ORIGINAL: ENGLISH UNEDITED FINAL DRAFT
WHO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EUROPE
___________________________
WHO EXPERT CONSULTATION ON HEALTH RISKS IN AQUIFER RECHARGE USING RECLAIMED WATER
Report on a meeting of an expert group
Budapest, Hungary 9-10 November 2001
SCHERFIGSVEJ 8 DK–2100 COPENHAGEN Ø DENMARK TEL.: +45 39 17 17 17 TELEFAX: +45 39 17 18 18 TELEX: 12000 E-MAIL: POSTMASTER@WHO.DK W EB SITE: HTTP://WWW .WHO.DK
2002
© World Health Organization – 2001 All rights in this document are reserved by the WHO Regional Office for Europe. The document may nevertheless be freely reviewed, abstracted, reproduced or translated into any other language (but not for sale or for use in conjunction with commercial purposes) provided that full acknowledgement is given to the source. For the use of the WHO emblem, permission must be sought from the WHO Regional Office. Any translation should include the words: The translator of this document is responsible for the accuracy of the translation. The Regional Office would appreciate receiving three copies of any translation. Any views expressed by named authors are solely the responsibility of those authors.
WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen
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WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water
Background Water shortage Freshwater is an important resource: population growth in water scarce regions will only increase its value. Within the next fifty years, it is estimated that 40% of the world’s population will live in countries facing water stress or water scarcity1. This number does not include people living in arid regions of large countries where there is enough water, but distribution patterns are uneven e.g. China, India, and the United States. In many areas of the world, aquifers that supply drinking water are being used faster than they recharge. Not only does this represent a water supply problem, it may also have serious health implications. Moreover, in coastal areas, saline intrusion of potable aquifers occurs as water is withdrawn faster than it can naturally be replaced. Increasing salinity makes water unfit for drinking and for other purposes such as irrigation.
Potable Aquifer Recharge To remedy these problems, some authorities have elected to recharge aquifers artificially with treated wastewater, either by infiltration or by injection. Additionally, aquifers may be passively recharged (intentionally or unintentionally) by septic tanks, wastewater that is used for irrigation, and by other means. Aquifer recharge with treated wastewater is likely to increase in future because it offers the following benefits: Restores depleted groundwater levels Acts as a barrier to saline intrusion in coastal zones, and Facilitates water storage during times of high water availability. Aquifers frequently offer a low-cost method for storing water because the infrastructure requirements are minimal, water loss due to evaporation does not occur, and the water is protected from infestation with nuisance species (blue-green algae etc.).
Public health implications If aquifer recharge is done haphazardly or in a poorly planned fashion, chemical or microbial contaminants in the water could impact the health of consumers. The risk may be especially important when reclaimed water is being used. Wastewater may contain numerous contaminants (many of them poorly characterized) that could have health implications if introduced into drinking water sources.
1
Garner-Outloaw T. and Engleman R., 1997, Sustaining water, easing scarcity. A second update. Washington DC Population Action International p. 2- 19
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Ensuring that the use of treated wastewater for aquifer recharge does not result in adverse health effects requires a systematic science-based approach designed around critical control points. There is a need to thoroughly evaluate the best practices to achieve public health protection. Additionally, environmental and socio-cultural concerns associated with potable aquifer recharge need to be addressed. With these goals in mind, WHO decided to organize an Expert Consultation on Aquifer Recharge using Reclaimed Water.
Groundwater recharge in Europe and the Mediterranean Region The technical practice of water reuse, particularly for the recharge of aquifers destined for the production of drinking water, may be seen as counter to the desire to protect groundwater resources from any interference that could possibly degrade the quality of the aquifer. Especially in the territories of the European Union, protection is rapidly becoming an established environmental policy goal under the Sixth Framework Action Plan. In 1997, the Environment Directorate-general of the European Commission initiated a comprehensive, multi-sectoral study to identify which environmental issues Europe would be facing in the years to come. Recommended approaches will apply across the spectrum of environmental issues. In the specific area of Environment and Health, the objective was declared to be “the achievement of a quality of the environment where levels of man-made contaminants … do not give rise to significant impacts on, or risks to, human health.” A preparatory technical report prepared for the European Union2 clearly showed that Southern and Northern European countries approach water reuse differently – largely as a result of water availability in the two regions. For example, South European countries rank ‘water scarcity and pollution’ first, but North European countries rank it only fifth in a list of concerns. The report found this perception to be based at least partially on facts. GIS assessment methods that analyze precipitation, evaporation, groundwater recharge and surface flow show a clear North-South divide in water availability, as well as a large variability in the Mediterranean region. This view was also articulated in the Mediterranean Vision on Water, Population and the Environment3 which stated that overuse of groundwater by numerous independent institutions has developed throughout the Mediterranean Region, especially in coastal aquifers. This has happened in most Mediterranean countries: the level of coastal groundwater has fallen below sea level due to excessive pumping in inter alia Spain, Italy, Greece, Cyprus, and Libya leading to some catchments being abandoned. The share 2
B.J. de Haan, A. Beusen, C. Sedee Technical Report on Water Quantity and Water Quality prepared in preparation of the main report European Environmental Priorities: an Integrated Economic and Environmental Assessment, contracted by the Environment Directorate General of the European Commission. 3 J. Margat, D. Vallee: Mediterranean Vision on Water, Population and the Environment – document prepared by the Blue Plan for the Global Water Partnership/MEDTAC in the programme of the World Water Vision of the World Water Council, January 2000 page 23.
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of groundwater withdrawn through overuse (exceeding average natural recharge) is considerable in many Mediterranean countries: 20% in Spain, 13% in Cyprus, 24% in Malta, and 32% in Israel4.
Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) In 1975, sixteen Mediterranean countries and the European Commission met in Barcelona under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). They approved the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) and its component Programme for Pollution Monitoring and Research (MED POL Programme). MAP consists of three components: scientific (pollution assessment), socio-economic (prospects and integrated planning) and institutional and legal (Barcelona Convention and its Protocols). Also the Mediterranean Committee on Sustainable Development is a consultative body to the partners. The MED POL programme was created in order to answer the specific needs to better assess, qualify and quantify the marine environmental problems of the Mediterranean sea. During Phase I (1975-1980) and Phase II (1981-1995), the efforts were concentrated in providing assistance to all laboratories in the region to fully participate in the Programme activities related to monitoring and research, as well as in the establishment of national monitoring programmes, the assessment of the state in the Mediterranean and the formulation of pollution control measures. The new MED POL Phase III entitled “Programme for the assessment and control of pollution in the Mediterranean region”, which was adopted by the governments in 1995, gives more emphasis on the managerial aspects of pollution control and a more direct link with the implementation of the Dumping and Land-based Pollution Protocols. The activities for Phase III include the assessment, control and assistance components. Following a survey on wastewater treatment plants in the Mediterranean in 2000, it was noted that more than five hundred coastal cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants, discharge their sewage into the sea, and 53% of the total volume discharged is untreated. It’s becoming more than evident that control measures of one type or another should be implied. The fact that only 8% of the treated and untreated sewage is reused, calls for more attention, also in view of the water shortage in the Southern Mediterranean countries. The Contracting Parties during their last meeting in Monaco, in 2001, decided to 4
Ibid
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reconsider the state of wastewater reuse by assessing the practices and by preparing guidelines relative to this issue.
TREATMENT FACILITIES SITUATION 16000000 14000000 TOTAL POPULATION SERVED 12000000 10000000 8000000 6000000 4000000 2000000 0 lta no n Cy pru roc co eri a Isr ae Fra n Sp a Ma Alg Tu n ba isia ce in s l
POPULATION SERVED BY A NETWORK ONLY POPULATION SERVED BY A TREATMENT PLANT
COUNTRIES
The Directive of the European Parliament and of the European Council dated 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community Action in the field of water policy (EU Water Framework Directive) aims at preventing further deterioration of aquatic ecosystems, as well as protecting and enhancing their status. It promotes sustainable water use, establishes measures to cut inputs of priority substances into aquatic systems, and requires the cessation or phasing out of emissions of priority hazardous substances. Its implementation will help reduce existing groundwater pollution.
World Health Organization The Drinking Water Quality Committee of the World Health Organization at its most recent meeting in Berlin, Germany, 5 – 9 June 2000 decided to develop a monograph on Groundwater resources and source protection with the double objective of providing guidance on the protection of groundwater resources and to compile the necessary information to provide appropriate guidance for the development of further Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (GDWQ). However, in view of the experience gained in the United States of America, Australia, China, and in certain sub-regions of WHO EURO, the GDWQ Committee recognized a need to compile a State of the Art Report on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reused Water.
Le
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WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water
Expert Consultation The Fodor Jozef National Institute for Environmental Health in Budapest, Hungary, kindly hosted the meeting from 9 – 10 November 2001. The meeting was attended by experts from nine different countries and six different organizations. A list of participants in attached in Annex.
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PROCEEDINGS The following section presents a short summary of the main points made by the different speakers. The main author is identified in each case – full contact details are contained in the list of participants for eventual follow-up.
Selected activities in the WHO EURO Region Belgium E. Van Houtte A report was presented on pilot studies undertaken by the Intercommunal Water Company of the Veurne region (IWVA). The company produces drinking water by extracting a dune aquifer. Subsequent treatment is through aeration and sand filtration. The groundwater extraction diminished the freshwater outflow from the dune area, and could potentially cause salinisation of the aquifer. Hence a number of pilot studies were carried out to assess the potential use of wastewater effluent as a source of infiltration water. Amongst the examined treatment processes were microfiltration (MF), reverse osmosis (RO), and soil aquifer treatment prior to MF/RO. The quality of the resulting water was followed for a number of parameters, including hygienic qualities. After four years of intensive pilot study, the authors concluded that reusing wastewater effluent for artificial recharge in dunes was both economically and technically feasible. MF removed suspended solids, and part of the organic load. It proved to be a good pretreatment for RO, which desalinated the water. Standards set for infiltration water, based on the ecological value of the dunes, were easily met. The concentrate resulting from the RO and the MF backwash could be drained safely to a nearby brackish canal together with part of the effluent not used by the IWVA. The authors concluded that reuse of wastewater effluent is feasible Page 8
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using membrane technologies. Out-to-in microfiltration could treat water of varying qualities, and is a good pretreatment for reverse osmosis. Biofouling could be a problem and should be prevented. Chloramination prior to microfiltration not only improved the performance of the system but seemed to control the biofouling of the reverse osmosis membranes as well. Scaling could be prevented by pH adjustment and dosing of scale inhibitors.
EU Mediterranean Region Cooperation Ch. Thoeye The presentation, given on behalf of Dr A. Angelakis, covered ongoing international research efforts aimed at assessing and quantifying health risks related to the reuse of municipal wastewater. This type of quantified risk analysis is generally carried out based on dose-response values and on exposure figures available from the literature. Different treatment technologies as well as different applications of the final product were considered such as drinking water, household water (i.e. cleaning, toilet flushing, garden watering), irrigation water, and industrial use. The results of the study would also form an important tool for the integration of artificial aquifer recharge in designing sustainable schemes for recycling and reuse of municipal wastewater. For the reuse applications considered in the study, different types of pathogens and chemicals may pose health risks through different exposure routes. The following groups were retained during the study: Biological organisms: protozoa Giardia and Cryptosporidium, viri group Enterovirus, bacteria Salmonella Typhi , helminth group Nematoda Chemicals: metals (arsenic, lead, nitrite), pharmaceuticals, estrogens (natural and synthetic), surfactants, musks, and other chemicals including chemicals with endocrine disruptor capacity.
Study of the literature on health risk analysis shows that a quantified risk analysis is only possible for direct ingestion due to the paucity of data concerning other exposure routes. The project is based entirely on published data, and is limited to the reuse of treated municipal wastewater. Final conclusions are expected to be reached by mid 2002.
Speaker also drew the attention to the Regional Symposium on Water Recycling in the Mediterranean (Crete, Greece, 26 - 29 September 2002). http://www.nagref.gr/Symposium/prog-scient/index.htm
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Israel G. Oron A general discussion on the management of effluent reclamation via Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) was complemented by a detailed description of the effluent re-use of the treatment plant of Greater Tel Aviv (Dan Region, Israel). Schematic layout of the treatment plant of Greater Tel Aviv (Dan Region, Israel) Observation Wells Recovery Wells
RECIRCULATED OXIDATION PONDS
OPE
POLISHING PONDS
RE Pumping
RECHARGE BASINS SOREK
RW
RS
Station No. 5
MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PLANT
MBE RE Pumping Station No. 6 RECHARGE Pumping Station No. 7 RECHARGE BASINS YAVNE 1
RE
CL 2
Observation Wells
BASINS YAVNE 2
Emergency Outfall to Sorek River Legend RS - Raw Sewage OPE - Oxidation Ponds Effluent RE - Recharge Effluent RW - Reclaimed Water MBE - Mechanical Biological Effluent Recovery Wells RW RW
The following table summarizes the results before and after the SAT stage for 1999:
Parameter (mg/l) BOD COD TSS DOC Detergents Mineral Oils Phenols Ammonia as N Total N Phosphorus
Before SAT 6 46 7 11 0.241 0.4 4 8.23 12.0 2.72
After SAT <0.5 7 0 2.8 <0.108 0.3 1 <0.02 5.4 0.05
Removal percentage 92< 85 100 75 55< 25 75 99< 55 98
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Problems encountered in this reuse include: Increased amounts of effluent vs. decreasing available land for expanded recharge Optimization of the wetting and drying cycle of the recharging beds The dilemma of disinfecting the effluent prior to recharge thus killing also part of the microbial community responsible for the further biodegradation process in the soil The effluent viscosity that affects very much the infiltration and migration processes in the sandy soil The chemical composition of the suspended solids, which might affect the clogging rate of the soil aquifer. The risk of heavy metal release from plastic and metal piping in the recharged effluent Pathogens content in the disposed effluent for recharges and anticipated removal during migration processes and ultimate reuse.
The above problems notwithstanding, the author concluded that effluent recharge during soil aquifer treatment is a promising technology to obtain high quality waters, to minimize pollution phenomena, and to increase water availability. Due to shortage of land and changes in the soil property, advanced treatment methods are recommended.
Italy L. Sinisi Italy has one of the highest per capita water resource availabilities of all European countries: 980 m3/c/y compared to a European average of 600 m3/c/y. Groundwaters account for about 1/3 of the total available water resource providing about the 85% of national drinkable waters along with other uses.
However, resources are distributed very unevenly over the national territory: approximately ½ of the resource is located in the North supplying about 90% of local population, while in the South drinkable water is mainly guaranteed by superficial catchment basin. If in the North problems are correlated with overuse and bad quality (contamination) of the resource, South and big islands are characterized by water scarcity mainly due to climatic conditions – with desertification trend in some areas – and smaller availability of water resources: the amount of superficial waters and ground waters is respectively about ¼ and ½ compared to availability in the North. Furthermore, there is a general trend of increasing consumption rate up to 35% in the last two decades, while continued use of old equipment results in average losses of up to 20% of produced water. Problems identified as important for the improved management of groundwater resources include:
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The necessity to improve information, through the development and implementation of appropriate monitoring programmes, for defining priorities and planning interventions Contamination of groundwater resources by nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides, and organic materials from human activities including illegal dumping Overuse of the resource, leading to saline intrusion and (local) subsidence
Conjunctive use of surface and ground waters offers the best for optimising water use and guarantees the sustainability of water resource, then a correct aquifer management will require the development of river basin management plans that will address a number of specific issues such as:
Underground storage availability Production capacity of the aquifer and natural recharge of the aquifer Natural recharge of the aquifer Induced natural recharge Artificial recharge Comparative economic and environmental benefits
Stress quality factors (point and diffuse contamination from human activities) Comparative economic and environmental benefits The author summarized in detail both recent Italian environmental legislation pertaining water resource protection and European water framework directive
Spain - mainland J L Armenter Ferrando A review was presented on current artificial recharge in the Barcelona area. The following table summarizes the characteristics of the exploitation: Table 1: Characteristics of the Exploitation No of supplied inhabitants Nr of supplied municipalities Distribution of network length Average daily consumption Annual volume of water produced From Ter river From Llobregat river From Llobregat wells Volume of recharged water
2.800.000 23 4.300 km 680.000 cu.m 120 hm3 100 – 120 hm3 10 – 30 hm3 2.5 – 15 hm3
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Artificial recharge in the Barcelona region aims to achieve the following goals:
Increase the available water reserves Use of the aquifer as a distribution system Improve water quality Provide a hydraulic barrier against seawater intrusion RECHARGING THE AQUIFER
Recharge of the aquifer is undertaken through surface recharge, SURFACE RECHARGE (scarification of particularly where the river bed) the aquifer is easily accessible through the riverbed. Besides the mechanical maintenance of the riverbed, the following issues are RECHARGE AT DEPTH being considered: flow 10 – 35 m3/s, turbidity below 100 NTU, NH3 below 1 mg/l, Cl- below 350 mg/l. Martorell Castellbisbal Santa Andreu de la Barca Pallejá Molins de Rei Sant Vicenç Sant Feliu de Llobregat Sant Joan Despí Cornella de Llobregat L’Hospitalet Sant Boi de Llobregat El Prat de Llobregat Viladecans Río Llobregat
Gava
Castelldefels
Mar Mediterráneo
Artificial recharge at depth is practiced through 7 wells originally designed for extraction but currently being used for recharge, 5 wells constructed specifically for recharge. Recharge capacity per well are 50 l/s or 100 l/s with a total recharge capacity of 75.000 m3. Water losses incurred during operations, for example through cleaning, reach 0.2 – 0.4 %. Recharged water at depth is monitored on different parameters against predetermined criteria as shown in the following table Parameters Color Turbidity Odor PH Sulphates Magnesium Sodium Aluminium Nitrates Ammonia TOC Detergents Total coliforms Faecal coliforms Units .mg Pt/l (sc. Pt/Co) UNF Dilution Index .mg SO4/l .mg Mg/l .mg Na/l .mg Al/l .mg NO3/l .mg NH3/l .mg C/l µ LSS/l In 100 ml In 100 ml Acceptable values <= 3 <= 0.2 2 (25°C) 6.5 – 8.5 <= 200 <= 30 <= 200 <= 0.15 <= 20 <= 20 <= 3 <= 100 0 (FM), < 1 (MPN) 0 (FM), < 1 (MPN)
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Spain – islands F. Brissaud Mallorca is the biggest island in Spain with a surface area of 3640 km2. Mallorca 95 km in the N-S direction and 200 km in the E-W direction. The island suffers serious water scarcity. There are no permanent surface water bodies. At least 95% of the supply is obtained from groundwater. Most aquifers are over-exploited and water quality is deteriorated by seawater intrusion. The water pumped from the two main aquifers (Pont d’ Inca and Na Burguesa) must be desalinated in a 30 000 m3/d reverse osmosis treatment plant operating since 1995. During a severe draught from 1995 till 1997, 17 million m3 was shipped from the mainland. Addressing water supply to Palma requires the formulation of an overall policy for management of the aquifer, prior to the eventual implementation of recharge schemes. Such schemes should prevent jeopardizing the quality of the aquifer during recharge, and should also take into account advanced techniques to produce potable water from impaired aquifer water. Different scenarios of water resources management based on water reuse were assessed and compared with Current and potential use of reclaimed water in seawater desalination. Palma de Mallorca The protection of aquifer resources was amongst the main goals of several scenarios Reclaimed water Current landscape 3.0 investigated in a study irrigation reservoir Irrigated area of the water supply of Polycon II Palma de Mallorca. The WWTP Palma II 22.2 15.0 study finally advocated not to apply aquifer 3.2 WWTP Palma I recharge, but the offset of the aquifer water by reclaimed water for non Irrigated area potable uses Polycon I (landscape and agricultural irrigation).
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Australia P Dillon Australia has adopted a National Water Quality Management Strategy, which is a set of principles and a series of national guidelines founded on them. These include Guidelines for Drinking Water, Groundwater, and Sewage
Operational or trial This map of Australia shows the sites where ASR sites are operational or trails are underway, as well as sites where ASR trials have been proposed. The red dot on the south coast represents 14 operational sites trials currently underway near Adelaide.
Proposed
Management. The principles, such as the conservation and protection of all environmental values of water, give rise to a differential protection policy for groundwater. In 1996 guidelines for the quality of stormwater and treated wastewater for injection into aquifers for reuse were established. These guidelines make provision for demonstrated sustainable attenuation capacity of aquifers and in so doing differ from similar guidelines in the USA. The current status of Aquifer Storage and Recharge is as follows: Reclaimed water – Mains water
Stormwater
12 sites 1000 ML/year now 4000 ML/year in 3 years 10 – 25 US c/KL 2 pilot sites potential for 14000 ML/y 5 – 12 US c/KL 1 town water supply 3 irrigation supplies large potential Page 15
WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water
In order to understand pathogen inactivation better, two research studies are currently under way in Australia. The first, the Bolivar reclaimed water aquifer storage and recovery project, involves injection of irrigation quality reclaimed water into a brackish aquifer and, among other objectives, observing the fate of injected constituents. Superimposed on this site and in laboratory studies are evaluations of the attenuation of pathogens, disinfection by-products, endocrine disruptors and changes in natural organic matter. These activities are part of a much wider research programme operating in 5 sites in the USA, 4 in Australia, and 1 in the Netherlands. Speaker also drew the attention of the participants to the work of the International Association of Hydrogeologists’ Working Group on Management of Aquifer Recharge reachable through www.iah.org/recharge Results will be presented at the forthcoming 4th International Symposium on Artificial Recharge scheduled to be held from 22 – 26 September 2002 in Adelaide, Australia. More information on www.groundwater.com.au/conf/isar4
Mexico B. Jiménez Mexico is a country with apparent water sufficiency at the national level. However, two thirds of the territory suffers from lack of water. Frequently, domestic waste water is used for irrigation. In 1995, a total of 102 m3/s of wastewater was used to irrigate 256,827 ha in the country. An example of this practice is the Metropolitan Zone of the Valley of Mexico (MZVM) where rain and wastewater have drained from the south to the Mezquital Valley (MV) in the north since the end of the last century. Wastewater without any treatment has been used for irrigation of several crops and has allowed economic development of the region. This is the largest and oldest scheme for agricultural irrigation using urban wastewater in the world. As a result of this practice, the level of the water table in the aquifer underlying the irrigation zone has increased. In the study presented to the meeting, the quality of water in the drinking water supply wells in the region and in the aquifer were analyzed.
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Hydrological system of the Mezquital Valley
The results show that soil filtration removes a significant portion of wastewater constituents, especially organic compounds. Preliminary results indicate that the excess volumes of water in the aquifer could be used for human consumption if some ions and nitrate were removed, although precautions should be taken concerning remaining unknown organics.
United States of America D. Hranislavljivic A presentation was given of research currently under way at the West Basin Recycling Plant, CA. Reuse of the water produced by this plant is 37% industry, 38% urban uses incl. golf courses, 25% aquifer recharge including for the production of drinking water, and a variety of industrial applications. A description of the water quality control goals and monitoring programme was given. Particular attention was given to removal of trace organics. Membrane filtration (MF)/Reverse Osmosis (RO) was found to have a higher efficiency for removal of trace organic compounds than lime/RO.
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West Basin Recycling Plant, California Treatment trains and type of reuse Treatment process Biofor HYPERION WWTP
Type of reuse Industrial reuse, reuse, 37% Urban uses, golfs, golfs, 38%
114 000 m3/d Coagulation floculation Filtration Disinfection
(Cl)
Aquifer recharge, 25% Filtration multimedia Inverse Osmosis Disinfection
Lime Recarbonatation Clarification
35%
65%
Drinking water MWD
(Cl)
MF
Inverse Osmosis
Industrial applications (new extension)
Emerging parameters identified included nitrosodimethylamide (NDMA) and organo tin compounds (OTC). The technical challenges of aquifer modeling using tracer studies and WINGEO model development were discussed for the control of water quality, seawater intrusion, application of draw down or level rise limitations, control of recycled water residence time, and management of the barrier. The presentation offered the following conclusions: Better understanding of treatment efficiency Lime clarification favors the occurrence of organics (Base Neutral Organic Compounds) with direct health and treatment implications Membrane Filtration (MF)/ Reverse Osmosis (RO) is more efficient than Lime RO membranes to remove trace organics (related to pretreatment and nature of the RO membranes) Development and use of new analytical tools Boron appears to be a viable solution to monitor recycled water in West Coast aquifers BNA broad spectrum analysis including large volume extractions has shown to be an appropriate tool to monitor for regulated and non-regulated trace organic compounds (lower detection limits) Organo-tins may not be an issue for the water barrier train
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General conclusions A pluridisciplinary approach has to be applied to implement, control, and optimize indirect potable reuse projects Recycled water is a sound alternative resource with well controlled quality compared to the risk of non-point source pollution of aquifers Boron isotopes are appropriate, natural, and low cost tracers Advanced modeling tools needed to enable better description of aquifer behaviour and saline intrusion
Water reclamation and groundwater recharge in the USA J Cotruvo
To increase the natural supply of groundwater, artificial recharge of groundwater basins is becoming increasingly important in groundwater management, and particularly in situations where the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources is considered. Reuse of municipal wastewater including groundwater recharge for a variety of applications is feasible and it can be safely undertaken if appropriate planning, treatment, assessment and precautions are followed. It provides the opportunity for much more efficient multiple use of this essential resource that is in limited supply in many parts of the world. End uses may include irrigation of food and non-food crops, irrigation of facilities such as green spaces, parks and golf courses, sanitation, industrial processes and cooling, seawater intrusion barriers, and ultimately drinking water. The intended use will determine the required quality and management control level of the water so as to be protective of human health and the environment. Several constraints limit expanding use of reclaimed municipal wastewater for groundwater recharge. The lack of specific criteria and guidelines governing the artificial recharge of groundwater with reclaimed municipal wastewater is currently hampering the implementation of large-scale groundwater recharge operations. Thus, the establishment of policies and guidance for planning and implementing new groundwater recharge projects is being proposed. Speaker reviewed the health and regulatory aspects associated with groundwater recharge with reclaimed municipal wastewater, particularly in the light of the development of the WHO Guidelines on Drinking Water Quality, and discussed in detail the proposed State of California Criteria for Groundwater Recharge and Reuse Projects.
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INTERNATONAL PROGRAMMES The UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP) The representative of Unesco – IHP detailed the plan for Phase IV of the IHP (2002 – 2007). The following areas were found to be particularly relevant –
Theme Global changes and water resources
Integrated watershed and aquifer dynamics
Land habitat hydrology
Water and society
Water education and training
Focal Area Global estimation of resources – water supply and water quality Global estimation of water withdrawals and consumption Integrated assessment of water resources in the context of global landbased activities and climate change Extreme events in land and water resources management International river basins and aquifers Endorheic basins Methodologies for integrated river basin management Drylands Wetlands Mountains Small islands and coastal zones Urban areas and rural settlements Water, civilization and ethics Value of water Water conflicts – prevention and resolution Human security in water-related disasters and degrading environments Public awareness raising on water interactions Teaching techniques and material development Continuing education and training for selected target groups Crossing the digital divide Institutional development and networking for WET
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Eight activities have been identified to have the highest priority in IHP – IV: Guidelines for the delineation of protection zones around public groundwater supplies and management policy Development of groundwater policy and management for wetlands protection and biodiversity conservation Effects of global changes on groundwater recharge, especially in arid and semi-arid regions in relation to water resources management Methodologies for risk assessment of wastewater re-use on groundwater quality Development of methodology (data acquisition and analysis) for studying responses of aquifers to extreme hydrological events Study of the dynamics of groundwater flow and chemistry in closed basins including long-term effects, especially in arid zones Evaluation of the impact of land-based sources of pollution on coastal zone resources Methodology for enhancing communication between water specialist, decision makers and communities to strengthen public participation in groundwater protection.
The speaker highlighted collaborative efforts between UNESCO and other agencies such as IAEA, and informed the participants of the coordinating role and the development of groundwater resource indicators. In line with these ongoing inter-agency cooperation and mandate of Unesco, speaker would welcome strengthened cooperation with WHO.
World Health Organization A scientific contributor to the announced WHO Guidance Document Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking Water Sources reviewed the basic principles on which this work is based, particularly the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and Critical Control Points (CCP). He then introduced the proposed outline of the document as follows: Section 1: scientific background information Groundwater system: hydrological and hydro-geological processes Health relevance, transport and attenuation of pathogens and chemicals Naturally
in
the subsurface occurring constituents
Section 2: information needs for the characterization and assessment of the catchment environment Basic understanding for current or past human activities and their potential pollutants Socio-economic and institutional conditions
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Type of information needed for assessing potential of groundwater contamination How to compile information Situation assessment
Section 3: management approaches Aspects of policy and law frameworks, enforcement, institutional capacity building and public participation General protection concepts (protection zones, wellhead protection) Good management practices (GMP) for avoiding groundwater contamination from specific human activities HACCP principles
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION Participants to the meeting 1. appreciated the work done in terms of including source protection as one of the activities under the GDWQ by WHO and noted similar efforts by UNECE and UNESCO. In line with earlier statements in different international forums, they recommended that ways for closer cooperation between the different UN agencies be explored. 2. nevertheless observed that in may countries recharge of aquifers is being practiced for a variety of final applications, and that the health risks associated with this practice are not fully understood. 3. recommended therefore that a State of the Art report be produced and submitted to critical review before final publication. Participants also identified the Regional Symposium on Water Recycling in the Mediterranean (Crete, 26 - 29 September 2002) or the 4th International Symposium on Artificial Recharge scheduled to be held from 22 – 26 September 2002 in Adelaide, Australia as suitable venues for follow-up.
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Annex 1. State of the Art Report INTRODUCTION Chris Thoeye, Aquafin Belgium Blanca Jiminéz, UNAM, Mexico Water cycle: Water cycle, relevant components for drinking water supply. Water not created nor destroyed. Driving forces: Water scarcity, contaminants of concern, storage, saline intrusion Recharge types: Natural, unintended, planned recharge.
HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES Blanca Jimiéz, UNAM, Mexico Potential pollutants Treatment process : Multiple barriers, protection against system failure Treatment performance Recharge methods : Surface spreading/Soil Aquifer Treatment, Direct injection, Advanced treatment Aquifer : Retention time, dilution, Chemical conversion, microbiological processes, natural attenuation
HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT Chris Thoeye, Aquafin Belgium Gideon Oron, Institute for Desert Research, Israel
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Health risk prevention: Comparative cost benefit analysis (water diseases prevention) Model approach: Mathematical models Quality management approach: HACCP Parameter approach: microbial ;chemical parameters: (what to measure, individual/group indicator parameters, toxicological screening/testing, biomonitoring) Monitoring Types, frequency, breakthrough. Monitoring and risk management
BEST PRACTICES FOR HEALTH PROTECTION Wastewater source control (industrial pre-treatment, sewage treatment) Barriers and risk management
IMPACT ASSESSMENT Luciana Sinisi, ANPA, Italy Human health Population surveillance, long-term health studies Ecology-environment
MANAGEMENT ASPECTS Gideon Oron, Institute for Desert Research, Israel Economic aspects
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK Francois Brissaud, Université Montpellier II, France Blanca Jiminiéz, UNAM, Mexico Criteria for wastewater for reuse: Wastewater sources control (industrial pretreatment) Re-use regulated legislation for aquifer recharge
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PUBLIC AWARENESS, ACCEPTANCE Luciani Sinisi, ANPA, Italy Risk communication, public acceptance, social aspects
CONCLUSIONS Takashi Asano, University of California at Davis, USA Jo Cotruvo, NSF USA Water quality goals Selection criteria for treatment Risk and benefits – site specific
NOTE: Case studies to be included BRIEFLY
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Annex 2: List of Participants
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS BELGIUM
Emmanuel Van Houtte Intermunicipal Water Company of Veurne Ambacht (IWVA) Doornpanne 1 B-8670 Koksijde Belgium
Tel: Fax: Email:
+32 (58) 52 15 55 +32 (58) 52 16 04 emmanuel.vanhoutte@iwva.be
FRANCE
Mr Dragan Hranisavljevic Lyonnaise des Eaux Centre International de Recherche sur l' Eau et l'Environnement 38 rue du President Wilson 78230 Le Pecq France
Tel: Fax: Email:
+33 (1) 34 80 23 45; +33 (1) 34 80 22 51 +33 (1) 30 53 62 07 dragan.hranisavljevic@ondeo.com
Professor François Brissaud Hydrosciences Maison des Sciences de l'Eau Université Montpellier II F - 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05 France
Tel: Fax: Email:
+33 (0)4 67 14 42 74 +33 (0)4 67 14 47 74 Francois.Brissaud@msem.univ-montp2.fr
GERMANY
Mr Oliver Schmoll Umweltbundesamt P.O. Box 33 00 22 14191 Berlin Germany
Tel: Fax: Email:
+49 (0)30 8903 1807 +49 (30) 8903 1830 mailto:oliver.schmoll@uba.de
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ISRAEL
Professor Gideon Oron Environment Water Resources The Institute for Desert Research Boker-Kiryat Sde 84990 Israel ITALY
Tel: Fax: Email:
+972 8 659 6900/1 +972 8 659 6909 gidi@bgumail.bgu.ac.il
Dr Luciana Sinisi Agenzia Nazionale per la Protezione dell'Ambiente National Environmental Protection Agency Via Vitaliano Brancati 48 00144 Rome Italy MEXICO
Tel: Fax: Email:
+39-065007.2092/065007.2257 +39- 06.5007.2258 sinisi@anpa.it
Dr Blanca Jimenez Cisneros Instituto de Ingenieria, UNAM Grupo: Tratamiento y Reuso Edificio 5 1er piso UNAM. Ciudad Universitaria Apdo Postal 70472 Coyoacan, 04510 Mexico
Tel: Fax: Email:
+52 56223342/43 +52 56162164 Bjc@pumas.iingen.unam.mx
SPAIN
Mr José Luis Armenter Ferrando Gerència Zona l’Hospitalet Carrer Baró de Maldà 26-28 08901 L'Hospitalet de Llobregat Barcerlona Spain UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Tel: Fax: Emai:
+34-933423335 +34-933423310 jarmenter@agbar.es
Joseph Cotruvo NSF International 1301 K Street NW 225 Washington DC 20005 USA
Tel: Fax: Email:
+1 202 362 3076 +1 202 362 3076 cotruvo@nsf.org; vze254xa@verizon.net
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REPRESENTATIVES OF OTHER ORGANIZATIONS
Aquafin nv Mr C.Thoeye Teamleader R&D Aquafin nv Dijkstraat, 8 B 2630 Aartselaar Belgium Tel: Fax: Email: + 32 3 450 40 72 + 32 3 450 44 44 chris.thoeye@aquafin.be
British Geological Survey Mr Ian Gale British Geological Survey Wallingford, Oxon. OX10 8BB United Kingdom Tel: Fax: Email: +44(0)1491 838800 Switchboard +44(0)1491 692243 Direct +44(0)1491 692345 ing@bgs.ac.uk
National Institute for Environmental Health Dr Gyula Dura National Institute for Environmental Health Fodor Josef National Health Centre Gyali ut. 2-6 1097 Budapest Hungary Tel: Fax: Email: + 361 215 21 46 + 361 215 20 46 dura@oki1.joboki.hu
UNECE
Reiner Enderlein UNECE Environment and Human Settlements Division Palais des Nations, Bureau 313 CH-1211 Geneve 11 Switzerland
Tel: Fax: Email:
+41 22 917 2373; +41 22 9171499 +41 22 9070107; +41 22 917 06 34 rainer.enderlein@unece.org
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UNESCO
Alice Aureli Division of Water Sciences 1 rue Mollis 75015 Paris France
Tel: Fax: Email:
+331 0145683995 +331 0145685811 a.aureli@unesco.org
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION Regional Office for Europe Roger Aertgeerts Regional Adviser Water and Sanitation Unit WHO ECEH Rome office Via F. Crispi, 10 00187 Rome Italy Tel: Fax: Email: +39 06 48 77 528; +39 06 48 77 537 +39 06 48 77 599 rae@who.it
Headquarters Tel: Fax: Email: +41 22 791 35 18 +41 22 791 4159 carrr@who.int
Richard Carr Global Health Leadership Fellow Department of Protection of the Human Environment WHO HQ Avenue Appia 20 CH-1211 Geneva 27 Switzerland
WHO Mediterranean Action Plan Dr Georgios Kamizoulis Senior Scientist WHO EURO Project Office Coordinating Unit for the Mediterranean Action Plan 48 Vassileos Konstantinou Avenue P.O. Box 18019 GR 11635 Athens Greece Tel: Fax: Email: +30 (1) 7273105 +30 (1) 7253196 /7 whomed@hol.gr
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SECRETARIAT Tel: Fax: Email: + 361 215 21 46 + 361 215 20 46 gallogy@mail.joboki.hu
Dr Gyula Galló National Institute for Environmental Health Fodor Josef National Health Centre Gyali ut. 2-6 1097 Budapest Hungary Ms Helena Shkarubo Water and Sanitation Unit WHO ECEH Rome office Via F. Crispi, 10 00187 Rome Italy
Tel: Fax: Email:
+39 06 48 77 537, +39 06 48 77 51 +39 06 48 77 599 hes@who.it
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WHO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EUROPE ___________________________ ORIGINAL: ENGLISH UNEDITED FINAL DRAFT WHO EXPERT CONSULTATION ON HEALTH RISKS IN AQUIFER RECHARGE USING RECLAIMED WATER Report on a meeting of an expert group Budapest, Hungary 9-10 November 2001 SCHERFIGSVEJ 8 DK–2100 COPENHAGEN Ø DENMARK TEL.: +45 39 17 17 17 TELEFAX: +45 39 17 18 18 TELEX: 12000 E-MAIL: POSTMASTER@WHO.DK WEB SITE: HTTP://WWW.WHO.DK 2002 Page 2 © World Health Organization – 2001 All rights in this document are reserved by the WHO Regional Office for Europe. The document may nevertheless be freely reviewed, abstracted, reproduced or translated into any other language (but not for sale or for use in conjunction with commercial purposes) provided that full acknowledgement is given to the source. For the use of the WHO emblem, permission must be sought from the WHO Regional Office. Any translation should include the words: The translator of this document is responsible for the accuracy of the translation. The Regional Office would appreciate receiving three copies of any translation. Any views expressed by named authors are solely the responsibility of those authors. WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 3 Background Water shortage Freshwater is an important resource: population growth in water scarce regions will only increase its value. Within the next fifty years, it is estimated that 40% of the world’s population will live in countries facing water stress or water scarcity1. This number does not include people living in arid regions of large countries where there is enough water, but distribution patterns are uneven e.g. China, India, and the United States. In many areas of the world, aquifers that supply drinking water are being used faster than they recharge. Not only does this represent a water supply problem, it may also have serious health implications. Moreover, in coastal areas, saline intrusion of potable aquifers occurs as water is withdrawn faster than it can naturally be replaced. Increasing salinity makes water unfit for drinking and for other purposes such as irrigation. Potable Aquifer Recharge To remedy these problems, some authorities have elected to recharge aquifers artificially with treated wastewater, either by infiltration or by injection. Additionally, aquifers may be passively recharged (intentionally or unintentionally) by septic tanks, wastewater that is used for irrigation, and by other means. Aquifer recharge with treated wastewater is likely to increase in future because it offers the following benefits: Restores depleted groundwater levels Acts as a barrier to saline intrusion in coastal zones, and Facilitates water storage during times of high water availability. Aquifers frequently offer a low-cost method for storing water because the infrastructure requirements are minimal, water loss due to evaporation does not occur, and the water is protected from infestation with nuisance species (blue-green algae etc.). Public health implications If aquifer recharge is done haphazardly or in a poorly planned fashion, chemical or microbial contaminants in the water could impact the health of consumers. The risk may be especially important when reclaimed water is being used. Wastewater may contain numerous contaminants (many of them poorly characterized) that could have health implications if introduced into drinking water sources. 1 Garner-Outloaw T. and Engleman R., 1997, Sustaining water, easing scarcity. A second update. Washington DC Population Action International p. 2- 19 WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 4 Ensuring that the use of treated wastewater for aquifer recharge does not result in adverse health effects requires a systematic science-based approach designed around critical control points. There is a need to thoroughly evaluate the best practices to achieve public health protection. Additionally, environmental and socio-cultural concerns associated with potable aquifer recharge need to be addressed. With these goals in mind, WHO decided to organize an Expert Consultation on Aquifer Recharge using Reclaimed Water. Groundwater recharge in Europe and the Mediterranean Region The technical practice of water reuse, particularly for the recharge of aquifers destined for the production of drinking water, may be seen as counter to the desire to protect groundwater resources from any interference that could possibly degrade the quality of the aquifer. Especially in the territories of the European Union, protection is rapidly becoming an established environmental policy goal under the Sixth Framework Action Plan. In 1997, the Environment Directorate-general of the European Commission initiated a comprehensive, multi-sectoral study to identify which environmental issues Europe would be facing in the years to come. Recommended approaches will apply across the spectrum of environmental issues. In the specific area of Environment and Health, the objective was declared to be “the achievement of a quality of the environment where levels of man-made contaminants … do not give rise to significant impacts on, or risks to, human health.” A preparatory technical report prepared for the European Union2 clearly showed that Southern and Northern European countries approach water reuse differently – largely as a result of water availability in the two regions. For example, South European countries rank ‘water scarcity and pollution’ first, but North European countries rank it only fifth in a list of concerns. The report found this perception to be based at least partially on facts. GIS assessment methods that analyze precipitation, evaporation, groundwater recharge and surface flow show a clear North-South divide in water availability, as well as a large variability in the Mediterranean region. This view was also articulated in the Mediterranean Vision on Water, Population and the Environment3 which stated that overuse of groundwater by numerous independent institutions has developed throughout the Mediterranean Region, especially in coastal aquifers. This has happened in most Mediterranean countries: the level of coastal groundwater has fallen below sea level due to excessive pumping in inter alia Spain, Italy, Greece, Cyprus, and Libya leading to some catchments being abandoned. The share 2 B.J. de Haan, A. Beusen, C. Sedee Technical Report on Water Quantity and Water Quality prepared in preparation of the main report European Environmental Priorities: an Integrated Economic and Environmental Assessment, contracted by the Environment Directorate General of the European Commission. 3 J. Margat, D. Vallee: Mediterranean Vision on Water, Population and the Environment – document prepared by the Blue Plan for the Global Water Partnership/MEDTAC in the programme of the World Water Vision of the World Water Council, January 2000 page 23. WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 5 of groundwater withdrawn through overuse (exceeding average natural recharge) is considerable in many Mediterranean countries: 20% in Spain, 13% in Cyprus, 24% in Malta, and 32% in Israel4. Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) In 1975, sixteen Mediterranean countries and the European Commission met in Barcelona under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). They approved the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) and its component Programme for Pollution Monitoring and Research (MED POL Programme). MAP consists of three components: scientific (pollution assessment), socio-economic (prospects and integrated planning) and institutional and legal (Barcelona Convention and its Protocols). Also the Mediterranean Committee on Sustainable Development is a consultative body to the partners. The MED POL programme was created in order to answer the specific needs to better assess, qualify and quantify the marine environmental problems of the Mediterranean sea. During Phase I (1975-1980) and Phase II (1981-1995), the efforts were concentrated in providing assistance to all laboratories in the region to fully participate in the Programme activities related to monitoring and research, as well as in the establishment of national monitoring programmes, the assessment of the state in the Mediterranean and the formulation of pollution control measures. The new MED POL Phase III entitled “Programme for the assessment and control of pollution in the Mediterranean region”, which was adopted by the governments in 1995, gives more emphasis on the managerial aspects of pollution control and a more direct link with the implementation of the Dumping and Land-based Pollution Protocols. The activities for Phase III include the assessment, control and assistance components. Following a survey on wastewater treatment plants in the Mediterranean in 2000, it was noted that more than five hundred coastal cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants, discharge their sewage into the sea, and 53% of the total volume discharged is untreated. It’s becoming more than evident that control measures of one type or another should be implied. The fact that only 8% of the treated and untreated sewage is reused, calls for more attention, also in view of the water shortage in the Southern Mediterranean countries. The Contracting Parties during their last meeting in Monaco, in 2001, decided to 4 Ibid WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 6 reconsider the state of wastewater reuse by assessing the practices and by preparing guidelines relative to this issue. The Directive of the European Parliament and of the European Council dated 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community Action in the field of water policy (EU Water Framework Directive) aims at preventing further deterioration of aquatic ecosystems, as well as protecting and enhancing their status. It promotes sustainable water use, establishes measures to cut inputs of priority substances into aquatic systems, and requires the cessation or phasing out of emissions of priority hazardous substances. Its implementation will help reduce existing groundwater pollution. World Health Organization The Drinking Water Quality Committee of the World Health Organization at its most recent meeting in Berlin, Germany, 5 – 9 June 2000 decided to develop a monograph on Groundwater resources and source protection with the double objective of providing guidance on the protection of groundwater resources and to compile the necessary information to provide appropriate guidance for the development of further Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (GDWQ). However, in view of the experience gained in the United States of America, Australia, China, and in certain sub-regions of WHO EURO, the GDWQ Committee recognized a need to compile a State of the Art Report on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reused Water. TREATMENT FACILITIES SITUATION 0 2000000 4000000 6000000 8000000 10000000 12000000 14000000 16000000 Al ge ria Cy pr us Fr an ce Is ra el Le ba no n M al ta M or oc co Sp ai n Tu ni sia COUNTRIES TO TA L PO PU LA TI O N S ER VE D POPULATION SERVED BY A NETWORK ONLY POPULATION SERVED BY A TREATMENT PLANT WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 7 Expert Consultation The Fodor Jozef National Institute for Environmental Health in Budapest, Hungary, kindly hosted the meeting from 9 – 10 November 2001. The meeting was attended by experts from nine different countries and six different organizations. A list of participants in attached in Annex. WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 8 PROCEEDINGS The following section presents a short summary of the main points made by the different speakers. The main author is identified in each case – full contact details are contained in the list of participants for eventual follow-up. Selected activities in the WHO EURO Region Belgium E. Van Houtte A report was presented on pilot studies undertaken by the Intercommunal Water Company of the Veurne region (IWVA). The company produces drinking water by extracting a dune aquifer. Subsequent treatment is through aeration and sand filtration. The groundwater extraction diminished the freshwater outflow from the dune area, and could potentially cause salinisation of the aquifer. Hence a number of pilot studies were carried out to assess the potential use of wastewater effluent as a source of infiltration water. Amongst the examined treatment processes were microfiltration (MF), reverse osmosis (RO), and soil aquifer treatment prior to MF/RO. The quality of the resulting water was followed for a number of parameters, including hygienic qualities. After four years of intensive pilot study, the authors concluded that reusing wastewater effluent for artificial recharge in dunes was both economically and technically feasible. MF removed suspended solids, and part of the organic load. It proved to be a good pre- treatment for RO, which desalinated the water. Standards set for infiltration water, based on the ecological value of the dunes, were easily met. The concentrate resulting from the RO and the MF backwash could be drained safely to a nearby brackish canal together with part of the effluent not used by the IWVA. The authors concluded that reuse of wastewater effluent is feasible WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 9 using membrane technologies. Out-to-in microfiltration could treat water of varying qualities, and is a good pretreatment for reverse osmosis. Biofouling could be a problem and should be prevented. Chloramination prior to microfiltration not only improved the performance of the system but seemed to control the biofouling of the reverse osmosis membranes as well. Scaling could be prevented by pH adjustment and dosing of scale inhibitors. EU Mediterranean Region Cooperation Ch. Thoeye The presentation, given on behalf of Dr A. Angelakis, covered ongoing international research efforts aimed at assessing and quantifying health risks related to the reuse of municipal wastewater. This type of quantified risk analysis is generally carried out based on dose-response values and on exposure figures available from the literature. Different treatment technologies as well as different applications of the final product were considered such as drinking water, household water (i.e. cleaning, toilet flushing, garden watering), irrigation water, and industrial use. The results of the study would also form an important tool for the integration of artificial aquifer recharge in designing sustainable schemes for recycling and reuse of municipal wastewater. For the reuse applications considered in the study, different types of pathogens and chemicals may pose health risks through different exposure routes. The following groups were retained during the study: Biological organisms: protozoa Giardia and Cryptosporidium, viri group Enterovirus, bacteria Salmonella Typhi , helminth group Nematoda Chemicals: metals (arsenic, lead, nitrite), pharmaceuticals, estrogens (natural and synthetic), surfactants, musks, and other chemicals including chemicals with endocrine disruptor capacity. Study of the literature on health risk analysis shows that a quantified risk analysis is only possible for direct ingestion due to the paucity of data concerning other exposure routes. The project is based entirely on published data, and is limited to the reuse of treated municipal wastewater. Final conclusions are expected to be reached by mid 2002. Speaker also drew the attention to the Regional Symposium on Water Recycling in the Mediterranean (Crete, Greece, 26 - 29 September 2002). http://www.nagref.gr/Symposium/prog-scient/index.htm WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 10 Israel G. Oron A general discussion on the management of effluent reclamation via Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) was complemented by a detailed description of the effluent re-use of the treatment plant of Greater Tel Aviv (Dan Region, Israel). Schematic layout of the treatment plant of Greater Tel Aviv (Dan Region, Israel) The following table summarizes the results before and after the SAT stage for 1999: Parameter (mg/l) Before SAT After SAT Removal percentage BOD 6 <0.5 92< COD 46 7 85 TSS 7 0 100 DOC 11 2.8 75 Detergents 0.241 <0.108 55< Mineral Oils 0.4 0.3 25 Phenols 4 1 75 Ammonia as N 8.23 <0.02 99< Total N 12.0 5.4 55 Phosphorus 2.72 0.05 98 RS MBE OPERECIRCULATED OXIDATION PONDS MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PLANT POLISHING PONDS RECHARGE BASINS SOREK RECHARGE BASINS YAVNE 1 CL 2 Emergency Outfall to Sorek River Pumping Station No. 5 Pumping Station No. 6 Pumping Station No. 7 RE RE RE Observation Wells Observation Wells Recovery Wells Recovery Wells MBE - Mechanical Biological Effluent RW RECHARGE BASINS YAVNE 2 RW RW RS - Raw Sewage OPE - Oxidation Ponds Effluent RE - Recharge Effluent RW - Reclaimed Water Legend WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 11 Problems encountered in this reuse include: Increased amounts of effluent vs. decreasing available land for expanded recharge Optimization of the wetting and drying cycle of the recharging beds The dilemma of disinfecting the effluent prior to recharge thus killing also part of the microbial community responsible for the further biodegradation process in the soil The effluent viscosity that affects very much the infiltration and migration processes in the sandy soil The chemical composition of the suspended solids, which might affect the clogging rate of the soil aquifer. The risk of heavy metal release from plastic and metal piping in the recharged effluent Pathogens content in the disposed effluent for recharges and anticipated removal during migration processes and ultimate reuse. The above problems notwithstanding, the author concluded that effluent recharge during soil aquifer treatment is a promising technology to obtain high quality waters, to minimize pollution phenomena, and to increase water availability. Due to shortage of land and changes in the soil property, advanced treatment methods are recommended. Italy L. Sinisi Italy has one of the highest per capita water resource availabilities of all European countries: 980 m3/c/y compared to a European average of 600 m3/c/y. Groundwaters account for about 1/3 of the total available water resource providing about the 85% of national drinkable waters along with other uses. However, resources are distributed very unevenly over the national territory: approximately ½ of the resource is located in the North supplying about 90% of local population, while in the South drinkable water is mainly guaranteed by superficial catchment basin. If in the North problems are correlated with overuse and bad quality (contamination) of the resource, South and big islands are characterized by water scarcity mainly due to climatic conditions – with desertification trend in some areas – and smaller availability of water resources: the amount of superficial waters and ground waters is respectively about ¼ and ½ compared to availability in the North. Furthermore, there is a general trend of increasing consumption rate up to 35% in the last two decades, while continued use of old equipment results in average losses of up to 20% of produced water. Problems identified as important for the improved management of groundwater resources include: WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 12 The necessity to improve information, through the development and implementation of appropriate monitoring programmes, for defining priorities and planning interventions Contamination of groundwater resources by nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides, and organic materials from human activities including illegal dumping Overuse of the resource, leading to saline intrusion and (local) subsidence Conjunctive use of surface and ground waters offers the best for optimising water use and guarantees the sustainability of water resource, then a correct aquifer management will require the development of river basin management plans that will address a number of specific issues such as: Underground storage availability Production capacity of the aquifer and natural recharge of the aquifer Natural recharge of the aquifer Induced natural recharge Artificial recharge Comparative economic and environmental benefits Stress quality factors (point and diffuse contamination from human activities) Comparative economic and environmental benefits The author summarized in detail both recent Italian environmental legislation pertaining water resource protection and European water framework directive Spain - mainland J L Armenter Ferrando A review was presented on current artificial recharge in the Barcelona area. The following table summarizes the characteristics of the exploitation: Table 1: Characteristics of the Exploitation No of supplied inhabitants 2.800.000 Nr of supplied municipalities 23 Distribution of network length 4.300 km Average daily consumption 680.000 cu.m Annual volume of water produced From Ter river 120 hm3 From Llobregat river 100 – 120 hm3 From Llobregat wells 10 – 30 hm3 Volume of recharged water 2.5 – 15 hm3 WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 13 RECHARGING THE AQUIFER Martorell Castellbisbal Santa Andreu de la Barca Molins de Rei Pallejá Sant Vicenç Sant Boi de Llobregat Viladecans Gava Castelldefels El Prat de Llobregat Río Llobregat Mar Mediterráneo L’Hospitalet Sant Joan Despí Cornella de Llobregat Sant Feliu de Llobregat SURFACE RECHARGE (scarification of the river bed) RECHARGE AT DEPTH Artificial recharge in the Barcelona region aims to achieve the following goals: Increase the available water reserves Use of the aquifer as a distribution system Improve water quality Provide a hydraulic barrier against seawater intrusion Recharge of the aquifer is undertaken through surface recharge, particularly where the aquifer is easily accessible through the riverbed. Besides the mechanical maintenance of the riverbed, the following issues are being considered: flow 10 – 35 m3/s, turbidity below 100 NTU, NH3 below 1 mg/l, Cl- below 350 mg/l. Artificial recharge at depth is practiced through 7 wells originally designed for extraction but currently being used for recharge, 5 wells constructed specifically for recharge. Recharge capacity per well are 50 l/s or 100 l/s with a total recharge capacity of 75.000 m3. Water losses incurred during operations, for example through cleaning, reach 0.2 – 0.4 %. Recharged water at depth is monitored on different parameters against pre- determined criteria as shown in the following table Parameters Units Acceptable values Color .mg Pt/l (sc. Pt/Co) <= 3 Turbidity UNF <= 0.2 Odor Dilution Index 2 (25°C) PH 6.5 – 8.5 Sulphates .mg SO4/l <= 200 Magnesium .mg Mg/l <= 30 Sodium .mg Na/l <= 200 Aluminium .mg Al/l <= 0.15 Nitrates .mg NO3/l <= 20 Ammonia .mg NH3/l <= 20 TOC .mg C/l <= 3 Detergents µ LSS/l <= 100 Total coliforms In 100 ml 0 (FM), < 1 (MPN) Faecal coliforms In 100 ml 0 (FM), < 1 (MPN) WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 14 Spain – islands F. Brissaud Mallorca is the biggest island in Spain with a surface area of 3640 km2. Mallorca 95 km in the N-S direction and 200 km in the E-W direction. The island suffers serious water scarcity. There are no permanent surface water bodies. At least 95% of the supply is obtained from groundwater. Most aquifers are over-exploited and water quality is deteriorated by seawater intrusion. The water pumped from the two main aquifers (Pont d’ Inca and Na Burguesa) must be desalinated in a 30 000 m3/d reverse osmosis treatment plant operating since 1995. During a severe draught from 1995 till 1997, 17 million m3 was shipped from the mainland. Addressing water supply to Palma requires the formulation of an overall policy for management of the aquifer, prior to the eventual implementation of recharge schemes. Such schemes should prevent jeopardizing the quality of the aquifer during recharge, and should also take into account advanced techniques to produce potable water from impaired aquifer water. Different scenarios of water resources management based on water reuse were assessed and compared with seawater desalination. The protection of aquifer resources was amongst the main goals of several scenarios investigated in a study of the water supply of Palma de Mallorca. The study finally advocated not to apply aquifer recharge, but the offset of the aquifer water by reclaimed water for non potable uses (landscape and agricultural irrigation). 15.0 Irrigated area Polycon II 3.2 WWTP Palma I Irrigated area Polycon I 22.2 WWTP Palma II Reclaimed water reservoir3.0 Current landscape irrigation Current and potential use of reclaimed water in Palma de Mallorca WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 15 Australia P Dillon Australia has adopted a National Water Quality Management Strategy, which is a set of principles and a series of national guidelines founded on them. These include Guidelines for Drinking Water, Groundwater, and Sewage Management. The principles, such as the conservation and protection of all environmental values of water, give rise to a differential protection policy for groundwater. In 1996 guidelines for the quality of stormwater and treated wastewater for injection into aquifers for reuse were established. These guidelines make provision for demonstrated sustainable attenuation capacity of aquifers and in so doing differ from similar guidelines in the USA. The current status of Aquifer Storage and Recharge is as follows: Stormwater - 12 sites - 1000 ML/year now - 4000 ML/year in 3 years - 10 – 25 US c/KL Reclaimed water – 2 pilot sites - potential for 14000 ML/y - 5 – 12 US c/KL Mains water - 1 town water supply - 3 irrigation supplies - large potential Operational or trial Proposed This map of Australia shows the sites where ASR sites are operational or trails are underway, as well as sites where ASR trials have been proposed. The red dot on the south coast represents 14 operational sites trials currently underway near Adelaide. WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 16 In order to understand pathogen inactivation better, two research studies are currently under way in Australia. The first, the Bolivar reclaimed water aquifer storage and recovery project, involves injection of irrigation quality reclaimed water into a brackish aquifer and, among other objectives, observing the fate of injected constituents. Superimposed on this site and in laboratory studies are evaluations of the attenuation of pathogens, disinfection by-products, endocrine disruptors and changes in natural organic matter. These activities are part of a much wider research programme operating in 5 sites in the USA, 4 in Australia, and 1 in the Netherlands. Speaker also drew the attention of the participants to the work of the International Association of Hydrogeologists’ Working Group on Management of Aquifer Recharge reachable through www.iah.org/recharge Results will be presented at the forthcoming 4th International Symposium on Artificial Recharge scheduled to be held from 22 – 26 September 2002 in Adelaide, Australia. More information on www.groundwater.com.au/conf/isar4 Mexico B. Jiménez Mexico is a country with apparent water sufficiency at the national level. However, two thirds of the territory suffers from lack of water. Frequently, domestic waste water is used for irrigation. In 1995, a total of 102 m3/s of wastewater was used to irrigate 256,827 ha in the country. An example of this practice is the Metropolitan Zone of the Valley of Mexico (MZVM) where rain and wastewater have drained from the south to the Mezquital Valley (MV) in the north since the end of the last century. Wastewater without any treatment has been used for irrigation of several crops and has allowed economic development of the region. This is the largest and oldest scheme for agricultural irrigation using urban wastewater in the world. As a result of this practice, the level of the water table in the aquifer underlying the irrigation zone has increased. In the study presented to the meeting, the quality of water in the drinking water supply wells in the region and in the aquifer were analyzed. WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 17 Hydrological system of the Mezquital Valley The results show that soil filtration removes a significant portion of wastewater constituents, especially organic compounds. Preliminary results indicate that the excess volumes of water in the aquifer could be used for human consumption if some ions and nitrate were removed, although precautions should be taken concerning remaining unknown organics. United States of America D. Hranislavljivic A presentation was given of research currently under way at the West Basin Recycling Plant, CA. Reuse of the water produced by this plant is 37% industry, 38% urban uses incl. golf courses, 25% aquifer recharge including for the production of drinking water, and a variety of industrial applications. A description of the water quality control goals and monitoring programme was given. Particular attention was given to removal of trace organics. Membrane filtration (MF)/Reverse Osmosis (RO) was found to have a higher efficiency for removal of trace organic compounds than lime/RO. WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 18 Emerging parameters identified included nitrosodimethylamide (NDMA) and organo tin compounds (OTC). The technical challenges of aquifer modeling using tracer studies and WINGEO model development were discussed for the control of water quality, seawater intrusion, application of draw down or level rise limitations, control of recycled water residence time, and management of the barrier. The presentation offered the following conclusions: Better understanding of treatment efficiency Lime clarification favors the occurrence of organics (Base Neutral Organic Compounds) with direct health and treatment implications Membrane Filtration (MF)/ Reverse Osmosis (RO) is more efficient than Lime RO membranes to remove trace organics (related to pretreatment and nature of the RO membranes) Development and use of new analytical tools Boron appears to be a viable solution to monitor recycled water in West Coast aquifers BNA broad spectrum analysis including large volume extractions has shown to be an appropriate tool to monitor for regulated and non-regulated trace organic compounds (lower detection limits) Organo-tins may not be an issue for the water barrier train Industrial reuse, 37% Lime Clarification Recarbonatation Filtration multimedia Inverse Osmosis MF Inverse Osmosis Disinfection (Cl) HYPERION WWTP 114 000 m3/d Filtration Disinfection (Cl)Coagulationfloculation Biofor Drinking water MWD Treatment process Type of reuse Urban uses, golfs, 38% Aquifer recharge, 25% Industrial applications (new extension) 35% 65% West Basin Recycling Plant, California Treatment trains and type of reuse WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 19 General conclusions A pluridisciplinary approach has to be applied to implement, control, and optimize indirect potable reuse projects Recycled water is a sound alternative resource with well controlled quality compared to the risk of non-point source pollution of aquifers Boron isotopes are appropriate, natural, and low cost tracers Advanced modeling tools needed to enable better description of aquifer behaviour and saline intrusion Water reclamation and groundwater recharge in the USA J Cotruvo To increase the natural supply of groundwater, artificial recharge of groundwater basins is becoming increasingly important in groundwater management, and particularly in situations where the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources is considered. Reuse of municipal wastewater including groundwater recharge for a variety of applications is feasible and it can be safely undertaken if appropriate planning, treatment, assessment and precautions are followed. It provides the opportunity for much more efficient multiple use of this essential resource that is in limited supply in many parts of the world. End uses may include irrigation of food and non-food crops, irrigation of facilities such as green spaces, parks and golf courses, sanitation, industrial processes and cooling, seawater intrusion barriers, and ultimately drinking water. The intended use will determine the required quality and management control level of the water so as to be protective of human health and the environment. Several constraints limit expanding use of reclaimed municipal wastewater for groundwater recharge. The lack of specific criteria and guidelines governing the artificial recharge of groundwater with reclaimed municipal wastewater is currently hampering the implementation of large-scale groundwater recharge operations. Thus, the establishment of policies and guidance for planning and implementing new groundwater recharge projects is being proposed. Speaker reviewed the health and regulatory aspects associated with groundwater recharge with reclaimed municipal wastewater, particularly in the light of the development of the WHO Guidelines on Drinking Water Quality, and discussed in detail the proposed State of California Criteria for Groundwater Recharge and Reuse Projects. WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 20 INTERNATONAL PROGRAMMES The UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP) The representative of Unesco – IHP detailed the plan for Phase IV of the IHP (2002 – 2007). The following areas were found to be particularly relevant – Theme Focal Area Global changes and water resources Global estimation of resources – water supply and water quality Global estimation of water withdrawals and consumption Integrated assessment of water resources in the context of global land- based activities and climate change Integrated watershed and aquifer dynamics Extreme events in land and water resources management International river basins and aquifers Endorheic basins Methodologies for integrated river basin management Land habitat hydrology Drylands Wetlands Mountains Small islands and coastal zones Urban areas and rural settlements Water and society Water, civilization and ethics Value of water Water conflicts – prevention and resolution Human security in water-related disasters and degrading environments Public awareness raising on water interactions Water education and training Teaching techniques and material development Continuing education and training for selected target groups Crossing the digital divide Institutional development and networking for WET WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 21 Eight activities have been identified to have the highest priority in IHP – IV: Guidelines for the delineation of protection zones around public groundwater supplies and management policy Development of groundwater policy and management for wetlands protection and biodiversity conservation Effects of global changes on groundwater recharge, especially in arid and semi-arid regions in relation to water resources management Methodologies for risk assessment of wastewater re-use on groundwater quality Development of methodology (data acquisition and analysis) for studying responses of aquifers to extreme hydrological events Study of the dynamics of groundwater flow and chemistry in closed basins including long-term effects, especially in arid zones Evaluation of the impact of land-based sources of pollution on coastal zone resources Methodology for enhancing communication between water specialist, decision makers and communities to strengthen public participation in groundwater protection. The speaker highlighted collaborative efforts between UNESCO and other agencies such as IAEA, and informed the participants of the coordinating role and the development of groundwater resource indicators. In line with these ongoing inter-agency cooperation and mandate of Unesco, speaker would welcome strengthened cooperation with WHO. World Health Organization A scientific contributor to the announced WHO Guidance Document Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking Water Sources reviewed the basic principles on which this work is based, particularly the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and Critical Control Points (CCP). He then introduced the proposed outline of the document as follows: Section 1: scientific background information Groundwater system: hydrological and hydro-geological processes Health relevance, transport and attenuation of pathogens and chemicals in the subsurface Naturally occurring constituents Section 2: information needs for the characterization and assessment of the catchment environment Basic understanding for current or past human activities and their potential pollutants Socio-economic and institutional conditions WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 22 Type of information needed for assessing potential of groundwater contamination How to compile information Situation assessment Section 3: management approaches Aspects of policy and law frameworks, enforcement, institutional capacity building and public participation General protection concepts (protection zones, wellhead protection) Good management practices (GMP) for avoiding groundwater contamination from specific human activities HACCP principles WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 23 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION Participants to the meeting 1. appreciated the work done in terms of including source protection as one of the activities under the GDWQ by WHO and noted similar efforts by UNECE and UNESCO. In line with earlier statements in different international forums, they recommended that ways for closer co- operation between the different UN agencies be explored. 2. nevertheless observed that in may countries recharge of aquifers is being practiced for a variety of final applications, and that the health risks associated with this practice are not fully understood. 3. recommended therefore that a State of the Art report be produced and submitted to critical review before final publication. Participants also identified the Regional Symposium on Water Recycling in the Mediterranean (Crete, 26 - 29 September 2002) or the 4th International Symposium on Artificial Recharge scheduled to be held from 22 – 26 September 2002 in Adelaide, Australia as suitable venues for follow-up. WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 24 Annex 1. State of the Art Report INTRODUCTION Chris Thoeye, Aquafin Belgium Blanca Jiminéz, UNAM, Mexico Water cycle: Water cycle, relevant components for drinking water supply. Water not created nor destroyed. Driving forces: Water scarcity, contaminants of concern, storage, saline intrusion Recharge types: Natural, unintended, planned recharge. HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES Blanca Jimiéz, UNAM, Mexico Potential pollutants Treatment process : Multiple barriers, protection against system failure Treatment performance Recharge methods : Surface spreading/Soil Aquifer Treatment, Direct injection, Advanced treatment Aquifer : Retention time, dilution, Chemical conversion, microbiological processes, natural attenuation HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT Chris Thoeye, Aquafin Belgium Gideon Oron, Institute for Desert Research, Israel WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 25 Health risk prevention: Comparative cost benefit analysis (water diseases prevention) Model approach: Mathematical models Quality management approach: HACCP Parameter approach: microbial ;chemical parameters: (what to measure, individual/group indicator parameters, toxicological screening/testing, biomonitoring) Monitoring Types, frequency, breakthrough. Monitoring and risk management BEST PRACTICES FOR HEALTH PROTECTION Wastewater source control (industrial pre-treatment, sewage treatment) Barriers and risk management IMPACT ASSESSMENT Luciana Sinisi, ANPA, Italy Human health Population surveillance, long-term health studies Ecology-environment MANAGEMENT ASPECTS Gideon Oron, Institute for Desert Research, Israel Economic aspects REGULATORY FRAMEWORK Francois Brissaud, Université Montpellier II, France Blanca Jiminiéz, UNAM, Mexico Criteria for wastewater for reuse: Wastewater sources control (industrial pretreatment) Re-use regulated legislation for aquifer recharge WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 26 PUBLIC AWARENESS, ACCEPTANCE Luciani Sinisi, ANPA, Italy Risk communication, public acceptance, social aspects CONCLUSIONS Takashi Asano, University of California at Davis, USA Jo Cotruvo, NSF USA Water quality goals Selection criteria for treatment Risk and benefits – site specific NOTE: Case studies to be included BRIEFLY WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 27 Annex 2: List of Participants LIST OF PARTICIPANTS BELGIUM Emmanuel Van Houtte Intermunicipal Water Company of Veurne Ambacht (IWVA) Doornpanne 1 B-8670 Koksijde Belgium Tel: Fax: Email: +32 (58) 52 15 55 +32 (58) 52 16 04 emmanuel.vanhoutte@iwva.be FRANCE Mr Dragan Hranisavljevic Lyonnaise des Eaux Centre International de Recherche sur l' Eau et l'Environnement 38 rue du President Wilson 78230 Le Pecq France Tel: Fax: Email: +33 (1) 34 80 23 45; +33 (1) 34 80 22 51 +33 (1) 30 53 62 07 dragan.hranisavljevic@ondeo.com Professor François Brissaud Hydrosciences Maison des Sciences de l'Eau Université Montpellier II F - 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05 France Tel: Fax: Email: +33 (0)4 67 14 42 74 +33 (0)4 67 14 47 74 Francois.Brissaud@msem.univ-montp2.fr GERMANY Mr Oliver Schmoll Umweltbundesamt P.O. Box 33 00 22 14191 Berlin Germany Tel: Fax: Email: +49 (0)30 8903 1807 +49 (30) 8903 1830 mailto:oliver.schmoll@uba.de WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 28 ISRAEL Professor Gideon Oron Environment Water Resources The Institute for Desert Research Boker-Kiryat Sde 84990 Israel Tel: Fax: Email: +972 8 659 6900/1 +972 8 659 6909 gidi@bgumail.bgu.ac.il ITALY Dr Luciana Sinisi Agenzia Nazionale per la Protezione dell'Ambiente National Environmental Protection Agency Via Vitaliano Brancati 48 00144 Rome Italy Tel: Fax: Email: +39-065007.2092/065007.2257 +39- 06.5007.2258 sinisi@anpa.it MEXICO Dr Blanca Jimenez Cisneros Instituto de Ingenieria, UNAM Grupo: Tratamiento y Reuso Edificio 5 1er piso UNAM. Ciudad Universitaria Apdo Postal 70472 Coyoacan, 04510 Mexico Tel: Fax: Email: +52 56223342/43 +52 56162164 Bjc@pumas.iingen.unam.mx SPAIN Mr José Luis Armenter Ferrando Gerència Zona l’Hospitalet Carrer Baró de Maldà 26-28 08901 L'Hospitalet de Llobregat Barcerlona Spain Tel: Fax: Emai: +34-933423335 +34-933423310 jarmenter@agbar.es UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Joseph Cotruvo NSF International 1301 K Street NW 225 Washington DC 20005 USA Tel: Fax: Email: +1 202 362 3076 +1 202 362 3076 cotruvo@nsf.org; vze254xa@verizon.net WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 29 REPRESENTATIVES OF OTHER ORGANIZATIONS Aquafin nv Mr C.Thoeye Teamleader R&D Aquafin nv Dijkstraat, 8 B 2630 Aartselaar Belgium Tel: Fax: Email: + 32 3 450 40 72 + 32 3 450 44 44 chris.thoeye@aquafin.be British Geological Survey Mr Ian Gale British Geological Survey Wallingford, Oxon. OX10 8BB United Kingdom Tel: Fax: Email: +44(0)1491 838800 Switchboard +44(0)1491 692243 Direct +44(0)1491 692345 ing@bgs.ac.uk National Institute for Environmental Health Dr Gyula Dura National Institute for Environmental Health Fodor Josef National Health Centre Gyali ut. 2-6 1097 Budapest Hungary Tel: Fax: Email: + 361 215 21 46 + 361 215 20 46 dura@oki1.joboki.hu UNECE Reiner Enderlein UNECE Environment and Human Settlements Division Palais des Nations, Bureau 313 CH-1211 Geneve 11 Switzerland Tel: Fax: Email: +41 22 917 2373; +41 22 9171499 +41 22 9070107; +41 22 917 06 34 rainer.enderlein@unece.org WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 30 UNESCO Alice Aureli Division of Water Sciences 1 rue Mollis 75015 Paris France Tel: Fax: Email: +331 0145683995 +331 0145685811 a.aureli@unesco.org WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION Regional Office for Europe Roger Aertgeerts Regional Adviser Water and Sanitation Unit WHO ECEH Rome office Via F. Crispi, 10 00187 Rome Italy Tel: Fax: Email: +39 06 48 77 528; +39 06 48 77 537 +39 06 48 77 599 rae@who.it Headquarters Richard Carr Global Health Leadership Fellow Department of Protection of the Human Environment WHO HQ Avenue Appia 20 CH-1211 Geneva 27 Switzerland Tel: Fax: Email: +41 22 791 35 18 +41 22 791 4159 carrr@who.int WHO Mediterranean Action Plan Dr Georgios Kamizoulis Senior Scientist WHO EURO Project Office Coordinating Unit for the Mediterranean Action Plan 48 Vassileos Konstantinou Avenue P.O. Box 18019 GR 11635 Athens Greece Tel: Fax: Email: +30 (1) 7273105 +30 (1) 7253196 /7 whomed@hol.gr WHO Expert Consultation on Health Risks in Aquifer Recharge by Means of Reclaimed Water Page 31 SECRETARIAT Dr Gyula Galló National Institute for Environmental Health Fodor Josef National Health Centre Gyali ut. 2-6 1097 Budapest Hungary Tel: Fax: Email: + 361 215 21 46 + 361 215 20 46 gallogy@mail.joboki.hu Ms Helena Shkarubo Water and Sanitation Unit WHO ECEH Rome office Via F. Crispi, 10 00187 Rome Italy Tel: Fax: Email: +39 06 48 77 537, +39 06 48 77 51 +39 06 48 77 599 hes@who.it