of the above topics, the following are likely to be key areas of biological and scientific research concentration. It is recom- mended that ICFRE carry out an early review of these (and possibly other research topics) and makes a short list of those which might form the core of an All-India Coordinated research network. Whatever the final selec- tion of research topics, Regional Forestry Institutes and appropriate ICAR institutions should be assisted to develop specialized lead capability in such areas and to become the focal points for effective research networks. 1/ This Annex relates to research appropriate for implementation for FRI and State Forestry Research Institutions. These are complementary to the agro-forestry research program of ICAR described in Annex 2.  -62- Annex 4 Page 2 a. Fuelwood biomass forestry i. Fuelwood species trials replicated throughout the States ii. Espacement trials with various species under: (a) farm boundary planting; (b) small farm or village woodlot; and (c) commercial scale fuelwood plantation conditions. iii. Soil/l4oisture/NutrieTIt/l4ycorrhizal Relationships iv. Establishment techniques with special reference to mois- ture competition, weed control v. Role of Nitrogen Fixing Fuelwood Trees vi. Inter-cropping relationships between fuelwood and agricultural crops vii. Fuelwood yields under various systems of management, e.g. pollarding, coppicing and single stem culture viii. Scope for Genetic Improvement of Fuelwood species through either provenance seLection, vegetative propagation, tissue culture, etc. ix. Long-term Soil Fertility relationships under continuous mono-culture fuelwoocl cropping conditions Fodder Trees 3. Fodder Species Trials replicated throughout the States and con- centrating, in particular on the semi--arid zones such as those of Rajas- than and HIadhya Pradesh: a. Espacement trials as for fuelwood above b. Role of Nitrogen Fixing fodder trees c. Fodder/Nutrient yields of various species testing pal- latability, dry natter content, etc. d. Potential of Tree Fodder to contribute to typical India rural family livestock feed requirement situations  -63- Annex 4 Page 3 e. Intercropping relationships with agricultural crops; possible positive and negative impact on yield soil fertility, soil moisture relationships f. Scope of Genetic Improvement of Fodder species as for fuelwood above Watershed Mlanagement/Landuse 4. a. Basic research into relationship between land use changes in the Himalayan Range and downstream flow, sediment and flooding problems .l/ b. Appropriate soil conservation and soil husbandry practices for catchments under varying intensity or arable cropping. c. Range Management/Stocking Capacity relationships and sylvopas- toral grazing systems. d. Potential for upgrading status of vegetative cover through fuelwood/fodder/reforestation and potential for improving natural range areas through rotational grazing. e. Sociological Research into scope for involving panchayats and NGOs (e.g. Chipko Movement) in forest conservation and protec- tion programs. f. Economic Research into critical impact points in watershed improvement aimed at identifying least cost solutions to improved landuse and to maximization of downstream benfits.l/ g. Hand Harvesting Methods and development of pit-sawing and other handcarried "processing at stump" equipment to harvest over-mature trees from steep mountain forests without the cost or damage of road construction. 1/ In the area of watershed research, the mission's experts in this field make the point that many of the technologies for watershed improve- ments are already well known: what is needed is application of these technologies on a field scale (applied research with careful monitor- ing of results) so as to provide a basis for larger scale investment in watershed rehabilitation programs.  -64- Annex 4 Page 4 Forest Products Utilization 5. a. Improved End Use efficiency of Indian structural timbers through, for example, improved finger jointing/laminated beam construction or possible adoption or truss frame housing construction systems. b. Solar Kiln Drying and associated technologies c. Small-scale village level sawmilling technologies - scope for reduction of waste. d. Low-cost Wood-based Panel Research, e.g. medium density fiber board: scope for replacement of solid wood products with wood-based panels. e. Market Research into future industrial forest product demands. f. Economic Zoning Research for improved industrial utilization and more efficient raw material harvesting, e.g. to encourage concentration of pulpwood production as close as possible to the mills which will form the market outlet and thereby to ensure the maximum possible stumpage return to cash crop tree farmers or communities. g. Research into Appropriate Extension Systems for industrial forestry situations (appropriate extension systems for social forestry are being treated as a separate topic as part of the National Social Forestry Program preparation. Improved Wood-based Energy Technologies 2/ 6. a. Improved Wood Stoves b. Gasifiers c. Dendrothermal Systems d. Improved Charcoal Production Methods particularly by-products such as acetic acid e. Longer term Wood-based Methanol/Ethanol Research 2/ Some of the areas of research would be more effectively carried out by specialized scientific/engineering,/industrial research institutions than by FRI. These should be idenltified as part of the follow-up activity program (para. 5.05).  -65- Annex 5 Page 1 INDIA FORESTRY EDUCATION, TRAINING, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUB-SECTOR REVIEW Revised Job Descriptions for Extension Staff The following job descriptions are provided as tentative guidelines only: Forest Rangers Forest Rangers will be responsible to the Assistant Conservators for social forestry activities in their respective areas. They will have direct responsibility for supervision of the foresters working under their direction who would, in turn, be responsible for nurseries, planting protection and harvesting by FD, and community and school programs. The rangers would also be responsible for: a) liaison with other government agencies at the field level, and contact with local officials; b) analyzing the training requirements of staff, providing that training themselves when possible, and calling upon their supervisors and Forestry Subject Matter Specialists (FSMS) when needed; and c) supervision the layout and recording of sanple field trials. Social Forestry Subject Matter Specialist (FSMS) A FSMS would be appointed in each circle. The role of the FSMS would be to act as a two-way line of communication between forestry research and extension and the farmers, and to be resource persons in the technical aspects of social forestry in the training of FD and Agricul- tural Department personnel, local leaders, school teachers and others involved in social forestry activities. FSMIS would convey to the forestry  -66- Annex 5 Page 2 research authorities, the needs for research as they become apparent, and report on successful initiatives that could have a bearing on research priorities. They would advise forest, rangers on the choice and layout of field trials. FSIIS would normally be selected from the Forest ranger cadre, with an agricultural degree, and ranger training and experience, being the miniumum qualification. Aptitude in teaching would be an important criteria in their selection. In time, as It. Sc. training in forestry becomes available, this would become the desired educational level for FSMS. Foresters Foresters will be directly responsible for physical works in which FD is involved at field level in their respective areas and for work planning and the supervision of labor in specific planting, protection, harvesting, and conservation operations. They would play a key role in contacting individual communities and schools and helping them organize their own prograrms, and in providing technical advice on plantation site selection, species, protection, husbandry, location of nurseries, etc. They would supervise a maximum of eight forest extension workers. Forest Extension Worker (formerly Forest Guard) The forestry extension workers' main point of contact would be with schools, NGOs and panchayat communities. They would provide the on the spot continuous advice on technical implementation of afforestation works, the operation of tree nurseries and technical aspects of planting programs (espacement, distance choice of species, watering regime, protec- tion methods, etc.). Motivators Motivators would be part-time employees engaged at the village level whose primary function would be to promote tree planting activities to assist forest extension workers, faresters and rangers in assessing the likely level of demand for tree seedlings, providing some leadership in the implementation of local tree planting programs and acting as a focal point of contact for the activities of extension-related activities of village extension workers. Village Extension Workers VEWs would remain part of the Ministry of Agriculture's Agricul- tural Department's Extension Service; would play a part-time role in forestry extension related activities, particularly in the pre-planting season when they would, via a number of contact farmers, concentrate on a few specific impact points such as choice of species, espacement, depth  -67- Annex 5 Page 3 of planting, watering regime, and so on. They would be the main point of contact between Forestry Department Subject Matter Specialist and the individual small or large farmer. National Dairy Development Board Extension Agents They would play a role similar to that defined for VEWs above, and they would be particularly concerned with promulgation of fodder tree planting in relation to livestock development programs; they would play an especially important role in the arid and semi-arid zone areas where the growing of fodder trees combined with fuelwood is likely to be most essential. Private Industrial Company Extension Staff It seems likely that the larger industrial companies will increas- ingly employ their own staff of the ranger/forester and forest extension worker level to perform similar functions to those described for govern- ment agencies above. They are becoming concerned with promoting the planting of industrial tree species within an economic haulage radius of specific pulp mill or other forest industrial enterprise sites. Sociological Institute - Field Enumerators and Specialist Sociological Staff Staff of the various sociological institutes in the States would become more actively involved in the pl-anning and implementation, par- ticularly of social, but also of production oriented forestry programs. Their main role would be to move ahead of planned planting programs and to test farmers' receptivity on such critical issues as choice of appropriate tree species likely conflicts between food and forestry production and the appropriate balance between grazing and forestry requirements. They could also play a significant role in testing alternative approaches to equi- table allocation of the benefits of social forestry planting and monitor- ing of farmers' incapacity to respond to alternative forestry approaches. They should be accompanied by technical extension staff to provide answers to forestry questions, otherwise community confidence may be destroyed through the provision of innacurate information, It is recommended that the States systematically review existing job definitions of social forestry staff and consider revising them along the lines of the suggested job descriptions above.  INDIA PROPOSAL FOR ORGANIZATION OF FORESTRY RESEARCH INDIAN COUNCIL INDIAN COUNCIL OF OF AGRICULTURAL FORESTRY RESEARCH RFSEARCH & EDUCATION Agro-forestry.research . Policy guidance, monitoring & evaluation, administrative & financial control of . All-India Coordinated Forestry Research PRIVATE SECTOR Program _ - RESEARCH I FORESTRY RESEARCH Sociological & industrial INSTITUTES AND COLLEGES research (DEHRA DUN) I / Re search & specific topics. Collation _a / _ _ ~ & dissemination of research information, _ STATE FORESTRY