Agricultural extension in India

L}AJAJ 8 AGR/T/5 WORLD BANK AGR Technical Note No. 5 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN INDIA August 1981 South Asia Projects Department This paper is one of a series issued by the Agriculture and Rural Development Department primarily for the information and guidance of Bank staff working in the agriculture and rural development sectozs. It may not be published or quoted as representing the views of the World Bank. The World Bank does not accept responsibility for its accuracy or completeness. ABBREVIATIONS AEO Agricultural Extension Officer DAE Directorate of Agricultural Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India DOA Department of Agriculture GOI Government of India HYV High Yielding Variety IAS Indian Administrative Service ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics NARP National Agricultural Research Project NCAER National Council of Applied Economic Research NDO New Delhi Office of the World Bank SAU State Agricultural University SMS Subject Matter Specialist T&V Training and Visit System of Agricultural Extension VEW Village Extension Worker VLW Village Level Worker (i) AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN INDIA CONTENTS Page No. ABBREVIATIONS cover PREFACE (ii) I. Background ........* .. 1 II. The Need for Effective Extension .. 3 III. Achievements . 5 IV. Problems ................ ......... 11 V. Prospects ....... . o .......* ................... 18 VI. Work Program ... 19 (ii) AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN INDIA PREFACE This paper, prepared by staff of the World Bank's New Delhi office, provides a critical review of experience with the Training and Visit System of Extension in India. It provides a brief historical background of the evolution of extension services in the country. It highlights the need for ani effective extension system and provides a short but comprehensive picture of the achievements of the Training and Visit System over the past five years. Thereafter, the paper devotes a section to problems encountered in introducing the system and assesses prospects for further development in the future. The paper concludes with a suggested work program for future Bank involvement, together with government agencies in India, noting those areas where particular attention needs to be paid in the years ahead. The paper is issued as an Agricultural Technical Note for distri- bution to staff working on agriculture and rural development in the Bank since many of the lessons learnt in the Indian experience are felt to be applicable to other areas, where the development and adaptation of Training and Visit extension systems is still at a comparatively early stage. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN INDIA I. Background 1.1 Bank assistance to the strengthening of agricultural extension in India over the past five years needs to be assessed against the experience with extension in the country up to that time. Agricultural extension in independent India started with a single-line agricultural extension service but with the introduction of the Community Development Program in 1952, this was radically changed. Under the Community Development Program, the primary point of contact between farmer and government was the Village Level Worker X (VLW) who was intended to provide virtually the entire range of public ser- vices required for the development of the village community. The VLW was thus a multipurpose worker. He was an official of the Community Development Department under the direct control of the Block Development Officer, who in turn was responsible to the District Collector, an official of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) in direct administrative control of all govern- ment programs in his district. It was expected that the VLW would devote 80% of his time to agriculture and for this he was to obtain technical guidance from the Department of Agriculture. 1.2 It is important to appreciate the deep ideological commitment of the Government of India and many of its finest officers to the Community Development Program. The approach was the hallmark of India's strategy of rural development. Most of the officers in senior government positions today were, at the beginning of their careers, directly involved in its implementa- tion. The approach received enthusiastic moral, financial and technical sup- port from a number of foreign sources as well. Some of the main implications of the community development approach, particularly that all rural development activities should be integrated through one point of contact between the government and the people, a multipurpose Village Level Worker, remain deeply imbedded in the thinking of many officials at all levels. 1.3 As experience was gained with the community development approach, it became evident that the VLWs were not in a position to allocate 80% of their time to agriculture. A degree of cynicism about the VLW's abilities and attitudes developed, though it was far from clear if the problem rested with the VLWs or with the management system in which they operated. The cynicism, however, exist to this day. To overcome the weakness of agricul- tural extension in the community development approach, numerous special schemes were developed which focussed on special areas (e.g., Intensive Agricultural District Program), crops (jute, cotton, e.g.) or practices. To the extent that these schemes overlapped with or duplicated ordinary extension activities, they were costly and impossible to replicate widely. There were often technical inconsistencies between the approach of the special schemes and the general extension service, and there was often administrative confusion regarding the employment status of staff engaged on the special schemes. -2- 1.4 The experience with the "Green Revolution" added another element to attitudes towards extension in India. The very rapid interest spread of the HYV wheat varieties in the late 1960s suggested to many that technological change could take place without (some would say in spite of) effective exten- sion. It was easy to overlook the unusual characteristics of the wheat tech- nology that aided its spread -- relative simplicity and wide adaptability to many conditions, very high profitability and reliance on irrigation. More- over, its adoption was heavily concentrated in Punjab, a compac state with relatively good technical support to agriculture, relatively skilled and aggressive farmers and good communications. Ironically, the unique simplicity and high profitability of the HYV wheat technology diverted atteition from the importance of the technology itself. The main constraints to the adoption of this technology were perceived to have less to do with extension than with the physical supply of inputs, particularly seed and fertilizer. The experience with HYV wheat concequently left many Indian administrative officers deeply sceptical of the need for technical advice and more concerned with logistical problems of input supply. The dominant stereotype of the Indian farmer, as seen by such officers, shifted drastically from that of the poor, ignorant, illiterate peasant, hopelessly wedded to superstition and ancient outmoded cultivation techniques to the other extreme of a shrewd, dynamic, all-knowing entrepreneur who, given the slightest chance, would rapidly adopt the most advanced technologies provided inputs and credit were available. For such "super farmers", it was difficult to see what technical advice departments of agriculture could offer, particularly through the lowly VLW. To many it appeared that if one merely made the necessary inputs available, agriculture would look after itself. 1.5 Accordingly, the role of state departments of agriculture tended towards increased evphasis on the logistics of input supplies, subsidies, reporting and regulatory functions, with less stress on the professional, technical aspects of their work. Assessment of performance of individuals became directly related to the quantity of inputs distributed. This resulted in concentration on a limited number of larger farmers who could consume more inputs and provided little incentive for more efficient use of inputs or to reach smaller farmers. The assignment of agricultural research as the exclusive function of the state agricultural universities further eroded the technical competence of the state departments of agriculture, with many staff transferring to the universities and opportunities for professional develop- ment within the departments severely constrained. In many states, the sudden shift of the research function and staff to the universities which had higher pay scales, led to bitterness and estrangement between the departments and the agricultural universities. 1.6 By the mid-1970s, agricultural extension in India appeared to be at a dead end. There seemed to be an insurmountable ideological commitment to organizing a wide variety of rural services through the single multipurpose worker. There was considerable scepticism about the very usefulness of exten- sion. Technological development and spread took a poor second place, at best, to arranging input supplies in the work programs of the agricultural depart- ments which were losing their professional competence in technical matters. - 3 - Most importantly, there was virtually no regular systematic contact between the departments and the average farmer. As a result, the identification of field problems, and research on these and the development of ways of solving them, suffered. Rather than trying to adapt recommendations to fit the farmers, efforts were concentrated on making the farmers fit the available recommendations. Moreover, since a large proportion of the recommendations were developed on research station under irrigated conditions without finan- cial. constraints, there was often a gap between the inputs and practices required by the recommendations and what a rainfed farmer with limited funds could reasonably be expected to do. I. The Need for Effective Extension 2.1 While negative attitudes towards extension were developing, the need for effective agricultural extension grew. No country has achieved a high standard of agriculture without a strong research and extension program, but the need for extension was not clearly perceived. 1/ Part of the reason for this was a confusion about the role of extension, combining it with time-bound reporting and input supply functions. The problem was compounded by imposing a broad range of non-agricultural functions on extension agents as well. No workable organizational structure was provided, without which it is impossible for thousands of field staff scattered over large areas to work effectively and to develop motivation and technical competence. 2.2 The need for effective extension was further obscured because the costs of inadequate extension were indirect. Rapid progress was made with HYV wheat, but the more complex HYV rice technology was adopted very slowly and incompletely. It was no accident that four independent World Bank/FA0 teams reviewing foodgrain production in the four eastern region states (Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and Bihar) all identified strengthening agricul- tural extension as the key to expanding foodgrain production. Even in the agriculturally advanced state of Haryana, where irrigation intensity is twice the all-India average and fertilizer use per hectare is about 80% above the all-India average, that irrigated cotton yields were only 300 kg/ha and stagnant for many years, and that sugarcane yields were 20% lower than the all-India average, suggested serious problems in the efficient adoption of technology. 2.3 The recent Project Completion Report on the Uttar Pradesh Agricul- tural Credit P.oject which provided farmers in U.P. With credit for installing tubewells illustrates the hidden cost of inadequate extension. The Farmer Benefit Survey carried out to assess the benefits of the project, found that although yields increased substantially with the installation of tubewells, they remained well below levels achieved in irrigated areas in other states which had better extension organizations. These findings are indicated in the following table: 1/ An important extension to this generalization was the World Bank's Agricultural Sector Review Mission of 1965/66 headed by Sir John Crawford, which recorded clearly the weaknesses of existing extension work and recommended a fundamental reorganization to achieve a profes- sionally competent extension service with a single chain of command. -4- Yields (tons per hectare) Project Beneficiaries Other Nearby Farmers Farmers in Other (recent irrigation) (with irrigation for Irrigated Areas more than five years) (with good extension) Paddy HYV 2.3 2.9 5.7 Wheat HYV 2.3 3.0 3.0 Sugarcane 37.5 41.2 60-80 Even farmers with more than five years of irrigation experience had paddy and sugarcane yields well below those of farmers in irrigated areas with good extension. The Project Completion Report states that "relatively few farmers benefitted from advice of extension workers" and suggests that "this may be due in part to the shortage of extension workers and in part to their ineffi- cient organization." The Report concludes that "more effective agricultural extension services would have helped farmers to realize the production and income potential of irrigation investments more fully." 1/ 2.4 It is clear from these experiences that extension provides a means for investment in irrigation and costly inputs such as fertilizer to reach their full potential. It was from this point of departure that the Bank became directly involved in extension in India, first as a complement to investments in command area development (as in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh) and in tubewells (as in West Bengal). Moreover, a growing body of research suggests substantial increments in production and income are possible even in semi-arid rainfed areas with improved cultivation practices and varieties, and modest amounts of fertilizer properly applied. The following analysis of technical improvements developed at ICRISAT illustrates the possibilities: Costs and Benefits of Technological Improvements in Rainfed Semi-Arid Tropics (1976/77-1977/78) /a Incremental Incremental Cost /b Net Benefit /b -------------(Rs/ha) A. Vertisols 1. Improved soil/crop management -9 546 2. As above plus improved varieties +61 1,305 3. As above plus improved fertilizer +454 2,864 B. Alfisols 1. Improved fertilizer only +183 571 2. As above plus soil/crop management +272 1,373 3. As above plus improved varieties +349 1,794 /a Ryan, et al., Assessment of Prospective, Technologies for the Semi-Arid Tropics of Peninsular India, ICRISAT, February 1979, pp. 34-35. /b Incremental defined as increase over local practices. 1/ Data and quotetions in this paragraph are from Uttar Pradesh Agricultural Credit Project (Cr. 392-IN), Project Completion Report, January 15, 1980, p. 4. -5- These results suggest that there is known technology that can substantially raise productivity and incomes on the 70% of India's cropped land which is not irrigated. 2.5 The initial impact of effective extension is most clearly seen in raising the productivity of other investments (made by both the farmer and the government) and in closing the gap between what the farmers are doing in their fields and what they can achieve. The longer term impact is more subtle yet no less important. Through close contact with farmers and farmers' efforts to adopt improvements, and through regular contact with research, agricultural extension systems are in a strategic position to influence the direction of research and to shape the development of technology. This dynamic interaction is of crucial importance in adapting known technology to particular field conditions and in pushing the search for new technology into those areas of greatest significance. This is particularly important since the experience of the past two decades indicates that each technological improvement generates new problems and opportunities that require further research merely to maintain levels of productivity already reached. III. Achievements 3.1 In the mid-1970s, when the Bank began its large scale involvement in extension in India, there were thus two broad forces at work in extension: (i) a background of poorly organized extension services with their profes- sional, technical functions largely eroded, encumbered by largely redundant logistical supply functions and many non-agricultural duties, infected by cynicism, and surrounded by not unjustifiable scepticism; and (ii) a growing but not clearly perceived need for effective extension as the gap between known and applied technology grew and as the levels of investment in irriga- tion and other inputs rose to ever higher levels. The proposals for extension reform encouraged by the Bank--first in specific small project areas and later throughout whole states--identified these problems and needs and were specifically designed to cope with them. 3.2 The proposed extension reforms embodied in the training and visit (T&V) system are described elsewVxere and need not be repeated here. 1/ A key point, however, is that the reforms involve the consolidation, reorgani- zation and strengthening of the existing extension agencies rather than the creation of new organizations. In this way, the experience and skills of existing staff are used, duplication of efforts is avoided, and costs a're kept within tolerable limits. The aim of the reforms is to develop a technically professional extension service capable of providing farmers with advice on how to raise their incomes, and of diagnosing and taking action to resolve their technical problems. To achieve this, the system establUshes an inservice training program for the single-purpose Village Extension Workers (VEW), plus a fixed schedule of visits to be made by them to specific groups of farmers. All farm families are placed in such groups, and all groups are assigned to a particular VEW. A VEW usually has eight 1/ See Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System, World Bank, 1977. -6- such groups assigned to him, each of about 100 farmers. 1/ Each VEW visits farmers in their fields on an assigned day once in two weeks (and sometimes more often). Every two weeks, each VEW participates in the training session conducted by Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) during which field problems arising in the previous two weeks are carefully reviewed and practiced in the field. This technological role for extension workers is a full-time activity, making it necessary for VEWs to be relieved of all other duties and to operate under a single line of command. 3.3 Given the background described above--the commitment to a multi- purpose approach, scepticism about extension and stress on logistics rather than technology--the proposed reforms represented a radical departure from past practice. Wholly apart from the major administrative and organizational efforts required to transfer thousands of staff from one department to another, to merge them with other staff, to recruit and train new staff, and to transform their job descriptions, the attitudes and interests of the staff themselves also need to be redirected. In such a context, the pace and extent of the diffusion of the training and visit system of agricultural extension is remarkable. 3.4 Twelve states have adopted training and visit extension through projects which at full development will cover about 69% of India's net cropped area and serve about 64% of India's farm families. 2/ Details of the ongoing projects and those recently begun are presented in the following table: 1/ The number of farm families per VEW in practice varies widely according to local geographic, agro-climatic and other factors. 2/ Based on the 1970-71 Indian Agricultural Census, taking the number of operational farm holdings as the number of farm families. - 7 - Extension Projects Present and Projected Coverage Farm Families Extension Staff Covered (million) VEW SMS State Full Full Full Devt. Present Devt. Present Devt. Present Ongoing Projects /a Orissa (June '77) 3.4 3.4 5910 5313 136 126 West Bengal (Aug '77) 4.0 /b 4000 /b 201 /b Madhya Pradesh (Sept.'77) 2.1 2.0 3951 3771 230 208 Assam (Sept.'77) 1.9 1.7 2440 2391 72 62 Rajasthan (Feb.'78) 2.9 2.5 4000 3300 210 160 Bihar (May '78) 7.6 (1.4)/c 8890 (2127)/c 558 (42)/c Karnataka (Dec.'79) 3.6 2.1 5200 3530 265 215 Gujarat (Dec.'79) 2.4 2.0 3440 2883 125 104 Haryana (Dec.'79) 1.0 1.0 1490 1424 118 93 Kerala (June '80) 2.5 - 1952 - 185 - 31.4 16.1 41,273 24,735 2,100 1,010 New Projects /d Tamil Nadu 3.8 - 4777 - 357 - Maharashtra 5.8 - 6000 - 259 - Madhya Pradesh II 3.9 - 7690 - 377 - 13.5 - 18,467 - 993 - Total 44.9 59,740 - 3,093 - /a Listed in order of credit effectiveness. Data are from most recent avail- able state reports. /b Field implementation of West Bengal Project is just re-commencing. 7W Field implementation of Bihar Project is temporarily held up. 7-d Approved, not yet effective. 3.5 Excluding West Bengal and 78 Bihar (see para 4.13), the projects now under implementation engage about 78% of the VEWs and 60% of the SMLS anticipated at full development. These staff serve about 75% of the farm families expected to be covered at full development. To be sure, supervision missions find that coverage of farmers and the impact of extension is not always uniform, even in areas that are fully staffed. The posting and organization of staff is only the start of the process of the development of a professional extension service on systematic lines with well-defined responsibilities. Once the basic program of training and visits is established, there remains scope for continuous improvement in the effectiveness and technical competence of the extension staff. Appropriate courses must be developed for improving the fortnightly training of VEWs, including courses and workshops for AEOs and SMS, as well as special courses as the need arises. All participants in agricultural development must become familiar with the new role of the extension service, including the radical change that extension agents are no longer multipurpose input agents or statistical collators. However, while such changes take time and there will always be scope for improvement, the implementation of the basic visit schedule of VEWs and their regular training itself has an imme- diate impact on the technical competence of extension staff and the relevance and quality of their contacts with farmers. Moreover, adoption of regular fortnightly visits to farmer groups at the very least ensures a much broader coverage of farmers by extensior than was ever the case in the past. 3.6 The most encouraging and, in the long run, the most important result of the introduction of training and visit extension is the development of a dynamic link between farmers, extension staff and research workers. Frequent and systematic contact oetween research and extension is built into the training and visit system: directzfrequent and repeated contact between farmers and VEWs (supplemented from time to time by SMS) forces the extension service to focus on technically and financially feasible recommendations for improving farm production; the VEWs' regular contact with research through the SMS gives them the opportunity to raise immediate production problems; and to respond effectively to such questions, SMS need to work with researchers to resolve field problems. Through this sequence, pressure is placed upon researchers to concentrate on the practical field problems of the average farmer, There are signs that such a linkage is emerging. Monthly workshops between SMS and research staff of agricultural universities and departments of agriculture are becoming a regular avenue of contact. 1/ The workshops provide a continuous forum in which the content of the forthnightly training of VEWs and AE0s is developed and field trials are planned and analyzed, reflecting actual field problems. 3.7 A significant result of the close linkage between farmer, extension service and research that has been brought about by the introduction of train- ing aid visit extension is the recognition that there are presently available technical recommendations that can substantially increase the incomes of small-scale rainfed farmers with minimal investment and which can also raise significantly the productivity of farmers who already have moderately high 1/ The developmant of the monthly workshop is an example of the intended and encouraged adaptation of the training and visit system to fit local needs. Early in the implementation of the extension projects, some states found that a pre-seasonal Technical Committee meet'ng could set general pro- duction guidelines for the season, but that a more immediate responsive iikage between research and extension was needed to adjust the recom- mendations in light of feedback (primarily from VEWs) of actual farm conditions, including the availability of inputs. Monthly workshops of SMS and research staff were also seen as a way of providing SMS with the specific practical training needed to develop and transmit to VEWs recommendations relevant to actual farm conditions. With GOI's Direc- torate of AgriCultural Extension's promotion, the utility of the work- shops was Wdely recognized, and they have been accepted as an integral part of the extension system in all states. - 9 - levels of investment. Particularly as a product of extension/research contact through fortnightly training sessions, there is a growing effort to fit recom- mendations to the farmers. VEWs are now better able to adjust fertilizer and pesticide recommendations to fit actual input availability and economic con- straints of farmers and to advise on how to increase the efficiency of these expensive inputs through improved management practices and cropping sequences. Such practices include: promction of line transplanting of paddy, shorter duration paddy varieties and production of wheat on residual moisture in Assam; seed selection and treatment in Madhya Pradesh; improved plant popula- tion through gap filling in Gujarat; the introduction (through shorter dura- tion HYV paddy and early jute varieties) of a paddy-wheat/rapeseed-jute rotation in West Bengal; significant increases of area under new crops, such as pulses, oil-seeds and HYV paddy in Orissa; the introduction of lower cost, need-based plant protection measures for cotton in Gujarat; and the ridge cultivation of maize in Rajasthan. 3.8 The achievements of training and visit extension are difficult to quantify. For example, neither favorable farmer response to regular, produc- tive technical contact with extension staff, nor the increased ability and self-esteem of extension staff now permitted and technically able to perform a purely agricultural function, are easily measurable, although both are readily apparent on field visits. Similarly, some of the major achievements of extension may result in a reduced application of fertilizer or plant pro- tection chemicals through recommending reduced, though more timely applica- tions. In an environment where the consumption of such inputs is regarded as indicative of development, the recognition of a reduction as an achievement is not universal. A similar problem comes with disaster containment. In response to a significant drought, the extension service may make recommenda- tions on the minimum number and most appropriate timing of 'rrigations and encourage the production of crops requiring less water. Such recommendations are adjusted to specific local conditions and through the regular visits of training and visit system, all farmers in the affected area are able to know of these recommended practices within a fortnight. The positive impact of extension in such circumstances is indisputable, even if it is methodologic- ally difficult to calculate the actual lessening of the impact of drought attributable to it. In spite of such difficulties, data on the impact of training and visit extension on production are available. Some examples follow. 3.9 Since its inception in July 1977, training and visit extension in Orissa has been a chief vehicle for promoting oilseed and pulse development, reflecting the priority given by the central and state governments to these crops. In the four years since 1976-77, the area under oilseeds has increased from 505,000 to 725,500 ha, kharif pulses from 187,800 to 210,800 ha and rabi pulses from 779,600 to 1,381,000 ha. As a senior official in the state Depart- ment of Agriculture wrote, the: - 10 - single line of command [in agricultural extension], supported by the presentation to farmers of technology in simple and understandable language at the right time, account for this progress, partly if not fully. The achievements made during 1979-80 when severe drought prevailed in the state are commendable. When the paddy crop was severely affected by drought and farmers were left high and dry, the Extension Agency was geared up to organize cultivation of alternate crops like oilseeds and pulses which need very little water... This strategy has helped in relieving the distress of farmers partly." 3.10 Another example of the achievements of training and visit extension comes from Assam. There, the extension service decided to put emphasis on RYV rice during the 1980 kharif season (which followed a drought in the pre- vious season). The decision was made at a meeting of field extension staff who indicated that earlier extension efforts had generated considerable demand for HYV, particularly among small and medium scale farmers. Also, a number of trials on farmers' fiddu had indicated that even under rainfed conditions, short duration HYV's gave almost double the yield of traditional varieties. Farmers reacted favorably to the decision: four times the amount of HYV seed were taken up compared to the previous year and the Department of Agriculture projected an increase in the area under HYV and improved varieties from 400,000 to 575,000 ha. Actual consumption of NPK also increased 144% to 6,600 tons from the previous kharif season. 3.11 Training and visit extension has had a significant impact on Rajasthan since its introduction there. During the first three years under the system (to 1978-79), yields of wheat in the project area increased from 11.1 to 14.6 qtl./ha. Yields of groundnut and cotton also increased (from 5.9 to 9.4, and from 1.9 to 2.4 qtl./ha, respectively). Under the guidance of tne extension service, in many areas millet has been replaced by soyabean and linseed by mustard. Elsewhere--in Bharatpur district--the area planted under hybrid millet increased by more than threefold. Seed treatment and basal applications of fertilizers were recommended by VEWs, and are now adopted by 40 to 50 percent of farmers in the project area. Promotion of sumer cultivation supported by well irrigation has also been promoted and the current 200,00 hectares under this practice are expected to increase to 600,000 hectares this year. 3.12 Another example of the achievements of the introduced extension system is from West Bengal. Before training and visit extension work was temporarily halted there, a study investigating the system's impact concluded that: - 11 - 0.., before the implementation of the T&V system, most of the cultivable area was under traditional crop varieties. The introduction of the T&V system has resulted in increasing the cultivated area under HYVs of crops. The new knowledge of farming, disseminated by the T&V system, has the potential to increase the cropping intensity, employment of family labor, marginal value productivities of all inputs and the extent of adoption of recommended practices on both the [large and small] categories of farms. However, the impact of Ltis system is found to be more on the small holdings as compared to the large. Thus, the study clearly indicates thaL the T&V system has a considerable positive impact on the farming economy of Hoogly district." 1/ 3.13 In supporting the state projects, the commitment of the central government to extension reform has been a major asset. The central Direc- torate of Agricultural Extension has played a major role in promoting the system, especially through planning and organizing training courses and an internal consultancy scheme whereby experienced state extension staff review progress in other states. The identification and promotion of the monthly SMS-research workshop as an organic link between extension and research has been one of DAE's major contributions. DAE is now seeking to reorient and strengthen itself to assist the state efforts more systematically. A constructive and frank relationship has developed between Directorate and Bank staff working on extension. 3M14 The introduction and development of a professional extension service is a major achievement. Already significant quantifiable results are apparent, but equally important are the non-quantifiable benefits of professionalization, institutional development, and the altered relationships between farmer, extension and research. These results are only a beginning. Once introduced, the training and visit system provides the opportunity for continuous upgrading of the extension service and increasingly relevant and effective production recommendations. IV. Problems 4.1 Administrative Structures and Procedures. One basic problem facing the introduction of the training and visit extension system is that the existing administrative norms and procedures are generally not supportive of the desired extension activities. Extension implies a reaching out to farmers, to meet their needs in their environment. Administration in India, as in many other places, has been largely office-oriented: solutions to agricultural problems have been sought more at office desks rather than in farmers' fields. Moreover, in the normal run of administration, officers may find it difficult to be field-oriented even if they so desire. Requests for written reports are 1/ A.K. Ray, et al., "Quantitative and Qualitative Impact of Training and Visit System on Different Groups of Farmers - A Case Study of Hoogly District, West Bengal," Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, October-December, 1979, p. 20. - 12 - frequent; superiors may summon for meetings with little notice. In addition, the administrat"ve structure and decision-making process are highly centralized. Advancement and promotion is largely based on seniority and transfers are frequent. Often staff reach senior positions late in their career as they are approaching their, relatively early, mandatory retirement age of 55 to 58. As a result, the turnover in senior positions disrupts continuity in program execution. The office-orientation and high mobility of staff encourage the development of bureaucratic and administrative abilities rather than technical skills and contribute to a "top-downwards" approach to development. In relation to agriculture, this results in farmers being instructed as to what they should do, through field days, training sessions, radio programs and the like. In this administrative content - it will take time for the training and visit agricultural extension, which requires technical and administrative initiative at even the lowest level (the VEWs), localized decision-making, technical professionalism, field orientation, receptivity to farmers' problems and priorities, and continuous feed-back between separate departments and professions (agriculture and research), to reach its full potential. 4.2 The existing rural and agricultural development strategies are also at odds with the approach implicit in the training and visit system of exten- sion. The origins of and commitment to the multipurpose approach to rural development--of which the Integrated Rural Development Program is the latest manifestation-has been noted (paras 1.1-1.4). No doubt vested interests that feel threatened by the reorganization and the potential loss of control over a large work force of VLWs sometimes use philosophical arguments to further their interests, but concern for coordination and integration and commitment to the multipurpose approach is often deeply embedded and sincere. 4.3 Part of the resistance to a single-function professional agriculture extension service arises from concern that such a service will prevent effec- tive local participation in the program and that an exclusive concentration on agriculture will somehow impede broader area development. As understanding of h-e system develops, such concerns usually fade. Means of coordination with locally elected bodies, such as Panchayats, can and have been evolved, as for example in. Gujarat, Maharashtra and West Bengal. Moreover, through regular, usefii contact with extension agents, and through them with research, farmers at least feel they attain effective participation in the identification and solution of technical problems that are vital to their livelihood. While recognizing that agricultural development is multi-faceted and that input and m systeirg will require professional attention it is generally accepted-or becoming accepted--by local and state administrators that by putting agriculture on a sound technical footing via a professional extension service, the productive base for any broader area development plan is sub- stantially strengthened and that suitable coordination mechanisms can be solved. 4.4 In addition to these general administrative problems, there are problem; wi departments of agriculture that inhibit successful implemen- tatiop of the training and visit extension system. In contrast to many other state departments, particularly Irrigation and Public Works, most state depart- ments of agriculture ire not strong administratively. This is due in part to the gradual accretion of special schemes created at state and/or center ini- tiative i-n resvonse to various crises (such as the current oilseeds, pulses - 13 - and sugar shortages) rather than acceptance of the systematic development of a professional agricultural service as a means to prevent such crises. The special schemes, which are usually a mix of technical, administrative and subsidy components, leave little scope for strong overall departmental manage- ment. Extension reform consolidates these various schemes and ultimately should lead to a more manageable organizational structure. In the short run, however, departments of agriculture are faced with some extremely difficult personnel management problems as they try to merge into a single cadre their own heterogenous staff, who have been recruited at different times under different terms and conditions for different activities, and staff of another department, Community Development. Such mergers have led to frictions among staff associations representing various groups of extension staff which have delayed project implementation. 4.5 In addition to these administrative problems, some established technical practices of agricultural departments need to be modified for the training and visit system of extension to operate effectively. For example, there has been great emphasis in the past on the "optimum" or "full" package of practices without any consideration of the need to vary the recommendations for different farmer resource and risk situations. It requires a major change in approach to select a few crops and practices which can be widely promoted and which pave the way to subsequent adoption of more advanced technology. Similarly, many extension workers are used to making a complete set of recom- mendations for all crops for the entire season. It take time for them to adjust to concentrating efforts on a few messages relevant for a particular phase of the crop season. Further, empha,is in the past has been placed on the usually large so-called "progressive" farmers who have received a dis- proportionate share of the attention of extension workers. To get extension agents and their supervisors to redirect attention towards more typical farmers (to whom most of the other farmers can relate), requires a significant change in recommendations and approach. Also, the need to focus all efforts on field work rather than on paper targets, statistics and reports means a different way of operating for many extension workers and especially for the supervisory staff. This requires constant attention during implementation. 4.6 A final administrative problem has been defining and developing the role of the GO. Although GOI and particularly DAE in the Ministry of Agri- culture has played a major role in promoting the adoption and spread of the training and visit system, DAE's ability to lend additional technical, admin- istrative and financial support and to provide leadership and guidance to the states has been limited by its constitutional status and its present capabili- ties. Agriculture is constitutionally and justifiably a state subject and the states control their own extension services. In the days of the Intensive Agricultural District Program, DAE helped manage extension operations in a few selected districts, but has since grown out of touch with the field situation and the technical competence of its staff has thus not been continuously developed. Few DAE staff have had much practical experience with the training and visit system. The Directorate's influence with the states is growing as it proves its usefulness to them and DAE has made substantial progress over the past year through several activities: exchanging consultants between states, joining Bank supervision missions, and organizing courses for SMS. There is still much room for improvement, particularly in the organization, - 14 - design and content of courses and monitoring physical implementation. Within the Ministry of Agriculture inconsistencies often arise between programs of other units particularly special crop-oriented schemes and the efforts of DAE to establish and sustain an unified extension system. Greater attention is needed at the Ministry level to ensure consistency between special crop schemes and the training and visit system of extension. 4.7 Monitoring and Evaluation. The development of an effective monitor- ing and evaluation system for the reformed extension system has faced a number of problems. The most essential form of monitoring and evaluation is that built into the system of training and visits itself. The close personal con- tact between farmers, VEWs, AEOs and other extension staff established in the course of regular fie)d visits should provide a sensitive instrument for assessing farmers' reactions to particular methods and recommendations. Supervision is relatively simple: farmers are asked if they know the VEW's name, the day of his visit, and the recommendations being made at the time. One can check farmer response on adoption by looking at their fields. If the farmers know about the system and the recommendations and are adopting them, than the system is working. If not, there is a problem which needs to be checked. This kind of supervision is most effective and flexible. It requires, however, a change in attitude among the various levels of super- visory officers so that they rely more on direct field visits with farmers rather than written staff reports. 4.8 A supplemental monitoring and evaluation system has been incor- porated in most of the extension projects to provide an itdependent check on the extension service. It has proven very difficult to put these systems into operation, however. In part, this is because of difficulties in getting the extension system itself staffed and operating have made it necessary for most state governments to put the staffing of the evaluation system at lower priority. Some states have also not been fully convinced of the usefulness of such monitoring and evaluation. In part, the problem lies with the inherent difficulty of such statistical evaluation. As Guy Hunter has written: "Strict cost-benefit analysis of the general effects of extension is appallingly difficult. Even where a sharp rise in production of farm incomes appears to be linked to an extension "drive", it is impossible to identify single causes. A series of good seasons, a favorable price, the introduction of a new variety or techniques, peculiar energy, intelligence or education in the farming group affected, a pay-off from the long and apparently ineffective preceding effort in extension work, the coming of a road, or the growth of a neighboring town, all or any of these may have had critical significance. Obviously, a combination of necessary factors is involved; to weigh the importance of any of them is not merely difficult, it is irrational." 1/ 1/ Guy Hunter, The Administratiion of Agricultural Development: Lessons from India, Oxford University Press, London, 1970, p. 14. - 15 - A basic econometric text puts the same point in a different way: when two (or more) variables act truly as one, from the point of view of the data they are one. Such data just are not sufficient to allow us to disentangle the separate effects of the variables in question. As an ancient proverb puts it, one cannot make a silk purse out of a sow's ear." 1/ 4.9 With these difficulties in mind, the Bank has put considerable effort in developing a simple workable monitoring and evaluation system that would provide project managers at the state level with quick information on some key parameters. The result is described in A System for Monitoring and Evaluating Agricultural Extension Projects. 2/ To explain the approach in a simpler format, the NDO prepared a more explicit document summarizing the main ideas of the approach to evaluation. Most states have agreed to adopt this general approach. Two examples indicate the difficulty of getting even this relative- ly simple system operating properly. To demonstrate and improve on the technolgy, the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) was engaged by the Bank to apply the methodology in Nowgong District in Assam where the extension program has had a major impact. Serious faults in the design of both the sample and the questionnaire and in operating procedures, however, led to results of doubtful significance. NCAER is now attempting to redo the work elsewhere. On the other hand, the Madhya Pradesh monitoring and evaluation unit has followed the recommended methodology fairly closely. There, several rounds of the monitoring survey have been completed. While results from simple indicators (knowledge of VEW, frequency of visits, etc.) seem fairly straightforward, questions on adoption of practices have produced ambiguous results, apparently due to weaknesses in survey methodology. Now that a beginning has been made, attention will be given to improving the methodology, although most states will probably justifiably tend to give priority to the improvement of the extension service over the improvement of the monitoring and evaluation systems. 4.10 Research. A number of the older extension projects have research components that were incorporated before the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) was formulated and which were intended to ensure that lack of funds and facilities would not constrain the location-specific research activi- ties needed to support reformed extension work efforts. For a variety of reasons--funding staff constraints--these components have not moved as fast as anticipated. In general, however, progress is being made and through statewide review of the organization and management of research and finan- cing of zonal subprojects, NARP has contributed to bridging the gap between research and extension. A particular difficulty has been trying to bring about an appropriate division of labor between the universities and the departments of agriculture in so-called adaptive research. In the earlier 1/ Edward J. Kane, Economic Statistics and Econometrics, New York, 1968, p. 280. 2/ By Michael Cernea and Benjamin Tepping, World Bank Staff Working Paper 272, December 1977. - 16 - projects, assistance was provided specifically for the development of limited research work on department of agriculture farms (often converted seed farms) to verify trials before going to farmers' fields. On many of these farms, interesting and relevant work is going on and the farms also serve as venues for the monthly workshops in which university specialists are involved. It is now considered more appropriate, however, for the universities to shoulder the responsibility for on-station verification under varying soil, climatic, water control and other agro-ecological conditions. The departments of agriculture will on the other hand focus on on-farm trials designed to guide the adjustment of general recommendations to various resources, risk manage- ment and farming systems situations. 4.11 A commonly expressed concern has been the possible lack of techno- logy for extension agents to recommend to farmers. This has not yet emerged as a serious problem even under rainfed conditions. In all the statewide projects, there remains a large gap between feasible technology and what the bulk of farmers apply. To close only this gap would be an enormous achieve- ment and would completely transform India's agriculture. This alone would more than fully justify the development of the extension service. There seems, however, to be little prospect that the need for extension will diminish. Even in such areas as Rajasthan Canal and in Chambal, Rajasthan where .he gaps in the production techniques for major crops have been nearly closed, effective extension work continues by refining techniques and recom- mendations and by diversifying into other crops and agricultural products. The e:tension services through its regular contact with both farmers and university research workers helps generate a demand for research in the directions most relevant to field problems. The most promising development in this area has been the emergence of the monthly SMS-research worker workshops (para 3.6). In most states, particularly Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, better and more systematic linkages between research workers and extension workers are evolving. 4.12 Financial Sanctions. Project implementation in many states has been delayed through difficulties in getting prompt financial sanctions. The main project component--staff, vehicles and housing--are items state finance departments scrutinize most carefully and are reluctant to finance due to their recurring implications. Improved working conditions and allowances for extension staff are also difficult to achieve because they have implications for other categories of government employees and hence can result in major increase in the state budget. Such administrative problems tend to slow project implementation in the early phases. By absorbing much of the time and effort of the officers running the exten- sion service, they also distract attention from substantive matters. The more recently covered states have learned from the experiences of the older states how to take advanced action to resolve these problems and implementa- tion there should be smoother. 4.13 West Bengal and Bihar: Implementation Difficulties. In light of the range of problems described above, some setbacks are to be expected and indeed have occurred. The West Bengal and Bihar projects have faced major implementation difficulties. The project in West Bengal made a good start, but following the 1977 elections the State Government prodded by adminis- trative ofr-ficers and others who opposed the training and visit approach - 17 - suspended project operations for more than two years to allow for a review of rural institutions and development efforts. The hiatus was very frus- trating to farmers, Department of Agriculture staff and the Bank, but the Government eventually re-endorsed the concept. There were further delay-- caused by the need to recruit and train new VEWs, and to handle legal action brought by some staff who were to be transferred to VEW positions--but field implementation is just recommencing. In Bihar, staff transfers just as the project started brought into key project positions officers who had little understanding of or commitment to training and visit extension. The expe- rience with both these projects illustrates the important influence of past attitudes on extension and the need for a strong commitment to the approach in the early stages. The West Bengal case, however, also illustrates that while such commitment can be lost it can also be re-established with patience: once a good initial impact of the system is achieved, it becomes more difficult to abandon the approach. 4.14 Input Supplies. Given the numerous problems that affect the intro- duction of professional agricultural extension, it is worth noting that the problem of input supplies which was feared to become a serious constraint on extension operations has not materialized for two reasons. First, input supply systems in India are relatively well developed and capable of respond- ing to substantial increases in demand. 1/ The ability of the fertilizer distribution system to cope with a 100% increase in demand nationwide between 1975 and 1979 exemplifies this. For example, in Haryana the NCAER fertilizer demand study for 1975/76 found that only 0.7% of the farmers not using fer- tilizer gave "Fertilizer not available" or "Fertilizer retail outlet too far" as the reason. Only 1% of the farmers using less than the recommended dose gave unavailability as the reason. In many cases, the extension system helps input distribution by creating a sufficient volume of demand to make retail outlets viable. Second, extension is not lost without inputs. To be sure, if inputs are in short supply or not available, the extension service must adjust its recommendations to fit the situation. In a shortage situation, it is even more necessary to have an effective extension mechanism which can adjust its recommendations as frequently as every fortnight. If fer- tilizer supply is constrained, advice on how to make the best use of what is available becomes vital. If needs of certain varieties are not available, the next best available substitute should be recommended instead. While the VEW cannot be expected to provide highly accurate demand forecasts (as he is in no position to carry out a systematic survey), he would normally have a fairly good idea of problems farmers face getting inputs and can relay these to the concerned agencies at the fortnightly training sessions. At the same time VEWs can be informed of any expected supply constraints so that recom- mendations can be adjusted accordingly. 4.15 Contact Farmers. The selection of representative contact farmers has often proved difficult resulting ir. an unwarranted proportion of large 1/ This is not to say that occasional shortages of inputs do not arise (as they should in any dynamic system) but that the mechanisms for responding to such supply-demand imbalances are fairly effective. See also memo by Thillairajah and Karam Singh on the situation in Haryana (January 1981). - 18 - and progressive farmers raciug very different problems from those of the majority. This requires constant attention by supervisory staff. V. Prospects 5.1 Frot the beginning of its involvement in extension projects in India, :he Bank has been faced with a choice between widening its involve- ment in extension through more projects in more states or deepening its involvement in the states already covered. Implicitly it has chosen to do both, appraising new state projects as they emerge while supervising existing projects as intensively as manpower availability allow. To have focussed only on one or two state projects would not have been desirable policy. It would have delayed implementation of the system in other states and hence delayed the flow of benefits to the farmer. Moreover, it is not clear that intensifying efforts on a few states would have been useful either: other states could still have claimed their conditions were different or that the "hot-house" effect of intensive Bank involvement was not replic- able. Further, given the existing supervision manpower availability, it is not clear that it would have been possible for the Bank to be more intensively involved than it has been in any project. As each new state has taken up the training and visit approach, it has reinforced the decision of the states that have already adopted it and has come closer to making the system the dominant form of extension in India. As such diverse states as Assam and Gujarat, Kerala and Rajasthan have found it desirable to adopt the system, the "it won't work here" argument has become weaker. Particularly when such agriculturally well-organized states as Haryana and Karnataka have introduced the system, other states take an even mo,e serious interest in it. 5.2 Onze established in a state, the training and visit system offers tremendous scope for continuous improvement. The Bank's efforts to deepen involvement in ongoing projects and to assist in their sound development has been and will continue to b2 an integral part of our supervision activi- ties. The main focus has been on the development of project management and leadership and in reinforcing understanding of the concepts and operational details of the system. The proposed UNDP, Bank executed, technical assistance prcject will provide a flexible mechanism for enhancing the technical content of the extension service. The emergence of the GOI Directorate of Agricul- tural Extension and its supportive activities (particularly, the consultancy exchange and SMS training programs) will further develop and improve state- level activities. The strong relationship which has developed between this unit and the Bank can be built upon and improved. By arranging for D.E staff to join our supervision missions and by regular contacts, we are helping to develop its ability to play a more effe"ztive role in these areas. A further area for qualitative improvement lies in the linkages between extension and research. The promising developments noted earlier need to be encouraged, particularly the monthly workshops. 5.3 The prospects for both further widening of the coverage to new areas (para 6.6) and qualitative improvements in existing areas are highly encouraging. There are two kinds of risks, however, which surround and will continue to surround these efforts for the next several years. The first is the possibility of changing political commitment to the system, particularly -- 19 - in areas where it has not started functioning effectively. As we have seen, there are many entrenched views and attit,,es that run counter to the exten- sion approach. While the logic of the approach and a growing realization of the requirements of a modern agriculture are eroding these attitudes, they still exist. We should therefore not be too surprised at setbacks such as West Bengal and Bihar (para 4.13). Similar setbacks may arise from time to time in other states, but as the system takes root, it will be increasingly difficult to reverse the process. The second risk is that not enough effort would be put in either by the Bank or the implementing agency to ensure each project is firmly established. The ideas behind the extension reform are deceptively simple. Given existing attitudes and administrative problems outlined above (paras 4.1-4.6), however, it is very difficult to put into effect. In particular, it will take time to build up the professional com- petence of staff at all levels. What is needed then is a sustained long term effort for perhaps up to another ten years. By that time agricultural officers now gaining practical field experience in running the system at the subdivision and district level will have reached senior management positions in their departments. Their practical understanding of and commitment to the approach and to professional agricultural extension in general should ensure its con- tinuation acd on-going adaptation anki improvement in response to developments in India's eynamic agricultural sector. VI. Work Program 6.1 In preparing the Bank's future work program in extension, it is important to recognize and understand well the nature of the effort involved in the radical organizational reform embodied in the extension projects. The work only begins with the posting of staff--which, for reasons noted above, is difficult in itself. Far more difficult to change are the operat- ing procedures and attitudes of extension staff; now numbering in the tens of thousands with widely dispersed and decentralized areas of operation. Once the reorganizatior of the extension system takes place, a process of continuous improvement begins through identification of weaknesses and steps to remove them. This process requires intensive supervision and guidance to see that the extension system develops on sound lines. While the main ideas of the extension reform are simple and clear, their nuances are subtle. The detailed working methods must be checked and corrections made. Usually in each state extension service there are a few officers who understand the approach very well. It is necessary to reinforce and support their under- standing and identify more such officers. The only way this can be done is through direct field supervision of extension operations, checking on farmer reactions to the extension service and adoption of recommendations, attending a sample of the widely dispersed training sessions, and discussing with all levels of the extension service what is observed in the field. The state extension systems Bank-wide supervision manpower coefficients are not likely to be sufficient for supervising such projects. DAE has developed an innova- tive system of sending experienced officers from one state to review opera- tions in another. Nevertheless, the manpower needs for the kind of supportive supervision needed are substantial, and should be recognized and planned for throughout the implementation of these projects. - 20 - 6.2 The statutory obligation to supervise projects ensures the continuing involvement of the Bank in ongoing projects. There are three distinct func- tions of supervision which have a bearing on the manpower requirements for the Bank to carry ut its duties. 6.3 Firstly, there is the "credit administration" function which includes monitoring project physical achievements, procurement work, and ensuring that reimbursement claims are verified, credit conditions are observed, and report- ing and accounting requirements are met. For extension projects, these are relatively not very time-consuming (in comparison, for example, with irriga- tion and other projects with large procurement or construction components). Furthermore, it is the specific intention of the Composite Extension Project (Cr. 862-IN) to develop within the Directorate of Agricultural Extension, the capacity to take over the routine monitoring functions. To date, this capacity is developed rather slowly and erratically but it may be possible in the future for us to reduce our contacts with the state governments in this respect and obtain much of the information required for credit adminis- tration from the DAE acting as a central coordinator. It may be necessary to give DAE further assistance to develop this capacity, but given appropriate support, it can be expected to be a reality within the next five years. 6.4 Secondly, the Bank's supervision is directed towards ensuring that the Bank-financed projects achieve their objectives or that maximum benefits are derived from the resources already committed. Into this class fall the Bank'. efforts to assist the development of a professional agricultural exten- sion cervice. The Bank's role in this context is to ensure that the intended institutional development is given every chance to take place, and to arbi- trate the conflicts between involved parties that are invariably part of institutional development. Such conflicts are particularly inevitable in the Indian extension projects given the scale of the implied administrative change, and of the change in attitude involved in making the farmer the ultia-.te source of production and research initiatives rather than passive receiver of technology. Moreover, given rapid turnover of senior extension personnel, the continuous involvement of an independent, committed body-- as provided by the Bank--is essential. This requires both continuity and proximity from the Bank and it is undoubtedly best carried out from the New Delhi Office. The need is for staff who are well-known to project authori- ties and thoroughly familiar with the projects and their environment so that they can respond quickly to developments in any of the states. A blend of headqu.arter-based staff, with their understanding of Bank procedures and the principles of extension reform, together with carefully selected local con- tract staff with direct field experience in implementing the extension reforms in India, has proven itself to be a highly effecti,1 combination in this regard. 6.5 Thirdly, supervision is one of the most effective ways for the Bank to provide required technical assistance to a borrower. The many aspects of technical assistance for extension include orientation to the basic method- ology of the training and visit system and organizational and managerial support. Key areas for future technical assistance are the technical content of extension activities, the professional competence of extension staff and the understaading and operation of the new organizational structure. In - 21 - addition, attention will need to be given in the short-term to establishing an effective monitoring and evaluation system for the reformed extension services. 6.6 Improvement of the technical content of projects is being done through strengthening research-extension linkages and by focusing research activities more on farmers' field problems than on questions of general scientific interest. Improvement of the professional competence of the staff is being done by the development of training programs to enhance the effectiveness of participants in training and visit extension, particularly the SMS. Critical to the success and credibility among farmers of the extension system in the long term will be the quality of SMS, who in turn train the VEWs. For this it is imperative to upgrade their ability con- tinuously. Apart from the monthly workshops with research staff and central and SAU courses, the chief means to this end will be the UNDP training project for which the Bank (NDO) supervision staff will be the executing agency. Training needs will also have to be tackled on a longer, continuous basis. Without effective training, professionalization will not emerge. 6.7 In addition to planning appropriate future supervision of the ongoing projects, provision rust be made for future projects. The most imme- diate of these will probably be the proposed statewide projects in Andhra Pradech and Uttar Pradesh because of their size and agricultural importance. In the coming two years, projects will probably also be developed to cover the eleven districts of Rajasthan not served by the current project, Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir (where horticulture will be an important project orienta- tion) and, political conditions allowing, possibly some northeastern states. 6.8 Planning should also take into consideration the Bank's future involvement once state extension projects are completed. From 1982 onwards, some of the ongoing state projects will be completing five years, beginning with those in Orissa, Rajasthan, Assam and Madhya Pradesh. Further involve- ment should have two aims: to increase the effectiveness of extension activities initiated under the first projects; and to vaintain support required to ensure the continuation of professional extension. It does not necessarily follow, of course, that the Bank will be needed to finance second phase extension projects in each state, but there a .ght well be a case for a central fund administered by DAE to finance subprojects covering items like housing for field staff, a greater density of VEW in areas of scattered settlement, or the inclusion of agricultural activities not presently covered (like animal husbandry and horticulture). Implicit in this would be a greater role for the GOI Ministry of Agriculture in terms of sustaining achievements by providing continuous support and encouragement to the States.