Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of Students' papers

Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security Collection of students’ papers Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers

Publishers OSCE Mission to Serbia Public Policy Research Center

Translation Mirjana Stolić-Srdanov

Design Milica Dervišević

Print Jovšić Printing Centar doo, Belgrade

Copy 100

ISBN 978-86-6383-106-3

Belgrade, 2020

The printing of this publication was made possible through the financial support of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), within the project Consolidating the democratisation process in the security sector in Serbia.

The views herein expressed are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the OSCE Mission to Serbia and the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers Contents

FOREWORD.................................................................................................. 7

THE IMPACT OF GENDER OF THE SECURITIZING ACTOR ON THE (DE)SECURITIZATION PROCESS: EXAMPLE OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC................................................................................................... 9

INFORMATION IN EMERGENCY CIRCUMSTANCES (USE OF THE WAR METAPHOR DURING THE EARTHQUAKE, FLOODS AND THE CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC IN SERBIA).................................................... 21

THE IMPACT OF THE CORONAVIRUS COVID-19 ON MIGRATION MOVEMENTS – FIGHT OF MIGRANTS AND REFUGEES AGAINST THE VIRUS AND XENOPHOBIA......................................................................... 45 FOREWORD

Nine months into the Covid-19 outbreak, it is now safe to say that the pandemic is the defining event of 2020 and is highly likely to continue for some time. Given the glo- bal impact of the virus an all aspects of social life, this year’s prize call for papers fo- cused on the effects of the pandemic on human security and the threat posed by Co- vid-19 on individuals in a variety of fields. The title of the 2020 collection of papers, Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security, highlights the si- gnificance of the hitherto under-investigated topic of health security. This year, the- refore, we wished to attract students’ papers that examined the deterioration of the global health system and the attendant crisis of human security from a wide range of perspectives.

This is the fourth year running that female students seem to have responded better to our prize call than their male colleagues: all three papers we have chosen are by wo- men, and all three examine Covid-19 as a global phenomenon and a threat to securi- ty that has continuously been testing every aspect of society in all parts of the world.

‘The impact of the securitisnig actor’s gender on the process of (de)securitisation: the example of the Covid-19 pandemic’ was authored by Ivana Dimić, undergradu- ate student at the Belgrade Faculty of Political Science. Her paper contends that the gender of the securitising actor is a highly significant factor for securitisation of the Covid-19 pandemic, affecting responses by women decision-makers in crisis situa- tions and their choice of desecuritisation. The author approaches the issue from a fe- minist perspective, placing gender at the heart of her assessment of securitisation of the on-going global Covid-19 threat.

In ‘Reporting emergencies: war as metaphor for earthquakes, floods, and the Co- vid-19 pandemic in Serbia’, Aleksandra Savić, PhD candidate at the Faculty of Phi- lology, explores the use of the word ‘war’ in the metaphorical sense in news covera- ge of the 2010 Kraljevo earthquake, the 2014 flooding in Serbia, and the coronavirus pandemic. This exhaustive review examines press releases of the Serbian Govern- ment in the three crises. The author endeavours to identify political intentions of de- cision-makers that underlie the linguistic strategies deployed in these emergencies.

7 The effects of Covid-19 on migrations and migrants is explored by Jovana Nikolić, undergraduate student at the Faculty of Political Science, in ‘The impact of Covid-19 on migrations: how migrants and refugees fight against the virus and xenophobia’. Taking the concept of human security as her starting point, the author examines the challenges faced by global healthcare, the reactions of nation-states, and the impa- ct of lockdowns on individuals, such as, in this case, migrants. By investigating the limits of the securitisation of health and its consequences on day-to-day life, the au- thor seeks to show that migrants are engaged in a fight against two foes – the virus and xenophobia.

The Svetlana Đurđević Lukić Prize Fund was established to commemorate our friend, co-worker, and co-founder of the Public Policy Centre, who left us more than four years ago. In her research, Svetlana nurtured a multi-sectoral and multi-disci- plinary approach to security studies, and this prize call for papers is therefore open to all students, both male and female, of all disciplines and at all levels, who embra- ce the same method.

The collection before you is the fourth series of students’ papers published by the Pu- blic Policy Centre’s Svetlana Đurđević Lukić Fund with support of the OSCE Mis- sion to Serbia. We gratefully acknowledge the OSCE Mission’s continued assistance with organising the prize call and their recognition of the importance of encouraging young students to think about key threats to human security. The Centre would also like to thank our expert selection committee, which was for the fourth year in a row composed of Dr Vladimir Bilandžić, Dr Vanja Rokvić, Dr Srđan Korać, and Mari- na Tadić.

Belgrade, December 2020

Filip Stojanović Secretary, Svetlana Đurđević Lukić Fund

8 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers THE IMPACT OF GENDER OF THE SECURITIZING ACTOR ON THE (DE)SECURITIZATION PROCESS: EXAMPLE OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Ivana DINIĆ*, undergraduate student 1

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Political Sciences

Abstract: The starting point of this paper is the thesis that the gender of the securi- tizing actor, as part of his/her social capital, is an important determinant in the se- curitization of the COVID-19 pandemic, which results in a specific response of fema- le decision makers in crisis situations and their commitment to desecuritization as re-establishment of regular democratic procedures. Using the standpoints of feminist theories, taking five world democracies as an example, gender will be examined as a characteristic of the securitizing actor that determines the approach to the process of securitization of the current global threat of COVID-19. It seeks to show how, thro- ugh specific security discourse but also through active normative commitment to the re-establishment of regular social activity, women leaders express their commitment to democracy, even during a state of emergency.

Keywords: women leaders, securitization, desecuritization, securitizing actor, COVID-19, democracy.

* dinicivannah@gmail.com

9 INTRODUCTION

Despite the fact that they have securitized the current global threat posed by the CO- VID-19 pandemic by imposing similar measures to restrict movement and assembly, it is with varying degrees of success that the world democracies are waging a battle to restore normalcy. Countries such as New Zealand, Norway, Germany, Taiwan and Iceland took the lead in this process during the first wave of the pandemic in April 2020, not only be- cause of the low number of deaths, but also due to the fact that they were among the first to mitigate their special measures restricting certain fundamental rights and freedoms. In addition, what remained striking in the case of these countries was that all five were led by women leaders. It is therefore legitimate to ask whether and to what extent women as holders of key executive functions and dominant securitizing actors have contributed to the relatively rapid restoration of regular democratic procedures.

This paper aims to clarify the relationship between the gender of the securitizing actor as part of his/her social capital and the securitization process, as a process that often involves going beyond democratic frameworks and manipulation by the hol- ders of executive power (Aradau, 2004: 392). Using the concept of ethics of care developed by the American feminist author Carol Gilligan (Gilligan, 1982), which gives priority to finding specific solutions that meet the needs of most people in situ- ations involving a moral dilemma, the examples of five world democracies will exa- mine gender as a characteristic of the securitizing actor that determines his/her appro- ach to the process of securitization of the COVID-19 virus as a current global threat. Through specific security discourse, but also through active normative commitment to re-establishing the regular functioning of social activities, women leaders demon- strate their commitment to democracy, even during a state of emergency.

The paper is organized as follows: The first part will explain how the commitment to desecuritization, as the re-establishment of regular democratic procedures, becomes a normative and political choice of securitizing actors that is not only reflected in the- ir security discourse but is also a stronghold from which citizens give legitimacy for the imposition of special measures. Further, the second part of the paper will clarify the role played by gender as a characteristic of the securitizing actor in the (de)secu- ritization process. The way in which the COVID-19 pandemic was securitized will be examined on the examples of five democratic countries in which women are the do- minant securitizing actors, noting that each special measure was communicated to the public, in order to return society to normalcy. Finally, conclusion will be made that the approach taken by the securitizing actor in the process of (de)securitization, as a crisis and moral situation, largely depends on the securitizing actor’s gender.

10 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers Commitment to desecuritization as a guarantor of democratic securitization

According to the definition offered by Wæver and other authors of the Copenhagen School, security is considered a speech act by which a securitizing actor (usually a representative of the executive authority) securitizes (constructs) a certain phenome- non as an existential threat and demands legitimacy from the public (citizens) to im- pose special measures which would otherwise not be justified, but which are nece- ssary for the successful overcoming of the proclaimed threat (Stritzel, 2007: 360). Referring to this definition, some authors (Hansen, 2012, Ejdus, 2009, Aradau, 2004) warned of the overly constant dependence of the securitization practice on the secu- ritizing actor, and of its identification with the Schmittian concept of the political, the essence of which is seen precisely during the period of the state of emergency, when the ruler is not limited by any procedures in the struggle for survival (Ejdus, 2009: 12-13). In that respect, commitment to desecuritization as a counter-process of retur- ning a certain phenomenon from the sphere of emergency, i.e. securitized, to the sp- here of quotidian political debate is a normative and political choice of the largest number of citizens, who see it as a return to the regular democratic debate in which they also participate.

In addition to depicting a state in which the needs for democracy of the largest num- ber of actors in the political process are met, Lene Hansen (Hansen, 2012: 533) emp- hasizes the ability of securitizing actors to normatively opt for desecuritization when responding to crisis situations. This commitment can be seen already during the sta- te of emergency because, as Hansen (2012: 534) points out, all actors in the political process – especially securitizing actors, should “actively work to achieve desecuriti- zation through security policy”. It means that in addition to achieving desecuritizati- on, the way in which it is achieved is also important, with securitizing actors facing a moral decision on how to pursue security policy.

Whether securitization necessarily leads to desecuritization can be discussed if two elements of the securitization theory emphasized by Claudia Aradau (Aradau, 2004: 391) are taken into account. The first are the special measures that are being impo- sed, which undoubtedly imply the restriction of certain fundamental rights and free- doms, such as freedom of movement or assembly, which may differ in number, type and duration. For the commitment to return society to normalcy, the second element is particularly important – the way by which securitizing actors introduce, justify or communicate special measures to the public. By analyzing the specific security dis- courses and practices undertaken by securitizing actors it is possible to examine their commitment to democracy even during a state of emergency.

11 This is especially important in the context of modern democracies, where citizens need at least some kind of guarantee in order to subordinate their fundamental ri- ghts and freedoms to special measures so that desecuritization, as a state in which the needs of most citizens are met, can be achieved as early as possible (Roe, 2012: 255). Considering the commitment to desecuritization as a stronghold from which citizens give legitimacy to imposition of special measures beyond the standard public deba- te, as well as the ability of securitizing actors to demonstrate their commitment to re- storing social life to normalcy, through security discourse and practices, I now turn to the securitizing actor’s gender as a determinant of significance for the actor’s action during the (de)securitization process.

Securitizing actor’s gender as a determinant in the (de)securitization process

Gender, as Hansen (2000: 287) observes, is almost left out of the conceptual fra- mework of the Copenhagen School, because it is treated as an individual characteri- stic, and as such as less important than the characteristics of a collective identity, such as religion or ethnicity when defining a referent security object. This is questionable in more ways than one. Not only does the adoption of such framework introduce a sort of classification among equally important aspects of identity, thus impoverishing the research field, but also the entire focus of research is placed on the referent obje- ct, while neglecting the identity of securitizing actors who take securitization steps to declare certain referent objects existentially threatened. Just as Hansen (2000: 306) observes: “Security is not just a speech act. It is rooted in the production of special subjectivities that represent the starting point for the articulation of the threat and the threatened”. This means that security cannot be viewed solely as a speech act. Equ- ally important as what is said is the one who speaks and the social capital he posses- ses (Stritzel, 2007). With this in mind, the thesis I would like to examine here is that gender, as part of the securitizing actor’s social capital, is of crucial importance for the way in which the (de)securitization process will evolve.

The concept of feminist ethics of care developed by the American theorist Carol Gi- lligan (Gilligan, 1982) may be helpful in understanding this phenomenon. The ethics of care works by not resorting to abstract moral principles that would be applied in specific situations that require moral judgment, such as crisis and emergency situati- ons (Gilligan, 1982: 3), but by finding unique and creative solutions required by that specific situation (Kymlicka, 2009: 440-468). In the ethics of care, the emphasis is on relationships between people rather than on abstract rules, and it seeks to minimize

12 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers the suffering of a large number of actors in a particular situation. Therefore, including the needs of the largest number of actors and enabling their fulfillment in a compre- hensive manner is a basic principle when making a moral decision (Kymlicka, 2009: 467). This inclusion is achieved, inter alia, through regular communication of decisi- on makers with the actors to whom the decision relates (Gilligan, 1982; Hill, 1994).

Gilligan (1982) points out that the ethics of care is a unique “female” voice1 in moral decision-making, which exudes empathy and solidarity. This voice is not determined solely by biological properties, but is a product of the socialization and learning pro- cess, during which women leaders are taught to be more cooperative, more prone to compromise and more compassionate, and thus more democratic than their male co- unterparts (Regan and Paskeviciute, 2003: 291).

Her theory is confirmed by empirical studies that deal with the influence of gender on the creation of environmental policies (Hill, 1994). These studies, using like Gi- lligan (1982) a qualitative interview method, show that in a complex policy-making process, female decision-makers opt for strategies that meet the needs of all parties concerned, especially children, rather than male decision-makers, and that a much larger number of female decision-makers see emotion as an essential component of effective decision-making (Hill, 1994). Also, these strategies are the product of com- munication of a broad number of actors and the need to consider the “wholeness of the problem”.

If we apply this to the securitization of the COVID-19 pandemic, as a crisis and mo- ral situation, we can expect that women leaders will opt for an approach based on em- pathy and inclusion of the needs of the largest number of people. Their security dis- courses and practices should reflect an orientation towards minimizing the suffering of the largest number of citizens, as well as regular communication in order to return society to its daily functioning as soon as possible, when the needs of the largest num- ber of people are met.

The following part of this paper will test these hypotheses on the examples of five de- mocracies led by women leaders.

1 Gilligan (1982) considers the ethics of care, as a special type of moral reasoning, as a dialectical construc- tion that manifests itself in a unique “female” voice and as such reflects on the discourse by which women describe and shape the world around them.

13 Women leaders and (de)securitization of COVID-19

Using the qualitative method of a comparative case study on the examples of New Zealand, Norway, Germany, Taiwan and Iceland, the impact of the securitizing actor's gender on the approach taken during the securitization of the COVID-19 pandemic during the first pandemic wave of April 2020 will be examined. These countries have been chosen due to the fact that all five are stable democracies, that they are led by women leaders and that they have had notable successes in fighting the virus within a consistent timeframe (April 2020), at least judging by world media reports.

The qualitative method was chosen because it corresponds to empirical research that has already tried to apply the ethics of care in explaining policy making. Newspa- per articles and videos from relevant media such as The Washington Post, The New Yorker, Euronews, etc. were used as data sources, describing practices undertaken or containing statements given by women leaders of the countries concerned, their in- terviews or public addresses. During the detailed analysis of sources, in order to test the hypotheses, special attention is paid to the following indicators: type, number and duration of special measures proposed and introduced, their effectiveness, populati- on group to which measures are communicated, use of specific words and phrases or special emphasis on certain key concepts such as empathy, solidarity, etc.

Madam Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern has shown remarkable ability to manage the crisis caused by the coronavirus pandemic. In addition to her determination to close borders, schools and local businesses early and to appeal to all citizens to stay at home and reduce social contacts, already during the first wave of the pandemic she introduced a specific measure – cutting the salaries of her cabinet members by 20 percent in a six-month period, as a show of solidarity with New Zealanders who lost their jobs due to the pandemic (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). In addition, special measures were communicated to citizens on a daily basis, with very precise indications of the duration of the measures, necessary to show how effective they were (Matthews, 2020). As a result, New Zealand had only nine new cases in April 2020 and suspended most measures as early as on 27 April, 2020, in order to return society to day-to-day functioning, only 4 weeks after the introduction of lockdown (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). Special attention was paid to the youngest population, who were informed on social networks in a witty and reassuring way (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). Also, when giving statements, the Prime Minister especially emphasized the importance of empathy during emergency situations, which, according to many, demonstrated that leadership can be both decisive and humane (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020).

14 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers Another female Prime Minister who devoted special attention to communicating spe- cial measures to the youngest is Norwegian Prime Minister Erna Solberg, who cal- med both the youngest and their parents through video conferences, answering que- stions such as: “What can I do to help?”, “When can I visit my grandparents?” or “How long does it take to make a vaccine?” (Marx, 2020). In several addresses to the media, Madam Prime Minister pointed out that it is important to inform all age gro- ups on how to be responsible in a pandemic, and that it is extremely important for children to feel that they are taken seriously in serious situations, such as a pandemic (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). At the same time, she reminded the public that it was quite normal to be afraid, thus introducing a “human” dimension in addressing the public. For the sake of comparison, at about the same time in the United States, President Donald Trump, in his address to the nation, devoted attention to big-capital holders, comparing companies with communities (Marx, 2020). Also, unlike the United Sta- tes, Norway wholeheartedly supports the activities of the World Health Organizati- on, with which it cooperates in the development of the vaccine for the virus, about which Madam Prime Minister regularly informs the citizens. Due to the preventive approach and reliance on the profession and science, Norway was one of the coun- tries with the lowest number of new cases in April 2020, which is why, a month after the introduction of special measures to restrict movement and social contacts, they started mitigating them.

A similar commitment to returning society to normalcy early on during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic was also demonstrated by German Chancellor Angela Mer- kel. In addition to comparing the severity of the pandemic to the Second World War2, in her impressive address to the nation, she refreshed the usual rational tone with em- pathetic and personal notes, reminding people that every victim is somebody’s partner, father, or mother. Emphasized here, even more than the historical example, was the ele- ment of relations and connections between people, in the name of which the Chancellor called for solidarity. Also, Germany is one of the rare countries whose crisis committee, in addition to experts in biology and medicine, also has a considerable number of social scientists such as philosophers and psychologists, which indicates its commitment to both physical and spiritual and mental health of its citizens during the state of emergen- cy (Milanović, 2020). In addition, the Chancellor openly shared the data on the num- ber of infected people and deaths and accordingly urged all citizens to act responsibly (Chazan, 2020). Such measures contributed to the fact that soon after the imposition of restrictions on freedoms such as public assembly and the closure of certain facilities, Germany decided to gradually return its society to normalcy, just six weeks after regi- stering the first deaths from the virus (Chazan, 2020).

2 Video available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWzpSEFDYJM

15 Finally, countries like Taiwan and Iceland, which also have female leaders, demon- strate simultaneously their determination to actively fight the virus through strong preventive measures – Taiwan, but also solidarity and resourcefulness in the use of special measures, including free testing for the virus – Iceland (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). What these countries have in common is their reliance on the profession and science, while politicians have “managed to control themselves” and to limit them- selves to communicating measures and plans proposed by public health experts (Co- lbert, 2020). This resulted in a small number of deaths (only six cases in Taiwan du- ring the first wave of the pandemic) and the return of society to normalcy in Iceland on 4 May (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020).

16 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers CONCLUSION

The aim of this paper was to show how the securitizing actor‘s gender, which is part of his/her social capital, determines the approach to the (de)securitization process. The first part of the paper pointed out that the commitment to desecuritization, whi- ch is reflected through security discourses and practices of securitizing actors, often represents a stronghold from which citizens give legitimacy for to the imposition of special measures. The second part of the paper examined the way in which gender impacts the securitization of the current COVID-19 pandemic, giving the examples of five countries led by women leaders. In addition to introducing “classical” mea- sures to restrict movement, social contacts and closing borders and local affairs, wo- men leaders introduced some very specific measures, which were actively commu- nicated to all age groups. Their security discourses were adjusted to their audiences, but despite pointing to the extreme seriousness of the situation, they exuded empat- hy, solidarity and a reassuring tone. Thus, an authentic “dimension of concern” was introduced in dealing with the virus, which, according to European Central Bank Di- rector Christine Lagarde, had been noticed by observers and voters around the wor- ld (Arnold, 2020). Finally, this approach has resulted in a relatively rapid mitigation of emergency measures, which is a testimony of the commitment of women leaders to desecuritization.

The discussion about the potential shortcomings of this test could start with the re- mark that the number of examined cases is insufficient to confirm the hypotheses. However, considering the allowed length of the paper, this number is justified, and even more so if we take into account the use of the qualitative method that shows all the advantages of detailed and in-depth analysis only on a smaller number of cases. On the other hand, despite the fact that New Zealand recently recorded its first new cases after a hundred virus-free days3 and that the number of new cases in Germany is on the rise in August 2020, these numbers are still considerably lower than in other states, especially bearing in mind the speed of mitigation and suspension of emergen- cy measures. Finally, some might point out that the securitizing actor’s gender is not a crucial determinant when opting for desecuritization, but rather the fact that these are democratic states. Nevertheless, this does not explain the difference in the outco- mes and duration of special measures taken by world democracies led by female and male leaders when faced with the COVID-19 virus.

3 The news is available at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-53761122

17 The ethics of care as a concept developed by some feminist theorists, which gives priority to finding specific solutions in specific situations, rather than to generalizing and invoking abstract universal principles and great historical examples, may explain the approach that female leaders take in managing the current crisis and their orien- tation toward returning the society to a state in which the needs of the largest number of people are met. If we do not perceive gender essentialistically, but as a product of social practices and socialization processes, we will realize that women leaders have learnt how to be more cooperative, more prone to compromise and more compassio- nate than their male colleagues, which is especially manifested in times of emergency and crisis situations, when they opt for the approach based on human needs.

On the one hand, this may indicate that there are still different standards in the education and socialization of men and women, due to which female leaders will be more committed to desecuritization than male leaders. Nevertheless, some theorists suggest the possibility that the commitment to desecuritization is instrumentalized to collect political points (Hansen, 2012: 533). Bearing in mind that precisely this commitment is the stronghold from which citizens give legitimacy for the imposition of special measures, it is yet to be seen whether voters will recognize and reward the active and specific fight against the coronavirus that women leaders have undertaken around the world.

18 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers REFERENCES

Aradau, C. (2004). Security and the democratic scene: desecuritization and emanci- pation. Journal of International Relations and Development, 7, pp. 388-413.

Ejdus, F. (2009). Dangerous liaisons: Securitization theory and Schmittian Legacy. Western Balkans Security Observer – English Edition, 13(2009), pp. 9-16.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Deve- lopment. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Hansen, L. (2012). Reconstructing desecuritization: the normative-political in the Copenhagen school and directions for how to apply it. Review of International Stu- dies, 38(3), pp. 525-546.

Hansen, L. (2000). The Little Mermaid’s Silent Security Dilemma and the Absen- ce of Gender in the Copenhagen school. Journal of International Studies, 29(2), pp. 285-306.

Hill, K. (1994). Gender, Moral "Voices," and the Making of Environmental Policy: A Case Study in Norway's Ministry of Environment. Landscape Journal, 13(2), pp. 145-151.

Kymlicka, W. (2009). Savremena politička filozofija (Contemporary Political Phi- losophy). Belgrade: Nova srpska politička misao (The New Serbian Political Thought).

Regan, P. M., Paskeviciute, A. (2003). Women’s Access to Politics and Peaceful States. Journal of Peace Research, 40(3), pp. 287-302.

Roe, P. (2012). Is securitization a negative concept? Revisiting the normative debate over normal versus extraordinary politics. Security Dialogue, 43(3), pp. 249-266.

Stritzel, H. (2007). Towards a Theory of Securitization: Copenhagen and Beyond. European Journal of International Relations, 13(3), pp. 357-383.

19 ONLINE SOURCES

Arnold, M. (2020). Female leaders outperformed in virus crisis, says ECB’s Lagarde. Downloaded on 30 July, 2020, from https://www.ft.com/content/ b7f3c4f7-fcab-4f57-85ec-07c3466628d2

Chazan, G. (2020). How Germany got coronavirus right. Downloaded on 30 July 2020, from https://www.ft.com/content/cc1f650a-91c0-4e1f-b990-ee8ceb5339ea

Hassan, J., O'Grady S. (2020). Female world leaders hailed as voices of reason amid the coronavirus chaos. Downloaded on 23 April 2020, from https://www. washingtonpost.com/world/2020/04/20/female-world-leaders-hailed-voices-rea- son-amid-coronavirus-chaos/ /

Kolbert, E. (2020). How Iceland beat the coronavirus. Downloaded on 31 July, 2020, from https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/06/08/ how-iceland-beat-the-coronavirus

Marks, Z. (2020). In a global emergency, women are showing how to lead. Downloaded on 25 April 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/ opinions/2020/04/21/global-emergency-women-are-showing-how-lead/

Matthews, A. (2020). Coronavirus: 5 things New Zealand got ri- ght. Downloaded on 31 July, 2020, from https://www.dw.com/en/ jacinda-ardern-leadership-in-coronavirus-response/a-53733397

Milanović, M. (2020). Tajna nemačkog uspeha? Na čelu zemlje je naučnica (The Secret of German success? The country is led by a female scientist). Downloaded on 26 April, 2020, from https://nova.rs/region/merkel-naucnica-nemacka/

20 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers INFORMATION IN EMERGENCY CIRCUMSTANCES (USE OF THE WAR METAPHOR DURING THE EARTHQUAKE, FLOODS AND THE CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC IN SERBIA)

Aleksandra SAVIĆ*, PhD candidate 4

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philology

Abstract: The paper examines the use of the war metaphor during the 2010 earthqu- ake in Kraljevo, the 2014 floods and the coronavirus pandemic in Serbia. The body of research comprises press releases of the Government of Serbia, including from 3 November 2010, when Kraljevo was hit by an earthquake, to the lifting of the emer- gency situation in that city on 12 March 2011; from the declaration of an emergency situation due to floods in Serbia on 15 May 2014, to the lifting of the emergency situ- ation on 23 May; and finally, from the first recorded case of coronavirus infection, on 6 March 2020, to the lifting of the state of emergency on 6 May 2020. The data were collected in the course of June 2020. The aim of the research is to find out what po- litical intentions lie behind the stated language strategy. By choosing this rhetorical tool, the speakers strive to achieve solidarity, discipline, unity of the people, but also to secure support for political and economic measures and the overall government policy, for which reason conclusion is made that the use of the war metaphor in emer- gency circumstances is rather ambivalent as it calls for unity and compassion but si- multaneously triggers the feelings of anxiety, panic and fear.

Keywords: war metaphor, coronavirus, floods, earthquake, critical analysis

* aleksandra.suvira@yahoo.com

21 INTRODUCTION

Metaphor is used in political discourse to make certain topics more understandable to the public (Cammaerts, 2012: 5–6), namely to simplify complicated and often highly technical problems, and it can also be used to oppose views (Cammaerts, 2012: 6). One of the motives for using this language tool is to persuade the masses (Charte- ris-Black 2004: 248) and they can sometimes be used even unconsciously, becau- se they are “deeply embedded in the historical and cultural context” (Silaški et al., 2009: 55).

War metaphors are very common in politics, so some researchers claim that their use is sometimes absurd (Flusberg et al., 2018: 4). Although widespread, the use of this rhetorical tool is by no means harmless and can have consequences, especially in so- cieties that recently underwent the horrors of war or have a specific war history and tend to develop “unconscious post-war trauma” (Silaški et al., 2009: 57). Many have noticed the enhanced use of war metaphors during the coronavirus pandemic, not only in Serbia but also worldwide, and that war has become one of the most com- mon linguistic ways to conceptualize the virus (Štrkalj Despot, 2020: 5). This har- dly comes as a surprise, considering that the metaphor DISEASE IS WAR is one of the most frequent ones in health care (Sontag, 1989, as cited in Chiang, Duann, 2007: 580). In addition to health, this metaphor is often encountered during man-ma- de or natural disasters (Trckova, 2012; Jenkins, 2015). Thus, during Hurricane Katri- na and Hurricane Sandy, a frequent repetition of this metaphor was registered (Jen- kins, 2015: 151). Its use is usually preceded by personification of the state (Lakoff, Johnson, 2015: 31), and apart from the fact that the state is considered a living being, an important feature of this metaphor is that it is always based on a certain prototype of war (Flusberg et al., 2018: 8), common to all people, which implies the existence of opposing sides – good and evil; different goals of the conflicting parties; various attack or defense strategies; the army; more than one conflict; the end – be it a defeat or victory (Flusberg et al., 2018: 8). In political discourse, metaphors of war are “used in two cases: to emphasize the fight against a social evil with a negative connotation (e.g. war against drugs, terrorism, disease), or to describe the fight for a positively va- lued, useful social goal (e.g. fight for human rights, freedoms, etc.) (Charteris-Black 2004: 91, as cited by Silaški et al., 2009: 40). This paper aims to determine what ide- ological intentions are behind the use of the war metaphor in the political discourse of Serbia and whether in some cases it can be justified.

22 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers RESEARCH METHODS, HYPOTHESES AND SOURCES

The theoretical apparatus which serves as our framework includes the following the- ories and approaches: political discourse, which we understand as the use of lingui- stic tools in a political environment and for political purposes, or as a type of disco- urse to which political content or context refers (Wilson, 2001: 398); the theory of conceptual metaphor, according to which metaphor is not only a matter of langua- ge but also of opinion (Lakoff, Johnson, 2015: 5) and represents a tool that shapes the political opinion of citizens (Lakoff, 2008); critical discourse analysis that refers not only to the description of linguistic phenomena but also to their evaluation and re-examination (Fairclough, 2012; Van Dijk, 1998; Wodak, 2006); and finally criti- cal metaphor analysis (Charteris-Black, 2004), whose task is to reveal the “hidden, possibly unconscious intentions of the speaker” (Charteris-Black, 2004: 34). Within the critical metaphor analysis, we can speak of the following methods: identification of metaphor, i.e. careful reading and recording of the metaphor; interpretation – esta- blishing a connection between the metaphor and the cognitive and pragmatic factors determining it; and finally, an explanation of the metaphor, based on which we reve- al the intention of the speaker, namely we identify ideological motivations (Charte- ris-Black, 2004: 39).

The paper has two hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that the war metaphor is com- mon in emergency situations in Serbia. The second hypothesis is that the use of me- taphor has been significantly enhanced over the ten recent years and that dual politi- cal intentions are behind it.

ANALYSIS

The body of the paper comprises the announcements of the Government of Serbia during two biggest natural disasters in Serbia in the last ten years: the 2010 earthqu- ake in Kraljevo, from 3 November 2010, when the earthquake occurred, to the lifting of the respective emergency situation on 12 March 2011; the 2014 floods – from 14 May, when the emergency situation was declared, to 23 May, when it was lifted; and during the coronavirus pandemic, i.e. from the first recorded case to the lifting of the state of emergency – from 6 March to 6 May, 2020. The material was searched in the course of June 2020, and the metaphors are given chronologically.

23 The source domain that lends its structure (Klikovac, 2004: 12) is war and by using it we understand the unknown, dangerous and incomprehensible domain of earthqu- akes, floods and diseases. By linking these two concepts, concrete and abstract, si- tuations such as natural and health disasters that are inexplicable, unpredictable and beyond grasp are conceptualized as something known that we have already experien- ced. The linguistic tools that enable such replication are personification (the state and the disaster/disease as living beings), war (military) vocabulary, comparison, exagge- ration, and confrontation of two sides (“us” – “them”).

The 2010 earthquake in Kraljevo1

Regarding the statements by the Government of Serbia on the earthquake that hit Kraljevo in 2010, we found the smallest number of metaphors, only three to be preci- se, which was to be expected considering that the emergency situation was short-la- sting and affected a smaller area than in the other two cases.

Today, the Minister of Diaspora in the Government of the Republic of Serbia, Srđan Srećković, appealed to the Serbian diaspora to help the citizens of Kraljevo (...) after a devastating earthquake had hit that city. (Diaspora Appeal for Assistance to the Ci- tizens of Kraljevo, Belgrade, 9 November, 2010);

These days, the citizens of Kraljevo are waging a battle against time in order to at least protect the ruins before the announced rains and snow. (Diaspora Appeal for Assistance to the Citizens of Kraljevo, Belgrade, 9 November, 2010);

Members of the Army continue to help the population affected by the earthquake (Belgrade, 29 December, 2010).

The examples above show that the war metaphors are quite simple and unelaborated; mostly used are already established and well-known linguistic descriptions, such as “battle against time”, which is used in a wide range of situations.

1 Examples are given by enclosing the title of the statement and the date in parentheses. In the case of a title, only the date of publication is written in parentheses. Due to limited space, all metaphors found are listed in Appendix 1, while some will be mentioned in the analysis

24 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers The 2014 floods

During the 2014 floods, water was often portrayed as aggressive, moody, and elusive, so the war metaphor only intensified animosity toward nature (Trckova, 2012: 147). Water was portrayed as the enemy of huge destructive power.

...that in the floods that hit Serbia, it is most important to save people’s lives. (Mla- va breaches the embankment and threatens “Drmno” and ”Kostolac”, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

…a 20-km-long, wide embankment was built, which should withstand the surge of water in the next 24 hours. (Šabac is ready for the shock wave of the Sava, Belgra- de/Šabac, 17 May 2014);

For 40 hours already they have been continuously defeating the Sava and its tributa- ries. The highest level of the Sava is expected after 19:00 hrs, so we are now prepa- ring for an efficient and successful defense, and we will defend Šabac. (Tonight the Sava reaches its highest point in Šabac, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

... the state is determined to defend the “Kostolac” mine and thermal power plant and will use all possible technical and operational methods. (The situation in the TPP “Kostolac” is under control, Kostolac, 19 May 2014);

… in the Tamnava part of the Kolubara basin, which was hit hardest by the floods. (The water continues to threaten the system of “Electric Power Industry of Serbia”, Belgrade, 21 May 2014).

The inhabitants and the government are on the opposite side and are fighting against the water enemy

Vučić pointed out that “war measures” would have to be applied in Šabac. (Volun- teers needed to defend Šabac, Belgrade, 16 May 2014);

He emphasized that the people participating in the rescue are real heroes. (Volunteers needed to defend Šabac, Belgrade, 16 May 2014);

Šabac is well fortified. (Serbia is ready for the next flood wave, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

In some cases, the river itself was personified:

Mlava now threatens the village of Drmno. (Mlava breaches the embankments near “Drmno”, Belgrade/Kostolac, 18 May 2014).

25 We note that in this case of a natural disaster metaphors are more frequent and more complex, military terms are used often, and contrary to the first example, that of the earthquake, here we see the state emerge as a defender and a party ready to do anyt- hing to save the people from the natural disaster. Even though the body of this paper contains many examples of the use of war metaphors, they are more or less similar linguistic constructions.

Coronavirus

Within this metaphor, Serbia is on the side of good, while Covid-19 is evil. The vi- rus is portrayed as an enemy, a plague that needs to be defeated and eradicated, and Serbia, its government, people, doctors, police and army as brave warriors protecting their country and loved ones, whereby in the case of this pandemic the rationalizati- on of war is quite obvious (Silaški et al., 2009:39) because it is presented as positive, inevitable and obligatory. Interestingly, the war metaphors were used equally by po- liticians and epidemiologists.

In Metaphors

Serbia is fighting the coronavirus in a good way (Belgrade, 11 March 2020);

... that the state is there and will protect them in every way. (Citizens need to beha- ve more responsibly, Belgrade, 16 March 2020);

… that the state will fight twice as hard as before. (The third victim of coronavirus infection in Serbia, Belgrade, 23 March 2020);

Serbia is a protector, a guardian that is ready to do anything to defend its people, whi- ch only enhances trust in the state, in which metaphors indicating global solidarity are also helpful.

A joint fight of the EU and Serbia with the coronavirus crisis (Belgrade, 13 April 2020);

On the other hand, there is an extremely powerful virus. Given that during the pan- demic there was little information around the world about the mode of infection and the course of the disease, and that they were often contradictory, this enemy is unpre- dictable and dangerous.

... an invisible enemy at a global level. (Date of the Olympic Games uncertain, Bel- grade, April 14, 2020);

26 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers Every measure is being taken to protect the country, because, as he said, surrender is not an option. (State of emergency declared in the entire territory of Serbia, Bel- grade, March 15, 2020);

Each war has several stages and this one is no different – it includes a number of key battles, where the fighting morale must be constantly maintained because the enemy strikes unexpectedly and strongly, and the battle won does not mean that the war is over. The spread of the infection is a battle, and like in any war, there are casualties.

This is in fact a state of war. (A total of 741 cases of coronavirus infection registered in Serbia, Belgrade, March 29, 2020);

... the strongest blow to the health care system (Citizens are to respect the state’s emergency measures, Belgrade, 16 March 2020);

... another epidemic strike. (The epidemic is under control and its end on the hori- zon, Belgrade, 15 April 2020);

The first battle has been won as far as Niš is concerned. It is not the end, there is sti- ll a lot to combat (Considerable improvement of the situation expected in Niš, Niš, April 17, 2020);

Five new coronavirus victims in Serbia (Belgrade, April 21, 2020);

A military vocabulary was used very often:

... offensive against Covid-19. (Serbia to face a more serious situation regarding the epidemic in the coming days, Belgrade, 27 March 2020);

It is important to understand that each one of us is on the front line in the fight aga- inst coronavirus and that in this state of emergency everyone has a war schedule that reads “stay at home”. (Respect the measures also during the upcoming holidays, Belgrade, April 15, 2020).

Health workers are brave warriors who are on the front line and that role was someti- mes assigned to the government, the police, but also to the people.

... and doctors are acting heroically (As of 08:00 hrs tomorrow all border crossings to be closed for passenger traffic, Belgrade, 19 March 2020);

…because they are the striking fist and the most courageous part of our society. (The number of people infected with coronavirus expected to rise in the next 72 ho- urs, Belgrade, April 2, 2020).

27 Authors Silaški, Đurović and Radić Bojanić noted that war, together with sport, is part of the “conceptual apparatus through which politics is experienced as a common- ly male domain” (Silaški et al., 2009: 38), but our research has shown, albeit sparse- ly, that in the case of coronavirus there are no gender stereotypes.

... the heroines of this age must be cherished and cared for. (Women deserve special attention in this difficult time, Belgrade, March 22, 2020).

The war in the statements sometimes acquires mythological forms

I am happy with the fight so far, it is a real war against the invisible enemy and therefore harder. Now that struggle is becoming more complex and is waged on several fronts. (The state is ready for more rigorous measures if necessary, Belgra- de, 29 March 2020);

…and in some cases it is consciously compared to past wars, as in the following examples:

We are used to the state of emergency in Kosovo and Metohija, we have been living in it not merely for 20 years; rather, most people living in Kosmet have been in a sta- te of emergency all their lives. (A call to our citizens in Kosmet to adhere to the me- asures of the Government of Serbia, Belgrade, 17 March 2020);

... once the fight against this greatest plague of the modern world since World War II is over. (Ban on movement for people above the age of 65 in force as of to- morrow, Belgrade, March 17, 2020)

Obviously the use of war metaphors has been slowly increasing during these past ten years. From the random mention of already established metaphorical expressions du- ring the earthquake, or often repeated same metaphorical non-inventive tools during floods, during the coronavirus we already distinguish a clear communication strategy. All roles are divided – the disease is a plague to be defeated, the state is a protector, doctors are heroes/heroines, and citizens need to show combat readiness and be de- termined and disciplined at all times – thus fully establishing the pattern of real war. Likewise, there is a very dangerous parallel with previous wars. In order to point out the necessity of discipline and strengthen trust in the government and epidemiologi- sts, speakers often refer to past battles that evoke emotions in the public, but also a sense of anxiety.

28 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers CONCLUSION

Our research shows that the war metaphor is often used in situations of natural and health disasters, which are otherwise abstract and inexplicable phenomena, and it is not specific to this pandemic alone. However, by chronological analysis of communi- cation during the earthquake, floods and the pandemic, we noticed that in recent years this metaphor has been significantly enhanced – from the rare mention of well-known and popular phrases to the fully established prototype of war. The intensified metap- hor is accompanied by ever more frequent conferences, announcements and state- ments, as well as numerous limitations and restrictions of freedom. During the coro- navirus pandemic, the metaphor of war is used almost daily by both politicians and epidemiologists, it has the largest numbers of sub-metaphors and it is a very creati- ve tool. While in the first two cases it was possibly used unconsciously, in the case of the coronavirus pandemic it is a very conscious strategy used by politicians, recorded also in other countries, which results not only in emphasizing discipline and solidari- ty, or in spreading fear and panic, but some hidden political intentions are noticeable as well. We conclude that both hypotheses – that the metaphor is common in emer- gencies in Serbia and that its use has intensified over time – have been confirmed.

Regarding the view expressed in the hypotheses that the use of the war metaphor for these purposes is extremely ambivalent, we note that this is a complex rhetorical tool that can be used at one time to call for determination, togetherness in tragedy, the im- portance of helping our loved ones, but if used at a wrong moment, it can intensify the feeling of fear, panic, boost nationalism, cause a sharp division between “us” and “them”, and can even trigger a feeling that any disunity of the people means defeat in war, which in the long run brings big support to only one political option (Štrkalj Despot, 2020: 7). Also, the danger of such tools increases if the communication is ac- companied by other steps during the emergency situation, such as economic, health, or political measures. We will offer hereinafter several consequences of the use of the war metaphor in public space during the coronavirus pandemic, when most of these linguistic tools were recorded:

a) Collective readiness

It is achieved by frequent parallels with the specific war experiences that Serbia un- derwent (World War II, Kosovo), which, in addition to raising morale and discipline among the people, who still remember the horrible collective suffering, brings back memories of great war losses. The dominant feeling associated with this strategy is fear, which is also the primary function of the war metaphor in political discourse (Flusberg et al., 2018: 13). Calls for togetherness, for gathering around one common

29 goal, where all disagreements are left aside, when individual needs become irrelevant and only collective opinion and reasoning is valued, result in a strong collective sense of responsibility. The danger of this pattern is a fully cooperative mass whose only goal is struggle and victory, and it is much easier to control and any dissenting voice can easily be neutralized.

b) Atomized individuals

Unlike the above mentioned danger, which puts the collective spirit first, other po- tential, equally possible risks are fully atomized and separated individuals, who in a pandemic situation become a threat to each other’s lives and enemies, and the only close collaborator is the state on which they must and can rely. Such communication, together with the recommendations of physical distance between people, creates also a social distance in which individuals cannot gather for another common goal, which is not a disease, and thus they, as in the first case, become an easy target for control.

c) Appeals to make sacrifice for the state

Due to the uncertain outcome of the disaster, as well as alienation and fear, the state becomes the only reliable collaborator. The needs of the state and the collective are beyond the needs of individuals and everything must be subordinated to this battle. Every decision and measure made by the state is in the citizens’ best interest, whi- ch opens the door for political decisions or means with which the citizens would not normally agree.

d) Security of citizens

The mode of communication during emergencies, together with the accompanying political decisions – abolition of various freedoms and imposition of restrictions, ho- mogenization of public space with daily public addresses, radicalization of the media, contribute to the feeling of insecurity among citizens. We can establish that, in additi- on to the threat to health and economic and political security, there is also a threat to individual security of citizens, who are pushed by the war rhetoric into hopelessness, anxiety, feelings of fear, panic and despair, and even serious mental disorders. So lo- nely and insecure, with limited personal freedoms, they can fall victim to any policy.

Politicians and decision-makers should have a clear idea of ​​the rhetorical strategies they use, if they are not aware of them, and if they are, of the effects that such tools can produce, and regardless of the purpose for which they are used each individual should be able to recognize what ideological intentions are behind the use of metap- hors, which requires not only an enviable linguistic ability but also a developed po- litical consciousness.

30 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers SOURCES

The Government of Serbia, Covid-19, available at: https://www.srbija.gov.rs/sekci- ja/453027/covid-19.php, 2 August 2020

The Government of Serbia, The 2014 Floods, available at: https://www.srbija.gov. rs/specijal/260272, 2 August 2020

The Government of Serbia, The 2010 Earthquake, available at: https://www.srbija. gov.rs/faq_search.php, 2 August 2020

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32 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers APPENDIX 1. List of war metaphors in statements of the Government of Serbia during the 2010 earthquake in Kraljevo, the 2014 floods and the 2020 coronavirus pandemic

a) Earthquake

Today, the Minister of Diaspora in the Government of the Republic of Serbia, Srđan Srećković, appealed to the Serbian diaspora to help the citizens of Kraljevo (...) after a devastating earthquake had hit that city. (Diaspora Appeal for Assistance to the Ci- tizens of Kraljevo, Belgrade, 9 November, 2010);

These days, the citizens of Kraljevo are waging a battle against time in order to at least protect the ruins before the announced rains and snow. (Diaspora Appeal for Assistance to the Citizens of Kraljevo, Belgrade, 9 November, 2010);

Members of the Army continue to help the population affected by the earthquake (Belgrade, 29 December, 2010).

b) Floods

... a call upon all emergency headquarters on the territory of Serbia to introduce the readiness of all entities and take all necessary activities in order to implement flo- od defense measures. (MoI helps citizens in endangered areas, Valjevo/Osečina, 15 May 2014);

A huge struggle in underway to strengthen the coast of Kolubara, both on the left and on the right. (MoI helps citizens in endangered areas, Valjevo/Osečina, 15 May 2014);

... volunteers to defend Šabac. (More than 3,000 volunteers sent to Šabac, Belgra- de, 16 May 2014);

He expressed gratitude to all those who volunteered to help defend Šabac from the floods. (More than 3,000 volunteers sent to Šabac, Belgrade, 16 May 2014);

... to help defend that city and rescue people threatened by floods. (Massive respon- se of citizens to the Prime Minister’s appeal to defend Šabac, Belgrade, 16 May 2014);

33 ... major natural disaster that hit the largest part of Serbia. (Call to companies to help remove the consequences of floods, Belgrade, 16 May 2014);

... called on volunteers to help defend the country from the water surge (Volunteers needed to defend Šabac, Belgrade, 16 May 2014);

He asked for help to defend Šabac. (Volunteers needed to defend Šabac, Belgrade, 16 May 2014)

Vučić pointed out that “war measures” must be used in Šabac. (Volunteers needed to defend Šabac, Belgrade, 16 May 2014);

He pointed out that the people who participate in the rescue are true heroes. (Volun- teers needed to defend Šabac, Belgrade, 16 May 2014);

…that in the floods that hit Serbia, it is most important to save people’s lives. (Mla- va breaches the embankment and threatens “Drmno” and “Kostolac”, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

... a 20-km-long wide embankment was built, which should withstand the surge of water in the next 24 hours. (Šabac is ready for the shock wave of the Sava, Belgra- de/Šabac, 17 May 2014);

... more than 10,000 members of the armed forces of the Serbian Army are on the ground, on the first line of flood defense, tasked with saving human lives and property. (Mobilization of businessmen for post-flood reconstruction, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

... for the assistance provided so far in the fight against the unprecedented natural disaster that has affected Serbia. (Dačić conveys gratitude to the states that helped Serbia, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

Assistance to Serbia in the fight against floods, both in terms of manpower and the necessary technical equipment, is coming from a number of countries. (A number of countries send aid and rescue teams to Serbia, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

... to defend Šabac from water. (Commissariat for Refugees and Migration helps the vulnerable, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

…funds provided by the European Union for the purpose of emergency assistance in the fight against floods and repair of damage. (Request to the EU for additional assi- stance, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

34 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers Sava threatens to spill over. (Tonight the Sava reaches its highest point in Šabac, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

... cadets defending Šabac are heroes of Serbia. (Tonight the Sava reaches its hig- hest point in Šabac, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

The army was given the task to save Šabac. (Tonight the Sava reaches its highest po- int in Šabac, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

For 40 hours already they have been continuously defeating the Sava and its tributa- ries. The highest level of the Sava is expected after 19:00 hrs, so we are now prepa- ring for an efficient and successful defense, and we will defend Šabac. (Tonight the Sava reaches its highest point in Šabac, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

...to all athletes who, together with others, defend Serbia day and night from cata- strophic floods. (Athletes raise aid for Serbia, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

I would like to express my gratitude to all our athletes, sports federations, clubs, yo- uth offices, police, army, firefighters and all people defending their country. (Athle- tes raise aid for Serbia, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

Šabac is well fortified. (Serbia is ready for the next wave of floods, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

He cautioned that the Sava embankment had been breached. (Breaching of the Sava embankment near TENT poses a new threat to Obrenovac, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

... during the night, more than 6,000 citizens, members of the Ministry of the Interi- or and the Serbian Army worked hard in the field and as a result defended this city from water surge. The embankments at all critical points on the Sava near Šabac are currently withstanding the water surges, but the Sava is expected to surge further, so the defense of that city remains a priority. (Breaching of the Sava embankment near TENT poses a new threat to Obrenovac, Belgrade, 17 May 2014);

.. to the youth engaged in the protection of the thermal power plant in Kostolac, and on behalf of the Government of Serbia conveyed gratitude for their courage, en- durance and dedication in defending the country from floods. (Udovičić visits vo- lunteers in Kostolac, Belgrade/Kostolac, 18 May 2014);

Around 200 cadets of the Military Academy are engaged on the ramparts between the villages of Ševarice and Drenovac, where one of the three critical points of the

35 defense of Šabac is located. (The Army begins rehabilitation and biological deconta- mination of the terrain in Ub, Belgrade, 18 May 2014);

As he noted, the First Brigade of the Land Army has been engaged in defending the city. (The Army begins rehabilitation and biological decontamination of the terrain in Ub, Belgrade, 18 May 2014);

Mlava now threatens the village of Drmno. (Mlava breaches the embankments near “Drmno”, Belgrade/Kostolac, 18 May 2014);

... the major threat is now posed by the Sava river (The Sava is the major threat in the coming two days, Belgrade, 18 May 2014);

.. all measures must be taken for us to defend ourselves. (The Sava is the major thre- at in the coming two days, Belgrade, 18 May 2014);

... in flood defense, some 223,000 sand bags for constructing the embankment were used in the threatened area. (Aid from a number of states arrives in Serbia, Belgra- de, 18 May 2014);

... the state is determined to defend the “Kostolac” mine and thermal power plant and will use all possible technical and operational methods. (The situation in TPP “Kostolac” is under control, Kostolac, 19 May 2014);

... the danger of water has not yet passed, and he added that all measures have been taken to defend this facility. (Defense of TPP “Nikola Tesla” from the new wave on the Sava, Obrenovac, 19 May 2014);

... defending the pumping station. (Defense of TPP “Nikola Tesla” from the new wave on the Sava, Obrenovac, 19 May 2014);

... In Serbia, at the moment, the most important fight is for Šabac. (Defense of Ša- bac is a priority, Belgrade, 19 May 2014);

... gratitude to the government of that country for the assistance it provided to Serbia in the fight against the floods. (Gratitude to Austria for its assistance to Serbia, Bel- grade, 19 May 2014);

... but that does not mean that the danger has passed, and he added that the ram- parts are full of water and that there is a real danger of a breach. (Emergency eva- cuation of villagers in the vicinity of Šabac, Šabac, 19 May 2014);

36 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers This line of flood defense was visited yesterday by... (The Army is engaged on the critical section of Kuzmin-to-Bosut, Belgrade, 19 May 2014);

Aleksandar Obradović reiterated that the situation was complicated and that the dan- ger had not passed. (TENT must be protected from floods, Obrenovac, 20 May 2014);

... young people throughout Serbia have shown a high degree of maturity and respon- sibility by participating in defending the country from floods. (Young volunteers are clearing the terrain in Obrenovac, Obrenovac, 20 May 2014).

... in the Tamnava part of the Kolubara basin, which was hit hardest by the floods. (Water continues to threaten the system of “Elektroprivreda Srbije” (Electric Power Utilities of Serbia), Belgrade, 21 May 2014);

... helped in the defense against water surge and made invaluable contribution to our efforts to defend ourselves from this unprecedented natural disaster. (Vučić sends a letter of gratitude to Russia, Belgrade, 23 May 2014);

c) Coronavirus

Serbia is fighting the coronavirus in a good way (Belgrade, 11 March 2020);

The government has adopted new measures to combat coronavirus (Belgrade, 11 March 2020);

A call to citizens to show solidarity in the fight against coronavirus (Belgrade, 13 March 2020);

…because they are joining the first line of the fight (A Call for citizens’ solidarity in the fight against coronavirus, Belgrade, 13 March 2020);

... and underlined that the fight against the coronavirus requires joint efforts and coordination of activities (Solidarity and support to Switzerland in the fight against the epidemic, Belgrade, 14 March 2020);

Speaking about hoteliers and caterers, Ljajić said that they too will be affected (Ba- sic foodstuffs market is stable, Belgrade, 15 March 2020);

He pointed out that as of today Serbia is at war against the enemy it must defe- at (A state of emergency declared on the entire territory of Serbia, Belgrade, March 15, 2020);

37 All measures are being taken to protect the country, because, as he said, surrender is not an option. (A state of emergency declared on the entire territory of Serbia, Bel- grade, March 15, 2020);

This is a fight of all of us. The individual’s discipline will determine the extent to which we as a country can combat this. (Serbia closes borders due to coronavirus, Belgrade, 15 March 2020);

Brnabić said that without solidarity the epidemic cannot be defeated (A plea to ci- tizens to respect the state’s emergency measures, Belgrade, 16 March 2020);

... manage to successfully combat the COVID-19 virus and that Serbia will win this battle. (First aid to Serbia from the People’s Republic of China, Belgrade, 16 March 2020);

The Government of the Republic of Serbia is fully committed to combatting the spread of the coronavirus (New Government Measures to fight COVID-19, Belgra- de, 16 March 2020);

... the strongest blow to the health care system (A plea to citizens to respect the sta- te’s emergency measures, Belgrade, 16 March 2020);

... that the state is there and will protect them in every way. (Citizens need to beha- ve more responsibly, Belgrade, 16 March 2020);

We can conquer this and have the lowest possible number of victims only if we all fight together (The possibility of introducing more rigorous measures not exclu- ded, Belgrade, 17 March 2020);

... and to achieve full protection of the health system and medical workers becau- se they will bear the greatest burden of the struggle (The possibility of introducing more rigorous measures not excluded, Belgrade, 17 March 2020);

All adopted measures are aimed solely at preserving your life and health, but the Government cannot win this battle alone (New Government Measures to Fight CO- VID-19, Belgrade, 17 March 2020);

... we can come out from this battle victorious (New Government Measures to Fight COVID-19, Belgrade, 17 March 2020);

... in order to combat the coronavirus together and prevent our loved ones from becoming victims (Appeal to our citizens in Kosmet to adhere to the measures of the Government of Serbia, Belgrade, 17 March 2020);

38 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers We are used to the state of emergency in Kosovo and Metohija, we have lived in it not merely for 20 years; rather, most people living in Kosmet have been in a state of emergency all their lives. (A call to our citizens in Kosmet to adhere to the measures of the Government of Serbia, Belgrade, 17 March 2020);

... when the fight against this greatest plague of the modern world since World War II is over. (Ban on the movement of people over the age of 65 in force as of to- morrow, Belgrade, March 17, 2020)

The following days are extremely important in the fight against coronavirus (Bel- grade, 18 March 2020);

... we react promptly to all new threats (A permanent channel of communication with the Serbian IT community has been opened, Belgrade, 19 March 2020);

... for us to have a sufficient number of healthy doctors to protect us in the long run (The police files 87 criminal and misdemeanor charges, Belgrade, 19 March 2020);

.. and doctors are behaving heroically (As of 08:00 hrs tomorrow all border cro- ssings closed for passenger traffic, Belgrade, 19 March 2020);

... to give our health care system enough time to defend itself (The police files 87 criminal and misdemeanor charges, Belgrade, 19 March 2020);

to have the lowest possible number of victims in this war (The first coronavirus pa- tient dies in Serbia, March 20, 2020);

... paying tribute to the doctors and medical staff who fought like lions for his life. (The first coronavirus patient dies in Serbia, Belgrade, March 20, 2020);

... the heroines of this age must be cherished and cared for. (Women deserve special attention in this difficult time, Belgrade, March 22, 2020). ... how and by what means to treat and attack coronavirus in health and medical terms (The third victim of the coronavirus infection in Serbia, Belgrade, 23 March 2020);

... that the state will fight twice as hard from now on.(The third victim of the corona- virus infection in Serbia, Belgrade, 23 March 2020);

.. switch to a new method of fighting coronavirus. (Serbia registers a total of 303 COVID-19 cases, Belgrade, 24 March 2020);

39 ... that is intended to combat the coronavirus, with a remark that a battle to procu- re equipment is constantly waged. (Providing the best possible conditions for people who will be accommodated at the Belgrade Fair, Belgrade, 25 March 2020);

... the offensive against Covid-19. (Serbia to face a more serious epidemic-related situation in the coming days, Belgrade, 27 March 2020);

... by staying there they protect their families and that is the most efficient way for us as a society to fight and defeat the virus. (The Belgrade Fair has the best possi- ble conditions for receiving the infected, Belgrade, 27 March 2020);

I am happy with the fight so far, it is a real war against the invisible enemy and therefore harder. Now that struggle is becoming more complex and is waged on several fronts. (The state is ready for more rigorous measures if necessary, Belgra- de, 29 March 2020);

Congratulations to the medical staff, doctors, nurses and technicians who are on the front lines and who are fighting relentlessly. (The state is ready for even more rigo- rous measures if necessary, Belgrade, 29 March 2020);

... the spread of the infection poses a threat to all of humanity. (Another 90 tons of medical equipment arrive at Belgrade Airport, Belgrade, March 29, 2020);

This is in fact a state of war. (A total of 741 cases of coronavirus infection registered in Serbia, Belgrade, March 29, 2020);

... the heroic efforts of our national airline. (NIS donates 270 tons of air fuel to Air Serbia, Belgrade, April 1, 2020);

… because they are the striking fist and the most courageous part of our society. (The number of people infected with coronavirus expected to rise in the next 72 ho- urs, Belgrade, April 2, 2020).

We will not win this war (The number of deaths in the last 24 hours is the highest so far, Belgrade, April 3, 2020);

In the previous period, the Ministry of Interior bore a significant burden in the fight against coronavirus (Movement controls intensified throughout Serbia, Belgrade, April 5, 2020);

... that the next two weeks are the time when our society falls or wins that fight. (Up- coming two weeks will be crucial in the fight against coronavirus, Belgrade, April 5, 2020);

40 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers ... and that as of today, when it comes to Belgrade, the core of the fight will be taken over by the primary health care (In Serbia, 7 more people die of coronavirus-related consequences, Belgrade, April 5, 2020);

Together to Victory. (Support medical workers, Belgrade, 7 April 2020);

... what we are all doing together is the basis of a true fight against this infecti- on. (The total number of people infected by coronavirus is 2,447, Belgrade, April 7, 2020);

... because hopefully we are entering something that would look like the end of the fight against coronavirus (Great importance of China’s support and assistance in the fight against coronavirus, Belgrade, April 8, 2020);

... however, this does not mean that we will soon be able to declare victory and end the state of emergency, but it is certainly the part where we know how to fight (Gre- at importance of China’s support and assistance in the fight against coronavirus, Bel- grade, 8 April 2020);

... in order to not only suppress the virus but to completely defeat it (Great im- portance of China’s support and assistance in the fight against coronavirus, Belgra- de, April 8, 2020);

This proved to be one of the key steps in China’s strategy to fight – and to win – against the new coronavirus. (China donates two coronavirus testing laboratories to Serbia, Belgrade, April 8, 2020);

... a joint struggle of European countries is necessary in order to overcome as easi- ly as possible the challenges faced by the entire world. The interlocutors agreed that only a joint fight against this plague will succeed in further strengthening both Serbia and Hungary after the end of the pandemic. (Joint fight of Serbia and Hun- gary against the consequences of coronavirus, Belgrade, April 9, 2020);

... so that together we can emerge victorious from this battle in the shortest possi- ble time. (The Government decides to extend the movement ban during the wee- kend, Belgrade, 9 April 2020);

... whether we will be able to suppress the virus, which has strength and activity only when many people are infected. (In Serbia, 3,105 people infected with corona- virus, Belgrade, April 10, 2020);

41 ... in health terms, where battle is waged for every life, and in economic terms, whe- re battle is waged for every job. (The state takes on a heavy burden of the crisis, Bel- grade, 11 April 2020);

... encouragement to be even stronger and even more persistent in this fight (Ano- ther donation of protective equipment to fight COVID-19, Belgrade, 11 April 2020);

... and the courage we all have today is reflected in our ability to isolate ourselves. (Another person dies of coronavirus in northern Kosmet, Belgrade, April 11, 2020);

... we fight so that no one else gets sick (In the Ministry of Interior, 157 persons in- fected with coronavirus, Belgrade, April 13, 2020);

Joint struggle of the EU and Serbia against the coronavirus crisis (Belgrade, 13 April 2020);

... on behalf of the Chinese railways, to pay tribute to the Government of Ser- bia and the Serbian people for the fight against the coronavirus. (Donation of the Chinese CRIC company for the fight against COVID-19, Belgrade, April 13, 2020);

... an invisible enemy at a global level. (Date of the Olympic Games uncertain, Bel- grade, April 14, 2020);

.... to fight this crisis with less risk exposure. (EU continues to help Serbia fight co- ronavirus, Belgrade, 14 April 2020);

... only together can we defeat our common enemy. (EU continues to help Serbia fight coronavirus, Belgrade, 14 April 2020);

It is important to understand that each of us is on the front line in the fight against coronavirus and that in this state of emergency everyone has a war schedule that reads “stay at home”. (Respect the measures also during the upcoming holidays, Bel- grade, April 15, 2020).

…another epidemic strike. (The epidemic is under control and its end is on the horizon, Belgrade, 15 April 2020); ... because this is a struggle for people's lives. (The epidemic is under control and its end is on the horizon, Belgrade, 15 April 2020);

The first battle has been won as far as Niš is concerned. It is not the end, there is sti- ll a lot to combat (Considerable improvement of the situation expected in Niš, Niš, April 17, 2020);

42 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers We can only win this battle together. (Blood plasma treatment – a new phase in the fight against coronavirus, Belgrade, April 17, 2020); Our country and all citizens now have the opportunity to win this war (Blood plasma treatment – a new phase in the fight against coronavirus, Belgrade, April 17, 2020);

... entered the seventh week of the fight against the virus. (Blood plasma treatment – a new phase in the fight against coronavirus, Belgrade, April 17, 2020);

... entered a new phase in the fight against coronavirus. (Blood plasma treatment – a new phase in the fight against coronavirus, Belgrade, April 17, 2020);

Construction workers are our society’s true heroes (Belgrade, April 17, 2020);

... they contribute to this fight, because that is the best and fastest way to beat the coronavirus. (“Jugoimport – SDPR” donates protective equipment, Belgrade, April 17, 2020);

... we will soon be able to declare victory. (Brnabić welcomes the flight delivering medical equipment, Belgrade, April 18, 2020);

... the first and most severe coronavirus attack. (Big contribution of members of the First Brigade in the fight against coronavirus, Bačka Topola, April 19, 2020);

... the invisible people who produce coal and electricity are our heroes. (EPS workers maintain the country’s energy stability, Kostolac, 19 April 2020);

This is a battle that is not over. (Relaxation of restrictive measures with maximum caution, Belgrade, 20 April 2020);

…the Chinese and Serbian people are fighting side by side against the novel vi- rus. (The new laboratory at the Clinical Center of Serbia performs 2,000 tests per day), Belgrade, April 20, 2020);

Five new coronavirus victims in Serbia (Belgrade, April 21, 2020);

... an important segment of the overall fight against the pandemic. (Installation of EU-funded triage containers continues throughout Serbia, Belgrade, 21 April 2020);

.. a strategy should be devised for the so-called import, i.e. re-entry of the virus into the country. (Further decline in coronavirus cases, Belgrade, 23 April 2020);

... our army is doing its best to fight the coronavirus. (Serbian Army puts in maxi- mum effort, Belgrade, April 23, 2020);

43 ... Serbia’s struggle has support. (Serbian Army puts in maximum effort, Belgrade, April 23, 2020);

.... to persevere a little longer until the final victory over the epidemic. (Improve- ment of the epidemiological situation in Kosovo and Metohija, Belgrade, April 24, 2020);

... the only way to survive is to close ranks. (Improvement of the epidemiological si- tuation in Kosovo and Metohija, Belgrade, April 24, 2020);

We still cannot declare victory. (Serbia efficient in fighting the pandemic, Belgra- de, April 28, 2020);

I am proud of our citizens, institutions, the joint team of the Government and the Pre- sident of the Republic, all our experts, doctors and medical staff, as well as all tho- se who were on the front line. (Serbia efficient in fighting the pandemic, Belgrade, April 28, 2020).

...that we fought the best we could. (The Assembly confirms the Decision on the in- troduction of the state of emergency and the adopted decrees, Belgrade, April 29, 2020);

... to successfully end the fight against the epidemic. (Another 285 people tested positive for coronavirus, Belgrade, April 30, 2020);

44 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers THE IMPACT OF THE CORONAVIRUS COVID-19 ON MIGRATION MOVEMENTS – FIGHT OF MIGRANTS AND REFUGEES AGAINST THE VIRUS AND XENOPHOBIA

Jovana NIKOLIĆ*, undergraduate student 1

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Political Sciences

Abstract: The paper starts from the concept of human security, from the attempt to define it and its significance at a time when the whole world is fighting the COVID-19 virus. Further analyzed is the securitization of health issues, as well as measures ta- ken by governments all over the world to protect their citizens, primarily measures relating to the restriction of movement. The author connects the mentioned theore- tical concepts with empirical data on the status of migrants and refugees and their global treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic, aiming to show that migrants and refugees have been fighting for months already against two enemies – the said virus and xenophobia.

Keywords: human security, COVID-19, migrants, health securitization, xenophobia

* jovana.19.02@hotmail.com

45 INTRODUCTION

At the time when the author begins writing this paper, according to the World Health Organization slightly more than 29,155,000 people have been infected with the CO- VID-19 virus (World Health Organization, 2020b). It should be borne in mind that these are confirmed cases. The outstanding question is how many people actually carry this virus without showing any symptoms and thus without knowing that they are positive and that they may endanger the people around them unless adequate pro- tection among them is applied. The mentioned virus has been a part of our daily li- ves for months already, so its study from the standpoint of all scientific disciplines is indeed very important. On daily basis there are news about various vaccines against this virus that are being developed around the world1, as well as statements of renow- ned doctors and medical professors on that topic. However, apart from the medical standpoint, the problem of the COVID-19 virus spreading is also relevant from the standpoint of social sciences, especially from the human security standpoint.

In this paper the author therefore first addresses the concept of human security – what this concept includes and what possible problems exist when it comes to defining the term. In line with the concept of securitization, the author further addresses the secu- ritization of health issues and the measures taken by governments worldwide to pro- tect their citizens. The author connects all of the mentioned theoretical concepts and relevant empirical data and considers them relevant when it comes to migrants and refugees, their health and the difficulties they face during the pandemic. The core of this paper is the research into the consequences and effects of the COVID-19 pande- mic on migrants and migration movements and the conclusion that the enemy whi- ch migrants and refugees have faced for months already is not only the coronavirus but also discrimination and xenophobia, which they also had to fight even before the pandemic outbreak, but only now that fight, according to the author, has become even more serious with the global spread of COVID-19.

1 Further information about the development of vaccines against COVID-19 can be found at the website of the World Health Organization: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines

46 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers The concept of human security

“Human security is like 'sustainable development' – everyone is for it, but few people have a clear idea of what ​​ it means” (Paris, 2001: 88).

The concept of human security emerged after the end of the Cold War as a new level of analysis in security studies. This concept implies that the security policy analysis is no longer focused on the state or the nation but rather on the individual (Ejdus, 2012: 215). What is specific about human security is that it is a “point of contention” among authors around the world (Ejdus, 2012: 216). As can be seen from the aforementio- ned article by R. Paris, there is a significant part of the population that advocates hu- man security even though a good part of them do not really know what that term inc- ludes. According to the 1994 Human Development Report, “it includes safety from such chronic threats as hunger, disease and repression” (United Nations Develop- ment Program, 1994, as cited by Ejdus, 2012: 219), while according to the 2004 Hu- man Security Doctrine for Europe, “human security means individual freedom from basic insecurities” (Albrecht et al., 2004, as cited by Ejdus, 2012: 224). Whichever of the mentioned definitions of human security we opt for, the conclusion is the same – that the moments which we have been experiencing for months already, namely the COVID-19 pandemic, is a threat to human security. People all over the world fear for their health and their safety. Considering also the elements of human security cited by Paris, which include economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, but also community security (Paris, 2001: 90), the author concludes that the current pandemic threatens not only the health of individuals, but also impacts groups of individuals, and that in addition to health related consequen- ces it also has economic and societal consequences.

Securitization of health issues

Regarding the concept of securitization, it would be unjust not to mention the ide- ological creator of this theory – Ole Wæver. According to Wæver, securitization is a “process that includes establishment of an existential threat, as well as the use of extraordinary measures to counter this threat” (Ejdus, 2012: 107). Applied to the si- tuation we have been experiencing globally in recent months, it is inevitable that we speak of the COVID-19 virus ravaging the world as a threat which governments, i.e. political elites, have recognized as a risk to their societies and have accordingly re- sorted to imposing certain special measures to combat the pandemic. Considering that it is primarily human health that is most threatened by the spread of the pande-

47 mic, within that context we can talk about the securitization of health issues. Govern- ments around the world, in their roles of securitizing actors, have taken the securitiza- tion steps they deemed appropriate and adopted certain special measures. Presidents or prime ministers, depending on the state, informed their general public about the global spread of the novel virus, which was not sufficiently known at the time but which was already threatening the health of their inhabitants. With the view to pre- venting the rapid spread of the virus among the population, various measures were taken, mostly relating to the restriction of movement and the prohibition of assem- bly. Thus, as early as in late January the Italian government suspended flights to and from China, and in late February it formed the so-called Red and Yellow (quarantine) Zones, closed a number of schools, abolished public gatherings, etc. (La Repubblica, 2020). The address of the Serbian President of March 14, 2020 is but an example of a successful securitization move. Namely, using the security grammar that included, inter alia, the “invisible enemy”, “state of emergency”, “most difficult battle” (N1 Belgrade, 2020), he drew the attention of the Serbian citizens to the danger of the no- vel virus, whose spread was made known to them via various media, and stressed the importance of certain special measures aimed to protect the citizens.

As stated in the 2019 National Security Strategy of the Republic of Serbia, “infectio- us diseases epidemics and pandemics may jeopardize the population of the Republic of Serbia and carry the risk of occurrence of more difficult economic and social effe- cts” (p. 10). Both in our country and in countries worldwide, the COVID-19 pan- demic has not only endangered the health of the population but has also led to signi- ficant economic consequences. Thus, we learned that the United States, the leading global power, registered the highest level of unemployment since the Great Depres- sion (Long, Van Dam, 2020). In order to prevent the spread of the virus and mitigate the economic and social consequences for their populations, governments worldwi- de have resorted to various measures, of which this paper highlight as most relevant the restrictions of movement, implying restrictions of movement within and between cities and within and between states. Considering that the imposed measures diffe- red from state to state, even today, just like in the previous months, there is an ongoi- ng debate concerning the level and extent of success of particular measures. The me- dia often highlights Sweden as an example of a state that has, so to speak, relied on the conscientiousness of its residents to keep the recommended social distance, avoid contacts with others etc., rather than on imposing coercive measures such as closing of restaurants and clubs, public bathing areas, or the closure of entire cities (Sava- ge, 2020).

48 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers Treatment of migrants and refugees during the COVID-19 pandemic

“We must act now to strengthen the immunity of our societies against the virus of hate.”

António Guterres, Secretary-General of the United Nations (United Nations, 2020a)

The previous paragraph referred to various forms of movement restrictions as a mea- sure to prevent the spread of the virus. Considering this paper’s topic, the most rele- vant prohibition for the author is the ban on interstate movement. During the months when the virus “moved” from state to state, millions of people, for various reasons, also tried to cross state borders. People fleeing from war and violence or seeking an opportunity for a better life2 have been a part of our daily lives much longer than sin- ce the outbreak of the novel virus that has marked our recent months. The statistics for 2018 shows that 2.4 million people from non-EU countries entered the EU, whe- reas on January 1, 2019, the EU member states hosted 21.8 million people who were non-EU citizens. (Eurostat, 2020). The said numbers show but a part of one conti- nent, namely only a part of the global reality. Regrettably, for people who have the status of migrants and refugees, the reality is even harsher. First of all, as was already said, a large part of them flee from violence and misery of every kind. Furthermo- re, on the way to their goal they face considerable threats for their lives such as, for example, sailing across the Mediterranean in overcrowded boats (BBC News, 2018), and when they do reach their goal, the treatment they will get in the host country is uncertain. When above all we add the fact that the world is plagued by a virus whi- ch is still insufficiently known, and which claims human lives every day even in the most organized states, their reality becomes even more difficult. The position of mi- grants and refugees in the host countries and on the way to their goal, and how they are perceived during the current pandemic, will be discussed in the following pages.

The importance of migrants in the host countries, from the economic viewpoint, is not negligible. As John Letzing points out in his article for the World Economic Forum, “migrants contribute 10% of global GDP” (Letzing, 2020). Migrants also account for a significant share (15-20%) of the labor force in host countries classified as advan- ced economies (Jaumotte, Koloskova and Saxena, 2016). According to the authors of the said text, whose claims we can agree with as they are supported by empirical evi- dence: “High-skilled migrants bring diverse talent and expertise, while low-skilled migrants fill essential occupations for which natives are in short supply and allow na- tives to be employed at higher-skilled jobs” (Jaumotte et al., 2016). Also, statistics

2 More information about the difference between the terms “migrants“ and “refugees“ is available at https:// refugeesmigrants.un.org/.

49 for September 2020 showed that of the twenty states most affected by the COVID-19 virus, in at least seven (Switzerland, Canada, USA, Spain, Italy, Germany, France), the critical health care services sector is dependent on workers born abroad (Migrati- on Data Portal, 2020). Now the question arises: if the migrants living in the host co- untries bring benefits to them, even if only from the economic standpoint, what tre- atment do they deserve in a situation where all people are faced with an enemy which does not choose who to attack by skin color, nationality, work status, etc. According to the review of the analytical group KNOMAD (Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development) from April 2020, some states have extended the durati- on of visas for workers with migrant status, but precisely these workers are more vul- nerable to loss of employment due to the economic crisis that has affected the coun- tries worldwide because of the COVID-19 pandemic (KNOMAD, 2020). Following the guidelines of the World Health Organization on the prevention of the spread of the coronavirus, most OECD countries have offered access to treatment for this virus to all categories of migrants (OECD, 2020). On the other hand, globally speaking, the World Health Organization states that migrants are generally excluded from na- tional programs for health promotion, treatment and care (World Health Organizati- on, 2020a). Research has been done and papers have been written3 on the kind of tre- atment that is generally given to individuals with migrant or refugee status and on what can be done to improve the current practice. As stated in the joint statement by several international organizations dealing with migration and human rights issues4, during the pandemic, migrants were placed in overcrowded camps where it was im- possible to keep social distance and where they lacked adequate access to health care, clean water and sanitation. (United Nations, 2020b).

Discrimination of migrants and refugees and growing xenophobia

Images of overcrowded refugee and migrant camps in states worldwide have been circulating on the Internet and in the news for months now. Although we keep hea- ring on a daily basis about the importance of keeping a 2-meter distance, there are thousands of people cramped in small spaces without the necessary hygienic prote- ction, and in some places even without food, waiting and hoping that host countries will take them in their territories. While the people in these camps have an idea abo-

3 Several publications closely related to this topic, as well as some draft strategies can be found on the website of the Belgrade Center for Human Rights: http://www.bgcentar.org.rs/obrazovanje/publikacije/ posebna-izdanja/ 4 These include UNHCR (UN Refugee Agency), IOM (International Organization for Migration), OHCHR (UN Human Rights Office).

50 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers ut starting a new life, individuals in societies worldwide blame migrants and refu- gees for the spread of the virus. We cannot deny the fact that these days, in addition to the coronavirus, the virus of misinformation and fake news about migrants is also spreading5, and that their movement is brought into close connection with the spre- ad of the pandemic. The migration rhetoric is undoubtedly “adorned” by the fear of the “other” (Chugh, 2020). What is unknown and unfamiliar to people can cause fear, just like it has been the case for centuries. Attributing what is unknown to a certa- in group of people is not a new phenomenon. Just like cholera was labeled “the Irish disease” in the 1930s, the COVID-19 virus is now called the “China virus” (Banu- lescu-Bogdan, Benton & Fratzke, 2020). Unfortunately, even today, in the 21st cen- tury, individuals use the fear of the unknown to depict in their societies those gro- ups of people which they, for whatever reason, consider undesirable and unwelcome (migrants and refugees), in a bad light. The development of technologies and the in- fluence of social networks have only helped spread the xenophobia and fear of the- se groups of people even further. At the onset, when the whole world witnessed the emergence of the COVID-19 virus, which took time to be researched into, to establi- sh what it was all about, people faced an ever growing justifiable fear for their heal- th and the health of their loved ones, and rightfully so. However, some people abused the fear of this novel virus to enhance the existing fear of migrants and refugees, whi- ch was already enhanced in 2015 due to the migration crisis. This trend did not circu- mvent our country either. The past months in Serbia were marked by the appearance of the “STOP the settlement of migrants” group on Facebook, the spread of the the- ory of planned settlement of migrants in order to increase the birth rate in Serbia, as well as the event in which one person crashed his car into the Obrenovac center for migrants (Marinković, 2020). The analysis of the public discourse on migrants con- ducted by the Belgrade Center for Human Rights has shown that the term “migrants” in Serbia is mostly approached from a security standpoint, for which reason the reci- pient of information gets the feeling of being threatened. The report states further that the integration narrative, which would bring about a positive connotation, is much less present in the discourse compared to the security one (Belgrade Center for Hu- man Rights, 2020: 47).

In addition to the spread of fake news about them, for months already migrants have been facing various forms of discrimination relative to the local population. In the examples cited by Amnesty International, at Camp Vučjak in Bosnia, and at the Ca- lais camp in France, the camps’ residents faced water shortages amidst the pandemic

5 The Belgrade Center for Human Rights recently launched an online campaign with a view to pre- venting the spread of fake news about migrants and refugees. More information available at: http://www.bgcentar.org.rs/online-kampanja-proveri_vest-u-cilju-sprecavanja-sirenja-laznih-vesti-o-iz- beglicama-traziocima-azila-i-migrantima/

51 (Amnesty International, 2020a). The reasons for this differed in the given examples, but no reason can justify such treatment of human lives at any time, especially not in the midst of the global fight against the virus. Some migrants and refugees who are facing the threat of persecution or torture in their home countries have also fa- ced expulsion which, as Amnesty reminds us, is considered illegal by international law (Amnesty International, 2020b). Even though states are not allowed refoulement without having considered asylum applications, this is precisely what happened du- ring the pandemic months. The United States returned over 20,000 people in the pe- riod from March 20 to mid-May, while the news that the Malaysian government re- turned the Rohingya refugee boat in February also went viral (Amnesty International, 2020b).

52 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers CONCLUSION

The virus with which we live today, and which each of us fights in the way we con- sider the best, some relying more some less on the recommendations of our govern- ments and doctors, has put the people with migrant and refugee status in a particular- ly difficult situation. The author of this paper aimed to show that the position of these groups of people today, and for months already, has been considerably aggravated by the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic because these groups, in addition to the virus, are also faced not only with discriminatory measures in their host countries but also with the growing xenophobia in the respective societies. Proceeding from the concept of human security and securitization of health issues, it was the author’s wish to in- dicate the role and importance of COVID-19 in our lives today and the ways it thre- atens human security. Given that the concept of human security applies to all people worldwide and considering the relevant empirical data, the author further indicated that migrants and refugees are particularly threatened and vulnerable groups in light of the virus which we are fighting against at the global level. By linking the mentio- ned theoretical concepts with the available empirical data, the author concluded that it can be rightly stated that migrants and refugees are currently fighting two enemies – COVID-19 and xenophobia. The paper referred several times to suggestions of va- rious organizations for fighting the growing discrimination and xenophobia, but also for improving the treatment that migrants and refugees receive during the pandemic in the host countries. The author of this paper can only hope that the employees of re- levant state institutions worldwide will take the mentioned proposals into considera- tion and enable equality for all, at least during the global fight against the enemy whi- ch does not choose its victims by race, skin color or ethnicity.

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56 Human Security in the 21st Century: Challenges to Health Security - Collection of students’ papers

Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova

Izdavači Misija OEBS-a u Srbiji Centar za istraživanje javnih politika

Dizajn Milica Dervišević

Štampa Jovšić Printing Centar doo, Beograd

Tiraž 100 primeraka

ISBN 978-86-6383-106-3

Beograd, 2020. godine

CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији - Народна библиотека Србије, Београд

616.98:578.834]:316(082)

LJUDSKA bezbednost za XXI vek : izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti : zbornik studentskih radova / [translation Mirjana Stolić-Srdanov]. - Beograd : Misija OEBS-a u Srbiji : Centar za istraživanje javnih politika, 2020 (Beograd : Jovšić Printing Centar). - 53, 56 str. ; 24 cm

Nasl. str. prištampanog engl. teksta: Human Security in the 21st Century. - Tekst na srp. i engl. jeziku. - Oba teksta štampana u međusobnoobrnutim smerovima. - Tiraž 100. - Bibliografija uz svaki rad.

ISBN 978-86-6383-106-3 (MOS)

a) Ковид 19 - Друштвени аспект - Зборници

COBISS.SR-ID 28249609

Objavljivanje ove publikacije je omogućeno u okviru projekta Misije OEBS-a u Srbiji „Konsolidovanje procesa demokratizacije u sektoru bezbednosti u Republici Srbiji”, koji je finansijski podržala Švedska agencija za međunarodnu razvojnu saradnju (Sida).

Stavovi izraženi u ovoj publikaciji pripadaju isključivo autorima i ne predstavljaju nužno zvaničan stav Misije OEBS-a u Srbiji i Švedske agencije za međunarodnu razvojnu saradnju. Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti- Zbornik studentskih radova Sadržaj

PREDGOVOR................................................................................................ 7

UTICAJ RODA SEKURITIZUJUĆEG AKTERA NA PROCES (DE)SEKURITIZACIJE: PRIMER PANDEMIJE VIRUSA COVID-19............... 9

INFORMISANJE U VANREDNIM OKOLNOSTIMA (UPOTREBA METAFORE RATA TOKOM ZEMLJOTRESA, POPLAVA I PANDEMIJE VIRUSA KORONA U SRBIJI)...................................................................... 20

UTICAJ VIRUSA COVID-19 NA MIGRACIONA KRETANJA – BORBA MIGRANATA I IZBEGLICA PROTIV VIRUSA I KSENOFOBIJE.................... 43 PREDGOVOR

Devet meseci od početka širenja virusa COVID-19 zasigurno možemo reći da je pan- demija obeležila 2020. godinu, a vrlo verovatno ovaj trend će se nastaviti još neko vreme. Imajući u vidu globalni uticaj virusa na sve segmente društvenog života, ovo- godišnji nagradni konkurs posvećen je uticaju pandemije na bezbednost ljudi i pret- nji koju virus COVID-19 predstavlja za pojedinca u različitim domenima. Naziv ovo- godišnjeg zbornika Ljudska bezbednosti za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti apostrofira značaj zdravstvene bezbednosti koja do sada nije dovoljno istraživana. Stoga smo kroz promociju ovogodišnjeg konkursa nastojali da privučemo studentske radove koji će pitanje urušavanja globalnog zdravstvenog sistema i krize ljudske bez- bednosti sagledati iz najrazličitijih uglova.

Ovogodišnji poziv privukao je više pažnje studentkinja, tako da su sva tri odabrana rada njihovo delo. Veće interesovanje ženske populacije među studentima ponavlja se već četiri godine zaredom pa je postalo trend među učesnicima konkursa. Sva tri rada za predmet istraživanja imaju virus COVID-19, globalni fenomen i bezbednosnu pretnju, koja kontinuirano stavlja na test svaki aspekt društva u svim delovima sveta.

Rad pod nazivom Uticaj roda sekuritizujućeg aktera na proces (de)sekuritizacije: primer pandemije virusa COVID-19 napisala je Ivana Dinić, studentkinja osnovnih studija Fakulteta političkih nauka. Autorka u radu polazi od teze da je rod sekuriti- zujućeg aktera veoma bitna odrednica prilikom sekuritizacije pandemije virusa CO- VID-19, što za posledicu ima specifično reagovanje ženskih donosilaca odluka u kri- znim situacijama i njihovo opredeljivanje za desekuritizaciju. Autorka temi pristupa sa feminističkih stanovišta stavljajući rod u središte analize procesa sekuritizacije ak- tuelne globalne pretnje od virusa COVID-19.

U radu Informisanje u vanrednim okolnostima (upotreba metafore rata tokom ze- mljotresa, poplava i pandemije virusa korona u Srbiji), Aleksandra Savić, studentki- nja doktorskih studija Filološkog fakulteta, istraživala je upotrebu reči rat u metafo- ričnom značenju tokom izveštavanja o zemljotresu u Kraljevu 2010. godine, poplava u Srbiji 2014. godine, kao i tokom pandemije virusa korona u Srbiji. Iscrpno istraži- vanje obuhvatilo je saopštenja za medije Vlade Srbije tokom ova tri krizna perioda. Autorka u radu nastoji da ukaže na političke namere donosilaca odluka koje stoje iza jezičkih strategija iskazanih tokom kriza.

7 Na koji način virus COVID-19 utiče na migracije i migrante istraživala je Jovana Ni- kolić, studentkinja osnovnih studija Fakulteta političkih nauka, u radu Uticaj virusa COVID-19 na migraciona kretanja – borba migranata i izbeglica protiv virusa i kse- nofobije. Polazeći od koncepta ljudske bezbednosti, autorka sagledava izazove sa ko- jima se susreće zdravstvo na globalnom nivou, reakcije nacionalnih država i uticaj mera na pojedinca, u ovom slučaju migranata. Ispitujući domete sekuritizacije zdrav- lja i posledice na svakodnevni život, autorka nastoji da ukaže da se migranti bore pro- tiv dva neprijatelja – virusa i ksenofobije.

Nagradni Fond Svetlana Đurđević Lukić osnovan je sa željom da se sačuva sećanje na prijateljicu, koleginicu i koosnivačicu Centra za istraživanje javnih politika, koja nas je napustila pre više od četiri godine. Svetlana je kroz istraživački rad negova- la multisektorski i multidisciplinarni pristup proučavanju bezbednosti, tako da kori- šćenje ovakvog pristupa u bavljenju nekom temom predstavlja osnovno polazište za nagradni konkurs namenjen studentima i studentkinjama svih fakulteta i svih nivoa studija.

Zbornik koji se nalazi pred vama je četvrti zbornik studentskih radova koji Centar za istraživanje javnih politika u okviru Fonda Svetlana Đurđević Lukić objavljuje uz podršku Misije OEBS-a u Srbiji. Izražavamo zahvalnost Misiji OEBS-a koja nastav- lja da pruža podršku za realizaciju konkursa i prepoznaje značaj podsticanja mladih studentkinja i studenta da razmišljaju o ključnim pretnjama po ljudsku bezbednost. Centar se takođe zahvaljuje stručnom žiriju koji već četiri godine čine dr Vladimir Bilandžić, dr Vanja Rokvić, dr Srđan Korać i Marina Tadić.

U Beogradu, decembra 2020.

Sekretar Fonda Svetlana Đurđević Lukić Filip Stojanović

8 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova UTICAJ RODA SEKURITIZUJUĆEG AKTERA NA PROCES (DE)SEKURITIZACIJE: PRIMER PANDEMIJE VIRUSA COVID-19

Ivana DINIĆ*, studentkinja osnovnih studija 1

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet političkih nauka

Sažetak: U radu se polazi od teze da je rod sekuritizujućeg aktera, kao deo njenog/ njegovog socijalnog kapitala, značajna determinanta prilikom sekuritizacije pande- mije virusa COVID-19, što za posledicu ima specifično reagovanje ženskih donosi- laca odluka u kriznim situacijama i njihovo opredeljivanje za desekuritizaciju, kao ponovno uspostavljanje regularnih demokratskih procedura. Koristeći se stanovišti- ma feminističkih teorija, na primerima pet svetskih demokratija biće ispitan rod kao karakteristika sekuritizujućeg aktera koja determiniše pristup procesu sekuritizacije aktuelne globalne pretnje od virusa COVID-19. Nastoji se pokazati kako specifičnim bezbednosnim diskursom, ali i aktivnim normativnim zalaganjem za ponovno uspo- stavljenje regularnog funkcionisanja društvenih aktivnosti, žene lideri iskazuju po- svećenost demokratiji, čak i tokom trajanja vanrednog stanja.

Ključne reči: žene lideri, sekuritizacija, desekuritizacija, sekuritizujući akter, COVID-19, demokratija.

* dinicivannah@gmail.com

9 UVOD

Uprkos činjenici da su aktuelnu globalnu pretnju pandemije virusa COVID-19 seku- ritizovale uvodeći slične mere ograničavanja kretanja i okupljanja, svetske demokra- tije s različitim uspehom biju bitku za ponovno uspostavljanje uobičajenog društve- nog funkcionisanja. Države poput Novog Zelanda, Norveške, Nemačke, Tajvana i Islanda, prednjačile su u ovom procesu tokom prvog talasa pandemije u aprilu 2020. ne samo zbog niskog broja smrtnih slučajeva, već i zbog činjenice da su među prvi- ma ublažile specijalne mere ograničavanja pojedinih osnovnih prava i sloboda. Pored toga, u slučaju ovih zemalja ostalo je upečatljivo da su svih pet predvođene ženama liderima. Zbog toga je legitimno upitati jesu li i u kojoj meri žene kao nosioci cen- tralnih izvršnih funkcija i dominantni sekuritizujući akteri doprinele relativno brzom ponovnom uspostavljanju regularnih demokratskih procedura.

Cilj ovog rada je pre svega da rasvetli povezanost roda sekuritizujućeg aktera kao dela njenog/njegovog socijalnog kapitala i procesa sekuritizacije, kao procesa koji neretko podrazumeva izlaženje izvan demokratskih okvira i manipulaciju od strane nosilaca izvršne vlasti (Aradau, 2004: 392). Koristeći se konceptom etike brige koji razvija američka feministička autorka Kerol Giligen (Gilligan, 1982), a koji prednost daje iznalaženju specifičnih rešenja koja odgovaraju potrebama najvećeg broja ljudi u situacijama koje zahtevaju moralno opredeljivanje, na primerima pet svetskih de- mokratija biće ispitan rod kao karakteristika sekuritizujućeg aktera koja determiniše njegov pristup procesu sekuritizacije virusa COVID-19 kao aktuelne globalne pret- nje. Specifičnim bezbednosnim diskursom, ali i aktivnim normativnim zalaganjem za ponovno uspostavljenje regularnog funkcionisanja društvenih aktivnosti, žene li- deri demonstriraju posvećenost demokratiji, čak i tokom trajanja vanrednog stanja.

Rad je organizovan na sledeći način: U prvom delu biće objašnjeno kako posvećenost desekuritizaciji, kao ponovnom uspostavljanju regularnih demokratskih procedura, po- staje normativan i politički izbor sekuritizujućih aktera koji ne samo da se reflektuje u njihovom bezbednosnom diskursu, već predstavlja i uporište s kog građani daju legiti- mitet za uvođenje specijalnih mera. Nadalje, u drugom delu rada biće rasvetljena ulo- ga koju rod kao karakteristika sekuritizujućeg aktera igra u procesu (de)sekuritizacije. Pritom će na primerima pet demokratskih zemalja u kojima su žene dominantni sekuri- tizujući akteri biti ispitan način na koji je sekuritizovana pandemija virusa COVID-19, uz konstataciju da je svaka specijalna mera komunicirana publici, u cilju vraćanja druš- tva u normalno funkcionisanje. Naposletku, biće izveden zaključak o tome da pristup koji sekurtizujući akter zauzme u procesu (de)sekuritizacije, kao jedne krizne i moralne situacije, u mnogome zavisi od roda sekuritizujućeg aktera.

10 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova Opredeljenost za desekuritizaciju kao garant demokratske sekuritizacije

U skladu s definicijom koju su ponudili Vejver i ostali autori kopenhaške škole, bez- bednost se smatra govornim činom kojim sekuritizujući akter (najčešće predstavnik izvršne vlasti) određenu pojavu sekuritizuje (konstruiše) kao egzistencijalnu pretnju i pritom od publike (građana) zahteva legitimitet za uvođenje specijalnih mera koje inače ne bi bile opravdane, ali koje su neophodne zarad uspešnog savladavanja pro- klamovane pretnje (Stritzel, 2007: 360). Osvrćući se na ovu definiciju, pojedini au- tori (Hansen, 2012, Ejdus, 2009, Aradau, 2004) upozorili su na isuviše postojanu za- visnost prakse sekuritizacije od sekuritizujućeg aktera, te na njeno poistovećivanje s šmitovskim konceptom političkog, čija se suština sagledava upravo u periodu van- rednog stanja, kada vlastodržac nije ograničen bilo kakvim procedurama u borbi za opstanak (Ejdus, 2009: 12-13). U tom smislu, opredeljivanje za desekuritizaciju kao kontra-proces vraćanja određene pojave iz sfere vanrednog, tj. sekuritizovanog u sfe- ru svakodnevne političke rasprave predstavlja normativni i politički izbor najvećeg broja građana, koji u njemu vide povratak na regularnu demokratsku raspravu, u ko- joj i sami imaju učešća.

Osim što predstavlja stanje u kome su zadovoljene potrebe za demokratijom najve- ćeg broja aktera političkog procesa, Lene Hansen (Hansen, 2012: 533) ističe sposob- nost sekuritizujućih aktera da se prilikom reagovanja u kriznim situacijama norma- tivno opredele za desekuritizaciju. Ova opredeljenost može biti sagledana već tokom samog vanrednog stanja, jer, kako Hansen (2012: 534) ističe - svi akteri političkog procesa – a pogotovo sekuritizujući, treba „aktivno da rade da kroz politiku bezbed- nosti dođu do desekuritizacije". To znači da je pored samog dolaženja do desekuriti- zacije važan način na koji se do nje dolazi, pri čemu sekuritizujući akteri stoje pred moralnom odlukom kako će voditi bezbednosnu politiku.

Da li sekuritizacija nužno vodi desekuritizaciji, može se razmatrati ukoliko se u obzir uzmu dva elementa teorije sekuritizacije koje ističe Klaudija Aradau (Aradau, 2004: 391). Prvi jesu same specijalne mere koje se uvode, koje neosporno podrazumevaju ograničavanje pojedinih osnovnih prava i sloboda, poput slobode kretanja ili okuplja- nja, a koje se mogu razlikovati po broju, vrsti i vremenskom trajanju. Za posvećenost vraćanju društva u svakodnevno funkcionisanje, posebno je značajan drugi element - način na koji sekuritizujući akteri specijalne mere uvode, opravdavaju ili komuni- ciraju publici. Analizom konkretnih bezbednosnih diskursa i praksi koje preduzima- ju sekuritizujući akteri može se razmatrati njihova posvećenost demokratiji čak i to- kom trajanja vanrednog stanja.

11 Ovo je posebno važno u kontekstu savremenih demokratija, gde je građanima potreb- na barem neka vrsta garancije, kako bi svoja osnovna prava i slobode podredili spe- cijalnim merama i što pre došli do desekuritizacije kao stanja u kom su zadovoljene potrebe najvećeg broja građana (Roe, 2012: 255). Imajući na umu opredeljivanje za desekuritizaciju kao uporište sa kojeg građani daju legitimitet za uvođenje specijal- nih mera izvan standardne javne rasprave, kao i sposobnost sekuritizujućih aktera da kroz bezbednosni diskurs i prakse demonstriraju posvećenost vraćanju društvenog ži- vota u normalno stanje, sada se okrećem rodu sekuritizujućeg aktera kao determinan- ti značajnoj za postupanje aktera prilikom procesa (de)sekuritizacije.

Rod sekuritizujućeg aktera kao determinanta u procesu (de)sekuritizacije

Rod je, kako Hansen (2000: 287) primećuje, gotovo izostavljen iz konceptualnog okvira kopenhaške škole, jer se tretira kao individualna karakteristika, te kao takva manje značajna od obeležja nekog kolektivnog identiteta, poput religije ili etničke pripadnosti prilikom definisanja referentnog objekta bezbednosti. Ovo je problema- tično na više nivoa. Ne samo da se usvajanjem ovakvog okvira vrši svojevrsna kla- sifikacija među podjednako važnim aspektima identiteta i time osiromašuje istra- živačko polje, već je i celokupan fokus istraživanja stavljen na referentni objekat, zanemarujući pritom identitet sekuritizujućih aktera koji sekuritizujućim potezima određene referentne objekte proglašavaju egzistencijalno ugroženim. Baš kako Han- sen (2000: 306) primećuje: “Bezbednost nije samo govorni čin. Ona je ukorenjena u proizvodnji posebnih subjektivnosti koje predstavljaju polazište za artikulaciju ugro- žavajućeg i ugroženog”. Ovo znači da se bezbednost ne može promatrati isključivo kao govorni čin. Podjednako važno onom što se govori jeste i onaj ko govori i socijal- ni kapital koji poseduje (Stritzel, 2007). Imajući ovo na umu, teza koju bih ovde vo- lela da ispitam jeste da je rod, kao deo socijalnog kapitala sekuritizujućeg aktera od presudnog značaja za način na koji će se proces (de)sekuritizacije odviti.

Koncept feminističke etike brige koji razvija američka teoretičarka Kerol Giligen (Gilligan, 1982) može biti od pomoći za razumevanje ovog fenomena. Etika brige funkcioniše tako što se u konkretnim situacijama koje zahtevaju moralno rasuđiva- nje, kakve su krizne i vanredne situacije (Gilligan, 1982: 3), ne poseže za apstraktnim moralnim načelima koja bi se primenila, već se iznalaze jedinstvena i kreativna reše- nja koje ta specifična situacija iziskuje (Kimlika, 2009: 440-468). U etici brige, ak- cenat je na odnosima među ljudima, radije nego na apstraktnim pravilima, te se stre- mi minimizovanju patnje velikog broja aktera u konkretnoj situaciji. Zbog toga je uključivanje potreba najvećeg broja aktera i omogućavanje njihovog ispunjavanja na sveobuhvatan način osnovno načelo prilikom donošenje moralne odluke (Kimlika,

12 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova 2009: 467). Ovo uključivanje postiže se, između ostalog, redovnom komunikacijom donosilaca odluka s akterima na koji se odluka odnosi (Gilligan, 1982, Hill, 1994).

Giligen (1982) ističe da etika brige predstavlja jedinstveni „ženski“ glas1 prilikom moralnog odlučivanja, koji odiše empatijom i solidarnošću. Ovaj glas nije determini- san isključivo biološkim svojstvima, već predstavlja proizvod procesa socijalizacije i učenja, prilikom koga su žene lideri naučene da budu kooperativnije, sklonije kom- promisu i saosećajnije, pa samim tim i demokratičnije od svojih muških kolega (Re- gan and Paskeviciute, 2003: 291).

Njenu teoriju potvrđuju empirijske studije koje se bave uticajem roda na kreiranje ekoloških politika (Hill, 1994). Ove studije, koristeći se poput Giligen (1982) kvali- tativnom metodom intervjua, pokazuju da se prilikom složenog procesa kreiranja po- litike, ženski donosioci odluka opredeljuju za strategije koje odgovaraju na potrebe svih odnosnih partija, pogotovo dece, radije nego muški odlučioci, te da one u znat- no većem broju vide emociju kao bitnu komponentu efektivnog odlučivanja (Hill, 1994). Takođe, ove strategije predstavljaju produkt komunikacije širokog broja akte- ra i neophodnosti sagledavanja “celovitosti problema”.

Ukoliko to primenimo na sekuritizaciju pandemije virusa COVID-19, kao jednu kri- znu i moralnu situaciju, možemo očekivati da će se žene lideri opredeliti za pristup zasnovan na empatiji i uključivanju potreba najvećeg broja ljudi. Njihovi bezbedno- sni diskursi i prakse trebalo bi da reflektuju orijentisanost ka minimizovanju patnje najvećeg broja građana, kao i redovnu komunikaciju u cilju što pre mogućeg vraća- nja društva u svakodnevno funkcionisanje, kada su zadovoljene potrebe najvećeg broja ljudi.

Naredni deo rada će na primerima pet demokratskih država predvođenih ženama li- derima ispitati ove hipoteze.

Žene lideri i (de)sekuritizacija virusa COVID-19

Koristeći se kvalitativnom metodom komparativne studije slučaja na primerima No- vog Zelanda, Norveške, Nemačke, Tajvana i Islanda, biće ispitan uticaj roda sekuriti- zujućeg aktera na pristup koji zauzima pri sekuritizaciji pandemije virusa COVID-19 tokom prvog talasa pandemije u aprilu 2020. Ove zemlje izabrane su zbog činjenice

1 Giligen (Gilligan, 1982) etiku brige, kao poseban tip moralnog rezonovanja, smatra dijalektičkom kon- strukcijom koja se ispoljava u jedinstvenom „ženskom“ glasu i kao takva reflektuje na diskurs kojim žene opisuju i oblikuju svet koji ih okružuje.

13 da su svih pet stabilne demokratije, da su predvođene ženama liderima i da su imale zapažene uspehe u borbi s virusom prilikom konzistentnog vremenskog roka (april 2020), barem ako je suditi po izveštavanju svetskih medija.

Kvalitativni metod izabran je, jer odgovara empirijskim istraživanjima koja su etiku brige već pokušala da primene u objašnjavanju kreiranja politika. Kao izvori podata- ka korišćeni su novinski članci i video materijali relevantnih medija poput “Vašington Posta” (Washington Post), “Nju Jorkera” (The New Yorker), “Euronjuza” (Euronews) i slično, koji opisuju prakse koje su preduzele ili sadrže izjave koje su dale liderke država u pitanju, njihove intervjue ili obraćanja javnosti. Prilikom detaljne analize izvora, a u svrhu ispitivanja hipoteza, obraća se posebna pažnja na sledeće indikatore: vrstu, broj i vremensko trajanje specijalnih mera koje se predlažu i uvode, njihovu efektivnost, gru- pu stanovništva kojoj se mere komuniciraju, korišćenje specifičnih reči i izraza ili po- sebno isticanje određenih ključnih pojmova poput empatije, solidarnosti i sl.

Premijerka Novog Zelanda Džasinda Ardern, pokazala je izuzetnu sposobnost u ru- kovođenju krizom izazvanom pandemijom virusa korona tako što je pored odlučno- sti u ranom zatvaranju granica, škola i lokalnih poslova i apelovanju na sve građane da ostanu kod kuće i smanje socijalne kontakte, već prilikom prvog talasa pandemi- je uvela jednu specifičnu meru - rezanje plata članovima svog kabineta za 20 posto u periodu od šest meseci, kao iskaz solidarnosti sa Novozelanđanima koji su usled pandemije izgubili posao (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). Pored toga, specijalne mere sva- kodnevno su komunicirane građanima, uz veoma precizne naznake o vremenskom trajanju mera, neophodnom da bi se pokazalo koliko su one učinkovite (Matthews, 2020). Kao rezultat, Novi Zeland je u aprilu 2020. imao samo devet novih slučajeva i obustavio većinu mera već 27. aprila 2020, u cilju vraćanja društva u svakodnevno funkcionisanje, a svega 4 nedelje od uvođenja lockdown-a (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). Posebna pažnja, pritom, poklonjena je najmlađima, koji su izveštavani putem druš- tvenih mreža na duhovit i umirijuć način (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). Takođe, prilikom davanja izjava, premijerka je posebno isticala značaj empatije tokom vanrednih situ- acija, čime je prema mišljenjima mnogih demonstrirala da se voditi može u isti mah i odlučno i humano (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020).

Još jedna premijerka koja je posebnu pažnju posvetila komuniciranju specijalnih mera najmlađima jeste norveška premijerka Erna Solberg koja je kroz video konfe- rencije umirila kako najmlađe, tako i njihove roditelje, odgovarajući na pitanja po- put: “Šta mogu da uradim da bih pomogla/pomogao?”, “Kada mogu da posetim baku i deku?” ili “Koliko je potrebno da se napravi vakcina?” (Marks, 2020). Premijer- ka je u više obraćanja medijima istakla da je važno informisati sve starosne grupe o tome kako biti odgovoran u doba pandemije, a da je od izuzetnog značaja da deca

14 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova osete da su shvaćena ozbiljno prilikom ozbiljnih situacija, poput pandemije (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). Pritom je podsetila da je sasvim normalno biti uplašen i na taj način unela “ljudsku“ dimenziju u obraćanje javnosti. Poređenja radi, otprilike u isto vreme u SAD, predsednik Donald Tramp je u obraćanju naciji pažnju posvetio pripadnici- ma krupnog kapitala, poredeći kompanije sa zajednicama (Marks, 2020). Takođe, za razliku od SAD, Norveška zdušno podržava aktivnosti Svetske zdravstvene organi- zacije sa kojom sarađuje u izradi vakcine za virus, o čemu premijerka redovno izve- štava građane. Zbog preventivnog pristupa i oslanjanja na struku i nauku, Norveška je tokom aprila 2020. bila jedna od zemalja s najmanjim brojem novoobolelih, zbog čega je već nakon mesec dana od uvođenja specijalnih mera ograničavanja kretanja i socijalnih kontakata, krenula s ublažavanjem istih.

Sličnu posvećenost vraćanju društva u normalno funkcionisanje već tokom prvog talasa pandemije virusa COVID-19 demonstrirala je i nemačka kancelarka Angela Merkel. Osim što je u upečatljivom obraćanju naciji uporedila pandemiju po ozbilj- nosti sa Drugim svetskim ratom2, uobičajeni racionalni ton osvežila je empatičnim i ličnim notama, podsećajući da je svaka žrtva nečiji partner, otac, majka. Ovde je, čak i više nego istorijski primer, istaknut element odnosa i veza među ljudima, u ime kog je kancelarka pozvala na solidarnost. Takođe, Nemačka je jedna od retkih zemalja koja u svom kriznom štabu pored stručnjaka iz oblasti biologije i medicine ima i zna- čajan broj društvenih naučnika poput filozofa i psihologa, što pokazuje njenu posve- ćenost kako fizičkom, tako i duhovnom i mentalnom zdravlju svojih građana tokom vandrednog stanja (Milanović, 2020). Pored toga, kancelarka je otvoreno delila po- datke o broju zaraženih i smrtnih slučajeva i u skladu s tim pozivala na odgovornost svih građana (Chazan, 2020). Ovakve mere doprinele su da se Nemačka ubrzo nakon uvođenja ograničenja sloboda poput javnih okupljanja i zatvaranja određenih objeka- ta, opredeli za postepeno vraćanje društva u normalno funkcionisanje, svega šest ne- delja od beleženja prvih smrtnih slučajeva od virusa (Chazan, 2020).

Konačno, države poput Tajvana i Islanda koje takođe imaju ženske lidere, demonstri- raju istovremeno odlučnost u aktivnoj borbi s virusom kroz oštre preventivne mere - Tajvan, ali i solidarnost i maštovitost u specijalnim merama, u okviru kojih je i be- splatno testiranje na virus - Island (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020). Oslanjanje na struku i nauku je zajedničko ovim zemljama, gde su političari “uspeli da se kontrolišu” i ograniče na komuniciranje mera i planova predloženih od strane eksperata za javno zdravlje (Kolbert, 2020). Ovo je rezultiralo malim brojem mrtvih (svega šest slučaje- va na Tajvanu tokom prvog talasa pandemije) i ponovnim vraćanjem društva u nor- malu na Islandu 4. maja (Hassan, O’Grady, 2020).

2 Video dostupan na: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWzpSEFDYJM

15 ZAKLJUČAK

Cilj ovog rada bio je da pokaže kako rod sekuritizujućeg aktera, koji je deo njenog/ njegovog socijalnog kapitala, determiniše pristup procesu (de)sekuritizacije. U pr- vom delu rada ukazano je da posvećenost desekuritizaciji, koja se reflektuje kroz bezbednosne diskurse i prakse sekuritizujućih aktera, često predstavlja uporišnu tač- ku sa koje građani daju legitimitet za uvođenje specijalnih mera. Drugi deo rada ispi- tao je način na koji rod utiče na sekuritizaciju aktuelne pandemije virusa COVID-19 na primerima pet država predvođenih ženama liderima. Pored “klasičnih” mera ogra- ničavanja kretanja, socijalnih kontakata i zatvaranja granica i lokalnih poslova, žene lideri uvodile su neke sasvim specifične mere, koje su aktivno komunicirane svim starosnim grupama stanovništva. Njihovi bezbednosni diskursi bili su prilagođeni njihovim publikama, ali su i pored ukazivanja na izuzetnu ozbiljnost situacije odisali empatijom, solidarnošću i umirujućim tonom. Na ovaj način, u suočavanje s virusom uneta je autentična “dimenzija brige”, koja je po rečima direktorke Evropske central- ne banke Kristin Lagard, primećena od strane posmatrača i birača širom sveta (Ar- nold, 2020). Naposletku, ovakav pristup rezlutirao je relativno brzim ublažavanjem vanrednih mera, što svedoči o posvećenosti ženskih lidera desekuritizaciji.

Rasprava o potencijalnim nedostacima ovog ogleda mogla bi biti započeta primed- bom da je broj slučajeva koji su ispitani nedovoljan da bi se potvrdile hipoteze. Ipak, imajući na umu dozvoljenu dužinu rada ovaj broj je opravdan, a još više ukoliko se u obzir uzme primena kvalitativnog metoda koji tek na manjem broju slučajeva ispo- ljava sve prednosti detaljne i dubinske analize. S druge strane, uprkos činjenici da je Novi Zeland nedavno zabeležio prve nove slučajeve nakon sto dana bez virusa3, te da broj novih slučajeva u Nemačkoj raste u avgustu 2020, ovi brojevi i dalje su znat- no niži nego u ostalim državama, a pogotovo ako se ima na umu brzina ublažavanja i ukidanja vanrednih mera. Konačno, pojedinci bi mogli istaći da rod sekuritizujućeg aktera nije presudna determinanta prilikom opredeljivanja za desekuritizaciju, već či- njenica da se radi o demokratskim državama. Ipak, to ne objašnjava razliku u ishodi- ma i trajanju specijalnih mera preduzetih od svetskih demokratija predvođenih žen- skim i muškim liderima prilikom suočavanja s virusom COVID-19.

Etika brige kao koncept koji su razvile pojedine feminističke teoretičarke, a koji daje prednost iznalaženju specifičnih rešenja u konkretnim situacijama, radije nego gene- ralizovanju i pozivanju na apstraktna univerzalna načela i velike istorijske primere može objasniti pristup koji ženski lideri imaju prilikom tretiranja aktuelne krize i nji-

3 Vest dostupna na https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-53761122

16 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova hovu orijentisanost na vraćanje društva u stanje u kome su zadovoljene potrebe naj- većeg broja ljudi. Ako rod ne shvatimo esencijalistički, već kao proizvod društvenih praksi i procesa socijalizacije, uvidećemo da su žene lideri naučene da budu koope- rativnije, sklonije kompromisu i saosećajnije od muških kolega, što posebno dolazi do izražaja u doba vanrednih i kriznih situacija, kada se opredeljuju za pristup zasno- van na ljudskim potrebama.

S jedne strane ovo može ukazati na i dalje pristune različite standarde u obrazovanju i socijalizaciji muškaraca i žena, zbog kojih će žene lideri biti posvećenije desekuri- tizaciji od muških lidera. I pored toga, pojedini teoretičari sugerišu mogućnost da se posvećenost desekuritizaciji instrumentalizuje za prikupljanje političkih poena (Han- sen, 2012: 533). Imajući u vidu da je upravo ova posvećenost uporište sa kojeg gra- đani daju legitimitet za uvođenje specijalnih mera, ostaje da se vidi hoće li birači pre- poznati i nagraditi aktivnu i specifičnu borbu protiv virusa korona koju su žene lideri preduzele širom sveta.

17 LITERATURA

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Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Deve- lopment. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

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18 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova ELEKTRONSKI IZVORI

Arnold, M. (2020). Female leaders outperformed in virus crisis, says ECB’s Lagarde. Preuzeto 30. jula, 2020., sa https://www.ft.com/content/ b7f3c4f7-fcab-4f57-85ec-07c3466628d2

Chazan, G. (2020). How Germany got coronavirus right. Preuzeto 30. jula, 2020., sa https://www.ft.com/content/cc1f650a-91c0-4e1f-b990-ee8ceb5339ea

Hassan, J., O'Grady S. (2020). Female world leaders hailed as vo- ices of reason amid the coronavirus chaos. Preuzeto 23. aprila, 2020., sa https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/04/20/ female-world-leaders-hailed-voices-reason-amid-coronavirus-chaos/

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Matthews, A. (2020). Coronavirus: 5 things New Zealand got ri- ght. Preuzeto 31. jula, 2020., sa https://www.dw.com/en/ jacinda-ardern-leadership-in-coronavirus-response/a-53733397

Milanović, M. (2020). Tajna nemačkog uspeha? Na čelu zemlje je naučnica. Preu- zeto 26. aprila, 2020., sa https://nova.rs/region/merkel-naucnica-nemacka/

19 INFORMISANJE U VANREDNIM OKOLNOSTIMA (UPOTREBA METAFORE RATA TOKOM ZEMLJOTRESA, POPLAVA I PANDEMIJE VIRUSA KORONA U SRBIJI)

Aleksandra SAVIĆ*, studentkinja doktorskih studija 4

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Filološki fakultet

Sažetak: U radu je ispitana upotreba metafore rata tokom zemljotresa u Kraljevu 2010. godine, poplava 2014. godine, kao i za vrijeme pandemije virusa korona u Sr- biji. Korpus istraživanja čine saopštenja za medije Vlade Srbije, i to: od 3. novembra 2010, kada je u Kraljevu bio zemljotres, do ukidanja vanredne situacije u tom gra- du, 12. marta 2011. godine; od proglašenja vanredne situacije zbog poplava u Srbiji 15. maja 2014. godine, do ukidanja vanredne situacije 23. maja; i konačno, od prvog zabilježenog slučaja zaraze virusom korona, 6. marta 2020, do ukidanja vanrednog stanja, 6. maja 2020. godine. Podaci su prikupljeni tokom juna 2020. Cilj istraživa- nja je da otkrije koje političke namjere stoje iza navedene jezičke strategije. Izborom ovog retoričkog sredstva govornici nastoje postići solidarnost, disciplinu, jedinstvo naroda ali i obezbijediti podršku za političke i ekonomske mjere, te cjelokupnu politi- ku vlade, stoga zaključujemo da je upotreba metafore rata u vanrednim okolnostima prilično ambivalentna jer poziva na ujedinjenost i saosjećajnost ali istovremeno iza- ziva osjećaje strepnje, panike i straha.

Ključne riječi: metafora rata, virus korona, poplave, zemljotres, kritička analiza

* aleksandra.suvira@yahoo.com

20 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova UVOD

Metafora se u političkom diskursu koristi da bi se pojedine teme publici učinile ra- zumljivijim (Cammaerts, 2012: 5–6), odnosno kako bi se komplikovani i vrlo često uskostručni problemi pojednostavili, a može da se upotrebi i s ciljem da se suprotsta- ve gledišta (Cammaerts, 2012: 6). Jedan od motiva za korištenje ovog jezičkog sred- stva jeste i ubjeđivanje masa (Charteris-Black 2004: 248), a one ponekad mogu biti upotrebljene čak i nesvjesno, jer su „duboko usađene u istorijski i kulturni kontekst“ (Silaški et al., 2009: 55).

Ratne metafore su veoma česte u politici, pa neki istraživači tvrde da je njihova upo- treba ponekad apsurdna (Flusberg et al., 2018: 4). Iako raširena pojava, upotreba ovog retoričkog alata nikako nije bezazlena i može imati posljedice, naročito u druš- tvima koja su nedavno prošla užase rata ili imaju specifičnu ratnu prošlost pa su sklo- ni da razviju „nesvesnu traumu posleratnog perioda“ (Silaški et al., 2009: 57). Mno- gi su primijetili pojačanu upotrebu metafora rata u toku pandemije virusa korona, ne samo u Srbiji već i u svijetu, te je rat postao jedna od najčešćih jezičkih načina kon- ceptualizacije virusa (Štrkalj Despot, 2020: 5). To i ne čudi s obzirom na to da je me- tafora BOLEST JE RAT jedna od najfrekventnijih u oblasti zdravstva (Sontag, 1989, prema Chiang, Duann, 2007: 580). Pored zdravlja, ovu metaforu često srećemo to- kom katastrofa ili prirodnih nepogoda (Trckova, 2012; Jenkins, 2015), pa je tokom uragana Katrina i uragana Sendi zabilježeno često ponavljanje upravo ove metafo- re (Jenkins, 2015: 151). Njenoj upotrebi obično prethodi personifikacija države (La- koff, Johnson, 2015: 31), a pored činjenice da se država smatra živim bićem, važ- na osobina ove metafore jeste i to da se uvijek zasniva na određenom prototipu rata (Flusberg et al., 2018: 8), zajedničkom za sve ljude, a on podrazumijeva: postojanje suprotstavljenih strana – dobra i zla; različite ciljeve sukobljenih; razne strategije na- pada ili odbrane; vojsku; više od jednog sukoba; kraj – bilo da je u pitanju poraz ili pobjeda (Flusberg et al., 2018: 8). Metafore rata se u političkom diskursu „koriste u dva slučaja: da istaknu borbu protiv nekog društvenog zla sa negativnom konotaci- jom (npr. rat protiv droge, terorizma, bolesti), ili pak da opišu borbu za neki pozitivno vrednovan, koristan društveni cilj (npr. borba za ljudska prava, slobode, itd.) (Charte- ris-Black 2004: 91 prema Silaški et al., 2009: 40). Cilj ovog rada je otkriti koje ideo- loške namjere stoje iza upotrebe metafore rata u političkom diskursu Srbije i da li ona u nekim slučajevima može biti opravdana.

21 METODE ISTRAŽIVANJA, HIPOTEZE I IZVORI

Teorijski aparat u okviru kojeg se krećemo podrazumijeva sljedeće teorije i pristu- pe: politički diskurs, koji razumijevamo kao upotrebu jezičkih sredstava u političkom okruženju i u političke svrhe, odnosno kao tip diskursa na koji upućuje politički sa- držaj ili kontekst (Wilson, 2001: 398); teorija pojmovne metafore, prema kojoj meta- fora nije samo pitanje jezika već i mišljenja (Lakoff, Johnson, 2015: 5) i predstavlja sredstvo koje oblikuje političko mišljenje građana (Lakoff, 2008); te kritička analiza diskursa koja se ne odnosi samo na opisivanje jezičkih pojava već na njihovo vredno- vanje i preispitivanje (Fairclough, 2012; Van Dijk, 1998; Wodak, 2006); i naposljetku kritička analiza metafore (Charteris-Black, 2004), čiji je zadatak da otkrije „skrivene i možda nesvjesne namjere govornika“ (Charteris-Black, 2004: 34). U okviru kritičke analize metafore, možemo govoriti o sljedećim metodama: identifikacija metafore, tj. pažljivo čitanje i bilježenje metafore; interpretacija – uspostavljanje veze između metafore i kognitivnih i pragmatičkih faktora koji je određuju; i na kraju, objašnjenje metafore, na osnovu koga otkrivamo namjeru govornika odnosno identifikujemo ide- ološke motivacije (Charteris-Black, 2004: 39).

Rad ima dvije hipoteze. Prva hipoteza rada jeste da je ratna metafora česta u vanred- nim situacijama u Srbiji. Druga glasi da se u toku posljednjih deset godina upotreba metafore značajno pojačavala i da iza toga stoje dvojake političke namjere.

ANALIZA

Korpus rada čine saopštenja Vlade Srbije za vrijeme dvije najveće prirodne katastro- fe u Srbiji u posljednjih deset godina: zemljotresa u Kraljevu 2010. godine, od 3. no- vembra 2010, kada se potres desio, do ukidanja vanredne situacije u tom gradu, 12. marta 2011. godine; poplava 2014. godine – od 14. maja, kada je proglašena vanred- na situacija, do 23. maja, kada je ukinuta; i tokom pandemije virusa korona, odnosno od prvog zabilježenog slučaja do ukidanja vanrednog stanja – od 6. marta do 6. maja 2020; Građa je pretraživana u toku juna 2020. godine a metafore su date hronološki.

Izvorni, domen koji pozajmljuje svoju strukturu (Klikovac, 2004: 12), jeste rat i po- moću njega razumijevamo nepoznat, opasan i nesaznatljiv domen zemljotresa, po- plava i bolesti. Povezivanjem ta dva pojma, konkretnog i apstraktnog, situacije poput prirodnih i zdravstvenih katastrofa koje se ne daju objasniti, predvidjeti niti spo- znati konceptualizujemo kao nešto poznato, što smo već iskusili. Jezička sredstva

22 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova koja nam omogućavaju to preslikavanje jesu personifikacija (država i nepogoda/bo- lest kao živa bića), ratni (vojni) vokabular, poređenje, preuveličavanje, te suprotstav- ljanje dviju strana („mi“ – „oni“).

Zemljotres u Kraljevu 2010.1

Što se tiče saopštenja Vlade Srbije o zemljotresu koji je zadesio Kraljevo 2010, pro- našli smo najmanje metafora, tačnije samo tri, što je i očekivano, s obzirom na to da je vanredna situacija trajala kratko i da je zahvatila manje područje nego u sljedeća dva slučaja.

Ministar za dijasporu u Vladi Republike Srbije Srđan Srećković pozvao je danas di- jasporu da pomogne građanima Kraljeva (...) nakon što je razoran zemljotres pogo- dio taj grad. (Apel dijaspori za pomoć građanima Kraljeva, Beograd, 9. novembar 2010);

Ovih dana građani Kraljeva vode bitku s vremenom ne bi li pre najavljenih kiša i snegova bar zaštitili ruševine. (Apel dijaspori za pomoć građanima Kraljeva, Beo- grad, 9. novembar 2010);

Pripadnici Vojske nastavljaju da pomažu stanovništvu postradalom od zemljotresa (Beograd, 29. decembar 2010).

Kao što se vidi u navedenim primjerima, metafore rata su prilično jednostavne i ne- razrađene, koriste se uglavnom već ustaljeni i narodu dobro poznati jezički opisi, kao što je „bitka s vremenom“, koja se koristi u širokom spektru situacija.

Poplave 2014. godine

Za vrijeme poplava 2014, voda je često prikazivana kao agresivna, ćudljiva i neu- hvatljiva, pa je ratna metafora samo pojačavala animozitet prema prirodi (Trckova, 2012:147). Voda je prikazana kao neprijatelj velike razorne moći

...da je u poplavama koje su pogodile Srbiju najvažnije sačuvati živote ljudi. (Mlava probila nasip i preti „Drmnu“ i „Kostolcu“, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

1 Primjeri su dati tako da je u zagradi naveden naslov saopštenja i datum. Ukoliko se radi o naslovu, u zagra- di je zapisan samo datum objave. Radi ograničenog prostora, sve pronađene metafore navedene su u Pri- logu 1, dok će u analizi biti pomenute neke.

23 ...napravljeno 20 kilometara širokog nasipa, koji bi trebalo da izdrži nalete vode u naredna 24 časa. (Šabac spreman za udarni talas Save, Beograd/Šabac, 17. maj 2014);

Oni već 40 sati neprekidno pobeđuju Savu i njene pritoke. Najviši nivo Save očeku- jemo nakon 19 časova, i sada se pripremamo za efikasnu i uspešnu odbranu, tako da ćemo odbraniti Šabac. (Večeras najviši nivo Save kod Šapca, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...država rešena da odbrani kop i termoelektranu „Kostolac“ i koristiće sve mogu- će i tehničke i operativne metode. (Stanje u TE „Kostolac“ pod kontrolom, Kosto- lac, 19. maj 2014);

...u tamnavskom delu kolubarskog basena, koji je pretrpeo najveći udarac od popla- va. (Voda i dalje ugrožava sistem „Elektroprivrede Srbije“, Beograd, 21. maj 2014).

Stanovnici i vlada su na suprotnoj strani i bore se protiv vodenog neprijatelja

Vučić je istakao da će u Šapcu morati da budu primenjene „ratne mere“. (Potrebni dobrovoljci za odbranu Šapca, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

On je naglasio da su ljudi koji učestvuju u spasavanju pravi heroji. (Potrebni dobro- voljci za odbranu Šapca, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

Šabac dobro utvrđen. (Srbija spremna za naredni talas poplava, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

U nekim slučajevima je i sama rijeka personifikovana:

Mlava sada preti selu Drmno. (Mlava probila nasipe kod „Drmna“, Beograd/Kosto- lac, 18. maj 2014).

Primjećujemo da je u ovom slučaju prirodne nepogode, metafora češća i složenija, često se koriste vojni izrazi, a za razliku od prvog primjera, sa zemljotresom, ovdje se već pojavljuje i država – kao branilac i strana spremna da učini sve kako bi spasi- la narod od prirodne nepogode. Iako je u korpusu mnogo primjera upotrebe metafore rata, u pitanju su manje-više slične jezičke konstrukcije.

Virus korona

U okviru ove metafore, Srbija je na strani dobra, dok je kovid-19 zlo. Virus je prika- zan kao neprijatelj, pošast koju treba pobijediti i iskorijeniti, a Srbija, vlada, narod,

24 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova ljekari, policija, vojska kao hrabri ratnici koji štite svoju zemlju i najmilije, pri čemu je u slučaju pandemije vrlo očita racionalizacija rata (Silaški et al., 2009: 39), jer se on prikazuje kao pozitivan, neizbježan i obavezan. Interesantno je da su metafore rata podjednako koristili i političari i epidemiolozi.

U metaforama

Srbija se na dobar način bori protiv koronavirusa (Beograd, 11. mart 2020);

...da je država tu i da će ih čuvati na svaki način. (Građani moraju da pokažu veću odgovornost u ponašanju, Beograd, 16. mart 2020);

...da će se država boriti duplo snažnije nego do sada. (Treća žrtva zaraze koronavi- rusom u Srbiji, Beograd, 23. mart 2020);

Srbija je zaštitnik, čuvar koji je spreman na sve da odbrani svoj narod, što samo učvr- šćuje povjerenje prema državi, u čemu pomažu i metafore

Zajednička borba EU i Srbije s krizom prouzrokovanom koronavirusom (Beograd, 13. april 2020);

koje ukazuju na globalnu solidarnost.

Na drugoj strani je izuzetno moćan virus. S obzirom na to da je u toku pandemije u cijelom svijetu bilo malo informacija o načinu zaraze i toku bolesti, kao i da su one često bile protivrječne, ovaj neprijatelj je nepredvidiv i opasan

...nevidljivi neprijatelj na međunarodnom nivou. (Neizvestan termin održavanja Olimpijskih igara, Beograd, 14. april 2020);

Sve mere se preduzimaju kako bi se sačuvala zemlja, jer, kako je poručio, predaja nije opcija. (Proglašeno vanredno stanje na teritoriji čitave Srbije, Beograd, 15. mart 2020);

Svaki rat ima nekoliko etapa, pa je i u ovom slučaju riječ o određenom broju ključnih bitaka, pri čemu se borbeni moral mora neprestano održavati jer neprijatelj udara ne- očekivano i snažno, a dobijena bitka ne znači da je rat završen. Širenje zaraze je bor- ba, a kao i u svakom ratu, ima žrtava.

Ovo jeste ratno stanje. (U Srbiji registrovan ukupno 741 slučaj zaraze koronaviru- som, Beograd, 29. mart 2020);

...najjači udarac na zdravstveni sistem (Građani da poštuju vanredne mere drža- ve, Beograd, 16. mart 2020);

25 ...još jedan udar epidemije. (Epidemija se drži pod kontrolom i nazire se njen kraj, Beograd, 15. april 2020);

Prva bitka je dobijena što se tiče Niša. Nije kraj, imamo još dosta borbe. (Očekuje se znatno poboljšanje situacije u Nišu, Niš, 17. april 2020);

Novih pet žrtava koronavirusa u Srbiji (Beograd, 21. april 2020);

Vrlo često je korišten vojni rječnik:

...ofanziva protiv Covid-19. (Srbiju narednih dana očekuje ozbiljnija situacija po pitanju epidemije, Beograd, 27. mart 2020);

Važno je shvatiti da je svako od nas na liniji fronta u borbi protiv koronavirusa i da u ovom vanrednom stanju svako ima svoj ratni raspored koji glasi „ostani kod kuće“. (Poštovati mere i tokom predstojećih praznika, Beograd, 15. april 2020).

Zdravstveni radnici predstavljaju hrabre ratnike koji se nalaze na prvoj liniji fronta, a ta uloga je ponekad bila dodijeljena vladi, policiji, ali i narodu.

...a lekari se drže junački (Оd sutra u 8 časova zatvaranje svih graničnih prelaza za putnički saobraćaj, Beograd, 19. mart 2020);

... jer su oni udarna pesnica i najhrabriji deo našeg društva. (U naredna 72 sata očekuje se povećanje broja zaraženih koronavirusom, Beograd, 2. april 2020).

Autorke Silaški, Đurović i Radić Bojanić su primijetile da rat, zajedno sa sportom, predstavlja dio „pojmovnog aparata kroz koji se politika iskustveno doživljava kao uobičajeno muški domen“ (Silaški et al., 2009: 38), ali naše istraživanje pokazuje, iako oskudno, da u slučaju virusa korona nema rodnih stereotipa.

...heroine ovog doba moramo čuvati i paziti. (Žene zaslužuju posebnu pažnju u ovom teškom vremenu, Beograd, 22. mart 2020).

Rat u saopštenjima ponekad poprima mitološke oblike

Zadovoljna sam dosadašnjom borbom, to je pravi rat protiv nevidljivog neprija- telja, samim tim i teži. Sad se ta borba usložnjava i vodi na više frontova. (Drža- va spremna i na rigoroznije mere ukoliko bude potrebno, Beograd, 29. mart 2020);

a u nekim slučajevima je on svjesno upoređen sa proteklim ratovima, kao u sljede- ćim primjerima:

26 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova Na Kosovu i Metohiji smo navikli na vanredno stanje, u njemu živimo ne 20 go- dina, već većina ljudi koji žive na Kosmetu su u vanrednom stanju čitav svoj život. (Apel našim građanima na Kosmetu da se pridržavaju mera Vlade Srbije, Beograd, 17. mart 2020);

...kada se završi borba sa ovom najvećom pošasti savremenog sveta od Drugog svetskog rata. (Od sutra na snazi zabrana kretanja za starije od 65 godina, Beograd, 17. mart 2020.)

Očito je da se upotreba metafora rata polako pojačava u toku ovih deset godina. Od nasumičnog pomena već ustaljenih metaforičkih izraza za vrijeme zemljotresa, ili često ponavljanih istih metaforičkih, neinventivnih alata u vrijeme poplava, tokom virusa korona već razaznajemo jasnu strategiju komunikacije. Sve uloge su podije- ljene – bolest je pošast koju treba pobijediti, država je zaštitnik, doktori i doktorice su junaci/heroine, a građani treba da pokažu borbenu gotovost i da u svakom trenut- ku budu odlučni i disciplinovani – čime je obrazac pravog rata u potpunosti uspo- stavljen. Takođe, pojavljuje se vrlo opasna paralela sa prethodnim ratovima. Kako bi ukazali na nužnost discipline i učvrstili povjerenje u vladu i epidemiologe, govorni- ci često prave asocijacije sa bitkama u prošlosti koje bude emocije kod publike, ali i osjećaj strepnje.

27 ZAKLJUČAK

Naše istraživanje pokazuje da se metafora rata često koristi u situacijama elementar- nih nepogoda i zdravstvenih katastrofa, koje su inače apstraktne i neobjašnjive po- jave, te ona nije specifičnost samo ove pandemije. Međutim, hronološkom analizom komunikacije za vrijeme zemljotresa, poplava i pandemije primijetili smo da se po- sljednjih godina ova metafora znatno pojačavala – od rijetkog pomena poznatih i u narodu uobičajenih fraza do potpuno uspostavljenog prototipa rata. Pojačanu meta- foru prate i sve češće konferencije i saopštenja, kao i brojne restrikcije i ograničenja slobode. Tokom pandemije virusa korona, metafora rata je maltene svakodnevna, ko- riste je i političari i epidemiolozi, ima najviše podmetafora i u pitanju je veoma kre- ativan alat. Dok je u prva dva slučaja ona možda bila korištena nesvjesno, u slučaju pandemije virusa korona riječ je o vrlo svjesnoj strategiji koju koriste političari, za- bilježenoj i u drugim zemljama, čiji je rezultat ne samo naglašavanje discipline i so- lidarnosti odnosno širenje straha i panike, već je moguće uočiti i neke skrivene poli- tičke namjere. Zaključujemo da su obje hipoteze – da je metafora česta u vanrednim situacijama u Srbiji i da se njena upotreba vremenom pojačavala – potvrđene.

Što se tiče u hipotezama navedenog gledišta da je upotreba metafore rata u ove svr- he izuzetno ambivalentna, primjećujemo da se radi se o složenom retoričkom alatu koji upotrebljen u jednom trenutku može pozivati na odlučnost, zajedništvo u trage- diji, važnost pomoći koju pružamo bližnjima, a iskorišten u pogrešnom momentu, može povećati osjećaj straha, panike, pojačati nacionalizam, proizvesti oštru podjelu na nas i njih, čak se može javiti osjećaj da svaka razjedinjenost naroda znači poraz u ratu, što dugoročno donosi veliku podršku samo jednoj političkoj opciji (Štrkalj Des- pot, 2020: 7). Takođe, opasnost ovakvih sredstava se povećava ukoliko komunikaci- ju prate i drugi koraci tokom vanredne situacije: ekonomske, zdravstvene, političke mjere. U nastavku ćemo ponuditi nekoliko posljedica upotrebe metafore rata u jav- nom prostoru tokom pandemije virusa korona, kada je i zabilježen najveći broj ovih jezičkih alata:

1) Kolektivna pripravnost

Postiže se čestim paralelama sa konkretnim ratnim iskustvima koja je Srbija prošla (Drugi svjetski rat, Kosovo), čime se, osim podizanja morala i discipline među na- rodom, koji još pamti strašna kolektivna stradanja, vraćaju uspomene na velike ratne gubitke. Dominantni osjećaj povezan sa ovom strategijom jeste strah koji je i primar- na funkcija metafore rata u političkom diskursu (Flusberg et al., 2018: 13). Pozivanje na zajedništvo, na okupljanje oko jednog zajedničkog cilja, gdje se po strani ostav-

28 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova ljaju sve nesuglasice, kada individualne potrebe postaju nevažne, a vrednuje se samo kolektivno mišljenje i rasuđivanje, rezultiraju snažnim kolektivnim osjećajem odgo- vornosti. Opasnost ovog obrasca jeste potpuno kooperativna masa čiji je jedini cilj borba i pobjeda, te je ovakvo uobličeno mnjenje mnogo lakše kontrolisati i neutrali- sati svaki drugačiji glas.

2) Atomizovani pojedinci

Za razliku od prethodno navedene opasnosti, koja na prvo mjesto stavlja kolektivni duh, drugi potencijalni, jednako mogući rizik jesu potpuno atomizovani i razdvoje- ni pojedinci, koji u situaciji pandemije jedni drugima postaju prijetnja po život i ne- prijatelji, a jedini blizak saradnik jeste država na koju se moraju i mogu osloniti. Ta- kvom komunikacijom, zajedno sa preporukama fizičke distance među ljudima, stvara se i društvena distanca u kojoj se pojedinci ne mogu okupiti radi drugog zajedničkog cilja, koji nije bolest, i time oni, jednako kao i u prvom slučaju, postaju laka meta za kontrolu.

3) Pozivanje na žrtvu za državu

Zbog neizvjesnog ishoda nepogode, kao i otuđenosti i straha, država postaje jedi- ni pouzdan saradnik. Potrebe države i kolektiva stoje izvan potrebe pojedinaca i sve mora biti potčinjeno ovoj bici. Svaka odluka i mjera koju donosi država u najboljem je interesu građana, čime se otvara mogućnost da na red dođu i političke odluke ili sredstva sa kojima se građani u normalnoj situaciji ne bi složili.

4) Sigurnost građana

Način komunikacije u toku vanrednih situacija, zajedno sa propratnim političkim odlukama – ukidanje raznih sloboda i uvođenje ograničenja, homogenizacija jav- nog prostora sa svakodnevnim obraćanjima javnosti, radikalizacija medija, pridono- se osjećaju nesigurnosti kod građana. Možemo ustanoviti da je tako, pored najprije zdravstvene pa ekonomske i političke bezbjednosti, ugrožena individualna sigurnost građana, koji se ratnom retorikom guraju u beznadežnost, anksioznost, osjećaj stra- ha, panike i očaja, pa i ozbiljnijih psihičkih poremećaja. Tako usamljeni i nesigurni, sa ograničenim ličnim slobodama, mogu postati žrtva svake politike.

Političari i donosioci odluka trebalo bi da imaju jasne predstave o retoričkim strategi- jama koje koriste, ako ih nisu svjesni, a ako jesu, o efektima koje takva sredstva mogu proizvesti, a bez obzira na cilj radi kojeg je iskorištena, trebalo bi da svaki pojedinac umije da prepozna koje ideološke namjere stoje iza upotrebe metafore, što zahtijeva ne samo zavidnu jezičku sposobnost već i izgrađenu političku svijest.

29 IZVORI

Vlada Srbije, Covid-19, dostupno na: https://www.srbija.gov.rs/sekcija/453027/co- vid-19.php, 2. 8. 2020.

Vlada Srbije, Poplave 2014, dostupno na: https://www.srbija.gov.rs/specijal/260272, 2. 8. 2020.

Vlada Srbije, Zemljotres 2010, dostupno na: https://www.srbija.gov.rs/faq_search. php, 2. 8. 2020.

LITERATURA

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30 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova Silaški N., Đurović, T., Radić Bojanić B. (2009), Javni diskurs srbije – kognitivi- stičko-kritička studija, Beograd: Centar za izdavačku delatnost Ekonomskog fakul- teta u Beogradu.

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31 PRILOG 1. Spisak metafora rata u saopštenjima Vlade Srbije tokom zemljotresa u Kraljevu 2010. godine, poplava 2014. pandemije virusa korona 2020.

a) Zemljotres

Ministar za dijasporu u Vladi Republike Srbije Srđan Srećković pozvao je danas di- jasporu da pomogne građanima Kraljeva (...) nakon što je razoran zemljotres pogodio taj grad. (Apel dijaspori za pomoć građanima Kraljeva, Beograd, 9. novembar 2010);

Ovih dana građani Kraljeva vode bitku s vremenom ne bi li pre najavljenih kiša i snegova bar zaštitili ruševine. (Apel dijaspori za pomoć građanima Kraljeva, Beo- grad, 9. novembar 2010);

Pripadnici Vojske nastavljaju da pomažu stanovništvu postradalom od zemljotresa (Beograd, 29. decembar 2010).

b) Poplave

...poziv svim štabovima za vanredne situacije na teritoriji Srbije da uvedu priprav- nost svih subjekata i preduzmu sve potrebne aktivnosti u cilju sprovođenja mera na odbrani od poplava. (MUP pomaže građanima u ugroženim područjima, Valjevo/ Osečina, 15. maj 2014);

Vodi se ogromna borba da se ojača obala Kolubare, i sa leve i sa desne strane. (MUP pomaže građanima u ugroženim područjima, Valjevo/Osečina, 15. maj 2014);

...dobrovoljci za odbranu Šapca. (U Šabac upućeno više od 3.000 dobrovoljaca, Be- ograd, 16. maj 2014);

On je izrazio zahvalnost svima koji su se dobrovoljno javili da pomognu u odbra- ni Šapca od poplava. (U Šabac upućeno više od 3.000 dobrovoljaca, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

...kako bi pomogli u odbrani tog grada i spasavanju ljudi ugroženih poplavama. (Veliki odziv građana na poziv premijera za odbranu Šapca, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

...velike elementarne nepogode koja je pogodila najveći deo Srbije. (Poziv kompani- jama da pomognu saniranje posledica poplava, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

32 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova ...uputio poziv dobrovoljcima da pruže pomoć u odbrani zemlje od vodene stihije. (Potrebni dobrovoljci za odbranu Šapca, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

On je zatražio pomoć u odbrani Šapca. (Potrebni dobrovoljci za odbranu Šapca, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

Vučić je istakao da će u Šapcu morati da budu primenjene „ratne mere“. (Potrebni dobrovoljci za odbranu Šapca, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

On je naglasio da su ljudi koji učestvuju u spasavanju pravi heroji. (Potrebni dobro- voljci za odbranu Šapca, Beograd, 16. maj 2014);

...da je u poplavama koje su pogodile Srbiju najvažnije sačuvati živote ljudi. (Mlava probila nasip i preti „Drmnu“ i „Kostolcu“, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...napravljeno 20 kilometara širokog nasipa, koji bi trebalo da izdrži nalete vode u naredna 24 časa. (Šabac spreman za udarni talas Save, Beograd/Šabac, 17. maj 2014);

...više od 10.000 pripadnika oružanih snaga Vojske Srbije na terenu, na prvoj liniji odbrane od poplava, na zadacima spasavanja ljudskih života i imovine. (Mobiliza- cija privrednika za obnovu nakon poplava, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...na do sada pruženoj pomoći u borbi protiv nezabeležene prirodne katastrofe koja je zadesila Srbiju. (Dačić preneo zahvalnost državama koje su pomogle Srbiji, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

Srbiji pomoć za borbu protiv poplava, kako u ljudstvu, tako i u neophodnoj tehnič- koj opremi, stiže iz više zemalja. (Više zemalja poslalo u Srbiju pomoć i timove za spasavanje, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...kako bi se Šabac odbranio od vode. (Komesarijat za izbeglice i migracije pomaže ugroženima, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...sredstva koja je Evropska unija predvidela u svrhu urgentne pomoći u borbi pro- tiv poplava i saniranju štete. (Zahtev EU za dobijanje dodatne pomoći, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

Sava preti izlivanjem. (Večeras najviši nivo Save kod Šapca, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...kadeti koji brane Šabac heroji Srbije. (Večeras najviši nivo Save kod Šapca, Be- ograd, 17. maj 2014);

33 Vojska dobila zadatak da sačuva Šabac. (Večeras najviši nivo Save kod Šapca, Be- ograd, 17. maj 2014);

Oni već 40 sati neprekidno pobeđuju Savu i njene pritoke. Najviši nivo Save očeku- jemo nakon 19 časova, i sada se pripremamo za efikasnu i uspešnu odbranu, tako da ćemo odbraniti Šabac. (Večeras najviši nivo Save kod Šapca, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...svim sportistima koji zajedno sa ostalima danonoćno brane Srbiju od katastrofal- nih poplava. (Sportisti prikupljaju pomoć za Srbiju, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

Želim da izrazim zahvalnost svim našim sportistima, sportskim savezima, klubovi- ma, kancelarijama za mlade, policiji, vojsci, vatrogascima i svima koji brane svoju zemlju. (Sportisti prikupljaju pomoć za Srbiju, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

Šabac dobro utvrđen. (Srbija spremna za naredni talas poplava, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

On je upozorio na to da je došlo do probijanja savskog nasipa. Probijanje savskog nasipa kod TENT-a nova pretnja Obrenovcu, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...tokom noći više od 6.000 građana, pripadnika MUP-a i Vojske Srbije mukotrpno radilo na terenu, što je rezultiralo odbranom ovog grada od vodene stihije. Nasipi na svim kritičnim tačkama na Savi kod Šapca za sada izdržavaju nalete vode, ali se očekuje nadiranje Save, pa je odbrana tog grada prioritet. (Probijanje savskog na- sipa kod TENT-a nova pretnja Obrenovcu, Beograd, 17. maj 2014);

...omladinu angažovanu na zaštiti termoelektrane u Kostolcu, i u ime Vlade Srbije preneo im zahvalnost na hrabrosti, izdržljivosti i predanosti u odbrani zemlje od poplava. (Udovičić obišao volontere u Kostolcu, Beograd/Kostolac, 18. maj 2014);

Na bedemima između sela Ševarice i Drenovac, gde je jedna od tri kritične tačke od- brane Šapca, angažovano je približno 200 kadeta Vojne akademije. (Vojska počela asanaciju i biološku dekontaminaciju terena u Ubu, Beograd, 18. maj 2014);

U odbrani grada, kako je podsetio, angažovana je Prva brigada Kopnene vojske. (Vojska počela asanaciju i biološku dekontaminaciju terena u Ubu, Beograd, 18. maj 2014);

Mlava sada preti selu Drmno. (Mlava probila nasipe kod „Drmna“, Beograd/Kosto- lac, 18. maj 2014);

...najveću opasnost sada predstavlja reka Sava. (Reka Sava najveća pretnja naredna dva dana, Beograd, 18. maj 2014);

34 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova ...treba da se preduzmu sve mere kako bismo se odbranili. (Reka Sava najveća pret- nja naredna dva dana, Beograd, 18. maj 2014);

...u odbrani od poplava na ugroženom području utrošeno približno 223.000 vreća za izgradnju nasipa. (Pomoć iz brojnih zemalja stiže u Srbiju, Beograd, 18. maj 2014);

...država rešena da odbrani kop i termoelektranu „Kostolac“ i koristiće sve mogu- će i tehničke i operativne metode. (Stanje u TE „Kostolac“ pod kontrolom, Kosto- lac, 19. maj 2014);

...opasnost od vode još nije prošla, i dodao da su preduzete sve mere za odbranu ovog postrojenja. (Odbrana TE „Nikola Tesla" od novog talasa na Savi, Obreno- vac, 19. maj 2014);

...brane crpnu stanicu. (Odbrana TE „Nikola Tesla" od novog talasa na Savi, Obre- novac, 19. maj 2014);

...u Srbiji trenutno najvažnija borba za Šabac. (Odbrana Šapca prioritet, Beograd, 19. maj 2014);

...zahvalnost vladi te zemlje na pomoći koju je pružila Srbiji u borbi sa poplavama. (Zahvalnost Austriji na pomoći koju je pružila Srbiji, Beograd, 19. maj 2014);

...ali da to ne znači da je opasnost prošla, i dodao da su bedemi puni vode i da pre- ti realna opasnost da dođe do proboja. (Hitna evakuacija meštana sela u okolini Šapca, Šabac, 19. maj 2014);

Ovu liniju odbrane od poplava juče su obišli... (Vojska angažovana na kritičnoj deonici Kuzmin–Bosut, Beograd, 19. maj 2014);

Aleksandar Obradović ponovio je da je situacija komplikovana i da opasnost nije prošla. (TENT mora biti sačuvan od poplava, Obrenovac, 20. maj 2014);

...mladi širom Srbije učešćem u odbrani zemlje od poplava pokazali visok stepen zrelosti i odgovornosti. (Mladi volonteri čiste teren u Obrenovcu, Obrenovac, 20. maj 2014).

...u tamnavskom delu kolubarskog basena, koji je pretrpeo najveći udarac od popla- va. (Voda i dalje ugrožava sistem „Elektroprivrede Srbije“, Beograd, 21. maj 2014);

...pomagali u odbrani od vodene stihije i dali neprocenjiv doprinos našim naporima da se odbranimo od ove nezapamćene elementarne nepogode. (Vučić uputio pi- smo zahvalnosti Rusiji, Beograd, 23. maj 2014);

35 c) Virus korona

Srbija se na dobar način bori protiv koronavirusa (Beograd, 11. mart 2020);

Vlada donela nove mere u cilju suzbijanja koronavirusa (Beograd, 11. mart 2020);

Poziv građanima na solidarnost u borbi protiv koronavirusa (Beograd, 13. mart 2020);

...jer oni stavljaju sebe na prvu liniju borbe (Poziv građanima na solidarnost u bor- bi protiv koronavirusa, Beograd, 13. mart 2020);

...i podvukao da borba protiv virusa zahteva zajedničke napore i koordinaciju aktivnosti (Solidarnost i podrška Švajcarskoj u borbi protiv epidemije, Beograd, 14. mart 2020);

Govoreći o hotelijerima i ugostiteljima, Ljajić je rekao da će i oni biti pogođeni (Snabdevanje tržišta osnovnim namirnicama stabilno, Beograd, 15. mart 2020);

On je istakao da je Srbija od danas u ratu protiv neprijatelja kojeg mora da pobe- di (Proglašeno vanredno stanje na teritoriji čitave Srbije, Beograd, 15. mart 2020);

Sve mere se preduzimaju kako bi se sačuvala zemlja, jer, kako je poručio, preda- ja nije opcija. (Proglašeno vanredno stanje na teritoriji čitave Srbije, Beograd, 15. mart 2020);

Ovo je borba svih nas. Disciplina pojedinca će odlučivati koliko mi kao zemlja možemo sa ovim da se izborimo. (Srbija zatvorila granice zbog koronavirusa, Be- ograd, 15. mart 2020);

Brnabić je poručila da bez solidarnosti epidemija ne može da bude pobeđena (Građani da poštuju vanredne mere države, Beograd, 16. mart 2020);

...uspeti da se uspešno izborimo sa virusom COVID-19 i da će Srbija iz ove bit- ke izaći kao pobednik. (Prva pomoć za Srbiju iz Narodne Republike Kine, Beograd, 16. mart 2020);

Vlada Republike Srbije je u potpunosti posvećena borbi protiv širenja virusa (Nove mere Vlade u borbi protiv virusa COVID-19, Beograd, 16. mart 2020);

...najjači udarac na zdravstveni sistem (Građani da poštuju vanredne mere drža- ve, Beograd, 16. mart 2020);

36 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova ...da je država tu i da će ih čuvati na svaki način. (Građani moraju da pokažu veću odgovornost u ponašanju, Beograd, 16. mart 2020);

Ovo možemo da pobedimo i prođemo sa što manje žrtava samo ako se borimo svi zajedno (Nije isključena mogućnost uvođenja drastičnijih mera, Beograd, 17. mart 2020);

...i da se postigne puna zaštita zdravstvenog sistema i medicinskih radnika jer će na njima biti najveći teret borbe (Nije isključena mogućnost uvođenja drastičnijih mera, Beograd, 17. mart 2020);

Sve usvojene mere imaju za cilj isključivo očuvanje vašeg života i zdravlja, ali Vla- da u ovoj borbi ne može pobediti sama (Nove mere Vlade u borbi protiv virusa CO- VID-19, Beograd, 17. mart 2020);

...možemo izaći iz ove bitke kao pobednici (Nove mere Vlade u borbi protiv virusa COVID-19, Beograd, 17. mart 2020);

...kako bismo se zajedno izborili sa koronavirusom i sprečili da naši najmiliji po- stanu žrtve (Apel našim građanima na Kosmetu da se pridržavaju mera Vlade Srbije, Beograd, 17. mart 2020);

Na Kosovu i Metohiji smo navikli na vanredno stanje, u njemu živimo ne 20 go- dina, već većina ljudi koji žive na Kosmetu su u vanrednom stanju čitav svoj život. (Apel našim građanima na Kosmetu da se pridržavaju mera Vlade Srbije, Beograd, 17. mart 2020);

...kada se završi borba sa ovom najvećom pošasti savremenog sveta od Drugog svetskog rata. (Od sutra na snazi zabrana kretanja za starije od 65 godina, Beograd, 17. mart 2020);

Naredni dani izuzetno važni u borbi protiv koronavirusa (Beograd, 18. mart 2020);

...pravovremeno reagujemo na sve nove pretnje (Otvoren stalni kanal komunikacije sa srpskom IT zajednicom, Beograd, 19. mart 2020);

...da imamo dovoljno zdravih lekara da mogu u dužem vremenskom periodu da nas štite (Policija podnela 87 krivičnih i prekršajnih prijava, Beograd, 19. mart 2020);

...a lekari se drže junački (Оd sutra u 8 časova zatvaranje svih graničnih prelaza za putnički saobraćaj, Beograd, 19. mart 2020);

37 ...kako bismo našem zdravstvenom sistemu dali dovoljno vremena da se brani (Po- licija podnela 87 krivičnih i prekršajnih prijava, Beograd, 19. mart 2020);

da bismo imali što manje žrtava u ovom ratu (Preminuo prvi pacijent od koronavi- rusa u Srbiji, 20. mart 2020);

...odavši priznanje lekarima i medicinskom osoblju koji su se lavovski borili za nje- gov život. (Preminuo prvi pacijent od koronavirusa u Srbiji, Beograd, 20. mart 2020);

...heroine ovog doba moramo čuvati i paziti. (Žene zaslužuju posebnu pažnju u ovom teškom vremenu, Beograd, 22. mart 2020);

...kako i na koji način da zdravstveno, medicinski tretiramo i napadnemo koronavi- rus (Treća žrtva zaraze koronavirusom u Srbiji, Beograd, 23. mart 2020);

...da će se država boriti duplo snažnije nego do sada. (Treća žrtva zaraze koronavi- rusom u Srbiji, Beograd, 23. mart 2020);

...pređe na novi metod borbe sa koronavirusom. (U Srbiji registrovano ukupno 303 slučaja COVID-19, Beograd, 24. mart 2020);

...što je namenjeno za suzbijanje koronavirusa, uz napomenu da se neprekidno bije bitka da se nabavi oprema. (Obezbediti najbolje moguće uslove za ljude koji budu smešteni na Sajmu, Beograd, 25. mart 2020);

...ofanziva protiv Covid-19. (Srbiju narednih dana očekuje ozbiljnija situacija po pitanju epidemije, Beograd, 27. mart 2020);

...svojim boravkom tamo štite svoje porodice i to je najefikasniji način da se kao društvo borimo i pobedimo virus. (Na Sajmu najbolji mogući uslovi za prihvat za- raženih, Beograd, 27. mart 2020);

Zadovoljna sam dosadašnjom borbom, to je pravi rat protiv nevidljivog neprija- telja, samim tim i teži. Sad se ta borba usložnjava i vodi na više frontova. (Drža- va spremna i na rigoroznije mere ukoliko bude potrebno, Beograd, 29. mart 2020);

Svaka čast medicinskom osoblju, lekarima, sestrama i tehničarima koji su na prvoj liniji fronta i koji se bespoštedno bore. (Država spremna i na rigoroznije mere uko- liko bude potrebno, Beograd, 29. mart 2020);

...širenje zaraze predstavlja pretnju celom čovečanstvu. (Još 90 tona medicinske opreme stiglo na beogradski aerodrom, Beograd, 29. mart 2020);

38 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova Ovo jeste ratno stanje. (U Srbiji registrovan ukupno 741 slučaj zaraze koronaviru- som, Beograd, 29. mart 2020);

...herojske napore našeg nacionalnog avio-prevoznika. (NIS donirao 270 tona avio-goriva „Er Srbiji“, Beograd, 1. april 2020);

... jer su oni udarna pesnica i najhrabriji deo našeg društva. (U naredna 72 sata očekuje se povećanje broja zaraženih koronavirusom, Beograd, 2. april 2020);

Nećemo dobiti ovaj rat (Broj preminulih u poslednja 24 časa najveći do sada, Beo- grad, 3. april 2020);

MUP u prethodnom periodu podneo značajan teret u borbi sa koronavirusom (Kontrole kretanja pojačane u čitavoj Srbiji, Beograd, 5. april 2020);

...da su predstojeće dve nedelje vreme kada naše društvo pada ili pobeđuje u toj borbi. (Predstojeće dve nedelje prelomne u borbi sa koronavirusom, Beograd, 5. april 2020);

...kao i da će primarna zdravstvena zaštita od danas, kada je reč o Beogradu, preu- zeti težište borbe (U Srbiji od posledica koronavirusa umrlo još sedam osoba, Beo- grad, 5. april 2020);

Do pobede zajedno. (Pružiti podršku medicinskim radnicima, Beograd, 7. april 2020);

...ono što svi zajedno radimo jeste osnova prave borbe protiv ove infekcije. (Uku- pan broj zaraženih koronavirusom 2.447, Beograd, 7. april 2020);

...jer ulazimo, nadam se, u nešto što bi izgledalo kao završnica borbe protiv koro- navirusa (Veliki značaj podrške i pomoći Kine za borbu protiv koronavirusa, Beo- grad, 8. april 2020);

...to, međutim, ne znači da ćemo brzo moći da proglasimo pobedu i kraj vanrednog stanja, ali je svakako deo u kojem mi znamo kako se borimo (Veliki značaj podrške i pomoći Kine za borbu protiv koronavirusa, Beograd, 8. april 2020);

...kako ne bismo samo suzbili virus, već ga i u potpunosti pobedili (Veliki značaj podrške i pomoći Kine za borbu protiv koronavirusa, Beograd, 8. april 2020);

To se pokazalo kao jedan od ključnih koraka u kineskoj strategiji borbe – i kasnije pobede – protiv novog koronavirusa. (Kina donirala Srbiji dve laboratorije za te- stiranje na koronavirus, Beograd, 8. april 2020);

39 ...zajednička borba evropskih zemalja neophodna da bi se što lakše prevazišli iza- zovi sa kojima se suočava ceo svet. Sagovornici su postigli saglasnost o tome da će samo udružena borba protiv ove pošasti uspeti da, nakon završetka pandemije, do- datno osnaži i Srbiju i Mađarsku. (Zajednička borba Srbije i Mađarske protiv po- sledica koronavirusa, Beograd, 9. april 2020);

kako bismo svi zajedno što pre iz ove bitke izašli kao pobednici. (Vlada donela od- luku o produženju zabrane kretanja za vikend, Beograd, 9. april 2020);

...da li ćemo uspeti da potisnemo virus, koji ima snagu i aktivnost samo onda kada ima mnogo zaraženih. (U Srbiji koronavirusom zaraženo 3.105 osoba, Beograd, 10. april 2020);

...zdravstvenom u kojoj se vodi borba za svaki život, i ekonomskom u kojoj se bori za svako radno mesto. (Država preuzela veliki teret krize, Beograd, 11. april 2020);

...podstrek da budemo još jači i istrajniji u ovoj borbi (Još jedna donacija zaštitne opreme za borbu protiv COVID-19, Beograd, 11. april 2020);

...a hrabrost koju svi imamo danas se ogleda u sposobnosti da se samoizolujemo. (Na severu Kosmeta preminula još jedna osoba od koronavirusa, Beograd, 11. april 2020);

...borimo da niko više ne oboli. (U MUP-u 157 obolelih od koronavirusa, Beograd, 13. april 2020);

Zajednička borba EU i Srbije s krizom prouzrokovanom koronavirusom (Beograd, 13. april 2020);

...da, u ime kineskih železnica, oda počast Vladi Srbije i srpskom narodu na borbi protiv koronavirusa. (Donacija kineske kompanije CRIC za borbu protiv COVID-19, Beograd, 13. april 2020);

...nevidljivi neprijatelj na međunarodnom nivou. (Neizvestan termin održavanja Olimpijskih igara, Beograd, 14. april 2020);

....da se sa ovom krizom bore uz manje izlaganje riziku. (EU nastavlja da pomaže borbu Srbije protiv koronavirusa, Beograd, 14. april 2020);

...samo zajedno možemo poraziti našeg zajedničkog neprijatelja. (EU nastavlja da pomaže borbu Srbije protiv koronavirusa, Beograd, 14. april 2020);

40 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova Važno je shvatiti da je svako od nas na liniji fronta u borbi protiv koronavirusa i da u ovom vanrednom stanju svako ima svoj ratni raspored koji glasi "ostani kod kuće". (Poštovati mere i tokom predstojećih praznika, Beograd, 15. april 2020);

...još jedan udar epidemije. (Epidemija se drži pod kontrolom i nazire se njen kraj, Beograd, 15. april 2020);

...jer je ovo borba za živote ljudi. (Epidemija se drži pod kontrolom i nazire se njen kraj, Beograd, 15. april 2020);

Prva bitka je dobijena što se tiče Niša. Nije kraj, imamo još dosta borbe. (Očekuje se znatno poboljšanje situacije u Nišu, Niš, 17. april 2020);

U ovoj borbi možemo da pobedimo samo zajedno. (Lečenje krvnom plazmom nova faza borbe sa koronavirusom, Beograd, 17. april 2020);

Naša zemlja i svi građani imaju danas priliku da pobede u ovom ratu (Lečenje krv- nom plazmom nova faza borbe sa koronavirusom, Beograd, 17. april 2020);

...ušli u sedmu nedelju borbe protiv virusa. (Lečenje krvnom plazmom nova faza borbe sa koronavirusom, Beograd, 17. april 2020);

...ulazi u novu fazu borbe protiv koronavirusa. (Lečenje krvnom plazmom nova faza borbe sa koronavirusom, Beograd, 17. april 2020);

Radnici na gradilištima istinski heroji našeg društva (Beograd, 17. april 2020);

...daju svoj doprinos ovoj borbi, jer to je najbolji i najbrži put da se pobedi korona- virus. („Jugoimport – SDPR“ donirao zaštitna sredstva, Beograd, 17. april 2020);

...uskoro moći da proglasimo pobedu. (Brnabić dočekala let kojim je dopremljena medicinska oprema, Beograd, 18. april 2020);

...prvi i najteži udar koronavirusa. (Veliki doprinos pripadnika Prve brigade borbi protiv koronavirusa, Bačka Topola, 19. april 2020);

...nevidljivi ljudi koji obezbeđuju proizvodnju uglja i električne energije, naši su he- roji. (Radnici EPS-a sačuvali energetsku stabilnost zemlje, Kostolac, 19. april 2020);

Ovo je bitka koja nije završena. (Popuštanje restriktivnih mera uz maksimalan oprez, Beograd, 20. april 2020);

.

41 ..kineski i srpski narod bore rame uz rame protiv novog virusa. (U novoj labora- toriji u KCS 2.000 testova dnevno, Beograd, 20. april 2020);

Novih pet žrtava koronavirusa u Srbiji (Beograd, 21. april 2020);

...važan segment ukupne borbe sa pandemijom. (Širom Srbije nastavlja se postav- ljanje kontejnera za trijažu koje finansira EU, Beograd, 21. april 2020);

...trebalo smisliti strategiju za takozvani import, odnosno ponovni ulazak virusa u zemlju. (Dalji pad broja zaraženih koronavirusom, Beograd, 23. april 2020);

...naša vojska daje svoj maksimum u borbi protiv koronavirusa. (Vojska Srbije pru- ža svoj maksimum, Beograd, 23. april 2020);

...borba Srbije ima podršku. (Vojska Srbije pruža svoj maksimum, Beograd, 23. april 2020);

....da istraju još malo do konačne pobede nad epidemijom. (Poboljšanje epidemio- loške situacije na Kosovu i Metohiji, Beograd, 24. april 2020);

...jedini način da opstanemo da zbijemo redove. (Poboljšanje epidemiološke situa- cije na Kosovu i Metohiji, Beograd, 24. april 2020);

I dalje ne možemo da proglasimo pobedu. (Srbija efikasna u borbi sa pandemijom, Beograd, 28. april 2020);

Ponosna sam na naše građane, institucije, na zajednički tim Vlade i predsednika Re- publike, na sve naše stručnjake, lekare i medicinsko osoblje, kao i na sve koji su bili na prvoj liniji borbe. (Srbija efikasna u borbi sa pandemijom, Beograd, 28. april 2020).

...da smo se borili najbolje što smo mogli. (Skupština potvrdila Odluku o uvođenju vanrednog stanja i donete uredbe, Beograd, 29. april 2020);

...da uspešno privedemo kraju borbu sa epidemijom. (Na koronavirus pozitivno još 285 osoba, Beograd, 30. april 2020);

42 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova UTICAJ VIRUSA COVID-19 NA MIGRACIONA KRETANJA – BORBA MIGRANATA I IZBEGLICA PROTIV VIRUSA I KSENOFOBIJE

Jovana NIKOLIĆ*, studentkinja osnovnih studija 1

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet političkih nauka

Sažetak: U radu se polazi od koncepta ljudske bezbednosti, pokušaja njegovog defi- nisanja i značaja koji ima u trenutku kada se ceo svet bori protiv virusa COVID-19. U nastavku se analizira sekuritizacija pitanja zdravlja, kao i mere koje su vlade širom sveta donele kako bi zaštitile svoje građane, a pre svega mere koje se tiču ograniča- vanja kretanja. Pomenute teorijske koncepte autor uvezuje sa empirijskim podacima o statusu migranata i izbeglica i globalnom tretmanu prema njima tokom pandemije virusa COVID-19, sa ciljem da pokaže da se migranti i izbeglice trenutno, ali i mese- cima unazad, bore protiv dva neprijatelja – pomenutog virusa i ksenofobije.

Ključne reči: ljudska bezbednost, COVID-19, migranti, sekuritizacija zdravlja, ksenofobija

* jovana.19.02@hotmail.com

43 UVOD

U trenutku kada autor počinje pisanje ovog rada u svetu je, prema podacima Svet- ske zdravstvene organizacije, nešto više od 29 155 000 ljudi zaraženo virusom CO- VID-19 (World Health Organization, 2020b). Treba uzeti u obzir da se ovde radi o potvrđenim slučajevima. Veliko je pitanje koliko ljudi zapravo nosi u sebi ovaj vi- rus ali ne pokazuje nikakve simptome, te ne zna da je pozitivno i da je moguće da će ugroziti ljude oko sebe ukoliko nema odgovarajuće zaštite među njima. Pomenuti vi- rus je deo naše svakodnevice već mesecima unazad, stoga je njegovo izučavanje iz ugla svih naučnih disciplina itekako važno. Svakog dana mogu se pročitati nove vesti o različitim vakcinama protiv pomenutog virusa koje se razvijaju širom sveta1, kao i izjave renomiranih lekara i profesora medicine na tu temu. Međutim, pored medicin- skog aspekta, problem širenja virusa COVID-19 releventan je i sa aspekta društvenih nauka, naročito sa aspekta ljudske bezbednosti.

Stoga autor u ovom radu polazi od koncepta ljudske bezbednosti – šta sve ovaj po- jam obuhvata i koji su eventualni problemi koji postoje oko definisanja pomenutog pojma. U nastavku se, u skladu sa konceptom sekuritizacije, autor bavi sekuritizaci- jom pitanja zdravlja i merama koje su vlade širom sveta preduzele kako bi zaštitile svoje građane. Sve prethodno pomenute teorijske koncepte i relevantne empirijske podatke autor dovodi u vezu i smatra relevantnim kada je reč o migrantima i izbe- glicama, njihovom zdravlju i poteškoćama sa kojima se susreću tokom pandemije. Samu srž ovog rada predstavlja istraživanje posledica i efekata koje pandemija vi- rusa COVID-19 ostavlja na migrante i migraciona kretanja i zaključak da neprijatelj migranata i izbeglica mesecima unazad nije samo pomenuti virus, već se kao njihovi neprijatelji mogu označiti i diskriminacija i ksenofobija, sa kojima su se oni borili i pre početka trenutne pandemije, ali je ta borba, smatra autor, sa širenjem virusa CO- VID-19 globalno, postala još ozbiljnija.

Koncept ljudske bezbednosti

„Ljudska bezbednost je kao ‚održivi razvoj‛ – svi su za to, ali malo ljudi ima jasnu predstavu šta to znači“ (Paris, 2001: 88).

1 Na sajtu Svetske zdravstvene organizacije mogu se naći detalji o razvoju vakcina protiv COVID-19: https:// www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines

44 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova Koncept ljudske bezbednosti javio se po završetku Hladnog rata kao novi nivo ana- lize u studijama bezbednosti. Pomenuti koncept podrazumeva da se u središtu anali- ze bezbednosne politike više ne nalazi država ili nacija, već pojedinac (Ejdus, 2012: 215). Ono što je karakteristično kada govorimo o ljudskoj bezbednosti jeste da je reč o „spornom konceptu“ oko čijeg se definisanja spore autori širom sveta (Ejdus, 2012: 216). Kao što se može primetiti iz napred pomenutog Parisovog članka, postoji zna- čajan deo populacije koji se zalaže za ljudsku bezbednost iako dobar deo njih ne zna zapravo šta sve taj pojam obuhvata. Prema Izveštaju o ljudskom razvoju iz 1994. go- dine „ona podrazumeva bezbednost od hroničnih pretnji, kao što su glad, bolest i re- presija“ (United Nations Development Program, 1994, navedeno prema Ejdus, 2012: 219), dok prema Doktrini ljudske bezbednosti za Evropu iz 2004. godine „ljudska bezbednost predstavlja individualnu slobodu od osnovnih nesigurnosti“ (Albrecht et al., 2004, navedeno prema Ejdus, 2012: 224). Kojim god od pomenutih određenja ljudske bezbednosti da se vodimo, dolazi se do zaključka da trenuci koje proživlja- vamo mesecima unazad, tj. pandemija virusa COVID-19 predstavlja pretnju ljud- skoj bezbednosti. Pojedinci širom sveta strahuju za svoje zdravlje i za svoju sigur- nost. Ukoliko se uzmu u obzir i elementi ljudske bezbednosti koje Paris navodi, a koji uključuju aspekte ekonomije, zdravlja, hrane, životne sredine, politike, individualne, ali i bezbednosti zajednice (Paris, 2001: 90), autor zaključuje da je pandemija koju trenutno proživljavamo ugrozila ne samo zdravlje pojedinaca, već ostavlja posledice i po grupe individua, kao i da nije reč samo o zdravstvenim posledicama, već se može govoriti i o ekonomskim i društvenim.

Sekuritizacija pitanja zdravlja

Kada se govori o konceptu sekuritizacije, nepravedno bi bilo ne pozvati se na idej- nog tvorca ove teorije – Ole Vejvera (Ole Wæver). Kako on smatra, sekuritizacija predstavlja „proces koji obuhvata konstruisanje bezbednosnih pretnji, kao i preduzi- manje specijalnih mera radi borbe protiv njih“ (Ejdus, 2012: 107). Primenjeno na si- tuaciju koju proživljavamo globalno proteklih meseci, neizbežno je da o virusu CO- VID-19 koji hara svetom govorimo kao o pretnji koju su vlade, to jest političke elite prepoznale kao pretnju po svoja društva i u skladu sa tim pribegle upotrebi određenih specijalnih mera za borbu protiv pandemije. S obzirom na to da je pre svega zdrav- lje ljudi najugroženije zbog širenja pandemije, u tom kontekstu možemo govoriti o sekuritizaciji pitanja zdravlja. Vlade širom sveta su u ulogama sekuritizujućih aktera povukle sekuritizujuće poteze koje su smatrale odgovarajućim i donele određene spe- cijalne mere. Predsednici ili premijeri, u zavinosti od države do države, obavestili su javnost o širenju novog virusa na globalnom nivou, o kojem se u tim trenucima nije

45 dovoljno znalo a koji je već tada ugrožavao zdravlje njihovih stanovnika. Sa ciljem da se spreči ubrzano širenje virusa među stanovništvom, preduzete su različite mere, koje su se uglavnom ticale ograničavanja kretanja i zabrane okupljanja. Tako je ita- lijanska vlada već krajem januara suspendovala letove za i iz Kine, da bi krajem fe- bruara oformila takozvane Crvene i Žute (karantin) zone, zatvorila određen broj ško- la, ukinula javna okupljanja i tako dalje (La Repubblica, 2020). Govor koji je srpski predesednik održao 14. marta tekuće godine samo je jedan od primera uspešnog se- kuritizujućeg poteza. On je, naime, služeći se gramatikom bezbednosti koja je obu- hvatala između ostalog „nevidljivog neprijatelja“, „vanredno stanje“, „najtežu bitku“ (N1 Beograd, 2020), ukazao građanima Srbije na opasnost od novog virusa, sa čijim su širenjem oni bili upoznati preko različitih medija, i istakao važnost preduzimanja određenih specijalnih mera kako bi se građani zaštitili.

Kako stoji u Strategiji nacionalne bezbednosti Republike Srbije iz 2019. godine: „Epidemije i pandemije zaraznih bolesti mogu ugroziti stanovništvo Republike Srbi- je i nositi rizik za nastanak težih ekonomskih i društvenih posledica“ (str. 10). Kako u našoj, tako i u zemljama širom sveta, pandemija virusa COVID-19 ne samo da je ugrozila zdravlje stanovnika, već je dovela i do značajnih ekonomskih posledica. Tako smo imali priliku da saznamo da su Sjedinjene Američke Države kao vodeća sila sveta zabeležile najviši nivo nezaposlenosti od Velike depresije (Long, Van Dam, 2020). Kako bi sprečile širenje virusa i ublažile i ekonomske i društvene posledice po svoja stanovništva, vlade širom sveta su pribegle različitim merama, među kojima je za ovaj rad najrelevantnije ograničavanje kretanja, pod kojim autor podrazumeva restrikcije kretanja unutar i između gradova i unutar i između država. S obzirom na to da su se uvedene mere razlikovale od države do države, i danas se, kao mesecima unazad, debatuje o tome koje su od njih bile uspešne i u kolikoj meri. Često se u me- dijima može naići na izdvajanje Švedske kao primera države koja se, može se reći, oslonila na savest svojih stanovnika da će držati preporučeno rastojanje, izbegavati kontakte sa drugima i slično, više nego na uvođenje prinudnih mera poput zatvaranja restorana i klubova, javnih kupališta, ili zatvaranje čitavih gradova (Savage, 2020).

Tretman migranata i izbeglica tokom pandemije COVID-19

„Sada moramo da delujemo kako bismo ojačali imunitet naših društava protiv viru- sa mržnje.“ Antonio Guteres (António Guterres), Generalni sekretar Organizacije ujedinjenih nacija (United Nations, 2020a)

46 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova U prethodnom pasusu pomenuti su različiti oblici ograničavanja kretanja kao mera za sprečavanje širenja virusa. S obzirom na temu ovog rada, za autora je najznačajni- ja zabrana kretanja između država. U mesecima u kojima se virus „selio“ iz države u državu, milioni ljudi su, iz različitih razloga, takođe pokušavali da pređu državne gra- nice. Ljudi koji beže od rata i nasilja ili traže priliku za bolji život� deo su naše sva- kodnevice mnogo duže od otkrića novog virusa koji nam obeležava protekle mesece. Statistika za 2018. godinu pokazuje da je 2.4 miliona ljudi iz država koje nisu članice Evropske unije ušlo u EU, dok je 1. januara 2019. godine u državama članicama EU živelo 21.8 miliona ljudi čije državljanstvo nije vezano za neku državu članicu EU (Eurostat, 2020). Pomenuti brojevi pokazuju samo jedan deo jednog kontinenta, od- nosno samo jedan deo globalne realnosti. Nažalost, za ljude koji imaju status migra- nata i izbeglica, realnost je još surovija. Najpre, kao što je već rečeno, veliki deo njih beži od nasilja i lošeg života u bilo kom smislu te reči. Dalje, na putu do cilja susreću se sa nemalim opasnostima po svoje živote, kao što je na primer plovidba Meditera- nom u prenatrpanim čamcima (BBC News, 2018), a kada dođu do cilja neizvesno je kakav će tretman dobiti u zemlji domaćinu. Kada na sve to dodamo činjenicu da sve- tom hara virus o kojem se i dalje ne zna dovoljno, i koji svakodnevno odnosi živote i u najuređenijim državama, njihova realnost postaje sve teža. O položaju migranata i izbeglica u zemljama domaćinima i na putu ka cilju, kao i kako se na njih gleda to- kom trenutne pandemije, biće reči na narednim stranama.

Značaj koji migranti imaju u zemljama domaćinima, gledano sa ekonomskog aspek- ta, nije zanemarljiv. Kako ističe Džon Lecing (John Letzing) u svom tekstu za Svet- ski ekonomski forum, „migranti doprinose 10% svetskom BDP“ (Letzing, 2020). Mi- granti takođe čine značajan udeo (15-20%) radnosposobnog stanovništva u zemljama domaćinima koje svrstavamo u razvijene ekonomije (Jaumotte, Koloskova i Saxena, 2016). Prema rečima autorki navedenog teksta, sa kojima se zahvaljujući empiriji možemo složiti: „Visokokvalifikovani migranti donose raznolike talente i stručnost, dok niskokvalifikovani migranti popunjavaju osnovna zanimanja za koje nema do- voljno domaćeg stanovništva i omogućavaju domorocima da budu zaposleni na viso- kokvalifikovanim poslovima“ (Jaumotte et al., 2016). Takođe, statistika za septembar tekuće godine pokazala je da od dvadeset država koje su najviše pogođene virusom COVID-19, u bar sedam njih (Švajcarska, Kanada, SAD, Španija, Italija, Nemačka, Francuska) kritični sektor zdravstvenih usluga zavisi od radnika rođenih u inostran- stvu (Migration Data Portal, 2020). Sada se nameće pitanje: ako migranti koji žive u njima donose dobrobit zemljama domaćinima, makar i samo sa ekonomskog aspek- ta, kakav tretman oni zaslužuju u situaciji kada su svi ljudi suočeni sa neprijateljem koji ne bira koga će napasti po boji kože, nacionalnosti, radnom statusu i slično? U pregledu analitičke grupe KNOMAD (Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development) iz aprila ove godine navodi se da su neke države produžile traja-

47 nje viza za radnike sa statusom migranata, ali i da su baš ti radnici podložniji gubit- ku posla usled ekonomske krize kojima su države širom sveta pogođene zbog pan- demije virusa COVID-19 (KNOMAD, 2020). Prateći uputstva Svetske zdravstvene organizacije po pitanju prevencije i sprečavanja širenja pomenutog virusa, većina ze- malja OECD je ponudila pristup lečenju ovog virusa svim kategorijama migranata (OECD, 2020). S druge strane, globalno gledano, Svetska zdravstvena organizacija navodi da su migranti uglavnom isključeni iz nacionalnih programa zdravstvene za- štite i tretmana (World Health Organization, 2020a). O tome na kakav tretman gene- ralno nailaze pojedinci sa statusom migranata ili izbeglica i šta se sve može učiniti da bi se dosadašnja praksa poboljšala, istraživano je i pisano dosad.2 Kako se navodi u zajedničkoj izjavi više međunarodnih organizacija koje se bave pitanjima migracija i ljudskih prava3, migranti su se u toku pandemije našli u prenatrpanim kampovima u kojima je nemoguće održavati socijalnu distancu, i u kojima im nedostaje adekva- tan pristup zdravstevnim uslugama, čistoj vodi i sanitarnim uslovima (United Nati- ons, 2020b).

Diskriminacija migranata i izbeglica i rastuća ksenofobija

Slike prepunih izbegličkih i migrantskih kampova u državama širom sveta kruže in- ternetom i vestima mesecima unazad. Dok s jedne strane slušamo svakodnevno o važnosti držanja distance od 2m, sa druge strane hiljade i hiljade ljudi zatvorenih na malim prostorima, bez potrebne higijenske zaštite, a negde i bez hrane, čekaju u nadi da će ih države domaćini primiti na svoju teritoriju. I dok oni u pomenutim kampovi- ma razmišljaju o započinjanju novog života, pojedinci u društvima širom sveta krive migrante i izbeglice za širenje virusa. Ne možemo poreći činjenicu da se ovih dana, pored virusa korona, širi i virus dezinformacija i lažnih vesti o migrantima4, kao i da se njihovo kretanje dovodi u najbližu vezu sa širenjem pandemije. Retoriku o migra- cijama nesumnjivo „krasi“ strah od „drugog“ (Chugh, 2020). Ono što je ljudima ne- poznato, strano ume da izazove strah, i tako je vekovima unazad. Pripisivanje onoga što je nepoznato određenoj grupi ljudi nije nova pojava. Kao što je kolera tridesetih godina XIX veka dobila oznaku „irska bolest“, tako se virus COVID-19 danas nazi- va „kineskim virusom“ (Banulescu-Bogdan, Benton i Fratzke, 2020). Nažalost, i da-

2 Više o razlici između pojmova „migrnati“ i „izbeglice“ dostupno je na: https://refugeesmigrants.un.org/ . 3 Na sajtu Beogradskog centra za ljudska prava može se naći par publikacija usko vezanih za pomenutu temu, kao i predlozi nekih strategija: http://www.bgcentar.org.rs/obrazovanje/publikacije/posebna-izdanja/ 4 U pitanju su UNHCR (UN Refugee Agency), IOM (International Organization for Migration), OHCHR (UN Human Rights Office).

48 Ljudska bezbednost za XXI vek: izazovi zdravstvene bezbednosti - Zbornik studentskih radova nas, u XXI veku, pojedinci koriste strah od nepoznatog kako bi u svojim društvima one grupe ljudi koje smatraju nepoželjnim i nedobrodošlim (migrante i izbeglice) iz bilo kog razloga prikazali u lošem svetlu. Razvoj tehnologija i uticaj društvenih mre- ža su samo olakšali širenje ksenofobije i straha od pomenutih grupa ljudi. U početnim trenucima kada se čitav svet susreo sa virusom COVID-19, za koji je trebalo vreme- na da se ispita o čemu se tačno radi, opravdano se svetom širio strah za svoje zdrav- lje i za svoje najbliže. Međutim, strah od novog virusa poslužio je nekima da ojačaju postojeći strah od migranata i izbeglica, koji je ne tako davne 2015. godine već oja- čao usled migrantske krize. Ovaj trend nije izbegao ni našu zemlju. Protekle mesece je u Srbiji obeležilo pojavljivanje grupe „STOP naseljavanju migranata“ na fejsbu- ku, širenje teorije o planskom naseljavanju migranata kako bi se povećao natalitet Sr- bije, kao i događaj u kojem je jedno lice uletelo automobilom u obrenovački centar za migrante (Marinković, 2020). Analiza javnog diskursa o migrantima koju je spro- veo Beogradski centar za ljudska prava pokazala je da se pojmu „migranti“ u Srbiji uglavnom prilazi sa bezbednosnog stanovišta te da na taj način primaoca informacija stavlja u osećanje ugroženosti. Kako se dalje navodi u izveštaju, integracioni narativ, koji bi sa sobom doneo pozitivnu konotaciju, mnogo je manje zastupljen u diskursu u odnosu na bezbednosni (Beogradski centar za ljudska prava, 2020: 47).

Pored širenja lažnih vesti o njima, migranti se već mesecima susreću i sa različitim oblicima diskriminacije u odnosu na lokalno stanovništvo. U primerima koje navo- di Amnesti (Amnesty International), u kampu Vučjak u Bosni, kao i u smeštaju Kale (Calais) u Francuskoj, stanovnici ovih kampova susreli su se sa nedostatkom vode u sred pandemije (Amnesty International, 2020a). Razlozi su u datim primerima bili različiti, ali nijedan razlog ne može da opravda pomenuto postupanje sa ljudskim ži- votima bilo kada, a naročito ne u jeku globalne borbe protiv virusa. Deo migranata i izbeglica kojima preti progon ili mučenje u rodnoj zemlji susreo se i sa proteriva- njem koje, kako podseća Amnesti, međunarodno pravo smatra nezakonitim (Amne- sty International, 2020b). Iako nije dozvoljeno da država, ne vršeći potrebnu evalua- ciju zahteva za azil vraća ljude, upravo to se dešavalo u mesecima pandemije. SAD su vratile preko 20000 ljudi u periodu od 20. marta do sredine maja meseca, dok je svet obišla i vest da je malezijska vlada u februaru vratila brod Rohindža izbeglica (Amnesty International, 2020b).

49 ZAKLJUČAK

Virus sa kojim živimo danas, i protiv kojeg se svako od nas bori na način koji sma- tra najboljim, neko se više, a neko manje oslanjajući na preporuke svojih vlada i le- kara, stavio je ljude sa statusom migranata i izbeglica u posebno tešku situaciju. Cilj autora ovog rada bio je da pokaže da je položaj pomenutih grupa ljudi danas, i me- secima unazad, značajno otežan širenjem pandemije virusa COVID-19 iz razloga što se pomenute grupe, pored ovog virusa, susreću i sa diskriminatornim merama u ze- mljama u kojima se nalaze, ali i sa rastućom ksenofobijom u društvima u kojima se nalaze. Polazeći od koncepta ljudske bezbednosti i sekuritizacije pitanja zdravlja, au- tor je želeo da ukaže na ulogu i značaj koji COVID-19 ima u našim životima danas i na koje sve načine ugrožava ljudsku bezbednost. S obzirom na to da se pojam ljud- ske bezbednosti odnosi na sve ljude širom planete, autor je u nastavku rada, uzima- jući u obzir relevantne empirijske podatke, istakao migrante i izbeglice kao posebno ugrožene i ranjive grupe u svetlu virusa protiv kojeg se borimo na globalnom nivou. Uvezujući pomenute teorijske koncepte sa dostupnim empirijskim podacima, autor je došao do zaključka da se može s pravom reći da se trenutno migranti i izbeglice bore protiv dva neprijatelja – protiv virusa COVID-19 i protiv ksenofobije. U samom radu su na par mesta navedeni predlozi različitih organizacija za borbu protiv rastuće dis- kriminacije i ksenofobije, ali i za poboljšanje tretmana koji migranti i izbeglice do- bijaju tokom pandemije u zemljama domaćinima. Autoru ovog rada ostaje samo da se nada da će zaposleni u odgovarajućim državnim institucijama širom sveta uzeti u razmatranje pomenute predloge i omogućiti jednakost svim ljudima makar u vreme globalne borbe protiv neprijatelja koji ne bira svoje žrtve ni po rasi, ni po boji kože, ni po nacionalnosti.

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