Mass media for agricultural extension in Malawi

M s paper Is for d i s t r i b u t i o n 11is s e r i e s cf unreferred within t h e World Bank Croup discussion papers i s intended to ouly. It should not be cited in pr~vfde an i o f t i a l c i r c u l . z t i o n of any external p u b l i e a t i o a - vork prepared under the a u s a i c e s o f the Population and Bunan Resources D i v i s i o n . Comments are t h e r e f o r e very welcome. The papers s h a d d n o t be c i t e d w i t b o u t clearance by t h e author- The v i e w s expressed are not necessarily those o f the World Baak Group. Fooulation and awn Besources D i v i s i o n D i s c u s s i o n Paper No. 81-51 HEDIA FOR AGXICULTURAL EXTENSION IN W W I ' \\ WAS Prepared by: E i l a r y Perta t o n ( I c c e r n a ~ i o n a lExcensfon Colfege, @bridge, CiK) Dean T. J d s o n , DEDPH F r a n c o i s Orivel, Coasulranc, DEDPH (Instit& d e r e c h e r c h e sur L'economfe de l'education, DX jhn) - T h i s paper'& preparation was supported bp UNESCO's S e c t i o n o f Educational Hechods, H a t t r i a l s and Techniques, and by ;or12 Bank 2esearch Froject 672+9, "%(ass Yedia and Xural D e v e l o ~ e n c ' . - The yorld S a d -- ~ a s n r n z r o n , vC 2 ~ 4 3 3 U.S..i.  This report i s based on a d s i t to Malavi by Dean T . Jdson (Uorld Bank) and Kilary Perraton (Icrehlatfonal Extension College) i n May 1980. W e a r e g r a t e f u l t o t h e s t a f f of Extension Aids Branch, and oE other parts of the Hinsicry of Agriz-llture, who were most generous of t h e i r t i m e , t h e i r h c s p i t a l i t y and their iafozmation. I t i s a pleasure t o adurovledge t h e i r h e l p here. BMLARC -4gricult u r d Development and Farketicg Corporation EA3 Exteasicn Aids Branch E98 Evzluatim and Action Research C n i t LXDD Lilongwe agricultural Developmot Division tLDP Development Project Lilongve ? 2 z ~ d 93C W a w i Brcadcating Corporation  T h i s p a p e r r c p o r t s t h e results o f r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n i n g t h e r o l e oE mss m e d i a i n p r o v t d i o g i n f o r s a t i o n t o X a l a u i a n f a r m e r s . To set t h e c o n t e x t , t L c p a p e r b e g i c s with a b r i e E d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f a c e - t o - f a c e i n f o n a t i o n s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d by t h e a g r L c u l t u t a 1 e x t e n s i o n s y s t c m and by t h e f a r m e r t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s ; i t t h e n d e s c r i b e s i n more d e t a i l t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e Extension Aids S r a n c h (W) of : he Yioistry o f XgrFculture. prepares a d d e l i v e r s sessages t o f a m e r s u s i n g r a d i o , p r i n t , a a d m o b i l e v a n s ( c a r r y i n g f i l m s f o r n i g h t - t h e u s e and p v p p e t shows f o r d a y t i m e use). Of t h e a p p r o x i m a r e l y $6,500,000 p e r p e a t t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l i n f o m a t i o n services c o s t H a l a v i ( o r $6.80 p e r Farm h o u s e h o l d ) , a b o u t 787 is f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n , a b o u t 12X is f o r f a m r t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s , and a b o u t 1 0 X is f o r t h e s e d i a p r o v i d e d by EhB. A f t e r d e s c r i b i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n s e n i c e s , t h e p.zpr a s s e m b l e s a v a i l a b l e i o f o r m a t L o n c o n c e r n i n g r w d i s e f f e c t i v e n e s s and c o s t s . A number of s t u d i e s were reviewed c o n c e r n i n g s o u r c e s of f a m e r s ' i n f o r m a t i o n a d hov a u c h had b e e l e a r n e d Frcna media e y p o s u r e . I n .me s t u d y , 672 o f respondents Listed exteosion v ~ r k e r s as a s o u r c e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l i n f o m a t i o n , 8X l i s t e d t r a i n i n g c o u r s e a t t e n d a n c e , 27% l i s t e d r a d i o , 9% l i s t e d f i l m s , a n d 2% l i s t e d p u p p e t s - O c h e r s t u d i e s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t , even though r a d i o aad f i l m s a r e c a r r y i n g a Lot o f L n f o r m a t i o n a i r e a d y h o h n t o f a r m e r s , t h e y a l s o c o ~ r m u n i c a t ee f f e c t i v e l y ; f a m e r s learn f r o m b o t h t h e s e a e d i a and t h e y ar= popuia.. F i n a l l y , e v e n though r e s u l t s o f a l l t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n a l y s e s msf b e r e c e i v e d w i t h some c a u t i o n , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t ' n a t t h e i n f o r n a t i o o s e r v i c e s c a n pay o f f ic h p r o v e d p r o d u c t i v i t y . I n Annex A, f o r e x a n p l e , s e v e r a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n f u n c t i o n s a r e e s t h a t e d from a Y f l a r i a n d a c a s e t o f 300 f a m e r s , from which i t a p p z a r s t h a t t h e m o r e e d u c a t e d f a r n e r s t e n d t o h a v e more c o n c a c t s w i t h e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s and t h a t f a r n e r s w i t h more c o n t a c t s w i t h e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s t e n d to h a v e better y i e l d s and a r e s o r e l i k e l y t o p r o d ~ c ecast c r o p s ( b u t n o t a t t h e e x p e n s e o f s u b s i s t e n c e c r o p s ) . The p a p e r ' s a n a l y s i s o f c o s ~ s found, not s u r p r i s i n g l y , d r m a t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c o s t s of d i f f e r e n t vays of reaching f a r a e r s - .Agricultural e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s w e r e e a t h a t e d t o c o s t about $21 p e r farmer c o n t a c t ; r e s i d e n t i a l t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s c o s t a b o u t $30 p e r f a r m e r f o r a f i v e - d a y s e s s i o n ; a n d d a y t r a i n i n g c e 2 t e r s c o s t a b o u t $4 p e r f a r a e r f o r a one- day s e s s i o n . The Z.Al3-s films c o s t a b o u t $0.17 p e r f a r m e r c o n t a c t - h o u r ( a m o b i l e v a n u i l l t y p i c a l l j r show 2 o r 3 h o u r s c f f i l m s o n a g i v e n n i g h t in a e g i v e n p l a c e ) ; t h e p u p p e t shows ( l a s t i n g a b o u t a n h o u r ) c o s t a b o u t $0.08 p e r v i e w e r . b d i o ' s c o s t s , a t a b o u t $0.004 p e r l i s t e n e r - h o u r , a r e by f a r t h e l o v e s t of any = d i m - P u t s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t l y , t h e paper e s t i m a t e s t h a t a o b i l e v a n s ( f i l n a n d puppet shows) c o s t a b o u t 4=4 t i s e s a s s u c ' p e r c o c t a c t - hour as r a d i o ; a n d e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s c o s t 55 t o 80 t h e s a s much as s o b i l e vans. - E c o n d e s from s s s o u t r e a c h a r e e v i d e n t . h h a t is less c l e a r , i n Y a l a v i a n d e l s e v n e r e , Is how t o make t h e mass i i e d i a maximally c m ~ : a e n t a r p t o f a c e - t o - f a c e methods and hov t o u s e th- t o a l l o w i x c r e a s e s ?-, - h e r a t i o of f a m e r s t o e s z e n s i o n a g e n t s w l t h o u t i m p a i r i n g ( h o p e f u l l y , w h i l e improving) e f f e c t i v e n e s s . ?4onecheless, even i f chere verc severe l i s i c s on t h e amount of inforaa:ion c a r r i e d by t h e radio progranmes, i t is h a r d co r e s i s c the conclusion t h a t the broadcasts a r e highly c o s t e f f e c t i v e . This c o n c l u s i o n h a s i n p l i c a c i o n s f o r 2.lalawi; and i t has perhaps pore important c o n c l u s i o n s f o r wsx o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , v h i c h , u n l i k e Halawi, ac presenc mc i e almost no use of r a d i o f o r reaching fanners.  Page Summary ........................... BA.cxGRomrD ......................... . ................. A g r i c d t u r d extensioa t Training centres .................... Publications sectiun .................. ................... Technical s e c t i o n Cine s e c t i o n...................... W i o section ..................... .......... Evaluation and action research rmit Relationships ..................... Cocstr&ts ...................... Yeaures of output ................... The audience ...................... Did they learn anything?................ .... A comparison d t h the rmrk of extensioa c f f i c e r s COSTS ........................... The c o s t of radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The cost of m o b i l e units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The c o s t of princ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The cost of evaluation and administration . . . . . . . Comparison k i t h extension s e d c e s . . . . . . . . . . . UmDX 1: ?kin print jobs L978 .............. 38 a 2: .. % b i l e vans scliedule . northern regiton 1980 39 3: Source of agricultural information for farmers . 40 &?REX h: Extension. Zdncaticn a d Farrier's Prcductivity inHal& .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 41 B: Agricultural Espenditures and ~ o s t s ' ~ o r Extension .. and Farmer Centres-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 50 !e I  kben & b v iuas n e a r i n g independence, i t uas d e s c r i b e d i n S r i t a i n a s having n o a s s e t s e x c e p t its s c e n e r y and an e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s o patchy t h a t t h e r e v e r e only a d o z e n g r a d u a t e s i n t h e & h o l e country. Hascings Banda, a t one c i n e f e a r e d by t h e B r i t i s h a s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y , has a r g u e d c o n s f s t e a t l y and s u c c e s s f u l l y chat X a l a u i ' s g o l d l i e s i n i t s s o i l . With a firs government, extenst- i n t e r r a t i o n a l a i d , and f a i r s o i l and r a i n f a l l , XalauL has c o n c e n t r a t e d 3n rural deveIopment v i t h the r e s u l t t h a t i t is now a s i g n i f i c a n t e x p o r t e r o f ground- nuts, m i t e , a n d tobacco. U n t i l e e c e n t l y , %la-pi h a s p r s u r d a d u a l s t r a t e g y t o r a i s e a g r i c u l t u r a l productivity. In f o u r p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y (Lilongwe, S h i r t V a l l e y , Karoaga a n d L a k e s h o r e ) , i n t e g r a t e d r u r a l development p r o j e c t s v e r e s e t up k c y e e n 1968 a n d 1974 a n d r e s o u r c e s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e s e . For t h e r e s t of .: he c o u n t r y , an a g r i c u l t u r a l e..tension s e r v i c e was d e v e l o p e d ; its s t a f f i n 1977 uas 1,776. A t t h e same t i = , a s i n g l e n a r k e t i n g c o r p o r a t i o t , , ' c h e e r i c u l t u r a l ikvelopment and X a r k e t i n g Corporation (-4DNXRC) w a s e s Cablished t o buy a l l t h e cash c r o p s t h r o u g h o u t t h e country a n d co s e l l a g r i c u l t u r a l supplies. Xore c e c e n t l y , t h e f o u r i n t e g r a t e d r u r a l develoo-,ent p r o j e c t s bave been i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h t h e r e g u l a r work of che I ' f i n i s r ~ o f Xgriculcure and S a t u r a l Resources which n o 3 o p e r a t e s i n e i g h t a g r i c u l t u r a l development districts. I n t h e l o r y run, this w i l L reduce t h e d i s p a r i t y between t h e p r o j e c t a r c a s , -&.ste che s u p p l y o f r e s o u r c e s and s t a f f i n g r a t i o s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n have been r e l a t i v e l y generous, a n d :he rest of the councr? . In an a t t e ~ p tt o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c ~ i v e n e s sof i c s a g r i c u l t u r a l extznsion service, Y a l a r i has f o r p o r e than twenty y e a r s r n an 'Eeension - A i d s Braitch' (E.43) vans. This r e p r t w h i c h u s e s p r i n t e d pamphlets, r a d i o a n d m b i l e cinerea assesses t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e E x t e n s i c n Aids $ranch. . .%gricultural e x t e n s i o n i n Malawi has developed t k r e e tecfrniqces f o r reaching faraers: t h r o u g h i n d i v f d u a l o r group v i s i t s t o f a m r s by f i e l d assistants; by t e a c h k g f a r m e r s a t d a y o r r e s i d e n t i a l t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s ; and through t h e Exteilsion - i d s Branch. T a b l e 1 s e t s out t h e % s i c facts a b o u t each. The cwo s u b s e c t i o n s of t h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n a n d t h e :raining c e n t r e s ; t h e c e x t s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s che EL*. t -4gr i c u l t u r a l Extens i o n In the c o w t r y as a whole, t k e r e u e r e i n L977 1,388 fleld a s s i s t a n t s , and L 5 r e s i d e n t ' a l centres (Uorld Sank 1939, p j . 3 0 2nd 35); i n L980, tb.ere u e r e s a i d t o be abouz 7 5 day t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s . me* a r e m r e t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s a n d a b e t t e r r a c i o of fLeld a s s i s t a n t s to f a n e b i n t h e f o u r f o m e r prcrject Ireas t h a n i n t h e c o u n t r y as a ir ole. S a t i o n a l l y g t h e r a t i o v a r i e s b e w e o n 1:500 a n d 1: 1500 o r even nore. V i t h i n t h e f a m + i ~ o n g v e '2nd Deveiopsem P r o j e c i (L-El?) i t i s a b o u t 1:600; ;Je can take t h i s x e a a s ax exanple to 5 l l u s t r a t e ~ h e s c r c c t u r e i n d i c h che f i e l d a s s i s t a n t is a o r k i n g (see F i ~ l ~ r e 11.  ul. m o x - 0 - a r) 7) .. .. 7 . u a E c u m 0 U urn 0 a d - -ILILnLr - X 5 W N 3 . 0 s 0 d u cae i a u o \ - ao- oil u a ~1 1 3 P 1 9 O E O 3 Clrr a  Pt.r~~.a~lr nt Secretzry XGinistrg of Agriculture and S a t u r a l Resources I i-Ynder-Secreiitry Deputy S e c r r : ~ ry De?u:y S e c r e t a r y rzcion) !adi~.?i~i st l C S O S rccs) (n~tliraT (;g #.ic.i!t~.:c) - - - . . . .- - . - - - - - - I ... I 1 1: 1 Animal Agricultl~ral Extension Aids C h i e f -Asii~*!i: .rai - health research Elranch DzvpI+:.~*~Kc . o;f:c?r iilozzwe B g r i c u l t ~ rzl 7 other Sa:ionzl F . * i r ~P l e t e!o?rGa?t Teci..r.ir%i 2,-veiopmenc D i v i s i o n J. DDs iz.~r-.e Cs-Qr a i s ~ t g n 308iS I . -. - F ~ o j e i .'.:;:a~er t P r o j e c c L:iigzgcr S ocher Speciaiist . project m a n a g e r s staff - officer 4-7 Dc-.reioprnent 3 9 other 2eveloprr.ent of" i~cex-s 4 field assisiants 2-3 credit - ra r m Kame assisknts In~~ructzess I I  For t h e c o u n t r y is divided ic t o e i g h t a g r i c u L t u r a l development divistons, of d i c h t h e Lilongue . Q r i c u l t u r a i Deveiopizent D i v i s i o n , for example. is one- This d i v i s i o n i s then d i v i d e d i ~ t o s i x project a r e s , -&ose p r o j e c t managers r e p o r t t o a programme n;an.ag%r. Each p r o j e c t a n a g e r is usualLy a g r a d u a t e t n a g r i c u l E u r e , 'having f o l l o v e d a degree c o u r s e , g e n e r a l l y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of !-Maul. rtre developnent o f f i c e r s -have a diploma in a g r i c u l t u r e , ; h i c h is a ~ z a r d e da f t e r a four- year c o u r s e . Entry t o this c o u r s e , a s f o r a d e g r e e c o u r s c , is t h e ,Halavi C e r c i i i c a t e of E d u c a t i o n , v h i c h is t a k e o a f t e r f o u r pears of s ~ c o n d a r yeducation. A t t h e next l s v e i down, f i e l d assistants a r e t r a i n e d f o r NO y e a r s a t t h e Colby College of Agriculture and r-he z n t r y q ~ a l f f i c a c i o n f o r c h c i r course i s Junior C e r t i f i c a t e =ken a f t e r two y-rs of secondary -ducation. Edr~carionb r i n g s b e t t e r t r a n s p o r t as w e l l as b e t t e r j o b s . - ' r a j e c t m m g e r s a c e each provided v i t h a behicle a n d d e v e l o p e n t oEffcers virh a mntorlike- Ficld a s s i s ~ a n t s are expected to t r a v e l b~ b i c y c l e and a r e paid a b i c y c l e a l l o v a n c e of K 3.50 p e r m a t h . The c a r s a r e s a i d co a v e r a g e Z.400 k i l o m e t r e s a m n c h a n d rhe bicyclo-s 1 ,281>, The f i e l d a s s i s c a n t ' s key a c c i v i t y i s to demonstrate better agricultural p r a c c i z e s t o i n d i v i d u a l f a m e r s o r to groups of f a m e r s . In t h s o r y , h e does t h i s p a r c l y by culrivatiag demons:ratioa p l o t s himself, p a r t l y by a c t - s l d e n o n s t r a t i o n s on his f a n e r s ' l a n d s , and p r c l y by r e i c e r a t i n g zhe a d v i c e passed doka t o h i s t h r o u g h the h i e r a r c h y of a g r i c u l t u r a l estension. In t h e pasc, e x t e n s i o n workers have k e n encouraged to c o n c e n t r a c e t h e i r e f f o r t s on p r o g r e s s i v e Earners, achikumbi. seems t o have been a move a rmy from t h i s a p p r o a c h and t o ~ x r d s group de2ons:ration.s sxd advice. T52 1978/79 Guide t o Aqricul tura!. Production says: '?he achikumbi programme has been given cop p r i o r i t y by Extension s t a f f since i t - a s iat;-oduced. Field s c a i f a r e auare t!tat farners a u s t b e o f tFle h i g h e s t a g c i c x l t u r a l g e r f o m a a c e i f they a r e co r e c e i v e the t i t l e "!fchikunbi*' and t b t shey should b e r e a l l e a d e r s i n t h e €:eld of a g r i c u l t u r e . .Xchiku;obi a r e e s t a b l i s h e d f a r m e r s vho have s h o ~ u over a p+riod that ;hey are f u l l y e n t i t l e d t o the honour. -All a g r i c c l t u r a l s-ff sh~uld encourage a s 3any f a w e r s a s possible t o r e a c h the h i g h standards r e q u i r e d t o q w l f Ey a s Hchikunbi. In r e c e 7 t years, yroaps of famers have g o t c o g e t h e r L n o r d e t ro o r g a n i z e themseives i n v a r i o u s uays that c a n help t h e m co a c h i e v e b e t t e r s t a n d a r d s of farming- Yany of rhese groups have j e e n f o r s e d to f a c i l i t a t e che purchase of f e r t i l i z s r and improved s e d , and so- % e l le s t a h l i s h e a groups have been a b l e to o b c a t n c r s d i t f o r c h i s ?erpo&. Such groups o r L'amers' c l u b s have a l s o a f t e n o r s n % z e d c o n c e r t e d p l a n s f a r a g r i c i r l t u r a l development i n c h e i r LocaL area. T?le Governnent ;?elcoaes t h i s deveiopcenc. A strong l o c a l grou? of far;;lers_ i n t + r e s t e d i n inpro-zing t h e i r s t a n d a r d s of f a r a i n g gi-res t h e staff of t h e E x t e n s i o n S2rvice a good chance of h e l p i n g z o r e farmers a f f e c t i i r e i y -'z  S e l e c t i o n of a c h l k u m b i i s a c o a t l n u o u s p r e c e s s . 380 a c h i k m b i have so f a r r e c e i v e d c e r t i f i c a t e s , a n d 91s E x c e l l e n c y t h e Life P r e s i d e n t is Ztalawi's Xchikuzlbi Yo- ' .L But f i e l d a s s i s t a n t s have o t h e r j.9bs- They are t h e main c o n t a c t b e t v e e n t h e f a m e r a n d specialist s e w i c e s of t h e X i n i s t r : ~ of A g r i c u l t u r e , swh as a d v i c e oa forestry- - f t e l d a s s i s t a n t a l s o has t h e job of e n c o u r a g i n g f a m r s to a t t e n d one slay o r r a s i d e n t i a l c o u r s e s . l4e accompanies cte yellow mobile c i n e c m and puppet 5 x c x h s n it v i s i t s h i s d i s t r i c t : and g e t s a spot o f p u b l i c i t 7 f o r h i m s e l f 2nd his r r s s a g e s by calcing t h e miarophone a f t e r e a c h p u p p e t show. . b d h e submits weekly r e t u r n s of a c t i v i t y t o h i s development o f f i c e r . R e does not, houev?r, d e a l with c r e d i t - - t h e f u n c t i o n o f a sadro of untrairt-a c r e d i i a s s i s t a n ~ s - - n o r ?oes he s u p p l y seed o r f e r t i l i z e r , which are s o l d t h r o u g h M)M%ZC. . & ?! 5e d o e s n o t t e + c h =onen; . d{spite t h e r e l a t i v e l y high number of female heads of i o u s e h o l d s , r o l e segregation is s e e n a s a rezson xhy uale f i e l d a s s i s t a n t s should n o t t e a c h xouten f a ~ r s . There i s a small c a d r e oP Farm Hone I n s t r a c t r e s s e s , b u t ~h e i r w o r k i s mainly i n teachi112 nutrition, COO*^^, needlevork and h e a l t h , no= i n a g r i q u l r u r e . . 1 t i~ L-; > g s s i b l e t o Se p r e c i s e a b o u t t h e f i e l d a s s i s ~ t a n t ' svork. I n Y a k x i , a s i~ritany o c h e r countries, f i e l d a s s i s t a n t s a r e c r i t i c i s e d f o r c o n c e n t r a t i n g t o o m u c h oil u e a l t h y f a n n e r s , The s y s t a n of r e p o r t ~ i c gis imdequte; one d e v e l o p m n t o f f i c e r =e a s k e d d i d not knov vhichl a c t i v i c y s h o u l d go u n d e r v h i c h h e a d i n g on t h e repor: f o r n vhich he s u b m i t ? r e g u l a r l y amnth by month- . is Car 3 s ue c o d 6 d i s c o v e r , no s t u d i e s a p p e a r t o hzve been w d e ~f t h e day-to-day a c c i v i t i r s of f i e l d a s s i s - d n t s . X E t h e next s t e p u p rhe h i e r a r c h ? , t>e d e v e l o p c e n t o f f i c e r m y control a s t a f f of a b o u t a dozen. 4~ Nateajhe i n W P , f o r example, t h e r e a r e f o u r field a s s i s t a n t s , t h r e e c r e d i t a s s i s t a n t s , one F a n h o w i n ~ t r u c t r e s s , t w o l a b o u r e r s who i-ork on t h e deaonstra:ioa f a m , a s i e s s e n g e r an4 a c l e r k . 'L'ho- o f f i c e i s housed i n a Large f ~ r c 9 r shop o n che tcain r o a d . I+ the ae-:elopmnt o f f i c e r ' s o f f i c e , t h e r e is a desk -xith a set of uoodka t r a y s , a n o t i c ? board, r i o c a s h boxes, one For r e g u l a r s a l e s and o n e f o r k c e d i t , half a dozen c h i r s and u c u s u a l l y a telephone. Be s p l i t s his t t m e betwhen s u ? e r v i s i n g h i s s t a f f and planning t h e i r v o r k , 7 i s i C i n g vill.ages! tel-ching o n o n e day c o u r s e s , and k e e ~ i n gi n touch with t h e h i g h e r L e v e l s of the e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e . B e atteads r e g u l a r a e e t i n g s e v e q q u a r t e r / n o n t h w i t n his pro j e c c m a u s e r , a t k i i c h h i s u o r k 1s guided and he i s cold of :he subjet$:s b+iich I Excension w a n t s stressed t o f a n e r s over t b a t period. I Gie v;L11 r e t u r n l a t e r co con side^ t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s quite orchodax, a p p r o a d to a g r i c u l t u r a l es:e3sicn, . I I Trainin3 centres * T h e s e c o n d m i c vaj of t e a c h i z g f a r z e r s is t k r o u g h &jr a n d r e s i d e n t i a l trainicg centres. Throughout t h e count+: t h e r e s e r e , in L9T-I, 59 c e n t r e s : t h e r o a r e , o f c o u r s e , more i n t h e araAs of the f o m e r lpcd ' d e ~ e l o p z e n c projects. i n t h e f o m r LiDP a r e a , for e z n p l e , chene a r e four 8residen:ial t r a i n i n g c e x t r e s and six i!ar t r a i n i a g c e m e s , I n i$e y e a r - 1 9 7 9 / 8 0 , f o r a n e s t t a r e d 100,503 f a 2 f a z i l i e s they fan courses ;as i n T a b l e 3 & - I  T a b l e 2: Use of r e s i d e n t i a l and day c e n t r e s i n LLDP a r e a i979/SO Staff -Public-- --- - %zn Gown Total - Hen %men + To ta 1 Residential centres 7,537 1,3i7 8, i 54 9,877 9,SLl 19,288 Day c e n t r e s - - - 31.258 37,760 69,018 Tbe s u b j e c t s of r e s i d e n t i a l c o u r s e s i n c l u d e d 'how econcnnics, c r e d i t p r o c e d u r e , f o r e s t r y , f r u i t trees, l a n d a l l o c a t i o n , ox t r a i n i n g , a n d g e n e r a l agriculture. The c o u r s e s o f f e r e d a t o n e day t r a i c i n g c e n t r e s i h L i l o n g - e d i v i s i o n for the ~ e r i o d February- July 1980 a r e i n T a b l e 3. Only o n e course-- o n c r o p s t o r a g e - a s f o r both men and woaeh: Table 3: C o u r s e s a t Xatenjhe t r a i n t n g c e n t r e F e b r u a q - J h e 1930 No o f c o u r s e s Yo of c o u r s e s Cou c s e s u b j e c t For men f o r women A n i m a l husbandry C h i l d care Credic Crop husbandry Crop s t o r a g e F ~ m i l yh e a l t h Farm manageneat F o r e s t r y management aaae improvement Yorticulture 'Land husbandry Laundry Needlework and h a n d c r a f t NutrlLtion a d c o o k e r y P o u l t r y keep iag P r e p a r a t i o n for d i s p l a y Revision Courses f o r farmers are f r e e , a s is a c c a m m d a t i o n and food 3 t residential training centres -5 c h r e s i d e n t i a l ceo::e has a deztons tra t i o c farm so t h a t c o s t s c a n be k e p t down by graving food f o r couises-though h o r t i c d t u r e demands e x p e n s i v e - a c e r i n g : n rza~ p a r t s of t h e c o q t r y - The c e n t r e s t r y t o p r o v i d e n u c r i t i o a a l l y x e l l - b a l a n c e d zeals, s e e l 4 t h e t e a c h i n g of n u t r i t i o n a l o n g -&th a g r i c u l t u r e as o c e of t h e i r p r o p e r f u n c t i o n s . Courses a t d a y t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s a r e taught aaial? by f i e l d e x c a n s i o n sMff ~ + i l e n ~ c h r c s i d c n c i a l c e n t r e has a p r i n c i p a l and r e s i d e n t t e a c h i n g s u f f . - - 9:'nce 1958-59; - P ~ y o n dt h e s e a o & d i t o n a l -JC& rmsc t h r o r ~ g h i . t s E a t s n s t o n r\:dc. wdia ~ r y n i g d of i s s t r u c t i n g farmers, - v a ~ s 3 al a A . Rra-ch. has, - ie ,t began as a one 3 a n p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s from :he -3inis:ry u~it of .XgrLsuLture  . and N a t u r a l Resources t o p r o v i d e p u b l i c i t y m a t e r i a l t o s u p p o r t the a g r i c u l t u r a l c x t 2 n s i o n s e r v i c e s ( E x t e n s i o n - i d s 2rar.ch 1978, p. 1 ) . n e unit s o o n grew t o have a p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s o f f i c e r , a s e n i o r a g r i c u l t u r a l i n s t r u c t o r a n d a dark-rooat a s s i s u n t - I n 1960, i t began producing l e a f l e t s acd two z e e k l p r a d i o programmes, For two y s a r s , i t worked under t h e c o n t r o l of t h e D e . p r t w n t o f I n f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e e s u p i n g back co = h e . W n i s t r y of 3 g r i c : t l t u r e i n 1962 a n d e n j o y t n g a wave of -pansion. A f u r t h e r - a v e came i n 1965-6; & t e n B r i t i s h a n d American -id f u n d s p a i d f o r p r i n t i n g e q u i p w n t ( s t i l l l a r g e l y i n cse today). Ia ~ 9 6 8 , the Branch s e t up a f i l s u n i t s p t h a t i t u s a p a b ' ; ! o f prqducing and d i s t r i b n t 2 n g f i l s 2s w e l l as p r i u t a n d r a d i o programmes. in o r d e r t'a r a i s e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i t s work, t h e arabch s c a r t e d i n 1975 a n - awkwardly named E v a l u a t i o n a n d A c t i o n Research U n i t , whose f u n c t i o n tas t o p r e t e s t ~ l p a t e r i a lproduced by t h e Branch. Today t h e Branch h a s a n e s t a b l i s h & n c o f 92, of whom some 62 a r e a c t u a l l y i n bos t , t o g e t h e r w i t h some 30 n o n - e s t a b l i s h e d s w f f , and c o n s i s t s o f e i g h t s e c t i b a s : p u b l i c 3 t i o n s , e d i t o r i a l , r a d l o , t e c h n i c i l l (which r u n s t h s mobiie vabs) , ~ h o t o g r a p h i c ,c i n e , eva!.uation and c e n t r a l a C m i n i s t r a t i o n . Its f u n c t i o n s a r e d e f i n e d a s ' t o prc~ide e d u c a t i o u a l t z a c h i n g m a t e r i a l f o r t h e X i n i s t * o i A g r i c u l t u r e and U t n r a l R e s o u r c e s , p l u s ocher : * i n i s t r i e s t o some e x t e p t , t o c r e a t e a n I n t e r e s t i n r u r a l people i n aodern f a d = n e t h o d s and t o eizcohrage them b o c t ~ t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n t h e r e b y improviag r u r a l l i v i n g standards. I t is a l s o concerned with t h e h e a l t h and p r o p s r n u t r i t i o n of mr$l people and w o r k s c l o s e l y with o t h e r e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s . ' More specifically, - It p r o v i d e s mss c o v e r a g e zhrough t h e r a d i o ; - It cospiles extension l i t e r a t u r e ; - It p r o v i d e s v i s u a l material; - It p r o v i d e s maintenance a n d mobile c i a e m services; - It p r o v i d e s m v i e f i l m s ; - I t p r o v i d e s m d l a evaluation s e r v i c e s ; and - I- I I t u n d e r t a k e s p r i n t i n g s e n i c e s f o r --itten s e d i a . ( E x t e n s i o n J 3 d s 3ranch 1979, p - 1) I t is housed i n a s t a n c h r d o f f i c e block ~ h r d es t o r e y E . i g h , a b o u t 40 -- -cres by 10, i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e a t f i r s t g l a n c e f r m d t h e r s i n L.IZ a p i t a l , T h i s b s been its home s i n c e 1973. A t t h e back is a { i n e of n o u l d e r i n g y e l l o v r 2 n d Rovers, h a l f hidden llnder t h e c r e e s a g o v e r m e n q j u a k j a r d , EA . B has i-isely g o t p e w i s s i o o to keep its vehicles x5en they Are scrapped i n o r d e r t o use :he s p r e p r c s . I n s i d e too- i t l o o k s a t f i r s t s 3 g h c zuch Like any o t h e r o f f i c e , a p a r t from a d u s o d i s p i a y i n a g l a s s a ' c i z e t o f .:he Branch's p u b l i c a t i o n s on saLe. I t s activities ere , q u i t e d i f f e t j e n t . 1s staff are s e t : I . ouc i n tab:^ 5. a L  T a b l e 4: Exte~rsionAids Branch S t a f f Section ~nistration Head of Branch Esecutive Officer 2 c l e r i c a l officers . 2 copy t y p i s t s 1 stenographer 3 mssengers 2 i?atchn (1 c l e r i c a l o f f i c e r away on t r a i n i n g ) Editorial 1 (+ 1 auzy on t r a i n i n g ) Pcblica tions 1 head of s e c t i o n 4 typesetters 1 g r a p h i c a r t i s t (+ 1 a-7 on training) 8 printers Y collators Photographic Cine 1 head of section!script- r r Lter 3 camramen 1 sound r e c o r d i s t i librarian/cormnentator Technical 1 head of s e c t i o n 3 maintenance s t a f f 2 carpenters 13 driver/operarors 13 p u p p t e e r s E b dio 2% r a d i o :orrespondents .- in field Evalua~ionand 1 c o u n t e r p a r + _head action researcg (+ 1 cocxnterpart away o n L training) 1 technical officer 6 enumerators I Publications s e c t i o n The l a r g e s t number of s t a f f i s concerned w i t h prin:. The p u b l i c a t i o n s d e p a r t n e n t is d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r s e c t i o n s - e d i t o r i a l , t y p e s e t t i n g , g r a p h i c s , and p r i n t i n g . The e d i t o r i a l s e c t i o n has t h e job of p r e p a r i n g t h e text of e v e r y t h i n g t o be p r i n t e d by t h e Branch, a n d of w r i t i n g t h e p u p p e t p l a y s v h i c h a r e to be p e r f o r n e d i n t h e mobile vans. Its t h r e e s t a f f t h u s d i v i d e t h e i r t i m e between t r a n s l a t i n g m t e r i a l d r a z t e d i n E n g l i s h i n t o C h i c h e - a , p r e p a r i n g t e x t f o r f a m e r s ' magazines, checking and p r o o f r e a d i n g a n d ; r r i t i n g t h e puppet plays. T h i s Last a c t i v i t y t a k e s a b o u t one man/week i n e a c h xonth, i n which t i m e t h e t e x t s of e i g h t p l a y s are produced. O t h e r w i s e , by f a r t h e l a r g e s t job of t h e s e c t i o n is t h e p r e p r r r t t o n of t h e b i - m n t h l y P a r n e r s ' m g a z i n e Za Achikumbi. I t runs t o 16 pages (L55 x iOO mm) and is n w p r i n t e d i n a n e d i t i o n of 32,000 c o p i e s and c i r c u l a t e s t o e x t e n s i o n s t a f f a n d t o l i t e r a t e fanners. The t e x t c o n s i s t s of a d v i c e to f a r s s r s l p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e t i m e of y e a r when i t is p u b l i s h e d . Io o r d e r to s r l s c t t o p i c s f o r i n c l u s i o n , t h e e d i t o r i a l s t a f f r e f e r t o t h e a n n u a l r a d i 3 Programme guide, which sets o u t t h e s u b j e c t s f o r a y e a r ' s b r o a d c a s t s a n d m k e an acnual r e q u e s t f o r g u i d a n c e co p r o j e c t m1A;ers. While a r t i c l e s can come f r m a ~ r i e t y of s o u r c e s , i t i n f a c t f a l l s t o t?e e d i t o r i a l s t a f f t o g e n e r a t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m u n t of t h e cop? themselves. The Branch 3lso p u b l i s h e s f o u r n a g a z i n e s i n E d g l i s h o n b e h a l f of t h e b n d Development P r o j e c t s . aeyond t b a t , i t p r i n c s p o s t e r s , L e a f l e t s and handbooks on the p r o d u c t i o n of d i f f e r e n t crops. 4 handbook on c o t t o c , o r i g i n a l l y pcoduced i n 1971 and r e v i s e d i n 1976 ~ s for' , example, beL.lg r e p r i n t e d a t t h e t i m e of t h i s r e p o r t , and a Fandbook on c o f f e e sas t o f o l l o w i t . Appendix 1 shows t h e = i n production jobs f o r 1978. D r a f t s p r d u c e d by t h e e d i t o r i a l s e c c i o n a r e then t y p e s e t ; a n 133 composer h a s jus: been add& to t h e range of t l p e v r i t e r s used by t h e Branch, v h i c h w i l l enormously a i d the p r o d u c t i o n of m t e r i a l w i t h the r i g h t k i n d margin just2;'ied; a t p r e s e n t t h i s is a c h i e v e d by h b o r i o u s dual t y p i n g o f ~nuscripts. ' . i t l e s a r e added w i t h tte a i d of a h e a d l i n e r and t h e c o p y nade up by t h e g r a p h i c s s e c t i o n who p a s s p h t e s on t o t h e p r i n t i n g s e c t i o n . Here a team of eigh: p r i n t e r s o p e r a t e t h r e e a g ~ i n g a n d small p r e s s e s ( c a p a b l e of t a k i n g X3 s i z e paper a: a mrtimun); che g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e i r time, t o o , i s s p e n t i n produc:ng t h e = r i m s f a r m e r s ' nagazines. A t e a m of e i g h t c o l l a t o r s p u t p r i n t & s r a t e r i a l t a g e t h e r by band. The head of t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s s e c t i o n c o n t r o l s t h e f l o v o f work t h r o u g h i t s v a r i o u s s t a g e s . I . t k h i i e t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c s e c c i o n i s o r c p n i z a t i o n a l l y s e p a r a t e Zron p u b l i c a t i o n s , auch of i t s woi* f e e d s i n t o t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s s e c t i o n ; s t i l l photographs a r e crn.missioned by t h e s e c t i o n , and p t a t o g r a p h s f r m t h e i r - c l ' e c t i o n a r e s - 1 e c t e d t o i l l u s t r a t e s a a z i n e s and r e p o r t s . R. photographers m e 3 5rrrm ( P e n t a x SLR) a n d ex 6 a (120 dual l e n s r e f l e x ) - f o r m a t s f o r both b l a c k and r r h l c e a n d coloGr s l i d e s t i l l pkotograph3- * Technical s e c t l o n i - The t e c h n i c a l s e c c i o n o p e n i e s a f l e e t of m b i l e vans-Land 3 o v e r s c o g v e r t e d t o show c i n e m p r c q r a s n e s and puppet plays throughout t h e country. There ale 17 x o b i l e n n s i n a l l , of -&Lch f o u r a r e a c t a c h e d t o t h e E o m e r Land 9evelopment 3 r o j e c t s s o t h a t t h e T e c h n i c a l S e c t i o n i n L i l o n g - ~ ee!r~ploys 13 2nd !3 ;..w%rn=rs x~s :c=ff 2 : Wlcrg?.?e ~ z::! =:z-z[z :?= ~ ~ t : ~ ~ : vans and t h e i r equipment. 3 e p a r e :hen s e n t r ~ u tfor a s e r i e s of c-20 t o t h r e e ueek campaigns i n which t h e y show t h e saiiie p r o g r a m of. f i l m and puppet shows i n v i l l a g e s cfiosdn a c c o r d i q t o a p r o g r a m a g r e e d by t h e l o c a l f i e l d e x t e n s i o n staff. Thus, r j h i l e t h e r e is a c e n t r a l l y produced programme s h o v i n g t h e a r e a i n u h i c h each van w i l l o p e r a t e f o r e a c h c a a p a i g n , t h e d e t a i l s o f e a c h van's day-to-day s c h e d u l e a r e a r r a n g e d by l o c a l f i e l d s t a f f . The vans a r e o r d e r e d f r m B r i t i s ' n Leyland i n England an$ f o u r a d a p t a t i o n s a r e nade by t h e f a c t o r y : a n o i l coolLng s y s t e n and a g o y e r n o r t o c o n t r o l e n g i n e speed a r e added f o r u s e when t h e v e h i c l e i s s t a t i o n e r y b u t w i t h t h e e n g i n e running t o d r i v e a g e n e r a t o r ; a h e a v i e r back a x l e is f i t t e d ; a n d a pover take- off u n i t f i t t e d . A contractor i n Lilongve f i t s a g e n e r a t o r so t h a t t h e c i n e p r o j e c t o r c a n b e run f r a a cke v e h i c l e . '3ie t e c h n i c i a n ; and c a r p e n t e r s a t E-\B t h e n i n s t a l a tape r e c o r d e r , t o c a r r y m s i c a n d t h e d i a l o w e of puppet p l a y s , a m p l i f i e r and l m d s p e a k c rs, a n d a puppe: s t a g e a t t h e back o f t h e vehicle. A c i n e p r o j e c t o r a n d f o l d i a g s c r e e n a r e also e r r i e d . The c o s t o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n is k e p t down bp d o i n g a s much s o & a s p o s s i b l e a c EA3. The vans a r e o p e r a t e d by a team of t w o a d r i v e r j o p e r a t o r and a ?uppceer. Each van g o e s o u t f o r a c a a p a i g ~ of NO t o t h r e e weeks, c a r r y i n g f i l m s a n d puppet p l a y s o n a set of t o p i c s a p p r o p c h t e t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e a s o n - .+pendix 2 shows, f o r e:ample, t h e s c h e d u l e f o r t h e f o u r v z c s o s r a t i n g i n the northern r e g i ~ n f o r 1980. A t t h e beginning of t h e c a m , p i g n , che van d r i v e s From Lilongwe t o t h e s e l e c t e d a c a and r e p o r t s t o t h e local agricultural supemisor. Be, o r a f i e l d a s s i s t a n t , t h e n acccmpanies t h e vehicLe. I t d r i v e s t o a v i l l a g e u s i n g i t s loudspeakers ~f music and a n n o u n c e m a t s LO a d v e r t i s e t h e puppet p l a y s kWch a r e shown i n f o u r o r f i v e d i f f e r e n t v i l l a g e s d u r i n g t h e d a y time. p l a y s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t of d i a l o g u e a d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e b e m e e n a f a r m e r and h i s wife, o r a f a n n e r and a field assistant. The p u p p e t e e r o p e r a t e s t h e g l o v e puppets f o r u h i c h h e has had a two o r t h r e e week t r a i n i n g , b u t :he d i a l o g u e is g i - ~ ~ e n from a tape r e c o r d i o g and b r o a d c a s t on t h e l o u d s p e a k e r s . L i t t l e a t t m p t h a s been m d e t o i n t r o d u c e a story l i n e i n t o t h e plays. A t t h e end of each p e r f o r s a n c e , t h e f i e l d a s s i s t a n : u s e s t h e Loudspeaker i n o r d e r t o r e i n f o r c e t b e a d v i c e g i v e n i n :he play. As t h e mns d r i v e round, they announce o-rer t h e l o u d s p e a k e r &+ere t h e y w i l l show f i l m t k c evening. -A£ter s u n s e t , a s c r e e n is e r e c t e d a n d a t-o t~ tvo a n d a h a l f hour programme e f film is shorn. The ZB j o r i t y of the f i l m s a r e t h o s e s a d e by t h e c i n e d e p a r c m n t of t h e Branch; s i n g l e c o n c e p t f i l s on improved p r a c t i c e f o r a p f t i c u l a r c r o p , o r on t h e u s e of E e r t i l i z e r , . t o r m r k t i n g , f o r e-xample. .Along w i t h & h a , some a d v e r t i s i n g f i l m may b e shokn t o g e t h e r u i t h o l d n e v s r e e l s , o c c a s i o u a l documentzries o f t e n f r m embassy f i b l i b r a r i e s and c h e l i k e . And, i n nany progranmes, a f i l s from t h e ! -@ a l - Department of Xniorination i s s h o b n . U s u a l l y t h e s e a r e a p p r e c i a b l y long- than t h e Branch's own f i b s . S 'A A t t h e ehd of t h e caopajgn, t h e v z h i c l e s r e t u r n t o Lilongwe f & s e r v i c i n g and p r e @ r a t L o n f o r t h e nest campaign some ten d a y s t o three ;dBeks l a t e r . The v e h i c r e s r e - i n a t h e a d q c a r t e r s d u r i n g t h e heaviest .pericd o f agricultural . a r k , from December t o February. - Ciae section 'BeEore t h e ( c i a e ) S e c t i o n ws e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e r e s e r e v e r y f e w f i l n s on . l g r i c u l t u r e , a n d - a r s e stFZ1, t h e f i l s s v e r e i n E n g l i s h , which a d e i t d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e f a m e r to understand.' ( E x t e n s i o n Aids Branch 1973, p- 8). In 1968, E.W t h e r e f o r e e s t a b l i s h e d its own f i l m u n i t uhich t o d a y produces u p t o f i f t p f i l m s a y e a r . The s t a f f e r e t r a i n e d on t h e job by a s n a l l team from t h e ' J n i v e r s i t y o f ?Ussouri. Having experimented w i t h a v a r i e t y of f o ~ t is n t h e p a s t . t h e u n i t now produces c n i n l y s i n g l e concept f i l m s , u h i c h g e n e r a l l y ruo f o r a b o u t t e n m i n u t e s ; o c c a s i o n a l f i l m a r e lo?;er, a n d a far a r e tmde on couunfssio.~f o r o t h e r government d e p a r t m e n t s . Re u n i t is equipped v i t h t h r e e B o l e x 16 ma cameras and t w o Xuricon (sound) cameras. T h e c a a p l e x i t i e s of r e c o r d i n g sound a t t h e sase t h e a s f i h i n g a r e s u c h t h a t t h e Xuricons ace no Loager i n use. In 1979, t h e Branch bought a S t e e n b e c k c o n s o l e e d i t o r ; a l i e d i t i n g of f i l m s and t h e p r e p a r a t i o n and dubbing o f sound t r a c k s is done a t t h e Branch. F i b s a r a s e n t to a commercial laboratory for processing--Pr!lzwi i s now a g a i n s e ~ d i n g them t o Zlnbabve for t h i s - a n d once they have been e d i t e d a n d dubbed, t h e mascer is t h e n a l s o s e n t f o r p r i n t s t o be made- 22 c o p i e s of sach f i l i n a r e u s u a l l y made, and e a c h copy is t h e n used f o r a b o u t f i v e e a r s , v i t h perhaps e i g h t y showings d u r i n g c h i s time. -AL1 f i l m s a r e produced i n c o l o u r -d-th a s o u n d t r a c k I n Chicheba, T he Bracch does not a p l a y a c t o r s , buc g e t s farmers t o d e m o n s t r a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s A i c h adds conviction and realism t o the filius. It manages t o a c h i e v e a shootic_e r a t i o of 3: 1, Xany f i l m s a r e on p r t i c u l a r agriculcural techniques - 'Tobacco barn b u i l d i n g and r e p a i r s ' o r 'Cotton v e e d i n g ' o r 'Ute nanagenent' o r 'Visoso' ( s l a s h and burn c u l t i v a t i o c ) , f o r example; % h e r s are more g e n e r a l . 'The l a n d n u s t provide' on f a m sanagement and 'Season of a g r i c u l t u r a l c o - o p e r a t i o n ' o n t h e uork of the c o - o p e r a t i v e novenrent. O t h e r s go beyond a g r i c u l t u r e : ' & h o k e c o n s t r u c t i o n ' d e s c r i b e s - z e t h o d s af g r a i n s t o r a g e ' U s e c l e a n - a t e r 8a n d ' E a t s o r e eggs' a r e s e l f - e s p l a n a tory. Radio s e c t i o n The S r a n c h produces f o u r a n d a - h a l f h o u r s of b r o a d c a s t i n g e a c h r e e k for six r a d i o p r o g r a m s : L F a i i n forum i s t h e key a g r i c u l c u r a l p r o g r a m , d e a l i n g each c e e k wLth a g r i c u l t u r a l t o p i c s f e l t t o be of p a r t i c u l a r importance f o r t b t veek i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l y e a r - I t s c o n t e n t is a g u i d e co the r a t e r i a l p r e p a r e d f o r t h e o t h e r prograsmes a s w e l l , ( B r o a d c a s t on Xondag, r e p e a t e d on Ueanesday, f r m 1310 co 1LCO)- Y o d e r n f a r m i n g i s a general programme, -king c o n s i d e r a b l e use of i n t a r v i e v s w i t h f a m e r s - ';he Branch q l o p s ;vo f u l l - c i a e a n d one p a r = - t h e field ~ o r k e r vfio c o l l e c t r e c o r d i n $ f o r t h i s and o t h e r prograniaes. ( B r o a d c a s t on T ~ l e s d a y , r e p e a t e d F r i d a y , 1320-1G00). - - Cottoo i s a n e i 3 h t e n u r e 'Inser: v i t h i n Y o d e m f a c u i n g c o n s i s t i n g cf a a 14 qhorjt Corr_..rn ? r & r 2 ~ ; i _ n n 2 1 1 = T ~ P ~ ~ C X . :  F a r m e r s r e q u e s c programme is a music r e q u e s t programme, - h o s e p r i n c i p a l f u n c r i o n s a r e t o p r o v i d e e n t e r t a i n m e n t a n d a s s o c i a t e EX3 i n t h e mind o f l i s t e n e r s ii,t h a p o p u l a r p r o g r a m . ( B r o a d c a s t o n T h u r s d a y s , 13LO-1400). Farwrs' n o t e b o k i s a t i t l e f ~ a r series of short ( t ~ o t o t h r e e minute) r a d i o news s p o t s dealing w i t h c u r r e n t a c t i v i t i e s of f a m a r s , c r e d i t , c a t t l e utarht a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d s o on. ( B r o a d c a s t between 0500 a n d 0600 daily). OphirL is a f a r u f n g Family serial produced by t h e Malawi B r s d c a s t i n g ' C o r p o r a t i o n ( B C ) u s f o g l n f o r n r a t i o n from b o t h EXB and from t h e H i n i s t r p o f Health. ( B r o a a c a s t o n F r i d a y , 1 1 6 - L 2 0 0 , r e p e a t e d S a t u r d a y , 1645- 1700)- W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of O p h i r i , a l l p r o g r a m s a r e b o t h s c r i p c e d and p r o d u c e d by t h e r a d i o s e c t i o a ' s s t a f f a n d r e c o r d e d i n t h e Lilongwe s t u d i o of ?BC. The Branch bas i c s own p r t a b l e Uher t a p e r e c o r d e r s a n d t i o F e r r o g r a p h recorders. P r o g r a m e s are e d i t e d a t EM. XZ1 t h e b r o a d a s t e r s are a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n workers by background, vho have been t r a i n e d i n r a d i o t e c h n i q u e s a n d a t t e n d o c c a s i o m L s e a i n a r s a c E M 3 a s part of t h e i r i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g . T h e r e is one uomn p r o d u c e r who, a s w e l l a s d e a l i n g w i t h some a g r i c u l t u r a l t o p i c s , p r e p a r e s a l l the imterial for brc~dcasts a h e d p a r t i c u l a r l y a t wonen. E v a l u a t i o n aad a c t i o n r e s e a r c h u n i t (=R) n e aim of t h e e v a l u a t i o n u n i t i s n o t t o measure o r t e s t t h e performance of - a b,u t t o p r e t e s t i m t e r i a l s a s t h e y a r e b e i q produced. The unit is t h e most r e c e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d s e c t i o n of -LAB. The i d e f o r i t ' f i r s t cook s b p e a t t h e A g r i c u L t u r a l E x t e n s i o n and R u r a l Development C e n t r e a t i k a d i n g G n i v e r s i t y , England, when t - aof its s t a f f v e r e i n v i t e d by E x r e n s i o a Aids t o a d v i s e o n methods of e v a l u a ~ i n g its vork. .After Jisits a n d d i s c u s s i o n s , t h e Reading team p u t f o m a r d its s u g g e s t i o n s . It Aid n o t p r o p s + t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o n n of e v a l u a t i o n e x e r c i s e i n w h i c h a v i s f t t n g experc s t u d i e s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n , rakes a n a s s e s s m e n t a n d p r o d u c e s a r e p o r t v i z h g e r r e r a l s u g g e s t i o n s f o r xhprovement. I n s t a d , t h e team puc f o r w a r d t h e i d e a of a snall permanent e v a l u a t i o n u n i t c b r g e d ;rich t h e t a s k of h y l p i a g t o improve t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f each media p r o j e c t o r c a n p a t g n d u r i o g tthe p r o d u c t i o n stage." ( U a r r 1978, p. 127,). m e m i t c a a n o t t e s t a l l m t e r i a l s produced by t h e Branch, b u t - e m m e r a t forrosm test , selects t h o s e being d r a f t e d f o r r a d i o , f i l s o r p r i n t . T t s team w t e r i a l s o n a sample of t h e p t e n t i a l audience and recammend of six '3 any n e c e s s a r y changes t o p r o d u c e r s w i t h i n t h e aranch. k M l e t h i s a d d s Co t h e ,Lead tinie n e e d e d f o r p r e p a r i n g a z y a g r i c u l t u r a l campaign, i t i s i n t e n d e d to - 'i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a l l t h e media u s e d . * Evaluation is o f ~ e n s e e n as a t h r e a t : t h e CAR u n i t makes a . Strezccus e f f ~ i t Co g a r i t s r e s a r c h t o t h e n e e d s o f p r o d u c e r s s o t h a t t h e y see its s o r k as h e l ? f d and i t s s t a f f a s supportive rather t h z n e x t e n a l l y c i a- i.2-1f i e t r s r o l e ' i s 1 i m i t e r i t o f o r m a t i v e e m l u a t i o n and c o advising o n p a r t i c u l a r t o p i c s - z i t h i > Z a ' s x o r k , i t h a s i n e v i t a b l y g t h e r e d a :r+zat d e a l of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e e f f e c t i v e c e s s of t h e 3 r a n c h ' s vork m r e generally: w e make c o c s i d e r a b l e u s e of this i n f o m t i o a below. S t r a n g e l y , t h e E x t e n s i o n Aids Branch is no l o n g e r a p a r t of t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n . The \ a r i o u s A g r i c u l t u r a l DevelopmenE D i v i s i a n s ( r h i c h b v e t a k e n o v e r f r a n t h e i n t e g r a t e d l a n d d e v e l o w o t p r o j e c t s ) report t o t h e C h i e f A g r i c u l t u r a l Developsent O f f l c e r , a s d o the t e c h n i c a l s p e c i a l i s t s , a n d h e , i n t u r n , r e p o r t s c o ' t h e Deputy Secretary (Agriculture). The E x t e n s f o n .Aids Branch a l s o reports d i r e c t to t h e same! Deputy S e c r e t a r y ( s e e F i g u r e 2)- Ln p r a c t i c e , t h e r e is, of c o u r s e , i n f o r m a l c o o p e r a t i o n v i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n s t a f f , b u t cooperatLou seem n e i t h e r 3s c l o s e n o r a s r e g u l a r a s i t m i g h t be- W's o t h e r key r e l a t i o n s are w i t h Y a l a w i B r o a d c a s t i n g Corpora t i o r r - v e a k e n e d by t h e d i s t a n c e frsn t h e i r h e a d q u a r t e r s i n BLantyr-nd v i t h farmers, .Appendix 2 sets these o u t . h we have s e e n , F A c a z m u n i c a t e s w i t h f a t m e r s through t h r e e channels: by r a d i o a n d j r e l l o ~v a n s i t d o e s s o d i r e c t l y , a l t h o u g h t h e y e l l o w van p u p p e t p l a y s a r e i n t r o d u c e d a n d f o l l o w e d by annouccements from t h e l o c a l ffeld assistant, Its ccwmmications through p r i n t a r e n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i r e c t : u i t h a l i t e r a c y rate r s i z i a n t e d a t 251, Feu f a m e r s c o u l d r e a d Za Xchikumbi e v e n i f t h e y were t o r e c e i v e i t , T he magazine's m j o r v a l u e l i e s i n sup.porting a d s t h u l a t i n g t h e uo& o f f i e l d a s s i s t a n t s - Feedback from f a r m e r s to E.4B p r e s e n t s m r e prablems. Tn t h e o n , tamers a r e i n c l o s e c o n t a c r u i t h f i e l d a s s i s t a n t s and c m n c t o : h a on t h e work of :he S r a n c h . F i e l d a s s L s t a n t s m e e t r e s u l a r l 7 v f t h t h e i r s u p e r ~ i s o r s , and can p a s s on comments a b o u t fa-r r a c t i o n - I n p r a c t i c e , t h e m e t i n g = a t x h i c h t h i s raight happen take p l a c e o n c e a q u a r t e r , and t h e r e is much else on che agenda. The d r i v e r s of t h e y e l l o w x i u s r o p c r t on a u d i e n c e s i z e and c a n g i v e the cine section a n i a p r ~ s s i o n i s t i c vieu of hov p a r t i c u l a r f i l m a r e received. The - &%R unit .as e s t a b l i s h e d s p e c i f i c a l l y to g u i d e t h e Branch- but o n l y o n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i t s a t e r i a l s a n d n o t o n t e a c h i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s g e n e r a l l y , o r o n t h e c o n t e n t of i t s work. Cons t r a i u t s 3 e f o r e a t t e m p t i n g a n y a s s e s s m e n t of t h e vork of t h e E x t e n s i o n A i d s % r a n c h , i t is i a p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h e c o n s t r a f n t ; x i t h i n which i t is uor8ki?g. The f i r s t i s t h e c o n s a n t p r e s s l r r e to m a i n t a i n t h e fLox of p r o d u c t i o n . Ueek by v e e k a n d month by month, t h e Branch produces i t s q u o t a of r a d i o programmes and t h e r e g u l a r i s s u e s of p e r i o d i e l s . I t s establishment is below s t r e n g t h a n d a n y p r o p o s a l f o r i t t o u n d e r r a k e new t a b , m s t be c o n s i d e r e d i n c h e L i g h t of its e x i s t i n g comuit~ents,; 5 - Second, t h e Branch_ s u f f e r s Eron i t s l o c a t i o n . It is p h y s i c a l l y i n a d i f f e r e n t b u i l d i n g from o t h e r p a r t s of a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n and, a s we saw, now o r q a n i z a t i o n a l l j s e p a r a a f r o a i t . I n p r a c i i c e , i t seems i t has had c i o s e r links w i t h L W P t h a n 'dth che o t h e r development p r o j e c t s o r o t h e r p a r t s of the c o u n t r y , s i m p l y h u u s e t h e LLC? of : i c e s a r e c l o s e by. i t is a l s o i s o l a t e d fran t h c s e ci0i.q a g r i c u l t c r a l research and c a c h i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l = i i 2 2 i ~ i ~ i lulio , .at Z u m j a .  T h e r e is a t h i r d c o n s t r a i n t which is more s u b t l e but p o t e n t i a l l y = r e seriotrs. In d i s c u s s i o n s t b e r s , t h e dominant vord i n rmny c o n v e r s a t i o n s a;'nessages'. The Branch s e a s t o be wor'cing under t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i t s r o l e i s t o send m s s a g e s ro f a m r s , a l t h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n t h i n k i n g has moved auay from t h i s view of its f ~ m c t i o n , T h i s has cocsequences f o r t h e u a y EXB's i s pplaned. I t tends t o l e a d t o t h e assumption that a l l t h e i r e n e r g i e s should go i n t o t h e p e r f e c t i n g of t h e form of those roessages whose c o n t e n t can b e determined by t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l specialists. In practice, - evere t o l d more t h n once t h a t iamers i n ? f a l a d a r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d s k i l l e d a n d , o v e r the last t e n y e a r s , have moved a vecy long =a? f r m c z e d i n g s i m p l y t o be t o l d what t o do. And t h i s a s i m p t i o n a b o u t messages a n s c h a t r e l a t i v e l y l f t t l e e f f o r t h a s been m d e t o b u i l d syscems of feedback i n t o t h e o r g a a i z a t i o n of EXB. RESULTS I n o r d e r t o rmke a full assessment of t h e srork o f EAB, o n e would e n t t o c a n p z r e t h e d i f f z c e c t s e t h o d s used by a g r i c u l t u r r a l e x t e n s i o n to c o a t a c t f a r m e r s , a n d chen look a t t h e e f f e c t s on t h o s e f a r m e r s a n d on t h e i r farming p r a c t i c e s . I d e a l l y one would t h e a be a b l e t o Look a t t h e c o s t of reaching a f a m r tfirou-3 r a d i o o r through a r e s i d e n t i a l c o u r s e , for emmple; l o o k a t t h e e f f e c t s o f t h a t c o n t a c t on t h e f a r m e r ' s p r o d u c t i o n of food a d compare the costs. In p r a c t i c e , t h e r e a r e major d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e uay of d o i n g so. The most s e r i a l s is t h a t f a n p r a c t i c e s and p r o d u c t i o n a r e a f f e c t e d by isany f a c t o r s o t h e r than c o n t J c t w i t h : he extension s e n i c e . 3arketii-g a n d p r i c i n g p o l i c i e s of . W 4 R C have a profound e f f e c t , f o r e x a a p l e , on f a m e r s ' p r a c t i c e s , Furthermore, one of che aias of a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i ~ n is t c a c h i e ~ e long t e r m changes i n farxLng p r a c t i c e s and i n t h e a t t i t u d e s o f Earners; t h e s e . a u l d n o t be d i s c o v e r e d by a n a m l y s i s t h a t uas based o d y on increased p r o d u c c i v i t y . I n a n y case, t h e r e is i n p r a c t i c e n o t q q i t e enough d a t a t o do this c o m p a r a t i v e l y s i s p l e c m p a r i s o n . ? !a h w i is, houe;ver, f o r t u n a t e i n having a w a l t h of i n f o m a t i o n a b o u t a g r i c u l t u r a l p f o d u c t i v f t y and about t h e - a r k of e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s , and t h e e f f e c t s o f educaclon and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s on a g r i c u l t u r e f r w t h e socioeconoaic s u r v e y or' t h o Xiiinistry o f e l c u l t u r e , frcm rhe e v a l u a t i o n u n i t s of t h e Land Developmenr P r o j e c t s , and f r m t h e E v a l u a t i o n A c t i o n a n d Research Unit of t h e E x t e n s i o n Aids Branch. I t is on t h e b a s i s o f thls k i n d of i d o m a t i o n t h a t -se caii a k e some e s t i m t e s of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of both 59B a n d r e g u l a r a g r i c u l t u r s l extension; it would also Se p o s s r b l e t o pursue t h i s ~ n a l p s i s very much f u r t h e r and w r e t u r n co t h i s p o i n t i n our £ 1 -1 seaion. Xeasures o f output W e can s t a r t by a e a s u r i n g t h e outpuc of t h e E x t e n s i o a . %d i s Braanch. a i l e t h i s sa:ys n o t h i n g a b o u t e f f e c t i v e n e s s , i: does g i v e xs sose key information about t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e Sranch. T a b l e 5 sets our t h e amount of work done by : h e i r p r i n t d e - p a r t ~ n t 1972-1978. I T h e j r i n t i n g q u i p n e n t -Lil t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s deparemeoc f s o l d , and b o t h the !976 and 1375 r e p o r t s of the Branch r e f e r t o d e l a y s i n production because of t h e breakdo- of machines and d i f f i c u l t i e s Ln s e r v i c i n g thea. The ---A..mcZ r -- '- . - --- -A '-~i-- 3 . 3 ~ ~ ~ ,- --- x - Z ,-A - e s zlsc f : f c=:=:', 5; :?.o z-,z-zt cf ;.zrL ? - , z - i~ -.,'L-- - a= a r s n c h for o t h e r d e p a r r w n : ~ . n u s i n 1976, f o r &xarnple, the z d L i o r i a 1 s e c t i o n -as 'Lnvolved in e d i t i n g a d p r o o f r e a d l z g all p u b l i c a t i o n m a t e r i a l r e q u e s t e d by o t h e r d e p a r t n e n t s of t h e a n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e and N a t u r a l Resources, Th e Section w a s engaged ~ L t h p r o d u c t i o n o f a a t e r i a l s f o r "Zikomo finuzu Show", t h e Trade F a i r and t h e Malawi Congress P a r t y X a t i o n a l ow en ti on.' (Extenqion Aids Branch 1976, p. I ) . IZ is more d i f f i c u l t t o produce a s t a t i s t i c a l s r u a r a q OG t h e vork o f t h e n d i o section. T h e i r muaber of t r o a d c a s t i n g h o u r s have, however, remained c o n s t a n t c v e r t h e k s t two y e a r s a t a b o u t 3 hours p e r week ( i n q l u d i n g O p h i r i f o r which r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was s h a r d ) , 1-3/4 hour r e p e a t s o r about 156 h o u r s o f o r i g i n a l b r o a d c a s t i n g each p e a r . T a b l e 6 s e c s o u t the number of f i l m s produced o v e r tHe period 1972-78. T a b l e 7 sets o u t the a c t i v i t y of the m o b i l e u n i t s of t h e 3 r a n c h . These Cigures s h w only t h e a c t i v f t y of t h e m b i l e m i t s c o n t r o l l e d directly a t t h a t time by E x t e n s i o n A i d s Branch and not t h e w o r k of t h e u n i t s c o n t r o l l e d by -und Developaent Projects. NO f i g u r e s a r e a x a i l a b l e f o r the number of puppet shous o r t h e audiences a t t h e s e . It s e e s l i k e l y , b v e a e r , t*mt t h e r e w e r e a b o u t t h r e e t i s e e a s many p u p p e t shows a s f i l m shovs, m e a n n u a l a u d i e n c e f o r p u p p e t shovs -as p r o b b l y between o n e a n d two 3 i l L i o n p e o p l e a y e a r ; i t i s a l s o almost c e r t a i n t h a t a l a r g e r p r o p r t i o n oE :be a u d i e n c e e r e relatively - 1 1 c h i l d r e n . A t t h e Cirst puppet show we saw, f o r exacnple, ue e s t i z a t e d t h e a u d i e n c e a t 20 pen, 21) vomen, a n d 00 c h i l d r e n . The a u d i e n c e T h e r e i s l i t t l e info.= t i o n on t h e a u d i e n c e f o r E U ' s p r i n t e d materials- 7 i t h a l i t e r a c ~ r a t e cf 251, t h e = i n v a l u e of these mt l i e i n k e e p i a g t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e informed r a t h e r than i n camnuniczcirrg d i r e c c l g with t h e f a m r s . But i t is important t o s t r e s s that t h e a g a z i n e Za Achikumbi and the programme g u i d e s f o r r a d i o programmes a n d f o r t h e s o b i l e c i n e = vans a r e k e y planning d o c m n t s f o r the e x t e n s i o n o f f i c e r ' s rar!c, The vork of r e g u l a r face- to- face e x t e n s i o i i and t h e use of vans a n d r a d i o w u l d be s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d i f s u c h p u b l i c a t i o c s = r e n o t produced. Zvidence about r a d i o l i s t e n e r s h i p is r a t h e r f u l l e r . The Enit carried o u t a series of s t u d i e s o f r a d i o bemeen 1977 and 1979, a n d f o u n d that o n e t h i r d of f a c n e r s claimed t o L i s z e n r e g u l a r l y . They thought t h a t t h i s - a s p r o b a b l y a n oyerstacemenc, a n d t a l s o !aeu t h a t t h e i r samples uerie b i a s e d t o u a r d s men and towards the more d u c a : e d . ln t h e a r e a s i n uhirl- t h e y c a r r i e d o u t their s u r v e y , 20-304 of h o u s e h o l d s had r a d i o s , and a f u r t h e r 3040% l i s r c n e d f a i r l y o f t e n t o sogebady else's radio. F r m a k l d e r s k t of ELL9 s t u d i e s , L t seems t h a t 27% of f a m r s i n t h e i r samples had learnt a g r i c u l t n r a l i n f o r m a t i o n f i m r a d i o Drogrammes, Gausi (1978) found t h a t f e s k r p e o p l e mmeil r a d i o s i n u i n e L v i l l a g e s of Lilongwe Land 3evelopoent Prograzme & e r e h e c a r r i e d out h i g r e s e a r c h , and sriggested t h a t r a d i o m e r s h i p t h p r e uas o n l y 10%. m s c o n e s t e d with a n e a r l i e r s t u d y b j P h i r i ( 1975) vhi'ch s u g g e s t e d t h a t 22.5% of + o p l e had r a d i o s a n d 32.5% l i s t e n e d t o them. D i , s c u s s i o n s a t HBC s i g g s s ~ e dt b a t a g r i c u l t u r a l programmes -ere very popular. They :he=el;res n o t ? t h a t t h e s e E i ~ u r e ss a 7 be d i s t o r t e d by the r e s p o n d e n t s ' s i l s h t o be c o u r t ~ o u st o e n u s e r a t o r s from t h e !+inistry cf A g r t c u l t u r e . Sut 311 :n a l l , i c  n r CD e a ~ 1 m m ~ 5 r u ua c c ) V I c P u m u l - o w rl 6a JOh S h ? 9 a N _ % a _ d I e 8 -4 n a a rl H LlN i.N 0 P1-(V a- a h a P( - >a > 4 4 4.4 0 P ( C D r ' \ C 0 3 0 0 cD h c l 4 \fr Ub rl Q I- 0\ 4 A - " rl N fl - - r l m V I u w Q I 0 me I n c Y U - 8.4 2 I T. rl I 0 - * P- P ( r l . T I - W O N o\ .-I a -3 (7 4 I rl Q) a - O r ( N In 0 N C ? f l C I ( C V C I O I u In 4 m c y a r r ) G m a rl 0 ' 9:- %?", - fi rz - a3 3 ' QI mrircl h I N " I a0 rl 4 n u , " N . - Q\ J 4 CV N 0 ~ c n V I O . - 4 - t c o N 0 rO e VI N d C o C 7 N \ r 3 * r l , I 4 m 4 P- o e ~ m",4 4 I d QI rl rl 0 9 - y1 "I 0 W C D N 0 C1 w 0 3 4 G 3 9 N S\ c v P - a q L n * c ) 3 -7 LI o q n u 0 4 -rl P = o * - - r l . - 4 - ( l n a J o m c 3 A O h O r J r ( - - - I I 3 m QI 4 a m c - \ -u rl rl n ~ O \ N 0 J a CI s4 1. I- I Q -- m 4- r ( o o o \ - m e 4 a P r l 0 0 0 \ 0 I n u 0 a 0 y o - 0 " " " a 4 m C I w P- CI r ( \ D r ( N r ( c 3 e a - . . I P 0 rl 4 c-l EU 4 - 4 4 d m C V I I I P- CV G < O b O 0 3 t n " CV CI 9 4 CI b c. 4 C O O O I m G W O C V O - C i \ 0 3 9 A - 4 e r l C O I D h l - - A I I r( 4 a 4 ID fa l I 4 4 cl I 4 I 4 . e - I r\ e - " 5 ir 0 : s V 3 - 3 I I I I I I I I 4 -r( rU E u 3 C 4 I 2 0 3 - 0 1 J h ) V 3 I E u 0 4 - 4 U I 1221 seeres r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e that i n t h o s e p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y where m C ' s s i g n a l s a r e c l e a r l y r e c e i v e d , abouc 302 o f f a r n f a m i l i e s h e a r some of t h e ranch's b r o a d c a s t s . The f i g u r e s i n T a b l e 7 s u g g e s t t h a t n e a r l y a m i l l i o n p e o p l e a y e a r s e e f i l m s shoun a t o n e o f t h e mobile u n i t s . D r i v e r l o p e r a t o r s )ceep a r e c o r d o f a u d i e n c e numbers, a n d a c h e c k by t h e EAR u n i t c o n f i r m e d t h e a c b b r a c y of t h e i r e s t i m a t e s . The s h a r p d e c l i n e i n a u d i e n c e between 1977 a n d 1978 i s unexplained. E?C R C n i t s t u d i e s h v e a l s o shown t h t t h e r e is a considerable v a r i a t i o n I n the c o r a p o s i c i o n of t h e a u d i e n c e i n d i f f e r e n t v i l Q g e s 4 t h t h e p r o p o r t i o n of c h i l d r e n varying between 19 and 30%. T h e i r s t u d $ e s s u g g e s t t h a t a n o v e r a l l a v e r a g e v o u l d b e of t h e o r d e r of 32% aen, 2911 women^, a n d 399, children. U l ~ i l ea n earlier s t u d y s u g g e s t e d t h a t f i l m v a n s wre ra c h i n g a b o u t 1 0 % of t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n EAR s t u d y a t Zfanyamula i n t h e ~ z i m b a d i s t r i c c found k c h a t 'atrout h a l f t h o s e r e s p o n d e n t s l i v i n g a t or n e r r t h e f i l m hov s i t e a c t u a l l y attended t h e films'. (2-4R U n i t , n.d., p. 1 0 ) - A t h i d of t h e a u d i e n c e h e r e had n o t b e e n t o s c n o o l and a n o t h e r third had l e f s c h o o l a i o r b e f o r e S t a n d a r d 5 . I t seem r e a s o n a b l e to c o n c l u d e t h a t the s u c c e s s f u l in r e a c h i n g a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n poorer a s w e l l as x e a l t h i e r f a m i n g families. Me a d v a n t a g e s f o r c h i l d r e n i n l e a r n i n g somethlag of vans. And, i n vlew o f t h e f a c t t b a t a g r i c d t u r a l e r c l u s l v e l g t o w a r d s c e n and n o t :o m e n , t h e p r e s e n c e of van audience is i n p o r t a n t . I Did t h e y Learn a n y t h i n g ? I I I S t u d i e s by t h e EAR Unit shod t h a t m ny f a r s e t s u e r e Already f a x i l i a c v i t h v M t =s b e i ~ g t a u g h t by f i h or r a d i o . In a p r e t e s t of a fib t o b e used i n a campaign o n g r o v i n g cmfze, f o r a m p l e : I I I I I P r a c t i c a l l y a l l t h e r e s p o n d e n t s vho sari t h e i i l i u had g r o r , -mLie l a s t s e a s o n - C o r a p a r a t i v e l y f e v said t h a t t h e y had l e a r n e d any hing nev frcm the f i h ...- D u r i n g o u r t o u r of t h e test areas, i t beca c l a r t5at a a i z e s t o o k i n g is c a n m o d y ?.ractIsed s o t h a t , t o some e x t n t , t h e f i l m -as p r e a c ! i n g t o the converted- (ibid- p.4) I S i n i l a r l y , t h e i r n d i o s t u d y Found ~ ! r a t : I In t h e NO s a m p l e s of a u d i e n c e s beiag urged to p r e p a r e t h 4 i r g z r d e n s e a r l y , 301 a n d 402 r e s p e c t i v e l y s a i d t h a c t f -7 x e r e a l r e a d y d o i q so. S f d l a r l y , 24% a n d 60% were a l ~ e a d o o ' d n g t h e i r m a i z e , 35X a d 32% k a d s t~ I I used t h e recommended method o f d e t e r m i n i n g v h e n t o b a r v e s i c o t t o n , 33% had used bags when Isamescin*, a n d 15: bad z r i e d ~ c t e t l i c before. (EXR U n i t , 19791, p, 1 1 ) I When a p r a c t i c e i s a l r e a d y widespread. i t i s l a p o s s i k l e to d e e n n l n e j u s t b+y i t had b e e n a d o p t e d , o r to compare t h e c h n n e l s t h r m ? i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t ,it h a s been passed. 4 I =iiich 2 I - - I R- T h e EAR-unit drew t h e c o n c i u s i o n t h a t ' A d e c t s i o n s h h d ' i 4 e j o i n c l g by EA3 and t h e e x t e n s i o n s e n r i c e a s t o whecher i c i s a$?ioprfa:e :o c_.?--ri~ce 'cl ~ r c l z c h9217 r_h?se ~ S ~ Z =-V - :&e? S 1 7 0 k - c v C_?Z'_2 5 9 ~ 12%: ~ 35 fF.0 c a r g e e a u d i e n c e i s already conver~eci.~ (ibid) There is a ~urizherdiEflculi7 i n c h o o s i q t h e c o n t e n t of S U ' s work: c r o p s acd a g r i c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s . r a q from Qne ;\art of t h e c o u n t r y t o a n e t h e r , so t h a t a d v i c e -41ich is a p p r o p r ~ c e ' i n one p a r c of t h e country may n o t b e appropriate In another. Difficulties t h e r e f o r e a r i s e f o r t h e Branch i n running a n e f f e c t l - r e s e r v f c n n d f o r o u t s i d e r s in a s s e s s i n g i t s vork--and do s o v e r p l a r g e l y because of t h e I d i d a c t i c f o r s of much of i t s vork. A s t h e EAR U n i t s a y s : t.~ 'I Most of the m e s s a g e s i n t h e t e s t progra-s -+ere aimed ad. persuading t h e t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s t o adopt some p r s c c i c e (e.g- p r e p a r e gaddens e a r l y , p i c k c o t t o n a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n rules, a p p l y A c t e l l i c ) , 0£te/n t h e s e messages u e r e i n a p p r o p r l a t e - In so= c a s e s , t h e y s h p L y d i d s e c t i o n s of t h e t a r g e t a u d i e n c e (e-g. t h e :he of t h e o r famers d i d not use t k - s e t h o d s o r equipment x c ? t i o n e d ) , I n o t h e r c a s e s , t h e rec-ndat toas had a l r e a d y been a d o p t e d , o f t & by a b o u t a t h i r d of t h e t e s t audience o r w r e , F r e q u e n t l y , t o o , res~pondentss a i 3 4 t h a t t h e e s s a g e s I n t h e test p r o g r a m e s c o n t a i n e d n o t h i g they d i d r.ot already 'mw, (The e s s a g e s u e r e i n t h e s e c a s e s a p p a r e n t l y redundan.:.) ( m U n i t L979b, p. 2 ) T h e O n i t ' s vork h a s , hovever, shovn t h a t f a r m e r s can^, and d o , l e a r n b o t h from f i l n a n d frm radio. T e s t s of a f i l m on an a l i e m a t ~ i v t rway of p l a n t i n g m i l l e t to t h e t r a d i t i o ~ l s l a s h a n d burn t e c h n i q u e ( d i s o s ? ) found, f o r exacole: - I I - - - I Tuo t h i r d s of the respondents s a i d that they hzd l e a r n e d kcmething Erm t h i s f i l a (a such h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o r c b n f o r - he mize fibrn). of t h e s e b r e s p o n d e n t s , a Large j r o p o r t i o n ( n e a r l y t=ro t h i r d s ) s a i d t h a t they ;kid Learned a b u t p l a n t * . lg on r i d g e s . A auch s m a l l e r p r o p o r i - o n s a i d t h e y had Learned a b o u t t h e use o f f e r t i l i z e r - These r e s p o n s e s u e r e s u b s t a i l t i a l l y c o n f i m d by o u r o t h e r f i n d i n g s a s v f l l n o v be seen, .An important: s e t of z e s s a g e s i n t h e f i L a is concerned b i t p t h e m d e n a e t h o d s of p l a n t i n g f i n g e r m i l l e t . The a s s a g e s a r e L i s t together ~ i i h t h e number o r r e s p o n d e n t s *iho knew t h e n j e f a f t e r seeing t h e f i h . No, of r e s p o n d e n t s g i v l q c o r r e c t 9essage b e f o r e f i l m shou b f t e r f i l m show I ~ I (a) p h n t f i n g e r n i l l e t on I I ridges 9 18 '3) p h n t i n two d r i l l s ( c ) m a k e t h e d r i l l s 6 inchs - -I I 23 apart 0 4 3 ( d ) apply f e r t i l i z e r 3-4 c;eeks I I a f t e r germfnation 1 I 31 I (e) u s e s u l p h a c e a m n i a 3 I I 11 ( f )a p p l y a c t h e r a t e of 200 Lbs I I p e r acre 1 I 6 - I (g) r o t a t e ;rich o t h e r c r o p s 3 0 I I . (Total number of r e s p o p d e ~ c s= 52) I I I These f i g ~ r e s sueges: t h a t : he E i l x did ;ha~ea s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t -*ere sore mssages were corcerned ( a l t 5 s u g h -ze co?rld n o t ? r o v e : his  s t a t i s t i c a l l y in a l l cases). I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e recoanenda t i o n t h a t f i n g e r m i l l e t should b e p l a n t e d o n r i d g e s ( t h e v i s o s o method i n v o l v e s b r a a d c a s t i n g seed on f l a t b .ds) ws w e l l communicated. k'hereas o n l y 9 - o u t of 52 r e s p o n d e n t s knau t h i s b e f c r e t h e f f h , t h e s a j o r t t y d i d so a f tsrvark ( E M U n i t , p.d., p- 5) The f i l m was l e s s successful i n c o a m n u a i ~ t i n gt h e oore c c m p l i c a t e d ecologi-1 arguments f o r a b a n d c d n g t r a d i t i o c a l methods of c u l t i v a t i o n , S i m i l a r l y , s t u d i e s of t h e r e c a l l of i n f o k m a t i o n i n r a d i o p r o g r a m showed t h a t 65% of responder.ts - . r e a b l e t o give c b r r e c t r e s p o n s e s tc s e v e n q u e s t i o n s r e q u i r i n g s i n g l e responses o n a t e s t programme. As one would exrpect, l o v e r r e s u l t s were obcairred on s u l t i p l e r e b p o n s e q u e s t i o n s ( e . g - 'hi r e a s o n s d i d t h e announcer g i v e f o r p r - = r i n g your b r d e n s e a r l y ? ' ) (Ea, 1979a. p. 9). F w of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s c o u l d rwernbbr a l l t h e arguments s t a t e in a p r o g r a m - a f i n d t n g k-hich is c o n s i s t e n t u i t h o t h e r r a d i o s t u d i e s elsewhere. Buc t h e s e s t u d i e s , designed t o i m p r o v e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e Branch's m a t e r i a l s r a t h e r t b n a s part of a media e s e a r c h programme, c o n f i r t b t the ~ e t h c d s can be s u c c e s s f u l i n cooumrnicati w i t h farmers. I n a number of s t u d i e s , t h e E 1 K Unit h a s a s k e d farmers h e r e t h e y 9 o b t a i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n about q g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n . T h e r e s u l t s a r e shovn i n Appendis 3. . 4 s u u o a r y of t h l s c a b l e s u g g e s t s t h e k e s u l c s i n T a b l e 8. I TaSle 8 : Sources of i i l f o n a t i o n t o farmers I Source Pe rcer>o,e bf f a r n e r s I Extension u o r h r bdio F i Lm Puppets Za Xchikumbi -4ttendance a t c o u r s e Otber 1 ( T o t a l a d d s to mre than 100 a s mre t h a . o n e s o u r c e n e n t i o n e d by some r e s p o n d e n t s )- These f i g u r e s must be t r a c e d w i t h c a u t i n- Lf as-ked a q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e s o u r c e of i n f o r n a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y by a n dnumerator frm t h e XrLi.;t % of A g r i c u l t u r e , r . r ? s p o d e n t s a r e Likely t o mention q a ~ t i - ~ i t ia es t e -rr o t h e r of its s t h e source. .%,.re w i l l s e e i n t h e n =t s e c t i o n , many f a r n e r s have L i t t l e d i r e c t c o n t a c t -&th e x t e n s l o a a g e n t s arpd tiie i a f u e n c e of e..tensij v o r k r s w y w e l l be o v e r - s t a t e d by t h e s e f i g u r e s . B u t . f o r & a t t h e y a r e w o r t h , t h e y s u g g e s t t h a t radio i s used as a s o u r c e o f t d o r r ; l a c i c o cn 4 a g r i c u l t u r e by a b o u t t h e .jam ? r o p o r t i o n 3f t h e po u f a t i o n as i t i s r e a c h i n g . The n o b i l e cinema vans a r e r e a c h i n g a b t 2 X of t h e popu2a:ion EL y e c , and s c m e t k i n g l i k e half that nlmber a r e L e a r r i n g soiwthing from t h e -ar?'s programme-a high qroporcion i f ve bear i n d n d t h a t z i ~ mouths y or e a r s a t e l i k e l y t o e l a p s e b r ' o r e a f i l m van r e v i s i t s any cne ;rillage. I T h e r e i s one f i n a l y i o t w d ? ?hm_lt/ 1e3-fFi=,* C + n . e g l l . ) r , cp rti .-I l a r n =st e f f e c t i v e l y i f xe enjoy doing so. The Unit studies shoved ~h both r a d i o p r o g r a m s , a s w e saw, a n d t h e Branch's f i l m s a r e enjoyed. Xudiences uacch t h e f i l m show- - and indeed t h e puppet shovs- with i n t e r e s t and c o n c e n c r a t i o n - A g r i c u l t u r a l films a r e popular: i n t h e i t ?fan).amula s t u d y , the u d . t found t h a c ' t h e f i l m o r f o o t l a l l =s t h e b e s t l i k e d e n t e r t a i m e n t f i l m , but i t s t i l l took t N r d p l a c e cv the f i l s on m i z e and visoso' ( E a U n i t . , a-d., p. 10). This m t c h e s c l o s e l y w f t h e-xperience i n Kenya %here a f i b on the s a i z e s t a l k b o r e r proved t h e most popular id a mixed p r o g r a m ( P o t t s and Troughear, 1977)- . A nd i t f i t s with o u t o m observation: t h e audience a t Wimbe seerned t o e n j o y m s c a n old n e s i s r e e l of f o o t b a l l , t o which the d r i v e + / o p e r a t o r a d d 4 his o m l i c e commentary i n Chicheua, turning d o m t h e E n g l i s h commentary on =he t i l m and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f i l s . W e can sun up then t h a t , w h i l e f i l s and rzdio programmes a l i k e a r e c a r r y i n g s l o t of i d o m t i o n vhicn is a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r t o f a w e r s , they can conapunicate e f f e c t i v e l y - SEudies h a v e shown Chat Earners do Learn from b a t h these n e d i a , t h a t both a r e s i g n i f i - n t a s sources of ; g r T c u l t u r a l i d o r m a t i o n , and t h a t they a r e popular. A c a n p r i s o n w i t h t h e vcfc of e x t e n s i o n o f f i c e r s We c a n m k e s u e rough conrparisons bet-deen t h e vork of "c a n d t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e e x t e n s i o n s z r v i c e - Huch of the d e t a i l e d evidence a b o u t t h e work of c ~ t e n s i o n ~ o r k e r scomes from the ( f o m e r ) LLDP where t h e r e have k e n l n r e c e a t y e a r s 500 farmers t o each e x t e n s i o n o f c i c e r ; i n o t h e r parts o f t h e coun:ry t h e r a t i o was r e p o r t e d i n 1 9 7 5 as 1: 1200-1300 (Lele 1975, p. 56), ar.2 p o r e r e c e n t l y a s 1:!400-2400 (liorld %nk 1380, p. 28). O n average, for t h e c c u n t v a s a whole, t h e f i g u r s appears t o l i e between 500 aad 790. r e must ! ass- t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n of 'nrmers v i s i t e d by e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s oyltside t h e dci-.lopmenX p r o j e c t a r e a s is s u b s t a n t L a l l y l o v e r than t h e LLDP figl-res. W i t h i n LLDP, i n 1978j79, o n l y 30% o f groundnut growers =ere ~ i v e n extension a d v i c e (though 43': had received a d v L c e i n t h e p r e v l m s y e a r ) (!ADD E v a l u a t i o n U n i t L980b, t a b l e 15), 30% of F a m e r s had a t t e n d e d a day t r a i n i n g c e n t r e a n d 37 both, k*ile 61% had n o t a t t e n d e d one a t alL ( W D Evaluation Unait, n - d . , t a b l c 6). T o t a l annual a t t e n d a a c e a t Cay c e n t r e s h a s been e s t i m t e d a t 70,000 s t u z n c days; 7,000-10,000 s e n and 5,000 t o 7,OCO women a t t e n d a r e s i d e u t i a l c e n t r e i n a y e a r (World Sank 1980, p - 30). Despite t h e f i g u r e s quoted i n t h e prevl'ous s e c t i o n , from Ea's e v a l u a t i o n vork, w e can assume t h a t mst f a r m e r a have 30 c o a t a r t w i t 5 a n cxt.ension a g e n t even $ t h i n LLDP. Outside LLDP, %he p r o p c r t i o n of farmers having c o n t a c t s v i t h e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s is much lower, .Xccording t o t h e d ata from Annex A, a r o u n d l0L of f a r a a r s i n the t-io s a m p l e s ;w-~e been v i s i t e d f o r t h e p a s t 12 zmnths. - We a l s o have s o w e,$dence about t h e f a m r s vho are i n touch w Z t n - e c e n s i o n a g e n t s - F i i s t , few Domeo g e t h e l p a s Uo;a L e l e p o i n t s o u t : - ~xtension a g e n t s although, I n m n y t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i c i e s , i t i s t h e custom f o r t h e xomen to p r o v i d e che m j o r sr~!..xrt f o r t h a s e l v e s aild t h e i r c h i l d r e n , e i t h e r by s u p p l y i n g t h e family v i c h hone-grokn f o o d , o r by o b t a i n i n g cash through :he s a l e of :heir okn produce. Perhaps an e v e n more ispoccant i n d i c a t i o n of t h e woman's r o l e i n a g r i c u l t u r e Is t i e f a c t that a l a r g e percectage o : rural households i s h-ded by voclen.  . k g r i d t u r a l e x t e n s i o n programues have f r e q u e n t l y overlooked the i u p o r t a n c e of voeen, b o t h a s major c o n t r i b u t a r s to t h e farm Labour s u p p i p as s i g n i f i c a n t ~ ~ a i b lre ya d v i nners. (Lele 1975, p- 77) She r e p o r t s also that i n ? b l a u i 35?1 of r u r a l households are headed by v e n (ibid). There is also some e v i d e n c e f r a n LLDP that farmers v i t h L a r g e r h o l d i n g s e r e -re l i k e l y to r e c e i v e c r e d i t from t h e p r o j e c t a n d t o have c o n t a c t u i t h e x t e n s i o n ( W D E v a l u a t i o n U n l t 1979, p. 3; and Annex A ) . S h f l a r l y , t h o s e a t t e n d i n g c o u r s e s tended t o be Eawers *with h r g e r h o l d i n g s acd v i t h m r e education (ibid). -2s v5t.h nuny o t h e r e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s , t h a c of Halad tends. to v i s i t t h e w e a l t h i e r r a t h e r t h a n t h e poorer f a n n e r s , I n t h e a b s e c c e of local s t u d i e s , ve a n r o t est-tsate t h e p r o p o r t i o n oE t h e time d t i c h e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s spend i n toucn v i t h farmers, n o r t h e number of f a r m e r s they c o a t a c t . S t u d i e s i n Kenya, h e r e t h e e x t e n s i o n semice sas o r g a n i s e d o n l i n e s very s i d l a r t o t h a t o f &laui, s u g g e s t e d t h a t e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s d g h t s p e d o n l y 2.9 d a y s a week v i s i t i n g Farmers, a r d t h a t e a c h probably v i s i t x i f e w r than two f a r m f a d l i e s i n a day (Leonard 1977, p, 32). I f f i g u r e s of t h i s kind w e r e -.?plied t o ?blavi, t h e y would = o n f i r m t h a t v e r y zany of the c o u n t r y ' s 850,000 farm f a m i l i e s have no chance of k i u g v t s i t e d by e x t e n s i o n agents. And t h e r e i s L i t t l e chance of i n c r e a s i n g d r a m t i c a l l y t h e number of e x t e n s i o n agetits: i t proved Lmpossible t o r e a c h t h e planned r a t i o s of 1 :ZOO e v e n v i t h i n t h e development p r o j e c t a r e a s - Concerning t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l e x c e n s i a n , t h e r e a r e two s t u d i e s , An LLDP scudy found a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t t o n b e m e e n e x t e n s i o n c o n t a c t a s d t h e production o f h y b r i d maize (+ 0 - 3 , s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 0 - 0 5 Level), b u t n o s i g u i f i c a n t c o r r e h t i o n f o r e i t h e r local m i z e o r g r o u n d n u t s (LXDD E v a l t r a t i o n Unic 1979, p- 1). I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e r e - a s also a c o r r e l a t i o n between befog a wuman f a r m e r and y i e l d of b o t h l o c a l a n d h y b r i d m i z e <+ 0.3 i n b o t h c a s e s , s t 0-02 a n d 0.05 l e v e l s r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . This Ls u n l i k e l y t o have been t h e r o s l l l t of e x t e n s i o n c o n t a c t ; r a t h e r , i t is s u g g e s t e d t h a t f z m i l i e s ,with a uoman as t h e head of harsehold a r e u n l i k e l y t o have enough labour t o c u l t i v a t e t o b a c c o , so that rmize is a more i m p o r t a n t crop f o r t h e n t h a n f o r may h o u s e h o l d s u i t h male heads, In t h e c a s e of grmndnucs. v h ew e x t e n s i o n ' s a d v i c e c o n c e n t r a t e d on r l d g i n g , weeding. a n d t h e s e l e c t i o n of r h e &st v a r i e t y f o r c u l t i v a t i o n ( p l a n t p o p u l a t i o n ) , Table 9 shous t h a t h a r d l y any farmers needed a d d c e on the f i r s c two p o i n t s ; o n p l a n t p o p u l a t i o n , s l i g h t l y l e s s than t v i c e a s m n y f a r m e r s u b had r e c e i v e d e s t e t s l o n a d v i c e =re f o l l o w i n g recorm~ended p r a c t i c q a s *ere t h o s e sr-ho had r e c e i v e d none- But 861 had r e c e i v e d n o a d v i c e a n d %me of t h e e n e r g y c h a t -sent i n t o g i v i n g a d v i c e a b o u t r i d g i n g and weeding d g h t have e n betcer spent - on t h e q u e s t i o n of p l a n t p o p u l a t i o n . According t o . - e x i n c r a s e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e p r o d u c t i o n ( l a n d t a k e o $pstant), A, e z t e n s i o n e q o s u r e and i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y Lo g r c u a s h c r o p s ( g t o u n d n u t s , c o t t m a n d t o b c c s ) , and n o t a t t h e expense o f s u b s i s ~ e n c ec r o p s .  T a b l e 9: l a t e r a c t i o n k t w e e n groundn=t farmers and e x t e n s i o n agents, LLDP OK, no a d v l c e OK a d v i c e Not OK, no a d v i c e N o t OK, advit 2 Weeding OK, no a d v l c e OK, advice bot OK, no a d v i c e h'or OR, a d v i c e OK, no a d v i c e OK, advice NOC OK, no a d v i c e Not OK, a d v f c e ions (n) T o t a l o b s e r t~ 7 28 504 Source: LXDD E v a l m t i o n Unit (1980a), t a b l e 10. T h e r e is, t h e r e f o r e , r e a s o n t o have some r e s e r v a t i o n s about t h e e f f i c a c y of the d a y - t o G a y work cf e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s , I n h i s revtsw o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e i s p a c t of a t e u s i o n s e r v i c e s worlduidc, O r t v e l (1981) shous t h a t , according t o most s t u d i e s , e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s have c o n t a c t with a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f f a r m e r s , and rhe exposed Zanaers have 'nigher p r o d u c t i v i t p o n l y in h a i l of t h e s t u d i e s . That does n o t gean t h a t i n v e s t m e n t i n e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s a r e n o t c o s t - - e f f e c t i v e ( r a t e s of r e t u r n e s t h a t e s k v e r a t h e r high values), but that e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s have real d i f f i c u l t i e s t o r e a c h r a p i d l y ' t h e mass of f a r m e r s a d t k t t h e r e is a b i a s in t h e r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s - W e vfll look next at t h e c o s t s , both of EAB a n d of e x r e n s i o n s c a f f , i n o r d e r t o see how f a r t h e y c a n be ccxppared i n c o s t , a n d ubat p o l i c y c o o c l u s i o n s one d g h t draw a b o u t t h e u s e o f both s t y l e s of e m e n s i o n work, The E x t e n s i o n -lid5 Branch o r g a n i z e s a v a r i e t y o f a c r i v i c i e s and its ovn a c c o m t s do aoC- a t t r i b u k e x p e n d i t m e a c t i v i r y by a c t i v i t y . U s i n g t h e i r ? - 1980 budge^, w e have t h e r e f d r e c a l ~ d a t e d t h e c o s t s on a nmber of assumptfons srhich ue summarize h e r e , b e f o r e looking i n d e u i l a t t h e c o s t s For e a c h kind o f work. A l l c o s t s a r s divided betueen c u r r e n t c o s t s , s u c h a s s t a f f s a l a r i e s , v e h i c l e f u e l o r pzper; and c a p i t a l c o s t s , such as mobile vans o r b u i l d i n g s . I n o r d e r t o - a r k o u t a t o t a l a n n u a l c o s t , rie need to add c a p i t a l c o s t s t o recurrent. This t s done, u s i n g s t a n d a r d c o s t a c c o u n t i n g methods, by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e e q u i v a l e n t of a n annual r e n t o n c a p i t a l a s s e t s and a d d i n g i t  t o the recurtent c o s t s . this, see Janisoo, - Klees and Wells (1978) ) . (For a hiller discussiozl o f V e 'have seen t h a t EBB'S act i v i t i r s c a n u s e f u l l y b e c o n s i d e r e d under four h e a d i n g s : r a d i o , w b i l e vans, p r i n t , and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n . I t is t h e n p o s s i b l e t o a l l o c a t e t h e c o s t s or' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and e v a l - a t i o n t o t h e f i r s t t h r e e of these, and ve do t h i s in t a b l e 11 belov. C o s t s h a v e been c a l c u l a t e d i n X a l a w i Kuacha, e q u i v a l e n t t o US $ 1 . 2 0 i n 1980. The E ;ia budget d o e s n o t break s t a f f c o s t s doun i n t o d e p a r t m e n t s , a l t h o u g h ve d o h a v e t h e wages f o r d r i v e r s and p u p p e t i e r s i n t h e mobile u n i t s . Assuming t h a t , o t h e r w i s e , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of g r a d e s of s t a f f i s much t h e same i n each s e c t i > n , v e c a n a l l o c a t e t o t a l s t a f f c o s t s t o t h e d i E f e r e a t s e c t r o n s . The t o t a l s a l a r y b i l l is K135 000 f o r e s t a b l i s h e d s t a f f a n d K l Z 500 f o r n o n - e s t a b l i s h e d s t a f f . Ue h a v e a l l o c a t e d 8Z o f t h i s t o t h e r a d i o s e c t i o n , 402 t o t h e m b i l e u n i t , 32% t o p r i n t , and 232 t o a d m i a i s t r a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n . The h e a d q u a r t e r s b u i l d i n g is 1 3 650 f t z ( 1 288 m 2 ) . A t the ~ i m e of o u r v i s i t , b u i l d i n g c o s t s were K22 p e r E C * . M e have t h e r e f o r e v a l u e d t h e b u i l d i n g st 1980 K300 0 0 0 and a l l o c a t e d t h i s c o s t i n t h e s a n e p r o p o r t i o n s as we have a 1l o c a t e d t h e s t a f f c o s t s . Ue have used t h r e e d i s c o u n t r a t e s r o a w r t i z e c a ? i t a l c o s t s - O Z , 7.51, and 15L - and h a v e assumed t h a t b u i l d i n g s have a l i f e o f 50 y e a r s ; v e h i c l e s , a l e c t r u u i c m a t e r i a l a n d c a a e r r ; , 4 y e a r s ; f u r n i t u r e and p r i n t i n g e q u i p n e n t , 13 y e a r s . The Cost of r a d i o W's b r o a d c a s t s a r e w r i t t e n and produced by t h e i r ovn s t a f f , b u t a r e t h e n recorded i n t h e L i l o n p ~ e s t u d i o s o f M a l a w i S r ~ a d c a s t i n gC o r p o r a t i o n (XBC) and b r o a d c a s t tbrcbugh t h e i r network o f e i g h t t r t n s m i t t e r s . We have t h e r e f o r e caL- c u l a t e d t h e i r c o s t s by t a k i n g W ' s c o s t s a n a a d d i n g t o thein a f i g u r e f o r %C's t r a n s s i s s i o o c o s t s . ?IgC had i n 1980 c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e i r c o s t s were K840 p e r hour: t h i s i n c l u d e d a r c o t t i z a t i o n o f t5e c a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e 5 r o a d c a s c i n g ser- v i c e , s t a f f ina, a n d r t ~ n n i n gc o s t s , d ~ . dn o t i o n a l l o s s e s o f a d v e r t i s i n g revenue. . I I t i s t h u s a s i g n i E i c d n t l y h i g b e r f i g u r e t h a n t5e m a r g i n a l , o r a b o v e tifk l i n e , c o s t o f t e n u s e d i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c o s t s of eOucatCona1 b r o a d c a s t s . Knowing t h a t E?LB b r o e 3 c z ~ r s 232 h o u r s a y22r, we c a n now produce 5 r o a d c a s t i n g c o s t s i n :he £ o m shown i n t a b l e 10.  Table 10: Cost of W i o Recurrent: Personnel Sound tapes Narrators T r a v e l s/ Miscellaneous >BC b r o a d c a s t i n g c o s t s b/ 1 Total recurrent cost 213 sod ___------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Capital: - - OIL - 7-52 -1% Vehicles a/ 3 470 4 150 5 050 Building 380 1 850 3 603 Recording m a t e r i a l E_/ 2 000 2 392 2 SO0 Total c a p i t a l cost 5 850 8 397 11 453 T o t a l Yearly Cost 219 350 2 2 1 892 7 2 4 953 - ------ ---- ---- --- --------------------------- --- -------- ------------------------- U n i t Cost: P e r hour P e r f a r m e r - l i s t e n e r per y e a r d/ P e r farmer- l i s t e n e r per hour - a/ Assuming 1/15 of v e h i c l e s c o s t i n EAB - b/ Assuming 232 hours a y e a r at K840 p e r hour - c/ l Recording r ~ a t c r i a'has a purchase v a l u e o f K8 000 - d/ We have t a k e n a' c 8 n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e of t h e audience o f 300 000 persons, o r a b o u t one person in each o f 301 o f t h e t o t a l number of farming house- h o l d s i n Fala-xi. * l o s t o f some K219 000 - 225 COO (about U S Thus,we c+ s e e t h a t f o r a t o ~ a c $260 000); X a l a v i c a reach a t l e a s t 300 000 f a n n e r s by r a d i o Eor 4% hours. a veek thr_oou&out t h e year. OE t h i s f i g u r e , o n l y about K20 000 - 25 000 a p p e a r s i n t h e Subget of EAB. - ! e - r - Ttme C g s t o f m o b i l e units A s w have seen t h e r e are three w j o r a c t i w i t i e s i a v o l v h g the mobile vans: the m;lring o f f i l r a s (and a t m ~ c hl e s s c o s t r.he d e v e l o p ~ of t puppet plays), t h e shoving of fh, and the shok-hg of puppet p k y s . Le havz included all t h e s e c o s t s in Table l l , but t h e n separated t h e c o s t s f o r fil;a shows f r o p t h e c o s t s of puppet p l a y s on t h e n e c e s s a r i l y a r b i t r a r y b a s i s t k three--ters o f the c o s t s t o 'be c b r g e d are f o r f i l m s h u s and o n e quarter f o r p-et shcn3. We c a r sumzxize Table iL b y saying t h a t f o r a t o t a l cost: oE b e m e e n K205.000 and 244.C00 (US$250,000-300,000). t h e EAB can run sor;be 12 v s a s , p r c v i d e them v i t h fflns, and show t h e s e f i l m s t o h a l f a million a d u l t s a y e a r , while s h a r i n g puppet p l a y s t o t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a million, and also a t t r a c t i n g s i g n i f i c a n t a u d i e c c e s o f children. A single mobile van c o s t s b e m e e n R17,000 and K20.000 a year and can be expected t o givc soree 1 %) film shovs a d 300 p l p p e t shows in a year. The c o s t of p r i n t T h e p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s produced by EAB are d i s t r i b u t e d b o t h t o f a r m e r s and t o m e n s i o o w r k e r s , v t f c h makss i t rmre d i f f i c u l t t o calculate a uult c o s t . Test books, bulletins, b o o k i e t s and c i r c u l a r s go mainly t o exrencion a g e n t s , but t h e magazine S c W i g o e s t o 2,000 extensicm s t a f f and t o 3 0 , 0 0 0 ' f a r ~ ~ r s . If w e assume that half t h e c o s t s should be a t t r i b u t e d t o chese 30,000 f a m r s and t h e o t h e r h a l f t o t h e e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s , t b e n w e need t o add this l a t t e r half t o t h e c o s t s of t h e e x t a s i o n sew!-ces (see h e x A ) - The u n i t c o s t f o r each L i t e r a t e f a m r is t h e n betwen K2.00 and K2.40 r i e t h e m u d expmditure on p r i n t i n g i s b e t w e n K120,000 and 140,000 (US$140,000-176,000). T h e c o s t s a r e s e t o u t in Table 12.  t 0 . C? - 1 l-. O \ I c 4 . b . - 0c3m a n d CDmF(mC? -<""y C D 4 O O C c 4 I 000 0 - 1 anmoa3.x C O O uc0.n 0 r. r J I C D I I Q>clCldd c4 - - O O G - D A l-. - 1 \O 0 1 N - I C O O O O 0 0 0 0 0 4 d l O C O ~ - m C D I N I - I :Zg 2 ti- u n  T a b l e 12: Cost of Print Recurrent: Personae1 Paper Print I n k , chemicals Stationery Photo ~iscellaneous T o t a l Recurrent C o s t lis 200 -- 12 000 . . . . - - Less Revenue Ner Total Recurrenr c ~ s t 106 200 Capital: - 0% - 7.52 - 1 5X Printing machines a/ 3 600 5 256 7 1% Suilding 1 920 7 399 1G 413 T o t z l C a p i t a l Cost 5 520 12 655 21 577 Total 1 1 1 720 118 855 127 777 a t t r i b u t e d to: 30 000 E a m r s 55 860 59 427 63 888 e x t e n s i o n staff (3) 55 860 59 427 63 888 3nit c o s t for 30 000 farmers 1.86 1-98 2.13 - a/ Replac-nt c o s t has been e s t i m a t e d a t K12 00@ p e r - c h i n e I The c o s t of evaluation a d admidstration The r e m a i n i n g c o s t s a r e f o r a d m i n i s c r a t i u c and e v a l u a t i o n a n d are set out in T a b l e 13- Table Us CosC l ~ of ~ s ~ r a t and u Eva luation Unit: 1980 Khachas - - Recurrent Personnel Plisce l l a n e o u s Capi tal Furniture B u i l u i :?g Total 34 600 38 LO4 45 379 If we s h a r e these c o s t s b e t u e e n t h e o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s o f E.S, u s i n g t h e sane p r o p o r t i o n s as we d i d f o r t h e staff c o s t s , c h e z w e i n c r e a s e t h e c o s t s Eor e a c h a c t i v i t y as show i n T a b l e I b . 3e c a n t h e n s u m m a r i s e t h e f i g u r e s by s a y i n g t h a t f o r a c o c a 1 a n n u a l sum, i n c l u d i n g r e n t on t h e c a p i t a l and a f u l l s h a r e o f t h e c o s t s of b r o a d c a s t i n g i n c u r r e d b y ?BC o f b e t r r s e n R575 000 and 6&5 0 0 0 ( U S $680 0 0 0 - 775 0 0 0 ) . t h e EXB: - c a n r e a c h a b o u t 540 000 a d u L t s w i t h f i l m s and 750 000 w i t h puppet p l a y s ; - ' c a n p r o v i d e 4% h o n r s b r o a d c a s t i n g a v e e k w h i c h r e a c h e s n e a r l y one E a r n e r i n three; - c a n p r o v i d e p r i n t e d s u p p o r t i n a t e r i a l t o some 3 0 000 l i t e r a t e E a r n e r s , and t o e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s t h r o u g h o u t Che c o u n t r y .  Table 14: for Artministration m d Z v a l c a t i o n C o s L s including C h a r ~ e Rate Kav A d d i t i o n Hew T o t a l Nev U n i t X - for Eva- Cost Cost luation & Adrainis - t r a t i o n 51 Radio p f o b i l e Unit - total 0 7.5 15 H o b i l e Unit - Films 0 7.5 15 Mobile Unit - Puppets 0 7.5 15 T o t a l (311 sedia) 0 7.5 15 Hotes : - a/ 10': r a d i o , 5 0 % ' n o b i l esmit, 40% p r i n t - b/ Per farper p e r hour - C/ Per adulr p e r hour - . Per adult member o z audience - G/ - e/ Per L i t e r a t e farmec' receiving t h e a a t e r i a l ! @ II  Comparison w i t h e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s If w e take as a - le of c o s t of extension s e r v i c e s in Development Division, vhich c o u n t s 169 t h o s e of t h e Lilangve A g r i c ~ l l t u r a l f i e l d assistats and 4 0 farm hoEse i n s t r u c t r e s s e s . ve can conpare the c o s t s of EAB activities vith t h o s e of e x t e n s i o n v f s i t s , as i n 'Cable 15. Table LS: a/ Cost of e s t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s in L4DW , ~ hit: 1930 Kvachas Recurrent: Personnel Vehicles ' o p e r a t ion Building = i n c e n a n c e M i .cellanmus Total Securrent Cast 436 400 Capital: auilding Vehicles T o t a l C a p i t a l Cost 62 000 2 2 5 380 447 600 I T O T S COST 498 400 5 6 2 180 ~ 8 < 000 -----------------------------------------------------------J--------------------- Unit Cost ( p e r f i e l d a g e n t ) - b/ 2 3% 3 168 4 181 I Unit CostfWith p r i n t e d material 2 $15 3 202 4 218 (on t h e b a s i s of 2 0 0 0 a g e n t s I receiving t h i s n a t e r i a l ) I Notes: - a/ D e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s o f c o s t s appear i n Annex 3 . I - b; There are 209'field agents I -4s we have no r e l i a b l e d a t a or the n d 2 r of v i s i t s p a i d t a Earmers by each agent d a r i n g a year, w e have docc a c o s t s i r m l ~ i o n foe t h e range oE 1 hour v i s i r s bet;re+i: 53 and 500; and c h i s i s show- i n tabl; 15. Lleonard (1977, D . 3 2 ) d found t h a t ia the, b r o a d l y s i l a a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e a s i c a d e n i c e i n Kenya, , s x t e n s i o n agents v i s i t e d 20-3 f a r a e r s a m a t h . be r e a l i s t i c . Ass-ing - * e th average v i s i t Cook 1% hours, t h i s s u g g e s t s t n a t a f i g u r e of b e t u e e a 30V and 4a0 c o n t a c t hours would l  - 33 - Table 16: Cost of estsnsion visits Unit: 1980 Kvachas Discount Rate/ No. of V i s i t s 50 75 100 200 300 LOO 500 We can n o w slmmarise t h e coscs of b o t h LB and e x t e n s i o n s k r v i c e s g e n e r a l l y , uhich I w e do in table 17. - . . - Service Total Per F a r m 3 s Z of T o t a l Family - g; 1 . A g r i c u l t u r a l E x c e n s ion b/ 4970000 5.230 7i.S 2. F z m e r T r a i n i n g Centre (RE. iden- t i a l ) b/ - 517 000 0.544 3.1 3 . Farmer T r a i n i n g Centre (Day) b/ 270000 0.254 4.2 &. Radio (EAB) 5. % b i l e v a n s (EXB) X o v i e 6. Nobile vaos (EBB) Puppec 7 . Printed m a t e r i a l ( E M > Notes : 9 'i a/ Assuming 959 000 farrier; - - - b/ See table 1 and A M ~ X B - L - ! ?  CONCLUSIONS EAB i s a w e l l establisked. p a r t of t h e e x t e n s i o n s e n i c e -of H a l a d . I t is no l a g e r a n experiseatdl projecc- Thus, i t h a s a zrkalth or' e r p e r i e n c e ukichndces i t p o s s i b l e t o draw f i r m c o n c l u s i o n s about its york and i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r a g r i c u l t u r e in W a d . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h 4n its e f f e c t s vould b e p o s s i b l e and vould be asisted by the v a r i e t y and h i g h b u a l i t y o f t h e o t h e r r e s e a r c h work khich i s going on LLt h e a r e a s o f a g r i c u l t u r / d . extension axi e c o n u d c s in Halavi. In t h e - t h e , u s can r e g a r d zs r o p u s t l y z s t a b f i s h e d t h r e e major c o n c l u s i o n s : succeeds i z ~ contacting f a m f - s a t a v e q lov c o s t is comparison with orthodox extension =tho&; it ha+ fcund t h a t r a d i o i s e s p e c i a l l y cheap; farmers do b e n e f i t from EtlB1s a c t i v i b i e s . I We hzve s e e n that t h e c o s t per c o n t a c t hour is $ c h lower f o r W's film, puppet p l a y s or r a d i o broadcasts than f o r c o n t a c t - t h an u r t e n s i o a o f f i c e r . The atrdienccs f o r EBB'S z o b i l e vans i n c l u d e a s i w i i c z n t p r o p o r t i o n of v o w n a n d there i s no rzason t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p o o r e r f a r n e r s are exclu- ded from t h e a u d i e n c e . Y e a l s o a s s m e t h a t t h e r e are /.=i&fi:ant numbers of r i who h e x t h e i r r a d i o prograanes, although t-e d o have figures f o r these, I f ue u s e a 7.5% i n t e r z s c r a t e , t h e c o s t s p e r c Radio Mobile u n i t - f i l r r s Mobile unit - puppets %s KQ.QC32 ($0- 03U) KG.L&O KO-069 ($0-16S) t ( $ 0 - 823) Extention agents KS-'a1 ($9 - 0-13.20) Thus, t h e mobile u n i t i s 44 times a s expensive as r a d i o , l r exrension Lp a g e n t s c o s c 55 t o 8 0 times as mch as thz m b i l e u n i t . Ex I e m i o n s e r v i c e s are 2,500 t o 3,500 t imes as expensive as r a d i o . I Despize t h e s e dramatic d i f f e r e n c e s in c o s t s , t h e k e is evidence t b . t 1 farrcers l e a r n from r a d i o and from m b i l e vans. khj.le ( c f . t a b l e 8) 6 7 4 of f a r m e r s may have u s e d t h e i r extension a g e n t as a s o u r c e o f i n f o m a t i o n , 2 7 f r e p o r r e d thzt- they u s e d t h e r a d i o programme. E ~ e n i f t h e r *re s e v e r e L i m i t s un t h e amount of i n f o m a t i o n d e r i v e d f r m r a d i o pro aimes, i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o resist Ehe conclus5m that t'ie b r ~ a d c a s t s- ;e e highly cosc e f f e c t i v e - Tke importance a t t z c h e d to r a d i o by f a m r s p a allell; findings elsewbere, Yazidu (n.d., pp. 47-8) found in 1971, f o r e Is. t b a c n e a r l y b A f , h e f a n n e r s h e surveycd i n n o r t h e r n N i g e r j a regarded adio as t h e m s t ' iinportant source o f a g r i c d . r u r r l i n f o m t i m . ' ~ C It is i m p o r t a n t t o q u a l i f y c h i s cooclusion. W e b ud l not a r p e for a b a n d d g t h e u s e of m o b i l e vans, simply because radib p r o v x c h e a p e r . Tnere a r e theoretical and p r a c t i c a l a r g m e n t s f o r a s k g a Par:ety of media, t r a t h e r t h a n j u s t one. iihile p r i n t , for cx;mrols, t a k e s a v ry l a r g e p r o p o r t f o n of t h e r e s o u r c e s o f ZU, t h e background i n f o m t i o n i t carl.ies s b u t r a i i o prograGirses a n d a b o u t t h e 2 c t i - r i t i s of crobile ms c o n t r i b b t e t o t h e i r effectiveness. i I We b e l i m e , too, t h a t t h e r e is scope f o r i o c r e a s i n g t h e ef f e c t i t n e s s o f a l l media by EbB. The Branch h a s s u f f e f e d from a degree of i s o l a - tion and it seems- t h a t i t s work could b e m r e t l q h t l y r e l a t e d to t h e work e ~ t e n s i o nagents - hthe f i e l d . This w o u l d entail1 t h e developmatt of c l o s warking r e l a t i o n s h i p s both a t Lilongve and ia cfie f i e l d . W e a l s o sensed i d e g r e e of s e p a r a t i o n btrtweer. EAB am! the work ofl a g r i c u l t u r a l research. I But t h e profoundest change ~ h i c h vc ~ + l d s u g g e s t t o EAB i s one of philosophy. A s =e saw, much of t h e i r ,utput consists of d i r e c t i o n t o t h e f a r m e r s - - i n s t r u c t i o n on vhat they should 50. Ue were more than on<? assured t h a t t h e Y&wi farmers no longer needed i n s t r u c t i o n of this kind- if they e v e r did- and t h e r e i s nov sccpe f o r a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d approac by EhB which i s concerned m r e broadly w.1-rn t h e educatL -on of f m r s and less narrowly v i t h i n s t r u c t i n g them. For t h a t qhange t o be e f f e c t i v e , closer links between W's mass d i a ad the voi k o f extension a g e n t s , oz ocher ways of g r o ~ p h g f a m r s t o g e t h e r , would be of p a r t i c u l a r value.  EAR Unit (n-d.) Film P r e - t e s t at Manylrmlln: Analysis of results ( L i l o n p , mimeo) ( h e f e ~ e n c ef f i f I . 5 ) . Unit (1979a) E.A.B. U d i o Study (Lilongwe, d m & ) . Wt ( l 9 7 9 b ) - .. E A.B. W i o s t u d y report: S m r p of f i n d i n g s ( L f l o n g w e , reheo) (Reference A3lI-l). AIR Uui : (19EO: 5 -. o f iackp;rauru? i n f o m a t i o n f r o m a c t i o n r e s e a r c h stuiies (I-977-80)- (Lilongwe, m h e o ) . & t e n s i o n Aids B r a n c h (1976). hual Report 1976 (LiLongwe, mimco). E x t e n s i o n Aids iSranch (1978). E X ~ - S F ~.Aids 3 r m c h L458-78 (Lilongve). Extensim k i d s B r a n c h (1979). Tie role of E x t e n s i o n .kids B r a n ~ Sin ~ a l devdo-2 - (Lilongue) . Sydney H. Gausi (1978). A s t u d y o f t h e r e l z t i v e e f f e c t i v a e s s o f v v i o u s e x t e n s i o n m e t h c d s q l o y e d in unit 23 o f t h e LLDP ( t y p e s c r i p t , 3 . S c - A.gric- r L s c a r c h r e p o r t . Bunda C o l l e g e o f A g r i c u l t u r e , LiZongve). U.T. Jamison, S . J . Klees ad S-I. Wells (1978). The c o s t s o f s d u c a t i N - d i a (Sage, B e v e r l e y Bills). Unia L z l e (1975) .-The d e s i g n of r u r a l d e v e h p m e n t : L e s s o n s from A f r i c a ( J o h n s BopkFns University P r e s s , B a l t i s o r e ) . D.K. Leonard (1977). Reaching the p e a s a n t farmer (Universfty oE Chicago P~ESS) Chicago) . - [ADD SrraL-ation U N ~(n. d , 1 E o u s e h o l d cornposition s u r v e y 1978-79 (LADD W g a r m t Gnir, Lilongwe, iabea) . LdDD EvaluatAon Unit (1979) - Evaluatiou w o r k i n g p a p e r 2 /79: A further. amalysis of LLDP c r o p p r o d u c t i o n d a t a L977-78 (LhDD.MaEzagenent Unit, Lilongwe, mimeo) . W D Evaluation (1980a). Evaluation w o r b g paper: LLDP 7/79: U P g f o u n d u a t yield data 1973-79 (LADD m g e n e n t U n i t , Lilongwe, m o ) . '? LUjD E v a l ~ ~ t i c Unn i t (1980b). E v a l u a t i o n &orking p a p e r : LLDP 8/79: LLDP - .sraa!.lholder m a i z e y i e l d a d a g r o s o m y data 1978/7? (IADD ?fanag-t - . S . Ilnir, L i L a n g z e , ruimeo). P i 6 - h - A s t u d y of t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of v a r i o u s exten- sion a t f i o d s employed ia d; 24 of the LLDP ( t ~ e s c r i p t ,B-Sc. -AgnF_c. research. reporr, Bunda C o l l e g e of A g r i c u l t u r e , L i l o n g u e ) . F. Q r i v d (1981). The *act of agricultural u t e n s i o n s e r d c e s : a revfew of the l i t e r a t u r e . The Uorld Bank, DECPE discussion paper NO. 81-20. 1 I J. Potts and T. Troughear (1977). "On the road again -!her -look a t =bile cinema*', Educaticmal broadcasting international LO: 2. I Pavfd Wars (1978). *'EvaLuating s e d h in Malawi", ~ducacio& broadczsting international U : 3 , pp- 3.21-123- I World Basic (1980). Malawi: Basic Economic Report - tanex: Agriculture - S d l h o l d e r sector. I I I I. YazLdu (n.d.). tural information to fa-rs in nortbernstates oE Niger/ia (unpcblished 3.Sc. thesis, Ahmadu B e l l o Gniversicy, Zaria) . I I aPmIX 1 : Main p r i n t jobs 1 9 7 8 - Title No. of copies printed Text books: Guide to mic. Production 1978/79 . . . . . A Glossary of Research Xanagaaent Terms -. Department of Extensioaand Training 1973 Annual Report .............. Tbe Livestock Eusbandrry Techniques ..... Bulletins: National Rural Developmait P r o g r m s - . - Exteasion Aids Branch 1958-1978 ...... Research Bulletin No. 2/72 ......... bWets: Tea Farmers Guide and Cdlendlr . . . . . . . Xalangizo kwa Oyang'anLra NRhalango .... ... Shire Valley A g r i c u l t u r a l Dev. P r o j e c t Cnlby College o f Agriculture ....... W i o and Mobile Unit Programmes ...... Birds of L i l o n g w e Nature Sanctuary ..... Extension -Aids Bracch Work Calendar .... Ma~azine: Za "Achikumbi" magazfne (6 Issues) . . . . . In~2rts f o r "The F i e l d s " Pagazine . . . . . Posters: . A r t competition f o r Envircnmental Educ. U n i t " ~ z d l a n Mitengo" i for L.L.D.P. ....... "Mitengo ndi chun~="f o r L.L.D. P. ...... Reprint of Flannelgraph p i c t u r e s ...... Cards a d Certificates ........... ........... A g r i c u l t u r a l show kits Circulars: G r w M ore Cassava . . . . . . . . . . . . . Growing Wheat in Pialavi . . . . . . . . . . Strawberries (Revised Edition) . . . . . . . C i t r u s (Revised Edition) . . . . . . . . . . Soya Bean Recolrarnendation . . . . . . . . . . fit& Research Reconnaendation for O r i e n t a l Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prevent T i c k Diseases by Improved Dipping - &ndouts and leaflets . . . . . . . . . . . Porss in g e n e r a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other (Haps, covers, i e t t e r i n g , i-- . . -* Source: EhB Annual Report 1978 - L  - 39 - APPENDIX 2: Mobile vans schedule - northern region 1980 ,* . --- s-~-cc. --- .:. s:ur-f -*TD -.-- > A X -- I .,-1.l o t - -tLDC. OI-9 !' -a rp* arurll- ~1.11~ (ma- 00 wrtb . c m c. H.I . m r l x r u rppllrrria M a 74tb?*rb Yr*). 1 B.r.r 1- n - m ! - 1 "-8- SIOCL--~ H t&-rrt3w. I 1 . 1 - 8 Y.LICJ C.. .: a .- -h tbnb Cr1?1+ C.-y S ~ r b -..- , L- ,. , r .w. %y $.-.w s.wa I LL* x.*a c S- h e rd k m t ~ 1 - 21%~-fit8 h b r a ?=% ci:z;u Ca-1 G-rral . - r m (-r UT ma 142)- -44 C 8 SO.^:. Cenrr.1 ( -- - aff- r>?IICPIXn -. CO rertali= RIIJd I -: ~ ---?-I ~ t b mw- M a - .ZIC 50.t. CAsr OI:.~. cab.-, w e Q~w- -*I ICtlUC* % YORQ. I % , . ~ 1 1 s .n.riP m l k s 4 .I-. -1. Y )ta-?~h RDC. .twm nrrh K - 5 4 ~ 1 - rp v o ~ ~ w ~ . c m t mrrr.~ H~XIZ -fa all= (r~agn). uprarz- (m;nc Urrara -r d h m 2 - q Dd .LC-). v w stllrs rrC :9ib;.X I :*u 1 -- .-a 2.ziir c r - a t.- .: valley fmurl Ssrrr Usas -we \t=79 d y :6U,-XU R r z t 4 . -1 ;ate - rs *LlL=9. -tit ; arsl atrll I -txdg. w-aAm9 - d .-C . I L D9. Ji mrra wrur gr.Qlq. - 1 - . m c I p p caw.?. A ;dl-)- rt;mb 1 . +1 . B st:^ r&- %a i -.- -elm - I sr- d rralk. -4 (- *I- I c Ll-coc~ FartlllQ --- Cdfr~ - - QI .- rpd ; F . m pm P r m rQ - .nm e lllLL. mpl.mcm v.l;cr -=cr LOT& I - d (O I . .U.V)- I s,+. -.ra->,ca a : c m r : - - - 5ra-gl ,;NIS -fa- amDS ==- -. ,mb2- b F U U a, WUA -2r:w h-. at=.. ; -a.-9.r :p.y sm7,Um- w n iBcru .--r l .l d- w - Z)t~-Rrk t - i¶/ QCLLIP Lm ) I ~ L I--- - - m m szwa4 dOSrha4(-L sUll BLIZI -,.. - a l - - -*-. CMW--pp"bcld . ( I - - ) -. 6 * - Czrg (ca-w=, 0If1 w . - 9- 4 .la dl- a brad ~ d r u 1 q Z Q -1- d .-tie*. -. +- 15Cb19W ->rU ach-O=c-3I-e -1 * - ' - 1 . * a- - bans 57 ?a7 -3 ChlClW SrarB n e irZUs z%z.p. FoSb MC b r a f i I ! -- i ePCf.t 7 - w u (rich m :. . PAIIL & t T & ' -h i +ls. -r q - a a=s I PI* I CLM u.a 9r+ra - 1 -an- a - a d an)- I - r d l w r spllcnucn h-u md5c--zp(-- i ~ l s mPI-c-.c:- r o d . I - . 7 1c =%<a V U I ~ 3 - ~ 1 ~ 1 Nllr 1- I ! I! .-c sam r-c eaurl : -a I - s rahrtr . a " -lc~ (--ma d mrr- 7 - 4 (- IU a l q )- h  -XTEf-SIOl?, EDUCATION AND F.4RMER.S PRODUSIVITY M W T h i s p a p e r examines the f u n c t i o n i n g , c ~ t s and , o u t r e a c h of t h e E x t e n s i o n A i d s Branch of che H i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e ; i t d o e s n o t , hovever, a s s e s s t h e u l t i n u t e impact of E AB 's a c t i v i t i e s on productivity. Cnfortunately, d a t a t h a t would allov such an a s s e s s m e n t are u n a v a i l a b l e . To form some i d e a . c o n c e r n i n g EXB's p o t e n t i a l impact and t o r e a c h a b e t t e r s e n s e o f t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e e x t e n s i o n s e d c e , we have, ' n o w v e r , analyzed a v a i l a b l e d a t a . This Appendix r e p o r t s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h a t a n a l y s i s . I t b e g i n s by d e s c r i b i n g '-he d a t a we u s e . I t t h e n a n a l y z e s s e p a r a t e l y , f o r e a c h of t h e two s a m p l e s ve have, t h - r e l a t i o n s k t v e e n f a m e r s ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e i r exposure t o e x t e n s i o n ; t h e n t h e r e l a t i o n s between e x t e n s i o n and e d u c a t i o n o n t h e one b u d , a n d c r o p a d o p t i o n and p r o d u c t i v i t y on t h e o t h e r , are a d y z e d . F i n a l l y , w e examine two key q u e s t i o n s , i . e . z r e e d u c a t i o n a d / o r visited f a m r s w e a l t h i e r , a d are n o n - t r a d i t i o n & c r o p s grown a t t h e e x p e n s e o f s u b s i s t e n c e c r o p s ? Data - The data analyzed i n t h i s Appendix v e r e c o l l e c t e d by rske M i n i s t r y of d g r i c u l t u r e ' s Agra-Economic Survey in 1979 a d g i v e i n f o r n a t i o n o n t h e 1 9 7 8 c r o p - D a t a on t v o samples o f 150 f a r m e r s w e r e randomly s e l e c t e d (by geographi- c a l r e g i o n from t h e l a r g e r d a t a s e t s ) . These f a r n e r s a r e s n a l l h o l d e r s . The ; n a j o r i t y o E them a r e growing maize. I n t h e f i r s r s a p l e , a m i n o r i t y o f farners is g r o u i n g g r o m d - n u t s a n d / o r c o t c o n , and i n t h e second o n e , ground- nuts a n d / o r tobacco. F o r e a c h f a r m e r , w e b o b i h e size o f t h e household, t h e h o l d i n g s i z e , t h e number o f y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n o f t h e head o f t h e household, t h e s i z e o f l a n d c u l t i v a t e d f o r each c r c p , t h e o u ~ u o t f e a c h c r o p , and t h e number of v i s i t s o f e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s f o r e a c h c r o p - Tzb1e A L below p r o v i d e s i d a r m a t i o n o n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Eamers in t h e two samples. T a b l e Al - HAEI CEARACTERiSTICS OF FAiWERS --Sample l -- - Sample 2--- Standard Standard Dev'b t i o n Deviation Holding s i z e -1/ - Household I z e E d u c a t i o r27 r H a i z e plot- l/ 3/ Xaize crop- 1/ Ground- nuts p l o ~ , Ground-outs lyQF C o t t o n plot^/ Cotto* c r o p Tobacm p l o t - 1/ 31 Tobacco crop- (Xa. of irisit4 E a r n e r s 22 Estensioc : < :. a 3: visits 3 -. 4 ' Reg io r s 6 ( 2 5 f s m e r s i n each) 6 ( 2 5 Fzrmers i n each) / - Kn nundredths of ha. The n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e is 166. 2 -; !Jumber of jrears of e d u c a t i o n , 31 - Kn kflos. A, Extension, E d u c a t i o n and (Shoice of Crop - E x t e n s i o n and Education T a b l e A2 - EXESSIOH Ah3 EDUCATIOLS-- 1/ Unit: 1 J d e r o f Farmers Extension = 0 Extension > O Total - No. - '3, - No. - Z - No. X -. Education = 0 85 89 11 11 96 64 Education 0 43 80 11 20 54 36 Total 128 100 22 100 150 100 1/ - Education i s measured by t h e number o f year; o f e d u c a t i o n . E x t e n s i o n i s measursti 5y t h e number of v L s i t s o f e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s t o t h e f a m e r . Both e d u c a t i o n acd e x t e n s i o n are c o n s i d e r e d a s 2 0 d e n t h e number o f p e a r s o r v f s i z s is 1 o r wre. 15% o f t h e f a r m e r s have r e c e i v e d t h e v i s i t of e x t e n s i o r a g e n t s (at l e a s t once). 36;: of t h e f a n n e r s S a v e one o r more y e a r s of e d u c a t i o n , b u t i n r e a l i t y , ic is n e v e r w r e t h a n 3 y e a r s , and u s u a l l y o n l y o r ? e o r tvo. The educated f a r m e r s are m i c e as l i k e l y to r e c e i v e t h e v i s i t o f an e x t e n s i o n a g e n t :>an t h o s e k-ho a r e Lmeducz:ed (20X a g a i i i t 11%). - - - Education and N o n - t r a d i t i o r a l C r o ~ S u b s i s t e n c e agriculrv-;: is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m a i z e , the =in s o u r c e o f food f o r a f a r r r ' s Family. Farmers vtLo produce ground-ncts h a v e u s u a l l y tw a b j e c t i v e s : a d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e family d i e t , and t h e i n a r k e t i n g o f p a r t of tfie c r o p f o r c a s h . F a r a e r s IA-ZO produce t o b a c c o 07 c o t t o n have a markec o b j e c t i v e . T h e r e f o r e , f a r m e r s vbo grov c r o p s o t h e r than n a i z e b v e i n n o v a t i r e b e h a v i o r . lCie have looked a t whethe? i n n o v a t i v e b e h a v i o r is p o s i t i v e l y comecced v i t h education and/or extension.  T a b l e A3 - EDUCXTLOH, CROLNIHLXXS iaElD COTTON Unit: Number of F a m e r s Educa t i o c -Yes- -No- -Total- No. I No. % No. % Grow ground- nuts Yes 8 15 8 8 16 11 Zbo 46 85 88 92 134 89 Total 54 100 96 100 150 100 Grow c o t t o n Yes 25 46 25 26 50 33 No 29 54 71 74 100 67 To t a1 SG 1CK) ?6 100 150 100 G r o w ground- nuts Yes 6 11 L 2 8 5 and c o t t o n No 48 89 94 98 14 2 95 Totdl 54 1GO 96 100 150 100 - l l Z of t h e F a n w r s g r o v ground- nuts, but t h i s p r o p o r t i o n r e a c h e s 15% aoong educated f a r x e r s and 8% among uneduczted Farmers ( t h e p r o k b i l i t y is 2 / 3 h i g h e r ) . 332 of the fanners grov c o t t o n , b u t h e r e &gain, t h e e d u c a t e d Earner i s t v i c e as likely t o g r o v c o t t o n . M y 5 X of the E a m r s g r o v both c o r t o n and ground-nucs, but t h e e d u c z t z d f a m e r s are 6 :iws more 1ikel:- t o d o so thzr: a r e t h e uneducated. - - - - -- and Extension X G U - t r t d i t i o n d Crops Table A4 - EXENSION, G R O U R W W S P S D COTTON Uni: : X u m b e r of Farmers - Extension -- Yes-- -- So- -Total- %. r a , so- OI I, No, z .Grov I ground- nuts Yes ' 5 23 11 9 L6 12 L !lo 17 77 117 91 136 88 I Tctal 22 100 128 100 150 i00 Grov cotton Yes 22 100 28 Ho G C) 100 TotaL 22 LC0 128 L Grow ground- nuts Yes 5 23 3 2 : S 5 I and co.irton Xo 17 77 125 98 1;2 95 Totd 22 100 128 i00 150 100  234 o f t h e f a r m e r s k i o hzve r e c e i v e d e s t e i i s i o n a g e n t s grov ground- n u t s , j u t o n i y 9% of t h e n o n - v i s i t s d d o - .UI t h e f2r;ce.r~vho have s e e n 3n e x t e n s i o n a g e n t grow c o t t o n , x b e r e z s 0 d . y 2SZ o f t h e o t h e r s d o . F k a l l y , 2 3 % o f the v i s i t e d f a n n e r s g r r a b o t h ground- nuts and c o t t o n , and o n l y 2.3% ( t e n tines l e s s ) OF t h e non-visized 20. On t h e whole, educated f a m e i i grow n o n - t r a d i t i c d c r o p s a l o o s t t w i c e as o f t e n a s non- educated f a m r s ; E a r n e r s visitzd by e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s c u l t i v a t e n o n - t r a d t t i o d c r o p s f o u r E-s as o f t z n a s non- visited r'arners; a n d e d u c a t e d f a r m e r s heve a p r o b a b i l i t y o f r e c e i v i n g e x t e n s i o n a g a t s two t i i s higher ~ 5 a n non-educzted Earners. Although e d u c a t i c n i s l e s s e f f i c i e n t t h a n e x t e n s i o n i n g e n e ~ a t i n gi m o v a t i v e b e h a v i o r a i x n g fzrmrs, i t h s s , i n addirion t o a d t r e c t e f f e c c , tke F a d i r e c t e f f e c t of incre2si.xg t h e probability of meeting e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s . R e e f f e c t of e d u c a t i c n 5s m r e l i k e l y a C ~ L U S ~ ~ o n e f o r e x t e n s i o n , wfierz, p a r t i - u l a r l y g i v e n e x t e n s i o n a g - t s ' lastructions on L-horn co visit, i t is p l a u s i b l e t h a t much of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n betwzea i z n o v a z i v e b e h a v i o r and e x c e n s i u n c o n t a c t s r e s u l t s f r o n t h e a g e n t s c h o o s i n g ta v i s i t t h e 5 e t t e r f arrcers. 5, P r o r i ~ c t i o nF c n c t i o n of Yziz2 G i v e n the a b s e n c e of 2 gccd l a b a r i i l d i c z c c r , tie c c u l d nor fh.5 s u b s t i t u t i o n e F f e c t s becveen l z d acd l a b o r , and i n t h i s c a s e , t h e o c t p u c t e n d s t o .be L i z e a r l p r e l z t d to t h e s i z e cf t h + ? lo:. For c h i s reason. we hzve .uo l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n . z i i n o t Gbb-Douglas funsti,ons ( u s i n g t h e log o f t n e v a r i z b l o s ). Tabl~-~-e 3ETERCVAPiTS O f MAIZE PSODL'CTION Regression Coefficient Land Educz t5on H/'d size F x t ens io Bsglon 3 - P/ Qgion 3 Region 4 Region 5 Region 6 Q n s ~ =C a I/ @ c h r e g i o n is c o r p a r e i t o r e g i o n I which w a s raken 2s s f e r e a c e anci de12tz6 f r o n t h e r e g r e s s i o n . Land: - Lznd i s b y far :he zosc significact ~ a r i a b l e in ~ x p l a k i z g ~ i pcc ~ ion. d u c cr - s c i l nucdredrr? o E ha i n c r e a s e s ci;r ? r o a u c c i o n b:i I& 23, i - e . e:<actI? che a v e r a g 2 v i e l d .  Household S * : 9as a w s i t i v e but not s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c c , d c h o u g h i c i s c l o s e t o be s i g n i f i c a n t . This v a r i a b l e could have b e e n considered a s a prorf f o r labor. Region: Two regions bave a highly sipniJi'icant advaatage over t h e o t h e r s (421 a n d 658 m r e kg). T h i s v a r i a b l e c a n b e considered a s a proxy f o r environment (quality o f soil, i r r i g a t i o n and b z t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y , climate) - Extension: According co t h i s r e g r e s s i o n , e a c h visit of e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s i n c r e a s e s t h e production by 313 kg, i n an undoubtedly s i g n i f i c a n t way. The y e a r l y b e n e f i t of a v i s i t i s t b e n appro-dmately 60K ( f o r a 0.2K p e r k i l o p r i c e of maize), which t-e can c o q a r e with the c o s t of a visit: beiween 5 and 60K ( s e e EAB Cost Study) - But a s w e have s e e n above, that c a a be simply t h e r e s u l t of che b i z c of e x t e n s i o n agents v i s i t i n g t h e k t t e r farmers. Education: Education h a s a n i n d i r e c t e f f e c t rather than a d i r e c t one: i t i n c r e a s e s the p r c b a b i l i r y o f n e e t f n g e x t e n s i o n agents (which may i n c r e a s e che produccivicy), and i t i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of grok-ing c r o p s . I n this sarcple, t h e 7-mber of y e a r s of education is low (jetr-een l and 3, c e v e r m r e ) . This suggests that, t o have a d i r e c t e f f e c t , edu~cacionn e e d s eo b e more chan 1-3 g e a r s , perhaps a ninimum of 4-5 y e a r s - A. Extension, Education and Choice o f Crop Table A 6 shows the r e l a t i o n s , i n sample 11, berdeen d t i p l e c r o p c h o i c e and f a m e r s ' education and. e x t e n s i o n exposure. Table A6 - E.iTENSION, EDUCATION, .I!! NUMBER OF F.iFAXERS CROPPING GROGE1iNUTS ;\fD/OR T O S C C O !b. X &. % So. % No, Z rU0. 4 . 2 Grou Yes SS 65 11 79 99 66 37 57 6L 73 99 66 ground-aucs Xo 43 25 3 21 51 3 28 L3 23 27 51 34 Tocal 136 100 14 100 150 100 65 100 55 lGO 150 100 G r o ~ -f ES 37 27 8 57 - * 45.~30 16 25 29 3 G5 30 tobacco 30 99 73 6 43 1 0 5 ' 7 0 49 75 56 66 105 70 Total 136 100 1 100 150 = l o 0 65 iOO 85 LOO 150 100 Grow Yes 25 13 7 50 3 2 ? 21 10 Lq 22 25 32 21 ground-nuts P(o 111 82 7 50 118 79 55 35 3 7 118 79 and tobacco Tocal 136 100 LA 100 150 LOO 65 100 35 lCIO 150 iCO  E s t e r s i o n : Less t h a n 10% o f t h e f a m r s fiave been v i s i t e d by elrtens. a g e n t s - S e v e r t k e l e s s , t h o s e who 'nave been o i s i c e d r e n d zo g r o v ground - n u r s slightly rare ofcen (79% v e r s u s 6 5 2 ) . t o grow tot)acco tcv t i n e s Elore o f t - ? (57Z v e r s u s 27%), to g r c u both ground-nurs 2nd tot)acco c h r e e zimes =re o f t e n (50% v e r s u s 182) - I ' . 3 u c a t i o n : A r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of the f a h e r s , 57I, have z e c e i v e d so= e d u c a t i o n (between 1 a d 3 y e a r s ) . Educated t a m e r s p o w ground- nuts rimre of t e n (73:) t h a n t h e meducaced (57Z). ~ i k d v i s e , they grov t o b a c c o mre o f t e n (34% v e r s u s 2 4 X ) , sad boch c r o p s (26"ker$us 15%). i h e p r o b a b i i i r y f o r t h e d u c a c e d and visited farmers no grov n o n f t r a d i t i c u a l c r o p s is h i g h e r , a s i n sample I , b u t t h e gar, is s l i g h c l y suuiler i n this c a s e . B u t b y comparison t o sample I , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of e d u c d t e d f a r x e r s is ! much h i g h e r , a r d so is t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f a r n e r s growing g r o n d - n u t s . The l o w e r e f f e c t of e d u c a t i o n can o n l y be che consequence of t h e l a w of d e c r e a s i n g r e t u r n s , o r s t a t i s c i c d l y s p e a k i n g , t h e f a c t t h a t :he c u r v e C$E f a r m e r s g r o v i n g g r o u r 1- a u t s i s a s y n p t o t i c a l l y r e a c h i n g t h e c e i l i r i g o f 100%. ~ 3. E x t e s i o o ;ad E d u c a t i o n ~ I o A7 - I T a b l- - EEEXSIOZi .VD EDUCATIOS I Unit: ?umber of Farmers ~ I Estension = 0 Extension ) 0 I Total No. fro !lo. Z 90- Z Educatfon = 0 62 h6 3 21 43 Education 7 0 -1.4 r 54 11 85 -- 3I 79 I Tocal 136 100 15 iOO lj0 100 1 -Although t h e number o f f a r n e r s v i s i t e d b y e x t e n s i o a g e n t s i s 103 in t h j s sample, e d u c a t e d f a r m e r s h a ~ ea substantial advancag s i n c e 12.91 of t h m a r e a c t c a l l y v i s i t e d , compared t o 4.6% f o r meducated. C. ProdudrtLon Function f o r Ecaize Ue have run t h e sane ' dfof regression used f o r sampls I, -with i the sane independent v a r i a b l e s . Table A 8 - DETE?J!W.LYTS OF KUZ6 PRODUCTION I 1 I Regression I Variable Coefficient t I I Tad 11.7 8.95* I I Education 21.2 0.35 1 K/R Size 69.7 1.41 ~ Extensi.cn 717.4 1.81 ~ Region 2 325.1 1.66 ) Region 3 1047.3 5.65* 1 Region G 401.6 2-13" 1 Region 5 133.6 2.14* ' Region 6 G22.7 2.06* 1 I C ns:silt -648 i ; 9 0.5b I I * S i g n i f i c a n t a t 5X l e v e l or b e t t e r . The results are very similrr t o those oE sample 1. ( The significance o f = t e n s i c 2 is slightly l o v e r , but ve must remember that visited h that sanrple. Regions 2 , 5 . 5 , a n d 6 hrve t h e Region 1 pmduces significantly less thar; c h i s group, and nore- D, Production Function for G r o u n d - i i u t s 1 Table A9 - DETEPmilYTS OF G ? , O U b D - i S PRODUCTION^ I Regress i o n Variable Coef f i c i e r t h d Educa t ian Exteasion H/Z S ize Region 2 RegLon 3 Region 4 Segion 5 Region 6 CqLnstanr R * S i p i f f c a n t a t 5 1 o r better. I ANNEX A - 48 - Here a g a i n , t h e mst s t a t i s t i c a l l j r s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e s a r e t h e s i z e o f t h e l a n d c u l t i v a t e d f o r t h i s s p e c i f i c grop and t h e r e g i o n s ( h e r e , a l l a r e mre p r c d u c t i v e t b n r e g i o n 1 ) . me F- is i n t h e ga-e range as i n the f i r s t 2 regressions (0.61). I E d u c a t i o n 'us 1 n e g a t i v e bur c o t significant e f f d c t , and e x t e n s i o n has a s t r o n g l y p o s l t i v e b u t not s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t . E x t e n d i o n , Fc t h i s sample, is s c a r c e , a n d there a r e n o t enough o b s e r v a c l o n s t d g e n e r a t e I s t a t i s t i c a l l y significant effects. I I I 111. SPECIFIC QESTIONS I I A. Are e d u c a t e d a n d / o r v i s i t e d t a m e r s w e a l t h i e r ? I I T a b l e .-UO b e l c w i n d i c a t e s to x h a t e x t e n t t h e e d u c ~ s t e dand v i s i t e d f a r m e r s t:-ive a h o l d i n g s i z e abov? che average (two s a m p l e s ; t o g e t h e r ) . I Table N O -7 - EDUGTiON, . - E X M S I O I I , HCLDING SIZE1 I Unit: Nuinber of Farmers Zolding ~ i '~ z ~ Education = Q Education 7 Q Total Extension = 0 Extension > 0 Total - l/ 1 . 3 4 ha is t h e a v e r a g e h o l d i n g size in both samples. ~ I 51.12 of t h e educated f a r n e r s are below the a v e r a h e s i i 2 and 58.9 above, bu: 58.9Z of t h e uneducated a r e below. t& can c o n c l b d e t h a t e d u c a t e d f a m r s a r e s l i g n t l p b e t c e r c f f , but r;e a u l d q u a l i f y c h i s d i f f e r e n c e a s l o c . I The . d i f f e r e n c e is m h g r e a t e r x o ~ g t o e x t e n s i o n services. 77.32 o f t k e f a m e r s v i s i t e d by agents belong h e group above t h e zverage. Only h.SZ t * t~ - group below t h e a v e r a g e 'have been v i s i t & , - r y t h a n educa-- L~OZZ sits i n c r e a s e s ntext, educztioa p o s s i b l e thtc t- e p s i t i v e e f f e c t of e x t e n s i a n ngenrs v i s i t s on a rimply d u e co%he f a c t chat v i s i t e d fal-.;lers 3re o n a v e r a g a 'have prcduced s o r e , even i t h o u c visits. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t t remzins t r u e tAat e Z u c a t i o n is i c o t l i n k e d w i c 5 x e a l t h , 3r.d t h z t i t i n c r z a s e s che p r o b a b i l i y of g r c ~ 5 n g=on- t r a d i c i o i l a l c r o p s and :he p r o b a b i l i t ~o f a s e t i n g extension + g e n t s . a ~ l dt h e r e f o r e , o f i n c r e a s i n g -size produc:ioo. I I  m L S - $9 - I I B, Are n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l crops %ro:u a t t B ? 1 I t has o f t e n been observed t h a t cash c t o p i are developed a t the I e q e n s e of subsistence crops and c m hnve n e g a t i v e food and n u t r f t i o n a l e f f e c t s on farmers' f a m i l i e s . I I I 'Ihe d a t a below do not support t h i s view. On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e production o f n a i z e i s constantly i n c r e a s i n g % h e nthe Earner adds nou- t r a d i t i o n a l c r o p s , and reaches a naximm l e v e l when he grows everything. N a e r t h e l e s s , t h e h o l d i n g s i z e r'ollovs the same patkern; i t i s lower among farmers g r o v i ~ g o n l y maize and l a r g e r among r'arners growing non-traditional crops. But the = i r e p l o t i s core o r l e s s s i , n i l a r i I n t h e f o u r grcups of farmers. I Table .All - *.,-SODUCTION OF D I F ~ R E ~ T GROZPS OF FARMERS I I e ~ v ra$e Xve rage Yield So. 0 : .xv. Crop Farrrrrs oENaize E. Si+e n. Size p e t ha (Toea*) BIaize Plot ( i n kg) Grow Maize alone 126 1,025 1.32 ~ I 0.82 1,250 Maize t Cotton/ Tobacco Naize + G n u t s I + Cocton/Tobac. LO 1,905 0.9& 2,026 I  I . ~- E t f A 13 COSTS D 1 ~ AGRICtJL.TLX- ESTEXSIOX. A233 F-YiEXER CS- Table El pro-aides a cost e s t i m a t e o f agric~lturalextension En a s p k x F rLC p m j e c t, the LFlon9-e i ~ c . ~ P r u r a l OixLsion, Dece1o~mr:i. We have c a l c d a t e d chs unit c o s t o f an e x t e n s f o n agent i n chTs project, and ertrapol=:ed chis unit c o s t ca the 1385 f i e l d s s s i s t a n t s w r k i n g i n the I counsxy. Ke have the9 a l l o c a t e d liaif the cosr c ~ fchc p r i n t d i v i s i o n , i n -a , to t h e extension sor~ices, W e have a l s o a l l o c a t e d 100 o f che 1,788 f i e l d a s s i s - tuts to th2 ap!.em=ta:ioa o f che d z y centers and of t h e residedcial centers. ANPiiEX 6 - 52 - Table B2: T o t a l Cost of Extension S e r v i c e s OZ 7.5%. 15Z U n i t c o s t of e s t e n s i o n agent x 1 2 8 8 3,506,000 4,080,000 5,355,000 Cost of W p r i n t e d division x 1 / 2 55,860 59.430 53,900 Total 3,561,860 4,139,430 5,455,900 Number of V i s i t s t o F a r n e r s There are two c a t e g o r i e s of e x t e n s i o n coverage in M a l a v i : projects l i k e the Lilongue A g r i c u l t u r a l Developnent Divison & h i&hsve "intensive" e x t e a s i a n a c t i v i t i e s , and t h e standard low l e v e l of coverage, as in t h e hv randm s a q l e s analyzed En .AM= A, where 11% of farmers have been visited i n average o n e m d a h a l l timss, W e ha-?e e s t w t e d t h a t 15% of fariaers benefit- ac i n t e n s i v e coverage and 85% a wn-intecsive c-merage. If w e tzk? a t o t d n u d e r of 950,000 farmers, [S5% x 950,000] s 111 x 1 . 5 visits = 133,000 v i s i t s [152 x 950,0001 x 50f r 1.5 visits = 107,000 visits (considerfng t 5 a t 50% of t h e fanners in r e g i o n s with i n t e n s i v e coverage are visited). The t o t a l uumber of c o n t a c t s is then approximately 240,000, f o r 1,288 field a g e n t s who make around 185 c c n t a c t s a year.  Table 93 provides a cost e s t i m t e of both residential and day centers. Table 83: Cost of Facers Centers (day and r e s i d e - t m ) L Residential - Recurrent 1.15K per student Qp (miscellaneous) x 100 days x 30 stodents a 3.450 x 30 cent- = 103,500 - - Personnel (30 Full- time OZ 7.5% 15X extension agents e q u i v a l e n t ) 71 3 2 0 % T O! 12xc30 - Capital (30 centers a t 100.000K each, amortized o v e r 50 years) 60,000 21 f m . 450,000 T o t a l Residential 235,020 429,540 678,930 2. Day Cencers-- 1/ - ) Recurrent ( n i s c e l l a n ~ o u s : 70,000 persons/day r 0.24 = 16,800 - ?ersonnel (70 full- t i m e extension agents equivalent) 166,880 22L.760 292,670 To tal 183,680 233,560 309,470 - 1/ The opportunity cost of building was estimated a t 0. - -  WP'JUTION & KUMN RESOURCES DIVISION DISCUSSION PAPERS [A * by t h e number i n a ~ c a t e st h e paper i s Bank-confidential o r o t h e r v i s e ies t r i c ted. ] 81-1 Oey A- Meesook. 'Demographic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f I n d i v i d u a l s and t h e ~Heasurement of L i f e t i m e I~come'. February 1981. 81-2 Susan H. Cochrane, 'The Econosics of F e r t i l i t y with Examples f r m Asia" . F e b r u a q 1931. 81-3 b s h i d Faruqee. " Social EnrCtastructure and S e r v i c e s i n Zinbabvc'. February 1981. 81-4* Cichard Sabot, A- Berry, A. tlazlewood, J. Knight, J. Armitage arid H. B o i s s i e r e , "Cognitive Skills: T h e i r Determinants and I n f l u e n c e on Earnings i n Two Poor Urban Economfes." February 1981- 81-5 Dean T. Jamison, Barbara S e a r l e , Stephen Heyneman, and Klaus Galda 'Improving Elementary Hathematics Educatioil i n Xicaragua: An Experimental Study of t h e Impact of Textbooks and Radio o n Achievement". Xarch 1981. 81-6 flashid Faruqee, -Analyzing t h e Impact of H e a l t h S e r v i c e s : Narangwal and O t h e r Experiences" . March 1981. 81-7 J - B- Knight and R - 3- S a b o t , 'Labor Harket D i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n a Poor Urban Economy"- .Xarch 1981. 81-8 Oey A. Heesook, " I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between Demograpnic T a c t o r s and Income D i s t r i b u t i o n : P r o b l e w o f H e a s u r a e n t , D e s c r i p t i o n and InterpretatLon'. A p r i l 1981. 81-9 Susan 8 . Cochrane, Ximala J o s h i and R a l p a a a Nandwani, ' F e r t i l i t y A t t i t u d e s and Behavior i n t h e Nepal Tecai". A p r i l 1981- 81-10 J - 6 - b i g h t and Richard S a b o t , 'The Role of t h e Fi? Wage betermiilatlon: An A f r i c a n Case Study". A p r l l 1981. 8:-11 J - B - Knight and Richard s a b o t , 'The R e t u r a s t o Education: Increasing - w i t h Experience o r Decreasing v i t h Expansion?". Yarch 1981. .8 81-12 J - E - Knight and Richard S a b o t , "From X i g r a n t s to P r o l e t a r i a - : - - Employment Experience, M o b i l i t y and laages i n Tanzania'. Harch i98L. *B 91-13 A- Berry and Richard Saboc, " ~ n e r a ~ l o y & t and S c o o o d c Development". I A p r i l 1981. 81-14 Rashid Faruqee and Echna Johnson, - Health,, X u t r i t i o o and Family Planning: A Survey of E s p e r i s e n t s and S p e c i a l P r o j e c t s i n I n d i a " . A p r i l 1981. Eii-i5 F r a n c o i s O r i v e i ana &an r. J a u i s o n , 'The Cost-Etrecciveness o f C i s t a n c e Teachiug P r o j e c t s " . Jane 1381 81- 16 R i c h a r d S a b o t , "Labor F o r c e G r o w t h , Employmeue a n d E a r n i n g s i n E g y p t : 1966-1968'. m y 1931. 81- 17 K.C. Z a c h a r i a h , 'Awxaaly o f t h e F c r t i l i c y D e c l i n e i n K e r a l a : Social D e v e l o p e n t , A g r a r i a n R e f o r m s , o r t h e F a m i l y P l a n n i n g Program'. May 1981. 81-13 R i c h a r d S a b o t , A. B e r r y , A. H a z l e v o o d , J. K n i g h t , P. C o l l i e r , J. Armitage, 3 . B o i s s i e r e , " E d u c a t i o n E x p a n s i o n and L a b o r H a r k e t Ad j u s c s e n t i n Kenya and T a n z a r l i a - P. Background Paper'. i b y 1981. 81-19 Nancy B i r d s a l l and Oey Meesook, " C h i l d S c h o o l i n g , Number o f C h i l d r e n a n d I n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l T r a n s m i s s i o n o f inequality: A S i m u l a t i o n ' . Hay 1981. 81- 20 F r a n c o i s O r i v e l , 'The I m p a c t o f A g r i c u l t u r a l E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e s : X Reviev o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e ' . J u l y 1981. A l s o a v a i l a b l e i n F r e n c h Agricole: as - L M i a p a c t d e s S e r v i c e s d e V ~ l g a r i s a K i o n Revue d e l a L ittgratcre-. 81- 21 Nancy B i r d s a l l a n d H. L o u i s e Fox, "-7hy ?tales E a r n Nore: Location, Job . P r e f e r e n c e s a n d J o b D i s c r i m i n a t i o n Among B r a z i l i a n S c h o o l t e a c h e r s " . Xay 1981. 81- 22 A l c h e a H i l l , 'The Demographic S i c u t a t i o n i n Sub- Saharan A f r i c a : X D i s c u s s i o n Paper'. , %y 1981. 81-23' R - S a b o t , A . B e r r y , A. H a z l e u o o d , J . K n i g h t , J . Armitage. X. Boissiere 'Does t h e E x p a n s i o n o f E d u c a t i o n Compress t h e S t r u c t u r e o f Wages and Reduce t h e I n e q u a l i c y o f P a y ? A P r e l i m i n a r y A n a l y s i s ' . J u l y 1981. 61-24" S a n c y B i r d s a l l a n d Dean T. J a m i s o n . -Income a n d O t h e r F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g Fertility a n d X c r t a l i t y i n China- . F o r t h c o m i n g . 81-25* N a s c y B i r d s a l l , S u l e k h a P a t 4 a n d K. C. Z a c h a r i a h , ' A l t c r n a t i v e Projections o f t h e C h i n e s e P o p y l a c i o n - . J u n e 1981. 81- 26* T.J. H o , Dean T. J a m i s o n , a n d F.L. T r o w b r i d g e . 'Food Availability and t h e ! l u t r i t i o n a l S t a t u s o f C h i l d r e n i l China- . Forchcdng- i - - 81- 27* Dean T - J a m i s o n . " C h i l d H a l n u t r i c i o n and S c h o o l R e t a r d a e i o n i n China.%. 81- 28 Forthcoming. Deborah Lhamon#acmillan. - -Language P o l i c i e s f o r A f r i c a n P r i m a r y L -* Education: Summarg o f t h e A n g l o p h o n e R e s e a r c h L i t e n c u r e . July - 581. 81- 29 T a a i a T h e v ~ - . i a - "Les 1 r n p l i c ~ : i o a s P e d a g o g i q u e s d e s P o l i t i q u e s d e langues d z n s 1'enseigneser.t e n AfrLque: Une r e v u e d e L a l i t t e r a t u r e F r a n c o p h o n e " - J u n e 1 9 8 1 . Also a v e l a b l e i n E n g l i s h as ' P e d a g o g i c a l --r r--1:-=*i--~ D n 1 i r - z i~ J-frf~z? Sc-h--319: =_F L Z ~ O . . - ~ P A 2 e v C t u ~f 0- 0- - ----I t h e Francophone L i t e r a t u r e ' - 81-30 V i c e n t e Paqueo. 'A Household P r o d u c t i o n Xodel oE ~ c h d o l Enrollment: A P r o b i t A o a l y s i s o f t h e 1978 B i c o l M u l t i p u r p o s e Survey Data". J u n e 1981 I 81- 31 Bryan L. B o u l i e r and V i c e n t e 3. Paqueo- " On t h e ~ h e o ain~ d Measurements of t h e D e t e r s i n a n t s o f 3 o r t a l i t y " - J u n e 1 9 8 1 a e y n a l d o H a r t o r e l l . " H u t r i t i o n and H e a l t h S t a t u s I n d i ' c a t o r s : . S u g g e s t i o n s f o r S u r v e y s o f t h e S t a n d a r d of L i v i n g i'n D e v e l o p i n g Countries". J u n e 1981. I I R. S a b c t , A. 3 e r r y . A. Hazelwood, J. Kaighc, J . A m i t a g e , and 3. 3 o i s s l e r e . " C o r r e l a t e s oE E d u c a t i o n a l Attainment i n T a n z a n i a - . J u l y 1981. I S u u n a. Cochrane. "The D e t e r n i ~ n t soE F e r t i l i t y anb C h i l d S u r v i v a l ,a t h e rVepa1 Terai'. J u l y 1981. I J o a n n e L e s L i e . €3 .G. Baidya. sod K. Xandwani- 'Prevalknce and C o r r e l a t e s of Childhood ? f a l n u t r i t i o n i n t h e T e r a i d g i o n o f Nepal'. I J u l y 1981. R- Y a n s e l l Prothero. 'Perspectives o n P o p u l a t i o n ~ o b i i i t y -i n ? l e s t I K C . August 1981- I I T r a n s f e r s, T i m c h y King. ' P o p u l a t i o n Growth, I n t e r n a t i o n a l ~ e s o u t c e and I n t e r n a t i o n a l ~ H i g r a t i o n ' . August 1 9 8 1 , I T i a o t h y King. 'Immigration from Developing C o u n t r i e s : Some Philosophical Issues'- August 1981. . I I R - S a b o t and J . Knlgbr. W h y Vages D i f f e r : E a r n i n g s I ~ u n c i i o n sin a P o o r Urban Economy'. August 1981. I I I J o a o B a t i s c a d e A r a u j o e O l i v e i r a end F r a n c o i s ~ r i v e l . " I n - S e r v i c e T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g System: Logos I1 in B r a z i l ' . t ~ u d s 1981. R. S a b o t , A. a e r r y , A. Ehzlevood, J. Knighc, J . ~ r s i t & e and H. Boissfere. - C o r r e l a t e s o f E d u c a t i o n a l Attainment; i n Kenya-. Aug-1st 1381. I P e t e r F a i l o n . "Incomes, P o v e r t y and Income D i s t r i b u t i n i n R u r a l Bocsuana: A S y n t h e s i s of Evidence Based o n ?he Rura/l l a c o m e ' k D i s t r i b u c i o n Survey. - September 1981. - I I L Eiarbara 'riacartabe and E v a M u e l l e r . "A P o v e r t y P r o f i l e kor R u r a l 3 o c s v a n a . ' Forthcoming. I Eva Y u e l l e r . 'The Value a n d A l l o c a t i o n of T i n e i n ~ u r + l3 o t s v a n a . " Forthcomf ng. I 81--45 Robert E.B. Lucas- 'Tbe D i s t r i b u t i o n and E f f i c f e n c y o t C r o p P r c d u c t i o n i n T r i b a l A r e a s o f Bocsvana-- Lepteober 1983.. 51-46 Robert E:B. Lucas R S i r a l Botswana.' - 'The D i s t r i b u t i o n of Wages a d ~ a p i o y s e n ti n Sesteinber 1981. 81-47 Dov C h e ~ c b o v s k y . " S o c i o e c o n d c and Demographic Aspects o f School Earollment and A t t e n d a n c e I n Rural Botswana.- Forthcoming. I 81-58 Dov Chernichovsky - i n R u r a l Botsoarra.' '%cioeconoaic C o r r e l a t e s o f F e r t i z i c y Behavior Forthcaning. 81-49 Sherri Kossoud jL and Eva Mueller. 'The Econoceic and &tawgraphic S tarus o f FemaLe Beaded Bouseholds in Botsuana.' Fottbcoming. 81-50 Francois O r i v e l - 'la T 8 1 G v i s i o n S c o l a i r e d u SGnEgal: Evaluation E c o d q u e et P e r s p e c t i v e s . " Aout 1981. (Sumeaary available i n Englf sh. ) 81-51 B i l k t r y Perraton, Dean T - Jamison and F r a n c o i s Osivel- Xass Media f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Extension i n Malawi-. September 1981