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See No. 14, 2003, pp. 110–119. See No. 12, 2007, pp. 93–104. 3 Estimates of disease burden and cost-effectiveness. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2008 (http://www.who.int/immunization_monitoring/burden/estimates_ burden/en/index.html; accessed October 2008). 4 Toschke AM et al. No temporal association between infl uenza outbreaks and invasive pneumococcal infections. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 2008, 93(3):218– 220. 5 Talbot TR et al. Seasonality of invasive pneumococcal disease: temporal relation to documented infl uenza and respiratory syncytial viral circulation. American Journal of Medicine, 2005, 118(3):285–291. 6 Morens DM, Taubenberger JK, Fauci AS. Predominant role of bacterial pneumonia as a cause of death in pandemic infl uenza: implications for pandemic infl uenza preparedness. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2008, 198(7):962–270. 7 Lexau CA et al. Active Bacterial Core Surveillance Team. Changing epidemiology of invasive pneumococcal disease among older adults in the era of pediatric pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 2005, 294(16):2043–2051. 8 Adegbola RA et al. Serotype and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae causing invasive disease in the Gambia 1996–2003. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 2006, 11(7):1128–1135. 9 Jackson LA et al. Safety of revaccination with pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1999, 281(3):243–248. 10 O’Brien KL, Hochman M, Goldblatt D. Combined schedules of pneumococcal conjugate and polysaccharide vaccines: is hyporesponsiveness an issue? Lancet Infectious Diseases, 2007, 7(9):597–606. 11 Moberley S et al. Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2008, (1):CD000422. 12 Huss A et al. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials of higher and lower methodological quality [in press]. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 2008. 13 De Vito C et al. A systematic review evaluating the potential for bias and the methodological quality of meta-analyses in vaccinology. Vaccine, 2007, 25:8794–8806. 14 Fedson DS, Liss C. Precise answers to the wrong question: prospective clinical trials and the meta-analyses of pneumococcal vaccine in elderly and high-risk adults. Vaccine, 2004, 22:927–946. 15 French N et al. 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults: double-blind, randomised and placebo controlled trial. Lancet, 2000, 355(9221):2106–2111. 16 Conaty S et al. The effectiveness of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines in adults: a systematic review of observational studies and comparison with results from randomised controlled trials. Vaccine, 2004, 22(23-24):3214–3224. 17 Zhogolev SD, Ogarkov PI, Mel’nichenko PI. [The prophylaxis of nonhospital pneumonia using 23-valent pneumococcus vaccine in the military collectives] Voen Med Zh, 2004, 325(12):35–43, 96 [In Russian]. 18 Mangtani P, Cutts F, Hall AJ. Effi cacy of polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine in adults in more developed countries: the state of the evidence. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 2003, 3(2):71–78. 19 Butler JC et al. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine effi cacy. An evaluation of current recommendations. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1993, 270(15):1826–1831. 20 Mykietiuk A et al. Effect of prior pneumococcal vaccination on clinical outcome of hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, 2006, 25(7):457. 21 Fisman DN et al. Prior pneumoccoccal vaccination is associated with reduced death, complications, and length of stay among hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 2006, 42:1093–1101. 22 Johnstone J et al. Effect of pneumococcal vaccination in hospitalized adults with communityacquired pneumonia. Archives of Internal Medicine, 2007, 167:1938–1943. 23 Peñaranda M et al. Effectiveness of polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine in HIV-infected patients: A case-control study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 2007, 45:e82–87. 24 Breiman RF et al. Evaluation of effectiveness of the 23-valent pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine for HIV infected patients. Archives of Internal Medicine, 2000, 160:2633–2638. 25 Feikin DR et al. Global strategies to prevent bacterial pneumonia in adults with HIV disease. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 2004, 4(7):445–455. 26 ACIP. Prevention of Pneumococcal Disease – Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1 2
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[recommendations and reports series], 1997, 46:RR-8. 27 ECDC. Use of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine for subjects over 65 years of age during and inter-pandemic period. Technical Report of the Scientifi c Panel on Vaccines and Immunization, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden, 18 January 2007 (available at http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/). 28 United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommended adult immunization schedule – United States, October 2006–September 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 2006, 55(40):Q1–Q4. 29 Levine OS et al. Pneumococcal vaccination in developing countries. Lancet. 2006, 367(9526):1880–1882. 30 Shapiro ED et al. The protective effi cacy of polyvalent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. New England Journal of Medicine, 1991, 325(21):1453–1460. 31 Manoff S et al and the Pneumococcal Revaccination Study Group. Revaccination with a 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine induces elevated and persistent functional antibody responses in adults ≥65 years of age. Presented at the 12th International Congress on Infectious Diseases, Lisbon, Portugal, June 2006. 32 Törling J et al. Revaccination with the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in middle-aged and elderly persons previously treated for pneumonia. Vaccine, 2003, 22(1):96–103. 33 Smith KJ et al. Alternative strategies for adult pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccination: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Vaccine, 2008, 11:1420–1431. 34 McCullers JA. Insights into the interaction between infl uenza virus and pneumococcus. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 2006, 19(3):571–582. 35 Brundage JF. Interactions between infl uenza and bacterial respiratory pathogens: implications for pandemic preparedness. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 2006, 6(5):303– 312 36 Lehman D et al. Maternal immunization with pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Vaccine, 2002, 20:1837–1845. 37 Lehmann D et al. Studies of maternal immunization with pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in Papua New Guinea. Vaccine, 2003, 21:3446–3450. 38 Quiambao BP et al. Immunogenicity and reactogenicity of 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine among pregnant Filipino women and placental transfer of antibodies. Vaccine, 2007, 25:4470–4477. 39 Shann F. Giving pneumococcal vaccine to mothers. Vaccine, 2007, 25:6147. 40 Chaithongwongwatthana S et al. Pneumococcal vaccination during pregnancy for preventing infant infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2006, (1):CD004903. 41 Flannery B et al. Changes in invasive pneumococcal disease among HIV-infected adults living in the era of childhood pneumococcal immunization. Annals of Internal Medicine, 2006, 144(1):1–9. 42 Atkins D et al; GRADE Working Group. Systems for grading the quality of evidence and the strength of recommendations I: critical appraisal of existing approaches The GRADE Working Group. BMC Health Services Research, 2004, 4(1):38. 43 LQSE: moderate-quality evidence to support effectiveness of PPV23 against IPD in healthy adults. 44 LQSE: moderate-quality evidence to support effectiveness of PPV23 against IPD in elderly populations. 45 LQSE: low-quality evidence of a lack of effectiveness of PPV23 against IPD in highrisk groups, acknowledging the variability of high-risk groups and of effectiveness in these groups. 46 Low-quality evidence in support of a deleterious effect of the vaccine. Existing evidence does not favour giving the vaccine to HIV-positive individuals in developing countries. In industrialized settings, there is low evidence of effectiveness but no evidence of detrimental effect of the vaccine. 47 LQSE: very low-quality evidence supports administering PPV23 to pregnant women for prevention of pneumococcal disease in infants too young to be immunized with PCV7. 48 LQSE: very low-quality evidence supports a benefi cial effect of revaccination. 49 LQSE: very low-quality evidence justifi es use of a booster dose of PPV23 in children previously immunized with PCV7. Actually, the only trial does not indicate a need for booster doses in developing countries. .
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