World Health: the magazine of the World Health Organization: May 1987 [full issue]: save sight

Cover: Cataract, the primary ca use of bl indness in the world, can be treated through surgery. Photo WHO/J. Schytte IX ISSN 0043-8502 World Health is the officia l illustrated magazine of the World Health Organization. Editor: John Bland Deputy Editor : Christiane Viedma Art Editor: Peter Davies News Page Editor: Peter Ozorio World Health appears ten times a year in English, French, German, Portuguese. Russian and Spanish, and four times a year in Arabic and Farsi. Articles and photographs not copyrighted may be reproduced provided credit is given to the World Health Organization. Signed articles do not necess- ari ly ref lect WHO's views. World Health, WHO, Av. App1a, 121 1 Geneva 27, Switzerland. Contents "Foresight prevents blindness" by Bjbrn Thylefors . . . . . . . 3 Partners in eye health by R. Pararajasegaram . 6 Ophthalmic medical assistants by Moses C. Chi rambo. 9 Training rural-based nurses by V. Guy Hawley. . 12 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion 16-17 Low-cost spectacles by Richard Homeier. . . . . . . . 18 Blinding malnutrition by Alfred Sommer . 20 A three-pronged programme by Edouard M. DeMaeyer 22 Saving sight in Saudi Arabia by lhsan Badr. . 23 Cataract in India by G. Venkataswamy. 25 Eye services in the Caribbean by Anthea M. S. Connell. . . 27 Drug abuse-a call to action by Marcus Grant and lnayat Khan . 29 News Page . . . . . . . . . 30-31 2 W oRLD HEALTH , May 1987 '' Foresight prevents blindness" This was the slogan chosen by WHO for World Health Day in 1976, when efforts were made around the world to raise public awareness about the problem of preventable blindness. This issue of World Health reviews the progress that has been made in the past decade [ wo of the commonest prob- lems encountered in develop- ing countries are poverty and ignorance, and both of these have a direct bearing on the burden of blindness. Poverty may sometimes be the reason for a fami- ly's not seeking early treatment for trachoma, or for an elderly person's not having a cataract operated on, but more often lack of information, awareness and motivation is the underlying reason. To this must be added the equally common problem of the physical and social remoteness of the avail- able health services from the rural poor in outlying areas, together with the general shortage of trained personnel and facilities for eye care in most developing countries. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that blindness rates in many of the least developed countries are often as much as 20 times higher than those found in developed countries, and that nine out of ten of today's more than 28 million blind people live in developing countries. And yet, a fair amount of pro- gress has been made over the last decade in the fight against "avoid- able" blindness in developing coun- tries, that is to say in dealing with blindness that can be prevented or cured relatively easily with locally available resources and technology. An example of such a cause of blindness is trachoma, which is gradually being brought under con- trol in an increasing number of countries. According to recent esti- mates, the number of people suffer- ing from this disease may have dropped from some 500 million to W oriLo HEALTH, May 1987 by Bjorn Thylefors about 360 million over a period of some three decades. Onchocerciasis has been the target of intense vector control ef- forts in West Africa for the last ten years, with very successful results. Furthermore, the availability of a promising new drug, ivermectin, for the treatment of onchocerciasis A primary eye care scheme can be set up relatively easily at the community level. Photo WHO/P. Larsen Left: Vitamin A deficiency blinded one of these Nepalese children ; early ac- tion could have saved her sight. Photo WHO/J. Schytte may in the near future dramatically improve possibilities for control of the disease and its blinding manifes- tations. More is being learned about the effects of vitamin A deficiency during childhood, which may in- clude increased mortality as well as the blindness it was already known to cause. As a result, intensified efforts are now being made in a number of countries to assess and control the problem of vitamin A deficiency, as a component of pro- jects aiming for increased child survival. The primary cause of blindness in the world as a whole-cataract-is still posing a serious problem in both developed and developing countries despite the increased ef- forts being made to corn~ to grips with this disorder. We now know that it causes half or more of all the blindness in developing countries and therefore that millions of pa- tients could have their sight re- stored by surgery. However, to pro- vide such surgical services on a large scale is already very difficult with the scanty trained personnel and facilities available in most de- veloping countries; and meanwhile the number of cases requiring cataract surgery is rapidly increas- ing the world over, owing to the close relationship between cataract and age. In developed countries, the es- calating cost of cataract surgery is becoming a matter for concern, par- ticularly as ever increasing use is being made of artificial intra-ocular lenses, which allow excellent resto- ration of vision following surgery, but at high cost. To cope with this problem, cataract surgery is now being performed on an out-patient basis in several countries, with en- couraging results. However, such experience is not directly applicable to the situation in developing coun- tries, where hospitalisation often has to be longer, mainly in order to ensure correct post-operative care but sometimes too because of 3 transport difficulties or for social reasons. Furthermore, the rapidly increas- ing proportion of elderly people in developing countries will add to the burden on the health administra- tions in many of the poorest coun- tries of the world. So, in the ab- sence of any known preventive measures against cataract, it is like- ly that this disorder will continue to be the main challenge to the pre- vention of blindness in coming years, and that, in general, coun- tries will have to make more re- sources available to deal with the growing backlog of unoperated cases. Perhaps one of the most signifi- cant developments in the field of blindness prevention over the last few years has been the concept of "primary eye care", that is, the inclusion of an eye-care component in a primary health care system. The idea of primary eye care, as one of the main ingredients of a primary health care approach to blindness prevention, has rapidly gained acceptance the world over. It is today recognised as a model for 4 eye care at the community level by many ophthalmologists, health ad- ministrators, voluntary agencies, and others. There is no universal blueprint for primary eye care; the local setting determines the final range and type of activities needed. How- ever, the promotion and protection of eye health, together with on-the- spot treatment for the commonest eye diseases, are its cornerstones. Most of the measures needed for control of diseases such as trachoma and the xerophthalmia due to vit- amin A deficiency can be under- taken by a trained primary health care worker, who is also often the best educator for eye health in the community. For other common dis- orders, such as cataract or eye in- juries, the health worker should be capable of recognising cases and referring them for further examin- ation and treatment. Experience from a number of countries has shown that a primary eye care scheme can be set up relatively easily, as a start to action for eye health at the community level. There are, however, some obstacles, one of the commonest being lack of appropriate referral facilities. The local health worker is not supposed to act as a kind of mini-ophthalmologist, but to refer any cases that need further exam- ination or treatment. If those cases referred are not given appropriate and timely attention at higher levels of the health system, there is a danger that the local population will lose faith in their health worker and in the eye care he or she provides. This in turn leads to a short-circuit in the health system with immediate demand for special- ist care-a particularly common, and often avoidable, problem in ophthalmology and the prevention of blindness. If we consider the fact that in many developing countries there are more than a million people to every ophthalmologist, it becomes obvious that the few specialists av- ailable should really deal with only the most complex cases of eye dis- ease and devote their time rather to training and supervlSlng other levels of personnel who provide a more basic kind of eye care. This is W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 "Foresight prevents blindness" Left: About 75 per cent of blindness in developing countries could be pre- vented, but sights like this are still all too frequent in many parts of the developing world. Right: In Guatemala, the National Committee for the Welfare of the Blind has opened several eye hospitals and clinics which offer much-needed eye care to the population. Photos WHO/J. Schytte and WHO/P. Almasy an area where much remains to be done, and there is increasing aware- ness amongst the ophthalmological profession of the need for new approaches to ensure optimum management of all cases in need of eye care. The development in many countries of new cadres of person- nel, such as ophthalmic assistants, reflects a recognition of the need for tasks relating to eye care and blindness prevention to be dele- gated by the specialists to auxiliary personnel. Another important development in connection with the prevention of blindness has been the establish- ment of national programmes in some 50 countries over the last decade. Many of these programmes were first started by non-govern- mental organizations concerned with blindness prevention, and some of them focused on a single disease, such as trachoma. The in- creasing recognition of the primary health care approach to blindness prevention, and the work of non- governmental organizations in that field, have resulted in an active and fruitful partnership between minis- W oRLD HEALTH, M ay 1987 tries of health and such organiz- ations in many countries. The set- ting-up of national committees for blindness prevention in a rapidly increasing number of countries is demonstrating the usefulness of this formula for bringing together re- sources and expertise from all avail- able sources and interested parties. The international non-govern- mental organizations working for the prevention of blindness have accumulated extremely valuable field and planning experience in developing countries, and have of- ten acquired excellent knowledge of local conditions through their numerous national groups and rep- resentatives. Together, moreover, they spend more than US $20 mil- lion a year on field projects for blindness prevention in a large number of countries. The WHO Pro- gramme for the Prevention of Blindness has developed close col- laboration with the international non-governmental organizations concerned, particularly through the International Agency for the Pre- vention of Blindness, which com- prises some ten member organiz- ations. These organizations have set up a consultative group of non- governmental organizations to the WHO Programme for the Prevention of Blindness to facilitate communi- cation and the development of joint programme activities and the chan- neling of support. Already such joint activities include the develop- ment of training and educational materials on eye care, and joint reviews of progress made in specific projects. Much remains to be done for the preve9tion of unnecessary blind- ness, in order to make the goal of Health for all by the year 2000 a reality. There is still room for optimism in this regard, even if greater efforts and more resources are needed in many countries. The first and most important steps to- wards preventing blindness have already been taken with the recog- nition that it is an avoidable obsta- cle to individual and collective well- being and development, and that much can be done about blinding diseases through primary health care and increased awareness and community involvement. • 5 6 Partners in eye health The non-governmental sector has not only the potential for a close and useful partnership with governments but also the capacity to innovate in a way that governments cannot do by R. Pararajasegaram ulhudhuffushi is one of the islands of the northernmost atoll of the Republic of Mal- dives. An archipelago in the Indian Ocean with a popula- tion of 180,000, Maldives ·is the smallest member state of WHO's South-East Asia Region. Thousands of tourists from north- ern climes flock to these island shores annually to enjoy the sun, sea and surf. Yet scores of men and women in Kulhudhuffushi , like hundreds of their compatriots in other atolls, can only feel the warmth of the sun and hear the lapping of the waves on the sea- shore, and can recall only as child- hood memories the weird, wind- worn shapes of the coral rocks and the sun going down in a blaze of rose-tinted splendour, because their v1s10n has been dimmed by cataract, a clouding of the crystal- line lens of the eye. The operation needed to remove the opaque lens and restore vision is available only in the capital, Male, where the Republic's sole eye surgeon practises. But Male is a long, long way off, across hazard- ous seas, even for sighted and able- bodied persons. It was in response to the need to help these blind and visually hand- icapped people that a team of eye doctors, nurses and ophthalmic as- sistants set sail from Male on a voyage that took 24 hours. They were from the Aravind Eye Hospi- tal in Madurai, South India. Their visit to Kulhudhuffushi was made possible through funds contributed, amongst others, by English school- children to the British National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness (BNCPB), an affiliate of the International Agency for the Pre- vention of Blindness (IAPB). Over 170 men and women had their eyesight restored. They could once again see the sun and the sea and, of course, for the first time the sun-tanned tourists they had till then only, heard about. David Chesterman, Executive Officer in the BNCPB, had this to say on read- ing the report of the Eye Camp : Non-governmental organizations have a key contribution to make both in preventing needless blindness (left), and in providing essential eye care (right) in many countries throughout the world. Photos WHO/P. Pi ttet and W HO/J. Schytte W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 "One can picture the whole opera- tion and it fills one with gratitude for the dedicated efforts of the team to carry through difficult conditions such a marvellous piece of work." Man's concern for his fellow- being is as old as mankind itself. It must certainly have always been particularly evident in the context of an impairment or disability. The emotive appeal, so inherent in the case of visual impairment or sight- lessness, strongly suggests that blindness in all its dimensions must have been a concern of the com- munity at large from the earliest times. Although the organization of human societies and the develop- ment of government-supported health systems have taken over much of the care of the sick and the disabled, the community has con- tinued to be concerned and to play an important pioneering and sup- portive role in these endeavours. Such complementary community involvement, first at a local level, later at a national one and now with international ramifications, ac- counts for the development of what are referred to as non-governmen- tal organizations (NGOs). NGOs con- cerned with and involved in the preservation of eyesight and the W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 restoration of VISion have, in the last two to three decades, spanned oceans and spawned programmes and projects in innumerable coun- tries the world over, supplementing and complementing governmental efforts. However, there are many fac- tors which hamper governmental action- financial, political and bureaucratic among others-but do not generally bog down non-gov- ernmental programmes, with their greater motivation, flexibility . in thought and action, and functioning at grassroots level-a built-in ele- ment of community participation. Thus, the non-governmental sec- tor has not only the basic potential for a close and meaningful partner- ship in avowed governmental ef- forts to achieve Health for all, in- cluding eye health, by the year 2000 through the primary health care approach, but also the capabil- ity to act as promoters and in- novators in a way governmental agencies cannot. The International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB), set up in 1975, recognised and gave impetus to the role of a number of international NGOs already working in several developing countries. With the establishment of the IAPB and the launching, three years later, of WHO's Programme for the Pre- vention of Blindness came the reorientation of strategies away from single-cause prevention ef- forts to delivery of eye care as an integral part of primary health care-a trend set in motion by the deliberations and decisions of the 1978 Alma-Ata International Con- ference at which NGOs joined hands with member countries and with WHO and UNICEF. Sir John Wilson, the first President of IAPB, has said : "We believe that the movement set in motion by the Agency has al- ready proceeded beyond the point where prevention of blindness can be regarded as a 'programme' or a series of projects; it is an integral part of the whole development process." The adoption of this concept of integrated delivery of eye care as part of primary health care is a logical step, given the multifactoral causes of blindness and their close relevance to the essential concerns of primary health care, such as safe water and sanitation, food and nut- rition, or maternal and child health. These approaches are embodied in the primary eye care efforts that are 7 Partners in eye health As a vital partner of governments, a non-governmental organization is teaching this girl in Mali to read Braille. Photo WHO/P. Pittet the basic strategies in a number of national programmes for the pre- vention of blindness. The Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal affords another good exam- ple of partnership in eye care. In the face of an almost overwhelming 8 burden of needless blindness, and on the strength of a nationwide survey financed by the govern- ment, WHO, the Seva Foundation (a non-governmental organization) and other bodies, a national pro- gramme for blindness prevention was formulated and put into opera- tion in 1981. Its purpose was both to reduce the burden of needless blindness and also to render the land-locked country self-reliant in providing essential eye care to its population. Vast strides have been made towards both objectives and, although much of the support had in the beginning come from the country itself and from intergovern- mental and bilateral agencies, there are now increasing inputs from in- ternational NGOs. Lahan is a small town in the Sagarmatha zone east of Kathman- du, at the very foot of Mount Ever- est. It is here that the Christoffel Blindenmission of West Germany runs an eye hospital under the aus- pices of the Nepal Blindness Pro- gramme. One visit to the hospital explains why it has become the Mecca for eye patients not only from Nepal but also from neigh- bouring parts of India. With almost "conveyor belt " organization and high-quality surgery, scores of pa- tients blind from cataract have their eyesight restored every week. Ac- tivities are not confined to surgery : training of personnel, education of the community and outreach ser- vices go on apace, providing a wide range of services that were not dreamt of five years ago. Some of the fruits of the efforts of international NGOs working in part- nership with government agencies and national NGOs can be seen in the work of the community-oriented ophthalmologists and ophthal- mological assistants in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, res- toring v1s10n to hundreds of thousands; of the trained health workers helping to prevent blinding malnutrition in children in India, with assistance from the Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind; and of the multipurpose workers delivering primary eye care in the Helen Keller project in Sri Lanka. Further efforts in this direction include the planned ac- tivities in Burma supported by the Christoffel Blindenmission, and the national primary eye care project in Bhutan, backed by Andheri Hilfe, as well as numerous NGO-supported activities in Nepal. Dr Carl Kupfer, President of IAPB, is optimistic. He says: " The agency will play an important role as a stimulus for progress and a large- scale victory will be a reality in the battle against blindness, if we can work together-the people, the NGOs, governments and the inter- governmental agencies-as partners in eye health. " • W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 Ophthalmic medical assistants Until sufficient numbers of eye specialists can be trained in Malawi, that country's 11 OMAs 11 will continue to make a signal contribution towards eradicating avoidable blindness by Moses C. Chirambo n acute shortage of skilled manpower in Malawi means that there is only one doctor for every 60,000 people, and one eye specialist for every 1.4 million people. Despite intensive medical training programmes, there is a high population growth of 3.2 per cent per annum so the doctor- patient ratio will not improve. In- creasingly, therefore, health care leans on the use of paramedical personnel to fill many gaps. One of those gaps is the staffing of static and mobile eye clinics. Ophthalmic services in Malawi began in 1956 when an eye unit was established at the Church of Scotland Mission hospital in Elan- tyre, with 12 beds allocated for medical and surgical eye patients. Two years later the Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital opened, and in 1963 an eye department consisting of a 54-bedded ward and an out-patient clinic was established in the hospital. Its staff consisted of an eye specialist backed by medical assistants and nurses. Today there are three eye depart- ments staffed by five eye special- ists, ophthalmic clinical officers, medical assistants and nurses. Malawi has large numbers of peo- ple blind from preventable and cur- . able causes, and this poses public health, social and economic prob- lems. Unable to work for a living these blind people remain a con- Graduation day for a new class of ophthalmic medical assistants in Malawi. Photo Malawi Ministry of Health W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 stant drain on the resources of the family and community which must support them. Among the main causes are cataract, eye infections (including trachoma) , measles, vit- amin A deficiency, glaucoma and accidents. Malawi has always relied heavily on paramedical staff, ever since the advent of the missionaries, whose evangelical work and settlements laid the first foundations of social welfare and medical services. Mis- sion hospitals still provide a con- siderable medical service today through the Private Hospital As- sociation of Malawi (PHAM). The original missionary training sought to create medical auxiliaries as doctor substitutes, fitting them to carry out medical and surgical pro- cedures in the absence of a qualified doctor, and to conform to an ac- ceptable code of conduct in keeping with the discipline and dignity of the medical profession. In 1969 a first course for ophthal- mic medical assistants (OMAs) be- gan at Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital. Between then and 1985, 47 OMAs have been trained, but since 1983, the training takes the form of a one year course at the Lilongwe School for Health Sciences and is available to me- dical assistants, clinical officers or nurses. Health workers recruited from district hospitals and health centres have to return to their origi- nal posts on completion of training. The curriculum includes anatomy and physiology, pathology, vision 9 Ophthalmic medical assistants and refraction, diagnosis and treatment including extra-ocular surgery, but also the theory and practice of primary eye care as an integral component of primary health care. When the course ends, the OMAs should be able to : diagnose and treat common eye diseases in Africa within the limits of their training and equipment ; give maintenance therapy to patients with chronic eye diseases or post-operative cases, and assist in distributing aphakic and presbyopic spectacles; perform basic therapeutic and extra-ocular surgical procedures, and render first aid in eye emergencies ; participate as a team member in promoting the eye health of the community through health teaching, sanitation and control of communicable dis- eases ; administer a mobile eye unit, including maintaining equipment and ordering drugs and supplies; supervise and give comprehensive care to hospital patients ; give treat- ment and advice on eye health matters (including nutrition) to mothers and young children. Most OMAs are posted to district hospitals where they set up small static units for eye care. Some are retained at the central hospitals, and a few are assigned to mobile eye units. Since 1969, there have been eight training courses- four in Blantyre and four in Lilongwe. In the outlying units , mosts OMAs are allowed to set up their eye clinic in a room that can be darkened as necessary. They re- ceive diagnostic and surgical instru- ments on completing their training. The work of the units at the district hospitals consists primarily of diag- nosis, treatment, patient referral and health education. Cataract is by far the most com- mon cause of blindness in Malawi, and diagnosis presents no difficulty to the OMAs. They refer cataract patients to eye specialists for surgery when there is bilateral blindness, or unilateral blindness with progressive cataract in the other eye. Chronic open-angle glaucoma is a more difficult problem for early diagnosis. Patients nearly always come for treatment at advanced stages of optic nerve damage-ex- cept for a small number of informed patients who have noticed early signs of transient blurring of vision. The OMA initiates treatment with drugs to reduce the tension, if necessary, then checks on progress every three months. The visiting eye specialist decides whether surgery is needed. The OMA treats red eyes and trachoma with tetracycline oint- ment and vitamin A deficiency with capsules on a regular basis ; unfor- tunately many cases are compli- cated by inappropriate traditional medicines which may cause scarring of the cornea. Indeed having eye health care available on the spot is a most effective form of health edu- Above: The ophthalmic medical assis- tants treat trachoma with tetracycline ointment at a rural health post. Left : During tours of a mobile eye unit, an ophthalmic assistant explains the treatment so that the mother herself can apply it. Right : Having eye care available · close to home is the most effective form of prevention and health education. Photos WHO/International Eye Foundation and (right) WHO/P. Pittet W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 cation and prevention because it deters the local population from resorting to uninformed traditional healers. The OMA assembles the out-patients waiting to be examined and gives them short talks on eye health, emphasising the dangers in- herent in using traditional medicine for the eyes. The role that measles and malnutrition play in causing keratomalacia (vitamin A deficien- cy) is illustrated with picture post- ers. All these activities help to pre- vent severe blinding conditions. Mobile eye units The mobile eye units make a very important contribution to both curative and preventive eye health care. There is one for each of the three regions, and the ophthalmic medical assistant is responsible for their management. Their activities include treatment of eye infections on the spot, health education, registration of blind per- sons, and referral of cataract cases and other complicated cases for specialist care. Before the visiting eye clinic takes place at a health post or centre, or in a village street, a lecture is given on preventive eye health. Eye patients are urged not to use traditional medicines, be- cause of the risk of corneal damage, and are advised instead to seek help at one of the health centres. The importance of personal hygiene in preventing eye infections is also stressed. The mobile eye units distribute drugs and equipment to district hos- pitals and health centres. But the costs are high, so motorcycles are being used by ophthalmic medical assistants and health surveillance assistants in areas where there is a high prevalence of eye diseases and blindness. What is the response of the local population to conventional medical and surgical treatment? In the early stages, it was hard to overcome the accepted practice of seeking help from traditional healers. In many rural areas, he is still regarded as the man who gives the best and "strongest". medicine. The great numbers of blind cataract patients who return to their villages with their sight restored after successful surgery provide convincing proof that good treatment can be pro- vided at the hospital, but this has not yet appreciably reduced the reliance on traditional healers. Training ophthalmic medical as- sistants to provide eye care within the primary health care services has proved effective in reaching the remote country areas where over 80 per cent of the population live. For years to come, certainly until health services reach the stage where sufficient numbers of eye ·specialists will be available in Malawi, the OMAs will make ' a significant contribution towards eradicating avoidable blindness. • Training rural- based nurses Training workshops for primary health care nurses in Fiji, who are then based in the countryside, have ensured that blindness is not an inevitable result of even the mildest of eye diseases [ he Fiji islands, numbering more than 300, are located in the South Pacific some 3,000 kilometres from the North- Eastern Coast of Australia. The islands range from two large volcanic ones to myriads of small coral atolls surrounded by 1.5 mil- lion square kilometres of azure sea. The lush green vegetation, the vib- rant colours of the flora, contrasting with the clear blue sky and the sparkling white sand, washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean, are breathtakingly beautiful whether one approaches the islands by air or by sea. The people, who number some three quarters of a million and over 60 per cent of whom live in rural 12 by V. Guy Hawley areas, include Fijians, Indians, Europeans and Polynesians. The di- versity of languages spoken, relig- ions observed and clothes worn add to the visual medley of colours. All to be seen and appreciated, but denied to those who have lost their vision. Hospital-based data analysed in 1979 revealed that over 60 per cent of all cases of blindness in the Fiji Islands could have been prevented if treatment had started early enough. It turned out that there was not one specific eye disease that was causing most of the blindness, but a lack of awareness in the rural communities of the need for urgent treatment of eye illnesses. This was further compounded by transport difficulties, unavailability of simple emergency eye care equipment, and a basic lack of eye care training for the rural-based nurses. By the early 1980s this situation had become very apparent. There were two major eye clinics in Fiji which provided adequate surgical care for eye injuries and cataracts, prescription services for spectacles, and treatment for eye diseases. However, many of the rural people coming to the eye clinics with end- stage eye disease came too late. Thus the need to improve com- munity awareness about eye health became imperative. Nurse training in emergency and simple eye care at the rural level needed to be strengthened and referral pathways W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 established. Accordingly in 1984 the Ministry of Health established a primary eye care unit and inte- grated its activities into the national primary health care system so as to provide an eye care programme directed towards the community and relying on rural-based nurses and physicians. Projects were de- signed, staff recruited and funds raised to launch an exciting but essential activity, initially for two years. The main objective of the pro- gramme was to train rural-based primary health care nurses. It was felt that nation-wide teaching would generate interest and inspire the nurses to educate their own small communities in the need to take eye health seriously. An adequate outreach medical system operates over all the island territories through small hospitals (10 to 50 beds) and teams of prim- ary health care doctors, nurses, health inspectors and dietitians. There are 18 geographical sub-div- isions, each with its own team of medical personnel serv1cmg between 20,000 and 40,000 people. The senior sub-divisonal staff are responsible for administration and training in these areas, each of which is in turn divided into some 10-18 zones with a population of 1,000-2,000 people and serviced by a rural-based nurse. The main thrust of the primary eye care programme was to conduct a series of teaching workshops for all nurses in the rural areas. Two groups of nurses were identified: the sub-divisional health sisters, and their teams of rural-based nurses. Each of these groups was to receive training in different ways. A group of health sisters attended a two-day primary eye care training workshop in the city closest to their workplace. Groups of 10-15 health sisters and other sub-divisional staff were brought in, with transport and subsistence costs provided. Em- phasis was placed on the concept of "training the trainers", so that these health sisters could return to their areas and provide in-service training to rural nurses. The intention was for this two- day workshop to act as a catalyst to promote eye care workshops for the rural-based nurses as a feature of regular in-service training pro- grammes. However, in time it be- came clear that this was not occur- W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 ring, as the participants considered the training too complex or "specialised" for them to design their own courses confidently. Each of them was then given a booklet on eye care, designed specifically for their level of patient manage- ment, and a specially designed training folder outlining the cur- riculum for their own in-service primary eye care courses. Addi- tional material such as photogra- phic slides with an explanatory pamphlet was available. Unfortunately the senior health sisters, though keen and well mo- tivated were far too busy with their family planning, immuniz- ation, communicable disease con- trol and other work to develop this new and somewhat complex pro- gramme of primary eye care effec- tively. Nevetheless, a start had been made, and it was hoped that it would facilitate the next stage. The second group of trainees were the rural-based nurses. Ini- tially they were the target group but, as the programme evolved, many other people came to hear of the exciting new workshops. To our surprise we found not only nurses but also local teachers, village health workers, health educators and even at times the local hospital driver, cook or gardener in at- tendance among the workshop "trainees ". Primary eye care workshops thus took place in each sub-division. Ar- rangements were made several weeks in advance so that each nurse could make the necessary changes in routine to be able to attend. All incidental costs were borne by the team to ensure 100 per cent attendance. Much thought went into the de- sign of the primary eye care work- shops. Valuable assistance came from Helen Keller International and WHO. The focus was on common diseases and injuries, and all techni- cal matters considered inappropri- ate to the nurses' level of health- care provision were omitted. In conducting successful workshops it proved a distinct advantage that I . had lived much of my life in Fiji, Primary eye care unit staff teach eye- testing (left) and conduct a training workshop (below) for the Fijian rural- based nurses. Photo WHON. G. Hawley 13 Above: Rural-based nurses or health auxiliaries have to use all kinds of transport to reach isolated communities. Below: They must be able to treat common diseases and injuries as well as applying basic eye care. Photos WHO/P. Almasy and WHOIT. Farkas 14 Training rural-based nurses I was conversant with the local language and customs and had had several years' experience as a phy- sician in rural areas. Many of the workshop discussions began with anecdotes pin-pointing particular incidents where nurses had saved the sight of one of their patients through prompt treatment and referral. Each workshop started with a discussion highlighting the fact that most cases of blindness were pre- ventable through appropriate, early treatment. Then followed a short course on basic anatomy and phy- siology relevant to eye problems commonly found in Fiji, with the use of visual aids. Considerable time was then de- voted to common eye diseases and injuries, again using suitable visual aids. Emphasis was placed on the need to diagnose, treat, treat and refer or immediately refer, depend- ing on the case. Development of an efficient referral pathway proved to be the single most important theme of the entire workshop . This was borne out by the many raised eye- brows when the urgency of refer- ral came to the fore , especially as regards eye injuries and corneal ulcers. After this phase, the participants tackled more practical topics. Each trainee was given practical training and experience in vision testing, eye examination, eyelid eversion, digital measurement of the eye pressures (for glaucoma), and the proper methods of applying eye drops, eye ointments and eye dres- sings. This practical portion of the workshop invariably produced much hilarity, cloaking initial un- certainty but, once they had gained confidence, many trainees ex- pressed their appreciation for the opportunity of participating in it. Afternoons session tended to move away from specific eye dis- eases and towards the essential need for community education, and for early attention to be given to eye problems. Training included the use of visual aids such as puppets, flannel boards, story flip-cards and role plays. During practical ses- sions, speakers often pointed out that in community education the relationship between nurses and the community should not be like that of the strict schoolteacher and the mute student: they must adopt a W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 Rural-based nurses in Fiji receive train- ing in eye-testing at a nursing station. Photo WHON. G. Hawley much more friendly, understanding role, taking time to listen to people and to stress the constructive com- ments they make, and guiding the discussions so that the statements enhancing patients' health are made by them and not by the nurse. At the end of the workshop each nurse received an emergency pri- mary eye care nursing kit provided by Helen Keller International. Each kit included basic ophthalmic anti- biotic medications, dressings, eye- lash tweezers and a number of other items, for use at the nursing stations. A total of 36 primary eye care workshops took place throughout W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 Fiji in 1985-86, involving hundreds of kilometres of travel by road through forests, plains and sugar cane plantations and by sea on a medical launch to the beautiful out- er islands. The trainees, numbering in all more than 460, included sub- divisional health sisters, rural- based and final-year-undergraduate nurses, and students enrolled at the School of Public Health Nursing. It was decided at the outset that an evaluation must be carried out to measure the effectiveness of the project. Its success can now be seen in the two-fold increase in cataract procedures resulting from an ever greater number of referrals from the rural sector. Moreover, a re- cording system for blindness cases set up at each workshop has re- sulted in a regular flow of data coming into the medical statistics section. This was not the case in the past. It is indeed a pleasure now to receive a referral note from a rural- based nurse, brought in by a patient with preventable blindness. It is an even greater pleasure to know that a simple and inexpensive course of instruction, aimed at the right group of hard-working, caring nurses, can have such a profound and positive effect on the sight of people in the rural areas of Fiji. The magnificence and beauty of their island surround- ings, the beaches, the sand, the wonderful sunsets, the orchids and other flora are part of their heri- tage, and they will be able to see and enjoy them for many years. No longer will descent into the world of darkness and despair automatically follow even the mildest of eye diseases in Fiji. • 15 16 An international conference, jointly organized by WHO, Health and Welfare Canada and the Canadian Public Health Association, drew up this Charter for action to achieve Health for all by the year 2000 and beyond ENABLE MEDIATE ADVOCATE DEVELOP PERSONAL SKILL£ A COMMITMENT TO INTERNATIONAL HEALTH ACTION ore than 200 participants from 38 countries met in November 1986 in Ottawa to ex- change experiences and share knowledge of health promotion. The conference stimu- lated an open dialogue among health work- ers. politicians, academics and representatives of governmental. voluntary and community organiz- ations. The charter they drew up reflected their individual and collective commitment to the com- mon goal of Health for all by the year 2000. Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over. and to improve, their health . So action for health promotion puts health firmly on the agenda of poLicy makers in all sectors and at all levels . Joint action by many sectors of society will ensure healthier public services. and cleaner and more enjoyable environments . Consequently, the participants to the Ottawa Con- ference pledged themselves-among other things - to advocate a clear political commitment to health and equity in all sectors ; to respond to "the · health gap" within and between societies by tackling inequities in health; and to recognise health and its maintenance <;1S a major social investment and challenge . • W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 Photo WHO/Y. Pouliquen a I s 0 0 .<::: ll. 17 he manufacture of low-cost spectacles in the Third World and their distribution to peo- ple in need presents a chal- lenge that calls for a certain amount of creative thinking. This need is particularly felt by those who have undergone sight-restor- ing cataract surgery, and by the even larger body of individuals whose vision impairment-often due simply to aging-prevents them from reading. In most large cities of the de- veloping world, spectacles are read- ily available. But a great many people are excluded from obtaining them because of the cost of travel to the cities as well as the price of the glasses themselves. If we take into account the wages lost through travelling in this way, the average cost can range from one month to one year of salary for a minimum- wage worker. India is a good example of a country that has now become an exporter of low-cost spectacles, af- 18 ter having first met its own domes- tic requirements . By using small " cottage " or "home " industries combined with simple manufactur- ing techniques, India has not only created employment for its people but has paved the way for other initiatives in the field of devel- opment. The Christoffel Blindenmission (Mission for the Blind) , thanks to its heavy involvement in blindness prevention programmes around the world and especially in developing countries, is very well aware of the need for low-cost spectacles. At present it is training workers-many of whom are themselves physically handicapped-to make simple eye- glasses which are of a higher quality than those available from most ex- porters and can be sold at prices that average- and low-income per- sons can afford. The Mission's goal is to keep the price down to be- tween one and four days' wages for a minimum wage earner. By limiting the range of the glasses manufactured and distri- buted, the cost can be held very low, allowing most people access to the eyeglasses they need and there- by helping them to improve their quality of life. For instance, by limiting the lenses to only spherical corrections for presbyopia (vision impairment due to advancing age), aphakia (loss of the lens of the eye) and simple myopia (near-sighted- ness) and using standard frame styles, it is possible not only to reduce the stock required but also to greatly simplify the manufactur- ing and distribution processes. To the pleasant surprise of all con- cerned, agreement on these basic parameters emerged from a work- shop on low-cost spectacles spon- sored by WHO and involving profes- sionals from many backgrounds and countries, including those from gov- ernment and private sectors as well .as the medical, engineering and technical fields . Some of the major obstacles to making low-cost spectacles avail- W oRLD HEALTH , May 1987 able stem not so much from the established optical and ophthalmic industries or professions within a given country but from govern- ments themselves. These obstacles usually take the form of some kind of import restriction such as duties or else the shortage of foreign ex- change for buying the raw mate- rials. Ideally, this problem is best handled by finding local substitutes for the raw materials . This is poss- ible in some countries but does not always help where the needs are greatest. Another obstacle is that the infra- structure within some countries does not lend itself to central man- ufacture and distribution. The transport system may be either non-existent or of very poor qual- ity. Since a very high percentage of people still live in the country areas, good roads and reliable vehi- cles are a must if deliveries are going to be dependable and timely. Experience shows that the best answer to such problems is to have a combination of solutions which can be tailored to the specific needs of the area. The first consideration should be the utilisation of re- sources already available within the country or region. Secondly, as much of the manufacturing as is practicable should be done on or very near the distribution centre (hospital, clinic and so on). Thirdly, it is best to use only the simplest machines and equipment, and to manufacture them locally if poss- ible. Fourthly, a maximum of three basic designs of frame should be enough, and only those types of lenses that will meet the highest percentage of needs. The objective of the Christoffel Blindenmission is to work towards the self-sufficiency of individual projects through what may be called ''appropriate technology'' methods. We have recommended simple hand-tools and equipment and have developed special machines-some even pedal- powered-for use in areas with un- reliable or non-existent electricity The old and the new. The old man on the facing page was obliged to lash together two semi-opaque lenses on a length of wire. On this page-the proud recipient of new, low-cost spectacles. Photo WHO/J. Schytte W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 supplies. Many areas take advan- tage of using refurbished "second- hand" frames. Many physically handicapped people have undergone training in various areas of spectacle produc- tion and have proved not only to be very capable but also more depend- able and consistent than the aver- age worker. Others who are doing this work range from fully qualified medical assistants to primary school leavers. This manufacturing can be done on a very small scale, using local resources. Again, India has shown a possible starting point by using locally available glass to make lenses. This can be done on a very satisfactory basis until such time as optical glass is either manufactured in the country or the economic situation improves sufficiently to allow a reasonable level of importa- tion. In countries where suitable plastics are available, frames can be produced by very simple, labour- intensive methods; this is already being done with imported plastics in some African countries and has great potential. Overall, we are dealing with a process which moves quite slowly. If we look at the same processes which evolved in the more indus- trialised countries, we see that it took well over 100 years to make spectacles available on the present enormous scale. So there is every reason to be optimistic that in a . much shorter time reasonably priced spectacles can be made avail- able to all who need them, and that countries themselves can develop a sound industrial base for their manufacture. • Blinding malnutrition A chronic deficiency of vitamin A in the diet leaves mil- lions of children blind for life. To prevent this is a challenge that calls for imagination, dedication and political will s many as half a million chil- dren go blind every year, be- tween five and ten million can- not see well enough to find their food or toys after sunset, and many more contract infections and die simply because they don't get enough vitamin A. I personally have encountered needlessly blind children in Asia (India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Bangladesh), in Africa (Tanzania, Malawi, Kenya and Zambia) and in Latin America and the Caribbean (Haiti, Guatema- la, Peru, El Salvador) . These are merely the places where I have searched for cases; it appears that almost . everywhere one looks for the disease in the Third World one finds it-not an occasional case but scores, hun- dreds and thousands. Children need vitamin A, the first of the fat-soluble vitamins ever identified, to grow normally, to re- sist infection, and also to see, for the eye must have vitamin A to produce chemicals that detect light. When vitamin A levels are low, too little chemical is available to see in dim light. With more severe defi- ciency the eye becomes dry and its clear central window (the cornea) ulcerates and degenerates, often re- sulting in severe scarring and corn- plete loss of vision. Blinding malnutrition was once worldwide. Indeed, its description goes back at least 3,500 years to ancient Egypt. Its clinical manifesta- tions were well catalogued during the nineteenth century in English schoolchildren, in Russian women during the long Lenten fasts, and among orphans in institutions in Paris and Der1mark and during this century in Chinese university stu- dents and soldiers. With the recog- 20 by Alfred Sommer nition of the cause of the malady, it is now largely limited to Third World countries where it continues to pose a burdensome and wholly unnecessary risk to life and sight. Identifying the disease is rela- tively easy: prominent changes on the outside of the eye reveal late stages of dryness or impending Vegetables rich in vitamin A are in plentiful supply in most areas of the world. Photo WHO/P. Almasy blindness. It is equally important that milder deficiency be detected and treated, since blindness can rapidly develop in children affected by it. The earliest clinical manifestation is night blindness. In most cultures where vitamin A deficiency is com- mon, specific terms exist to desig- nate that condition; their literal meaning is often "chicken eyes," since poultry cannot see at dusk. Special tests are now being de- veloped to identify even milder deficiency. Their results show that in many Third World populations between a quarter and a half of all pre-school age children are defi- cient in vitamin A. While the deficiency can occur at any age, children aged between one and five years are at greatest risk. This is because measles, respiratory infections, diarrhoea and protein- energy malnutrition, commonest among children, all increase the need for vitamin A, as does growth. Children also consume the smallest variety of foods and are largely dependent upon what is offered to them and upon their own undisci- plined likes and dislikes. Newborn infants have no source of vitamin A other than what was stored in their livers before birth and what they obtain from their mothers' breast- milk. When mothers are themselves deficient or, even worse, if the child is not breast-fed, the risks of vit- amin A deficiency and blindness are high. By six months of age, vitamin A intake from breastmilk needs to be supplemented by other foods rich in vitamin A precursors (mostly beta- carotene) such as mango, papaya, or red palm oil. Later in life, dark- green leafy vegetables become an increasingly important source of the vitamin; a cupful will provide all a child needs. Unfortunately many children simply dislike greens and are therefore denied their benefits. Preventing vitamin A deficiency is in principle relatively straight- forward: identify children or com- munities at risk of vitamin A defi- ciency and supplement their intake. Unfortunately, this is more easily said than done. A problem or high-risk popu- WoRLD HEALTH, May 1987 A Nepalese boy takes one of the vit- amin pills which will safeguard his sight for a lifetime. Photo W HO/J. Schytte lation can be identified only by surveying children's diets, examin- ing their eyes, questioning their mothers about their night vision or measuring levels of vitamin A in their blood. General nutritional status is a poor guide: while se- verely wasted and malnourished children are very likely vitamin-A deficient, so are some children who appear healthy and well-nourished. When the problem has been iden- tified, something must be done W oRLD HEALTH , May 1987 about it. The ideal long-term solu- tion is to increase the intake of natural dietary sources of vitamin A. Too often, poor dietary intake has nothing whatever to do with availability of proper foods. The vast majority of families in In- donesia consume cooked dark- green leafy vegetables every day. What distinguishes children with deficiency from those without is whether they themselves eat them. Innovative, effective promotion of breast-feeding and of consump- tion of dark-green leafy vegetables can make all the difference in a child's life. Unfortunately, lasting changes in dietary practices have proved difficult to bring about, even on a small scale. The popu- lation of Southern India, for exam- ple, tends to avoid such vegetables because they are considered "poor man's food". The impact of inten- sive educational efforts at nutrition rehabilitation centres, such as the famous one in Madurai, has proved transient. Perhaps new social mar- keting techniques will be more ef- fective . Paradoxically the poorest children, who eat cassava leaves (rich in vitamin A) instead of the preferred rice, often fare better. The other approaches all use sup- plemental, non-dietary sources of pre-formed vitamin A. The most efficient technique is fortification of some dietary item commonly con- sumed by high-risk children and centrally processed where the vit- 21 Blinding malnutrition amin A can be conveniently added. A nationwide sugar fortification programme in Guatemala and pilot fortification trials of monosodium glutamate in Indonesia and the Philippines have all demonstrated the technical simplicity, remarkable impact, and feasibility of this ap- proach. Unfortunately items that lend themselves to fortification are not always present in the diet. Until now, the single most widely employed technique for increasing vitamin A intake has been the periodic administration of a large oral dose once every six months, in the form either of one or two spoonsful of vitamin A concentrate (India) or of a single large-dose capsule (Bangladesh, Indonesia). While the vitamin A itself is inex- pensive, the cost of distribution can be high. Moreover, as in most pub- lic health programmes, those in greatest need are the ones least likely to take part. Certainly, India, Indonesia and Bangladesh have ambitious vitamin A intervention programmes. In many countries, however, other health problems, particularly high childhood mortality, command the limited health resources available. Recent studies indicating that vit- · amin A deficiency interferes with resistance to infection and lowers survival are likely to result in a redistribution of resources, with vit- amin A status becoming a central concern in maternal and child health programmes. The problem is enormous and compelling. Solutions, or at least their broad outlines, are well estab- lished. Imaginative application of operational research and commit- ment to overcoming local obstacles can do the rest. Are natural dietary sources of vitamin A available and, if so, why don't people consume them and how can their reluctance be overcome? A careful search may yet identify fortifiable foods where none were thought to exist. Integra- tion of mass-dose supplementation into on-going community-based health and nutrition programmes needs to be oriented so as to reach those most in need. These are the challenges before us. The disease can be overcome and millions of children's eyes and lives can be preserved. All it re- quires is imagination, dedication and political will. • 22 A THREE-PRONGED PROGRAMME by Edouard M. DeMaeyer ~ rom its earliest days,_'wHo tried to tackle the problem of vita-min A deficiency, notably in Indonesia where it was particu-larly acute. Then, in 1962, a survey conducted by the Organization revealed that this deficiency existed not 'only in South-East Asia but also in Latin America and Africa. As the problem was so widespread, WHO urgently needed to determine the most ef- fective means of prophylaxis. By the early 1970s it became possible to undertake mass preventive pro- grammes by periodically giving pre- school-age children, who constitute the most vulnerable groyp, a cap- sule containing 200,000 Internat- ional Units (IU) of vitamin A. UNICEF alone distributed 81 million vitamin A capsules in 1985. In 1984, the World Health Assem- bly asked the Director-General to prepare a coordinated worldwide programme · to combat vitamin ... A deficiency and its most tragic conse- quence, blindness. Very soon other ~N agencies SUCh as UNICEF and FAO joined with WHO and invited it to coordinate a programme embracing not only the activitiesof the agen- cies in this sphere butalso those of bilateral assistance agencies and non-governmental org·anizations concerned with blindness pre- vention. There are three facets to the pro- gramme: emergency prophylaxis by distribution of vitamin A supple- ments (200,000 IU 9apsules); mediumcterm .prophylaxis by vit- amin A enrichment of certain foods; and, lastly, long~term prophylaxis by improving die,taryintakes of the vit- amin. Nutritional education, better use pf existing foqds, and · develop- •· ment of ne":}'s di~ta[y res0urces rich in vitamin "A are essential features of this long-t~rm approach. The global programme went into effect in 1985. The geographical dis- tribution of the problem was quickly determined and we now have a fairly accurate picture of the areas where the problem is serious enough to need immediate attention. In Asia, and more particularly in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, India. Indonesia, ,Nepal and the Philip- pines, continuous contacts vvith governments have enabled a com- prehensive programme of preven- tion to be drawn up. In Africa, pro- gress has been slower because of the large number of countries af- fected and sometimes because of the inadequacy of basic health facilities. but it is nevertheless encouraging. In Latin America, a numb.er of countries including Brazil, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guate- mala, Haiti, Honduras and Panama have also launched preventive programmes. The number of vitamin A capsules (200,000 IU) delivered by UNICEF to various governments is a very good indicator of the interest ()roused by the programme. lt rose from three million in 1981 to 81 million in 1985, and the 1986 figure, though not yet precisely knowp, will c~rtainly be higher. Leaving aside India, which produces enough domestically to meet its own needs, the vitamin A capsules s_upplied by . UNICEF and . other agencies covered about 25 per cent of the requirements " of the developing countries in 1985. A projectforvitamin A enrichment of sugar is in progress in Guatemala and Honduras. In Indonesia and the Philippines. the .. governments are exploring the possibility of similarly enriching the condiment .mono- sodium glutamate. In .a number of countries such as India and the Philippines, the growing of fruit and vegetables by families is being encouraged a.nd demonstration centres are being set up to help educate the public. Results to date are very encouraging. Clearly a big effort will still be •needed to ensure adequate preven- tion of vitamin A deficiency ana to put an end to one of its most tragic consequences : young children going blind,,.The interest shown in thEP prograrpme by ·governments ~nd the prowess achieved augur well for the futur~. prqvided that enough funds can .. be made available as and when they are needed. • woaLD HEALTH; May -1987 Saving sight in Saudi Arabia Opened only four years ago, a new eye hospital has already become a think-tank for solving serious eye problems in Saudi Arabia, and represents a breakthrough in the age-long struggle against blindness ~ uring the last 20 years, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has seen major improvements in many aspects of people's lives. But the authorities have long recognised that eye diseases pose a problem for the country and for the region as a whole. The number of blind people in the Eastern Mediter- ranean region stands at around 7.5 million out of a population of 250 million ; in the trachoma endemic areas of many countries there is a blindness rate of around four per cent. Until recently, there were no studies available on the prevalence of blindness in Saudi Arabia, but rough estimates by WHO indicated a blindness rate of 3,000 per 100,000 inhabitants. We also considered that, on average, more than 60 per cent of the cases of blindness in the region could have been prevented, since blindness and visual impair- ment are mainly associated with communicable eye disease. With the development of health care sys- tems in Saudi Arabia it became obvious that, to solve the problem of blindness in a systematic manner, a multi-disciplinary approach had to be taken. The Ministry of Health has been making great efforts for many years to build up preventive medicine departments and to organize prim- ary and secondary health care. In the past, large numbers of patients The King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospi- tal in Riyadh. Photo W HO/I. Badr W oRLD HEALTH , May 1987 by lhsan Badr were referred abroad for special- ised surgery because skilled man- power was lacking in the field. So some years ago the government built the King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital (KKESH), named after the late King Khaled. The 250-bed facility in the capital Riyadh, was opened in December 1982 and offi- cially inaugurated by his brother, King Fahad, in November 1983. It has already attracted many inter- national experts, including more than 30 ophthalmologists as well as residents and fellows engaged in the KKESH training programme. One of the major objectives of the hospital is the prevention of blindness in Saudi Arabia. Under the direction of the Minsitry of Health, the hospital organized a national survey to identify eye dis- eases throughout the country. In February 1984, a caravan of about 40 staff members, including doc- tors, nurses, epidemiologists, tech- nicians and supporting staff, started a tour of the country's five regions. In addition to the population samples selected from the 75 met- ropolitan and non-metropolitan communities in the kingdom, more than 2,000 bedouin nomads living in areas outside the boundaries of the communities were selected for the study. The communities selected were sub-divided into seg- ments or geographic areas, each of them with 50 housing units, or some 225 individuals. Each team 23 Saving sight in Saudi Arabia included one fully trained ophthal- mologist who carried out a detailed examination in every household in- cluding slit lamp examination, fun- dus examination, eye pressure and tests for glasses. Altogether 16,810 Saudis were examined and the data was entered in a small portable computer. The data was then analysed upon com- pletion of the survey by a scientific board having links with the inter- national Centre for Eye Health in London. Preparation for the survey took over a year, and the actual field work, in spite of the large size of Saudi Arabia, took about five months. Use of the computer by field researchers and at the hospital sig- nificantly simplified the process of data reduction, and enabled them to analyse all the relevant data within weeks. On the strength of the valuable data obtained, the Research Council recommended a national programme for blindness prevention, many aspects of which have already been implemented. The overall blindness rate has been reduced during the last few years from an estimated three per cent to a national average of 1.5 per cent, and the main causes of blind- ness are now well-defined. For in- stance, cataract, an opacity of the lens which is curable by surgical technique, proved to be responsible for almost 55 per cent of all blind- ness, while trachoma caused ten per cent of blindness among the older age groups. Corneal scars, refrac- tive errors, failure of medical or surgical treatment, and glaucoma are the other main causes of blind- ness, all of them either curable or preventable. Today the prevalence and sever- ity of trachoma has fallen remark- ably, even though it still accounts for some ten per cent of blindness in the older age groups. In the most endemic areas, the Central and Eastern Provinces, trachoma once affected more than 90 per cent of the people with moderate to severe intensity. The present national av- erage of active trachoma has drop- ped to only six per cent, while inactive trachoma affects about 16 per cent. Trachoma prevention pro- grammes in regions with a high incidence have already begun, the emphasis being placed on high risk 24 groups. At the same time, efforts are also underway to protect the younger generations from this in- fection. It is interesting to note how in a short time a tertiary centre has made considerable progress in pre- ventive medicine and education. This centre has already developed an excellent training programme, involving both the King Saud Uni- versity and KKESH, which accepts some ten post-graduates each year for a three-year period and will be able to contribute a great deal of paramedical training and research to the field of ophthalmology. Em- phasis is placed on topics related to the prevention of blindness. Children await their turn for an eye check-up in Saudi Arabia. Photo W HO/I. Badr In only a few years the KKESH has become a well-known facility in the field of ophthalmology. Its pre- sent and future significance for re- search and medical education has won the hospital recognition from WHO as a collaborating centre in the field of blindness prevention. The success of this institution in the areas of prevention of blind- ness, patient care, medical educa- tion and research, and as a national "think-tank " for solving problems in ophthalmology, is remarkable. In many ways it is likely to constitute a long-wished-for breakthrough in the struggle against blindness, lack of training, lack of curative facilities and lack of direction. The cost of setting up such an establishment has been significant, but already it has proved to be an excellent investment. • W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 Cataract in India In 1976, the government of India started a national programme for control of blindness and prevention of visual disability. And the principal cause of blindness in India today is cataract by G. Venkataswamy few years ago, a woman aged 38 was brought to an eye camp in India. She could hardly see her way; she had been blind for nearly two years. Her hus- band was a village schoolteacher. Neither of them knew the cause of her blindness which was actually advanced cataract in both eyes, nor what could be done to restore her vision. The husband abandoned her and married another woman, and she was taken care of by her pa- rents. In the eye camp, a simple operation restored her vision. Many people today are not aware than an opacity in the lens of the eye can cause loss of vision, and that a simple operation could re- store it. It is not uncommon to see people developing cataracts even in youth. In 1976 the government of India (nearly 1.4 per cent of whose 750 million people are blind) started a national programme for control of blindness and prevention of visual W oRLD HEALTH , May 1987 disability. The principal cause of blindness in India today is cataract, responsible for between 50 and 90 per cent of all cases, depending on the area. Recent studies show that there are 21 million eyes with ad- vanced cataract requiring opera- tions. Nearly seven million people are unable to work because of visu- al loss in both eyes, -and another seven million have poor vision in one eye, owing to cataract. Every effort is being made to strengthen the eye care services at different levels so that curable blindness due to cataract can be completely eliminated before the year 2000. At present, about 800,000 cataract operations are performed each year, and it is plan- ned to increase this number rapidly. Patients recovering from their oper- ations at a temporary eye camp 150 miles from New Delhi. Photo WHO/J. Schytte There are 6,000 qualified eye doc- tors in India, but the hospitals lack sufficient beds to admit all patients needing cataract surgery. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, therefore, eye camps have been organized. Schools, and other public build- ings serve as temporary eye hospi- tals with one or two suitable rooms fitted out as operating theatres after thorough cleaning~ Local voluntary organizations conduct propaganda in the area and mobilise all the people needing eye care. Eye sur- geons and nurses are brought from the nearest cities. Amenities such as toilets and piped water are provided. In these eye camps, 200 to 300 cataracts are operated on in a single day by the team of surgeons. De- pending on the need, operations may take place on one or more days. Post-operative care is pro- vided in the camp for seven days following surgery, and standard aphakic glasses are given free to the patients. Initially, volunteer eye surgeons from mission and other hospitals did this pioneering work. More people had their sight restored in eye camps than in eye hospitals. With the launching of the national programme almost all the govern- ment hospitals have organised eye camps using the mobile ophthalmic services provided by the State, but 50 per cent of all cataract oper- ations are still done by volunteer agencies. In these camps operations are performed free and the patients are also provided with food. But free food, transport and surgery are not sufficient to attract all the people requiring operations. Recently, a 25 survey was conducted to identify the constraints preventing people from coming to hospitals or eye camps. Many of them said they needed somebody to bring them to the hospital or camp and that they did not have enough money to pay for small incidental expenses. Some were afraid to have the operation. Thus 80 per cent of all people advised to have surgery did not come for it even after one year. Most of those who did come for surgery had advanced cataracts. There are many people who are economically blind owing to cataract, and who become depen- dent on their families for support. In the early days, cataracts were operated on only when they were at a very advanced stage; today awareness must be created to con- vince such people that they should come early, before they have diffi- culty in doing their jobs. One way to increase the number of cataract operations is being tried at Aravind Eye Hospital, Madurai, which is run by a public charities trust. It has a main building which can accommodate 250 paying pa- tients and another with room for 350 free patients. In the latter building, the out-patient examin- ation, treatment, surgery and in- 26 patient stay are provided free . Some 60 to 65 per cent of these patients also get free transport and food . Permanent facilities are avail- able in both wings to perform an average of 100 cataract operations per day. Since most of the patients are from the countryside, which makes post-operative care difficult, they are usually kept as in-patients for about a week. With the help of field organiz- ations, screening eye camps are also organized. Every week, 10 to 12 such camp sessions are held. Village leaders, religious groups, or service organizations help by conducting local propaganda for these camps and providing a place where pa- tients can be examined by medical officers and ophthalmological assis- tants. All external eye diseases and refractive errors are treated and glasses prescribed. Those who need operations for cataract, glaucoma or tear-duct obstruction are brought to Aravind Eye Hospital the same day if possible. It is not easy to find suitable places to hold eye camps. Since most screening camps are held for only one day, a school or other building in the village can be used. For operation eye camps, it be- comes costly to install temporary As many as 80 per cent of people advised to have cataract surgery were afraid to come forward for the simple operation or could not pay for it. Photo W HO/J. Schytte toilets and electrical connections. Nor is it easy to get volunteers to work for a week or ten days in the operation camps, and food and sanitary arrangements are becom- ing more expensive. So a permanent base hospital with a large number of beds and well-organized screening eye camps facilitates identifying and recruiting more people who need sight resto- ration. It is also easier to maintain a high quality of surgery and post- operative care at the base hospital. Thus, wherever there is a dense population with fairly good com- munications connecting the rural areas, this arrangement seems to be the most cost-effective and permits maximum use of available man- power (eye surgeons, trained nurses and ophthalmological assistants). In 1985, 20,000 cataract operations were performed at the Aravind Hospital, and it is planned to in- crease this number considerably in the coming years. • W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 Ey,e serv:ices in the Caribbean Once disregarded as the ,, poor relation,, among medical' services, eye care is making good progress in the Caribbean islands, thanks to new nurse training pro- grammes and advanced eye care centres by Anthea M. 'S. Conn .~ll WoRLD HEALTH, May 1987 ~ntil the last 15 years, eye care has been the poor relation among medical services in the Third World. Most people liv-ing on the scattered islands of the Caribbean have had minimal or no eye care. Not that they re- quested it; they did not know care existed; growing blind was the pen- alty of growing old. And the poorer the island, the less care there was. Philanthropic societies tried hard. In the English-speaking islands, there were two schools for the blind, one of them run by the Salva- tion Army. In addition, sheltered workshops for the blind and itiner- ant ophthalmologists were funded by the Royal Commonwealth Soci- ety for the Blind. Some wealthier governments did have ophthal- mologists who provided a free or low-cost service; some govern- ments sent nurses abroad for train- ing and started eye departments in the local hospitals. These services were good, but available only to the few who lived nearby. For the ma- jority, it was impossible to obtain eye care locally and far too expen- sive to travel to another island for such services. Improvement in extending the services started slowly. A first step was to add ophthalmic teaching to the medical students' curriculum, thereby ensuring that there would be a basic or primary eye care service throughout the areas as these new doctors began practice. During the last ten years, secondary eye care services have been estab- lished; these usually have a trained ophthalmic nurse and an overseas ophthalmologist able-provided the facilities are adequate-to remove cataracts, perform minor surgery and diagnose and treat many other diseases. The doctor's services were often intermittent, but the local nurse remained to repeat treat- ments and screen patients before the next visiting doctor came round in the Inter-Island Eye Service. France sent ophthalmologists to the French-speaking islands, and Cuba sent its own to Grenada for a time. Puerto Rico, as a self-governing part of the United States, has good services and locally trained oph- thalmologists, but , other islands such as Haiti still have very limited care. In order to deliver eye care ser- vices efficiently, it is desirable to have a firm working base : an eye 27 Eye services in the Caribbean ward for patients, an operating area with facilities for sterilising instru- ments, and an outpatient clinic where costly diagnostic instruments can safely be used and maintained. This is not essential, but it certainly helps. On one occasion when the present writer was operating in a tent, a hen unobtrusively invaded the "theatre," laid an egg under the patient, and raucously announced her achievement. But the cataract was safely removed. On another occasion, the eye clinic was tem- porarily suspended when a joyous wedding party started shooting through the windows on the east side of a makeshift operating theatre to see if the bullets would safely emerge on the west. There can be other hazards. A young American ophthalmologist required to work in one island at a time of local political tension failed to recognise that a curfew was in force . The first time he stepped outside, the soldiers were polite and merely returned him to his room at gun-point. The second time they took him to the dungeons where he spent a most uncomfortable night before being deported next day. Several visiting ophthalmologists have suffered from "culture shock" in the Caribbean area. Eye departments in some islands urgently needed renovation. One had eleven beds and a single water tap for all purposes. Eye facilities often have to share space with gen- eral surgery, with a consequent risk of surgical infection which may all too easily blind an eye. So it has been necessary in the Caribbean to motivate many differ- ent governments and to request help from international agencies to develop eye care services, build facilities and train doctors and nurses, both in hospitals and rural clinics. More advanced eye care requires expensive equipment and the maintenance of this in a tropical climate, with no access to spare parts, is a major problem. Training of equipment engineers has high priority, as has training of ophthal- mologists to a high standard of personal diagnostic skill. Most people living on the scattered islands of the Caribbean have had mini- mal or no eye care. Photo L. Sirman © 28 Programmes to train nurses to work as primary eye care providers in remote up-country areas as well as in surgical eye departments have been held in several islands since 1974. These were initially funded by the International Eye Foun- dation of Washington, D.C., which continues to show its interest. Bar- bados has successfully trained oph- thalmologists to develop services in the smaller islands, providing surgery and preventive care. The training has to reach a recognised international level to conform with the legal requirements of individual governments. More advanced eye care is being offered in the area's university teaching hospitals, but lack of finan- cial resources still limits the use of trained ophthalmologists, and makes it hard to refer patients with particularly difficult problems from the smaller islands to the larger centres. But this kind of referral does occur. In 1985 three babies (two boys and a girl) were born blind in one of the tiny islands in the Grenadines. They were sent to Barbados where the cataracts were removed and full vision restored. Tests confirmed that the cause of the cataracts was German measles which had infected their respective mothers during pregnancy. An in- tensive programme of immuniz- ation in the Caribbean since then has prevented any more babies be- ing born blind from this disease. At present most people in the Caribbean have access to a centre where cataracts can be removed locally and glaucoma treated, these being the major eye problems. A patient whose failing sight is due to diabetic eye disease does not yet have adequate access to treatment. Vitamin A deficiency (blinding mal- nutrition) also occurs, especially in Haiti. WHO and the Pan American Health Organization have been in- strumental in helping to coordinate the activities of various groups working in the area, in collabor- ation with local governments. And for the future? Clinical research programmes are being started to investigate why open- angle glaucoma is present in such a severe form, why cataracts are not as common as in India, and why diabetes occurs so frequently. Perhaps the Caribbean may yet provide some answers to these worldwide problems. • WoRLD HEALTH, May 1987 obody who reads World . Health wil.l be surprised. to learn. that there is growing concern about the abuse of narcotic drugs and psycho- tropic subs}pnces. Only last March WHo collaborated with the govern- ment of the United Kingdom in a special conference on this topic which brought together Ministers of Health 'and senior officials from more than 30 countries. But concern about drug at:Juse extends far beyond the health sec- tor. The . Secretary-General of1 the United Nations, Mr J;:wier Pefez de Cuellar, .has therefore called for a bold new offensive. which is to be launched with i:'m International Con- ference on Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking, to be held in Vienna on 17~26 June 1987. This conference will be held at ministerial level, including both Ministers ofHealth and Ministers of Foreign Affairs for many countrjes. The aim of this conference is to generate a consensus on effective action to combat the drug prob~ lems ~nd to adopt a comprehen'- sive body of specific measqres which will be taken at nationaL regional and global levels. Prepara- tions for this conference have been uhder way ever since the Secret- ary-General announced it in May 1985. WHO has been playing a very a.ctive part in contributing to thbse preparations .... The. United Nations has, of course, a spe9i9l Division of Nar- coticDrugs, which performs a wide variety offynctions lnclu~ing sefv~ ing as the secretariat to the UN Commission on,Narcotic Drugs: In addition, the International Narcotics Control Board monitors the produc- tion and trade in drugs for medical and scientific purposes, and the UN Fund for [)rug Abu~e Control is responsiblefor ensuri)lgthat coun" tries receive the f}~p,~ssary assist: ance to counteract drug pr8blems. As a sp~q.ialise~ agency, WHO h\'ls effective links with aJJ , the.se bodies, and its responsibiliti.es in WoRLD HEALTH, May 1987 this area include assessing the ab- use ·potential of psychoacti~e sub- stances and their therapeutic use- fulness ander the terms of the international drug coptrol treaties, In addition, .the WHO drug depen- dence. programme( at global and regional level, includes work on public health advocacy; policy de- velopment, training and the investi- gation of better techniques for identifying, preventing and treating drug abuse. The conference in Vienna will.be one of the most important events COIJ()Selting .for fotme? addicts at 'a drug' rehabilitation c~ntre. im; ' the United States. Photo WHO/C. Blackwell the. prominence which it gives to those . aspects of prevention and treatment which are the direct re- sponsibility otwHo:, lt,is quite likely that much of the attention of the conference will be devoted to efforts against' illegal production and trafficking in drugs. But Mrs Oppenheimer's statement makes it dear that attempts to reduce sqpply are not enough in them- selves. Only one basic document is to be submitted to the confereQce. it sontains some 36 targets which Wiii Hrequire effortS.,, at national. re- gional and global levels .. In the draft of that document. WHO has been listed as having, responsibilities for implementing 20 ,out of those 36 targets, often in collaboration with "governments, with NGOs, and with other specialised agencies. Previous · at!empts to :combat drug abuse .have taught us· thpt no single approach can,be guaranseed effective. it is byreal and effective collpboratiqn between a very wide range of bodies that a lasting im- pact can be made: If is ,not ju~t a que~tion of ,bett~r policing ()f of better therapeuticJechniques. lt is a question ofworking together in a common cause. Atthe Vienna Conference, wHo. will be emphasising the role of the health sector. That is as ,, Jn.le at country lev~, l as'. it i~ . interp~~ionally. .in 1his fi,eld for many"years apd will No :.country . can claim . that .. ·it i.s bring together the experience of gealing effectivetx wiSh the fea~,ful couptri~s. of NGOs, ~ri~ of the threat of drug·; at:JOse Ulll ,~ssc' it can and its speciali~ed agencies,. The demonstrate tbatthehealth s~ptor Secretary-General of th~ ,.,,.confer- is intimately" involyed' in demang- ence, 1'Mrs Tarr;ar Oppenheimer. reduction, rn treatment and "in sai~ recently in New York· ''1~e rehabilitati,8n,.'" Equally~ ' .h()wever, new thing about this conference. is the health'sector cannot operate in that in addition to strengthe.ning isolation.. A gl()b~l "cpnsepsus js the international sorpmu)lity:s ac- emerging that actiqn rpust be taken tivities on sapply'reduction.and on po~ ,,. to .deal ' }Nith ,, this · 9rowing the illicit trafficking in drugs, tgis' threat;- A:f the conference in London conference Y~iiJ also focus attention in .fvlarch 1986,,Ministers .of ~ealth on ' demand-redaction ·.· and on the ' indicated that they ,~ere reagy to treatmentofdrug addicts .\')nd their collaborate ui.n ,,thpf programme rehabilitation into sqciety;,," . of action. ~, In Vief}p~f we .,wiJI .. see The importance of this state- that1; intention b~cofne pecific ment from 9 health iper~pecti~e is ., Authors of the Month Dr Bj6rn THYLEFORS is in charge of WHO's programme for the Prevention of Blindness. Dr R . P ARARAJASEGARAM is Regional Adviser for Prevention of Blindness at WHO's Regional Office for South-East Asia in New Delhi, India. Dr Moses C. CHIRAMBO is Head and Consultant Ophthalmologist with the Malawi Ministry of Health. Dr V. Guy HAWLEY is Coor- dinator of the Primary Eye Care Unit , the Fiji Ministry of Health, Suva. Mr Richard HOMEIER is an Op- tical Consultant for the Christof- fel-Blindenmission and is based in East Africa. Professor Alfred SoMMER is Director of the International Center for Epidemiologic and Preventive Ophthalmology, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Dr Edouard M. DeMAEYER is in charge of the WHO Vitamin A Deficiency Control Programme. Professor Ihsan BAD.R is Associ- ate Medical Director of the King ' Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Professor G . VENKATASWAMY is Director of the Aravind Eye Hospital and Post-Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Madurai, India. Dr Anthea M. S. CONNELL is Senior Consultant Ophthal- mologist at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital , Bridgetown, Bar- bados. Mr Marcus GRANT is a Senior Scientist with WHO's Division of Mental Health, and Dr Inayat KHAN is Senior Medical Officer for the same Division. WORLD 'HEALTH For readers everywhere 1987 Subscription Rates One year Two years •• Three years · US$ Sw. fr. 14.~ 25.~ 24.75 45.- 33.- 60.- ORDER FORM Please enter my subscription to "World Health" as follows : One year D Two years D Three years 0 I enclose cheque/international postal order in the amount of: - Country :···•;._ ~------­ World Health, WHO, Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland World Health is also distributed through the network of international bookstores and subscription agencies. For payment if\ national currencies. please contact your usual booksel.ler:· After Canada, Australia Adelaide will host a major international conference on health promotion next year, the Australian Secretary of health, Mr Bernie McKay, an- nounced to the 79th Session of WHO's Executive Board when it met in Geneva in January. In issuing his invita- tion to the 1988 Conference, Mr McKay noted that it would coincide with the Fortieth An- niversary of WH O, the Tenth Anniversary of the Alma-Ata Declaration on Primary health Care and Australia's 200th birthday celebrations. The Adelaide Conference will be the second interna- tional conference on health promotion, following the first international event in this field held in Ottawa, Canada, in November last year (see pages 16-17 of this issue) Health promotion is increas- ingly recognised as a vital as- pect of primary health care and of the Health for All movement initiated by WHO's Member States in 1978. The Ottawa Conference drew up a Charter which underlined that. while health involves treatment of disease and prevention of illness. it also requires the promotion of individual healthy lifestyles as well as social. economic and political action to decrease or eliminate health hazards in people's working and living environments. "The move towards a new public health is now evident worldwide", the Ottawa Charter stated. And it called on individuals and countries to put health on the agenda of policy-makers in all sectors and at all levels, to develop a socio-ecological approach to health, to strengthen com- munity development. to sup- port people's personal and social development. and to integrate health promotion into the health services along- side the provision of clinical and curative services . • Smoking ban at WHO HQ With effect from World Health Day this year, 7 April, •••••• ••••••• ••• ••• ••• •••••• •••••• ••••• • ••••••••••• ••••••• ••••••• ••• ••• ••• ••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••• ••••••• ••• ••• ••• ••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• • •••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••••••• ••• ••• ••• •••••• ••••••• ••• ••• ••• • •••••• ••• ••• ••••••• ••• ••• ••• ••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••••••• ••• ••• ••• •••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• • ••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••• ••• • •••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••• ••• • ••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••••••• •••••••••• •••••• ••• • •••••••••• ••••••• an almost total ban on smok- ing was appl ied at the Geneva headquarters of WHO. In meeting rooms, individual offices, coffee bars. the cin- ema and the restaurant. the rule is: no cigarettes . After consultations with the WHO medical service, the staff as- sociation and the un its deal- ing w ith cancer, cardiovascu- lar diseases. occupational health and "smoking and health," the Director-General informed all staff that smok- ing will only be allowed in areas not strictly related to work and meals, for example a staff meeting room and a recreation room on the top floor. This ban-already enforced previously at WHO's regional Medical School Update For reasons of economy, our sister-publication WHO Chronicle has unfortunately suspended publication for at least this year. 1988 and 1989. Some of the news about the organization's ac- tivities that has hitherto been published in the Chronicle will continue to appear in World Health Forum and the Bulletin of WHO. Information about medical schools which used to appear in the Chronicle will henceforth be published in World Health, under the offices for the Americas and the Western Pacific 1n Washington and Manila re- spectively- underlines "the fundamental right of non- smokers to breathe air unpol- luted by tobacco smoke at the place of work" . lt has been calculated that a non-smoking office worker sharing the of- fice with a smoker could in- hale the equ ivalent of a few cigarettes per day in smoke particles. The Director-General com- mented that the Organiza- tion's smoking ban "will act as an example of ensuring a smoke-free working environ- ment to national institutions such as schools. factories. government and business premises and hospitals". • rubrique "Medical School Update". Since the publication of the fifth edition of the World Directory of Medical Schools in 1979, the government of Mexico has provided WHO with information on the School of Medicine at Oueretaro Uni- versity Instruction started at this school in 1978, and its full address is: Escuela de Medi- cina, Universidad Aut6noma de Queretaro, Mexico. The government of Hun- gary has informed WHO that the Medical School of the University of Debrecen in- cludes a Faculty of Dentistry which has been operative since 1976. • W oRLD HEALTH , May 1987 0 I s 0 0 .c ()._ INTERNATIONAL PHOTO COMPETITION Health for All, All for Health Introduction The World Hea lth Organiza- t ion (wHo), which wi ll celebrate its 40th Anniversary in 1988, is organizing an international photo competition with the theme : " Health for All , All for Health". Themes and subjects The object of the competition is to ill ustrate the health situa- tion in the world today, by showing the efforts undertaken to achieve " Health for All by the Year 2000 '' notably through primary health care. Potential subjects could deal w ith one or more of the fo llowing themes: promotion of healthy lifestyles, sports and leisure, food and nutrition, health education, to- bacco, alcohol, drug addiction (prevention). better oppor- tun it ies for the disabled, care of the elderly, housing and ap- propriate technology, disease prevention, immunization. fam- ily planning, maternal and chi ld health, treatment of injuries, water supply and sanitation, oc- cupationa l health. emergency health relief. These are only a few exam- ples. Photographers should focu s on the human dimension of the subjects, depict ing the ro le of communities and indi- vidua ls in promoting their own health . Participation The competition is open to all amateur and professional photographers as individuals or members of a group, including staff members of WHO. Each picture submitted for entry must indicate clearly on the back the name and address of the photographer and a short identification caption (country, institution, subject, and so on). Entries Competitors may submit up to ten si ngle photographs and/ or series in black and white or colour; (for prints, recom- mended sizes are from 18 x 24 cm / 8 x 10 inches up to 30 x40 cm/11 x 14 inches) Conditions No entry fee is required By entering the competit ion, par- ticipants confirm that the en- W oRLD HEALTH, May 1987 tries are thei r own work and they possess all rights to them; and that they agree to the non- commercial use of thei r entries in connection wi th the competi- t ion, including any resul t ing ex- hibitions, picture cata logues for media, publ ications, and so on. Participants who wish to have their pictures returned after the competition are re- quested to state this on their entry form and to enclose Inter- nationa l Rep ly Coupons to cover return postage. However no responsibil ity can be ac- cepted in case of damage or loss. Entries submitted without International Reply Coupons wi ll be retained by WHO. After the competition, WHO may wish to purchase some of the entries. Authors of such entries wi ll be contacted individually. Judging The entries will be judged in November by an international jury, whose decisions wi ll be final. lt wi ll consist of : Mohamed AM IN (Kenya) Ra lph CRANE (USA) Monique JACOT (Switzerland) Peter KORNISS (Hungary) Maurice DORIKENS, FlAP (Belgium) John ISAAC, UN (Ind ia) Tibor FARKAS, WHO (Switzerland) Prizes All partic ipants wi ll be awarded a special WHO-FlAP Cer- tificate in recognition of their contribution. Authors of the best entries wil l receive special WHO commemorative medals, FlAP medals, and va rious va lu- able prizes (cameras, lenses and so on). Six first prizes will be awarded and the six winners will be invited for three days to Geneva to participate in the opening of the exh ibit ion. In addition, each first-p rize winner will be entrusted with a major photographic assignment for WHO (US $1,500 all-i nclusive fee) . Exhibitions Al l winning entries will be exhibited in Geneva in April 1988. lt is also planned to show the exhibit ion at wHo's regiona l offices in Alexandria (Egypt), Brazzaville, Copenhagen, Mani- la, New Delhi and Washington . Closing date and address All entries must reach WHO before 15 October 1987, and su bmission of entries con- stitutes acceptance of the conditions. • The competition is jointly organized by the World Health Organization and the International Feder- ation of Photographic Art (FlAP) in collabor- ation with Swissair. International Photo Competition ENTRY FORM Last day for entries 15 Oct. 1987 0 AMATEU R 0 PRO FESSIONAL s :=:; Tit les of photos 0 Name + 0 (series) m u I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 Address 2 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 3 Profession 4 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 5 6 Nationality 7 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 8 D 9 Return of entries requi red 10 No. of International Reply Coupons enclosed D Submission of entries constitutes acceptance of the conditions of entry Signature : Media Service, WHO, International Photo Competition, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland 31 Learning to read Braille. But could her blindness have been prevented? Photo WHO/J. Schytte